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1.1 Communication: History and Forms

Learning objectives.

• Define communication.
• Discuss the history of communication from ancient to modern times.
• List the five forms of communication.
• Distinguish among the five forms of communication.
• Review the various career options for students who study communication.

Before we dive into the history of communication, it is important that we have a shared understanding of what we mean by the word communication . For our purposes in this book, we will define communication as the process of generating meaning by sending and receiving verbal and nonverbal symbols and signs that are influenced by multiple contexts. This definition builds on other definitions of communication that have been rephrased and refined over many years. In fact, since the systematic study of communication began in colleges and universities a little over one hundred years ago, there have been more than 126 published definitions of communication (Dance & Larson, 1976). In order to get a context for how communication has been conceptualized and studied, let’s look at a history of the field.

From Aristotle to Obama: A Brief History of Communication

While there are rich areas of study in animal communication and interspecies communication, our focus in this book is on human communication. Even though all animals communicate, as human beings we have a special capacity to use symbols to communicate about things outside our immediate temporal and spatial reality (Dance & Larson). For example, we have the capacity to use abstract symbols, like the word education , to discuss a concept that encapsulates many aspects of teaching and learning. We can also reflect on the past and imagine our future. The ability to think outside our immediate reality is what allows us to create elaborate belief systems, art, philosophy, and academic theories. It’s true that you can teach a gorilla to sign words like food and baby , but its ability to use symbols doesn’t extend to the same level of abstraction as ours. However, humans haven’t always had the sophisticated communication systems that we do today.

Some scholars speculate that humans’ first words were onomatopoetic. You may remember from your English classes that onomatopoeia refers to words that sound like that to which they refer—words like boing , drip , gurgle , swoosh , and whack . Just think about how a prehistoric human could have communicated a lot using these words and hand gestures. He or she could use gurgle to alert others to the presence of water or swoosh and whack to recount what happened on a hunt. In any case, this primitive ability to communicate provided an evolutionary advantage. Those humans who could talk were able to cooperate, share information, make better tools, impress mates, or warn others of danger, which led them to have more offspring who were also more predisposed to communicate (Poe, 2011). This eventually led to the development of a “Talking Culture” during the “Talking Era.” During this 150,000 year period of human existence, ranging from 180,000 BCE to 3500 BCE, talking was the only medium of communication, aside from gestures, that humans had (Poe, 2011).

The beginning of the “Manuscript Era,” around 3500 BCE, marked the turn from oral to written culture. This evolution in communication corresponded with a shift to a more settled, agrarian way of life (Poe, 2011). As hunter-gatherers settled into small villages and began to plan ahead for how to plant, store, protect, and trade or sell their food, they needed accounting systems to keep track of their materials and record transactions. While such transactions were initially tracked with actual objects that symbolized an amount—for example, five pebbles represented five measures of grain—symbols, likely carved into clay, later served as the primary method of record keeping. In this case, five dots might equal five measures of grain.

During this period, villages also developed class systems as more successful farmers turned businessmen prospered and took leadership positions. Religion also became more complex, and a new class of spiritual leaders emerged. Soon, armies were needed to protect the stockpiled resources from others who might want to steal it. The emergence of elite classes and the rise of armies required records and bookkeeping, which furthered the spread of written symbols. As clergy, the ruling elite, and philosophers began to take up writing, the systems became more complex. The turn to writing didn’t threaten the influential place of oral communication, however. During the near 5,000-year period of the “Manuscript Era,” literacy, or the ability to read and write, didn’t spread far beyond the most privileged in society. In fact, it wasn’t until the 1800s that widespread literacy existed in the world.

The end of the “Manuscript Era” marked a shift toward a rapid increase in communication technologies. The “Print Era” extended from 1450 to 1850 and was marked by the invention of the printing press and the ability to mass-produce written texts. This 400-year period gave way to the “Audiovisual Era,” which only lasted 140 years, from 1850 to 1990, and was marked by the invention of radio, telegraph, telephone, and television. Our current period, the “Internet Era,” has only lasted from 1990 until the present. This period has featured the most rapid dispersion of a new method of communication, as the spread of the Internet and the expansion of digital and personal media signaled the beginning of the digital age.

The evolution of communication media, from speaking to digital technology, has also influenced the field of communication studies. To better understand how this field of study developed, we must return to the “Manuscript Era,” which saw the production of the earliest writings about communication. In fact, the oldest essay and book ever found were written about communication (McCroskey, 1984). Although this essay and book predate Aristotle, he is a logical person to start with when tracing the development of the communication scholarship. His writings on communication, although not the oldest, are the most complete and systematic. Ancient Greek philosophers and scholars such as Aristotle theorized about the art of rhetoric , which refers to speaking well and persuasively. Today, we hear the word rhetoric used in negative ways. A politician, for example, may write off his or her opponent’s statements as “just rhetoric.” This leads us to believe that rhetoric refers to misleading, false, or unethical communication, which is not at all in keeping with the usage of the word by ancient or contemporary communication experts. While rhetoric does refer primarily to persuasive communication messages, much of the writing and teaching about rhetoric conveys the importance of being an ethical rhetor , or communicator. So when a communicator, such as a politician, speaks in misleading, vague, or dishonest ways, he or she isn’t using rhetoric; he or she is being an unethical speaker.

The study of rhetoric focused on public communication, primarily oratory used in discussions or debates regarding laws and policy, speeches delivered in courts, and speeches intended to praise or blame another person. The connections among rhetoric, policy making, and legal proceedings show that communication and citizenship have been connected since the study of communication began. Throughout this book, we will continue to make connections between communication, ethics, and civic engagement.

Much of the public speaking in ancient Greece took place in courtrooms or in political contexts.

Karen Neoh – Courtroom – CC BY 2.0.

Ancient Greek rhetoricians like Aristotle were followed by Roman orators like Cicero. Cicero contributed to the field of rhetoric by expanding theories regarding the five canons of rhetoric, which include invention, arrangement, style, delivery, and memory. Invention refers to the use of evidence and arguments to think about things in new ways and is the most studied of the five canons. Arrangement refers to the organization of speech, style refers to the use of language, and delivery refers to the vocal and physical characteristics of a speaker. Memory is the least studied of the five canons and refers to the techniques employed by speakers of that era to retain and then repeat large amounts of information. The Age of Enlightenment in the 1700s marked a societal turn toward scientific discovery and the acquisition of knowledge, which led to an explosion of philosophical and scientific writings on many aspects of human existence. This focus on academic development continued into the 1900s and the establishment of distinct communication studies departments.

Communication studies as a distinct academic discipline with departments at universities and colleges has only existed for a little over one hundred years (Keith, 2008). Although rhetoric has long been a key part of higher education, and colleges and universities have long recognized the importance of speaking, communication departments did not exist. In the early 1900s, professors with training and expertise in communication were often housed in rhetoric or English departments and were sometimes called “professors of speech.” During this time, tension began to build between professors of English who studied rhetoric as the written word and professors of speech who studied rhetoric as the spoken word. In 1914, a group of ten speech teachers who were members of the National Council of Teachers of English broke off from the organization and started the National Association of Academic Teachers of Public Speaking, which eventually evolved into today’s National Communication Association. There was also a distinction of focus and interest among professors of speech. While some focused on the quality of ideas, arguments, and organization, others focused on coaching the performance and delivery aspects of public speaking (Keith, 2008). Instruction in the latter stressed the importance of “oratory” or “elocution,” and this interest in reading and speaking aloud is sustained today in theatre and performance studies and also in oral interpretation classes, which are still taught in many communication departments.

The formalization of speech departments led to an expanded view of the role of communication. Even though Aristotle and other ancient rhetoricians and philosophers had theorized the connection between rhetoric and citizenship, the role of the communicator became the focus instead of solely focusing on the message. James A. Winans, one of the first modern speech teachers and an advocate for teaching communication in higher education, said there were “two motives for learning to speak. Increasing one’s chance to succeed and increasing one’s power to serve” (Keith, 2008). Later, as social psychology began to expand in academic institutions, speech communication scholars saw places for connection to further expand definitions of communication to include social and psychological contexts.

Today, you can find elements of all these various aspects of communication being studied in communication departments. If we use President Obama as a case study, we can see the breadth of the communication field. Within one department, you may have fairly traditional rhetoricians who study the speeches of President Obama in comparison with other presidential rhetoric. Others may study debates between presidential candidates, dissecting the rhetorical strategies used, for example, by Mitt Romney and Barack Obama. Expanding from messages to channels of communication, scholars may study how different media outlets cover presidential politics. At an interpersonal level, scholars may study what sorts of conflicts emerge within families that have liberal and conservative individuals. At a cultural level, communication scholars could study how the election of an African American president creates a narrative of postracial politics. Our tour from Aristotle to Obama was quick, but hopefully instructive. Now let’s turn to a discussion of the five major forms of communication.

Forms of Communication

Forms of communication vary in terms of participants, channels used, and contexts. The five main forms of communication, all of which will be explored in much more detail in this book, are intrapersonal, interpersonal, group, public, and mass communication. This book is designed to introduce you to all these forms of communication. If you find one of these forms particularly interesting, you may be able to take additional courses that focus specifically on it. You may even be able to devise a course of study around one of these forms as a communication major. In the following we will discuss the similarities and differences among each form of communication, including its definition, level of intentionality, goals, and contexts.

Intrapersonal Communication

Intrapersonal communication is communication with oneself using internal vocalization or reflective thinking. Like other forms of communication, intrapersonal communication is triggered by some internal or external stimulus. We may, for example, communicate with our self about what we want to eat due to the internal stimulus of hunger, or we may react intrapersonally to an event we witness. Unlike other forms of communication, intrapersonal communication takes place only inside our heads. The other forms of communication must be perceived by someone else to count as communication. So what is the point of intrapersonal communication if no one else even sees it?

Intrapersonal communication is communication with ourselves that takes place in our heads.

Sarah – Pondering – CC BY 2.0.

Intrapersonal communication serves several social functions. Internal vocalization, or talking to ourselves, can help us achieve or maintain social adjustment (Dance & Larson, 1972). For example, a person may use self-talk to calm himself down in a stressful situation, or a shy person may remind herself to smile during a social event. Intrapersonal communication also helps build and maintain our self-concept. We form an understanding of who we are based on how other people communicate with us and how we process that communication intrapersonally. The shy person in the earlier example probably internalized shyness as a part of her self-concept because other people associated her communication behaviors with shyness and may have even labeled her “shy” before she had a firm grasp on what that meant. We will discuss self-concept much more in Chapter 2 “Communication and Perception” , which focuses on perception. We also use intrapersonal communication or “self-talk” to let off steam, process emotions, think through something, or rehearse what we plan to say or do in the future. As with the other forms of communication, competent intrapersonal communication helps facilitate social interaction and can enhance our well-being. Conversely, the breakdown in the ability of a person to intrapersonally communicate is associated with mental illness (Dance & Larson, 1972).

Sometimes we intrapersonally communicate for the fun of it. I’m sure we have all had the experience of laughing aloud because we thought of something funny. We also communicate intrapersonally to pass time. I bet there is a lot of intrapersonal communication going on in waiting rooms all over the world right now. In both of these cases, intrapersonal communication is usually unplanned and doesn’t include a clearly defined goal (Dance & Larson, 1972). We can, however, engage in more intentional intrapersonal communication. In fact, deliberate self-reflection can help us become more competent communicators as we become more mindful of our own behaviors. For example, your internal voice may praise or scold you based on a thought or action.

Of the forms of communication, intrapersonal communication has received the least amount of formal study. It is rare to find courses devoted to the topic, and it is generally separated from the remaining four types of communication. The main distinction is that intrapersonal communication is not created with the intention that another person will perceive it. In all the other levels, the fact that the communicator anticipates consumption of their message is very important.

Interpersonal Communication

Interpersonal communication is communication between people whose lives mutually influence one another. Interpersonal communication builds, maintains, and ends our relationships, and we spend more time engaged in interpersonal communication than the other forms of communication. Interpersonal communication occurs in various contexts and is addressed in subfields of study within communication studies such as intercultural communication, organizational communication, health communication, and computer-mediated communication. After all, interpersonal relationships exist in all those contexts.

Interpersonal communication can be planned or unplanned, but since it is interactive, it is usually more structured and influenced by social expectations than intrapersonal communication. Interpersonal communication is also more goal oriented than intrapersonal communication and fulfills instrumental and relational needs. In terms of instrumental needs, the goal may be as minor as greeting someone to fulfill a morning ritual or as major as conveying your desire to be in a committed relationship with someone. Interpersonal communication meets relational needs by communicating the uniqueness of a specific relationship. Since this form of communication deals so directly with our personal relationships and is the most common form of communication, instances of miscommunication and communication conflict most frequently occur here (Dance & Larson, 1972). Couples, bosses and employees, and family members all have to engage in complex interpersonal communication, and it doesn’t always go well. In order to be a competent interpersonal communicator, you need conflict management skills and listening skills, among others, to maintain positive relationships.

Group Communication

Group communication is communication among three or more people interacting to achieve a shared goal. You have likely worked in groups in high school and college, and if you’re like most students, you didn’t enjoy it. Even though it can be frustrating, group work in an academic setting provides useful experience and preparation for group work in professional settings. Organizations have been moving toward more team-based work models, and whether we like it or not, groups are an integral part of people’s lives. Therefore the study of group communication is valuable in many contexts.

Since many businesses and organizations are embracing team models, learning about group communication can help these groups be more effective.

RSNY – Team – CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.

Group communication is more intentional and formal than interpersonal communication. Unlike interpersonal relationships, which are voluntary, individuals in a group are often assigned to their position within a group. Additionally, group communication is often task focused, meaning that members of the group work together for an explicit purpose or goal that affects each member of the group. Goal-oriented communication in interpersonal interactions usually relates to one person; for example, I may ask my friend to help me move this weekend. Goal-oriented communication at the group level usually focuses on a task assigned to the whole group; for example, a group of people may be tasked to figure out a plan for moving a business from one office to another.

You know from previous experience working in groups that having more communicators usually leads to more complicated interactions. Some of the challenges of group communication relate to task-oriented interactions, such as deciding who will complete each part of a larger project. But many challenges stem from interpersonal conflict or misunderstandings among group members. Since group members also communicate with and relate to each other interpersonally and may have preexisting relationships or develop them during the course of group interaction, elements of interpersonal communication occur within group communication too. Chapter 13 “Small Group Communication” and Chapter 14 “Leadership, Roles, and Problem Solving in Groups” of this book, which deal with group communication, will help you learn how to be a more effective group communicator by learning about group theories and processes as well as the various roles that contribute to and detract from the functioning of a group.

Public Communication

Public communication is a sender-focused form of communication in which one person is typically responsible for conveying information to an audience. Public speaking is something that many people fear, or at least don’t enjoy. But, just like group communication, public speaking is an important part of our academic, professional, and civic lives. When compared to interpersonal and group communication, public communication is the most consistently intentional, formal, and goal-oriented form of communication we have discussed so far.

Public communication, at least in Western societies, is also more sender focused than interpersonal or group communication. It is precisely this formality and focus on the sender that makes many new and experienced public speakers anxious at the thought of facing an audience. One way to begin to manage anxiety toward public speaking is to begin to see connections between public speaking and other forms of communication with which we are more familiar and comfortable. Despite being formal, public speaking is very similar to the conversations that we have in our daily interactions. For example, although public speakers don’t necessarily develop individual relationships with audience members, they still have the benefit of being face-to-face with them so they can receive verbal and nonverbal feedback. Later in this chapter, you will learn some strategies for managing speaking anxiety, since presentations are undoubtedly a requirement in the course for which you are reading this book. Then, in Chapter 9 “Preparing a Speech” , Chapter 10 “Delivering a Speech” , Chapter 11 “Informative and Persuasive Speaking” , and Chapter 12 “Public Speaking in Various Contexts” , you will learn how to choose an appropriate topic, research and organize your speech, effectively deliver your speech, and evaluate your speeches in order to improve.

Mass Communication

Public communication becomes mass communication when it is transmitted to many people through print or electronic media. Print media such as newspapers and magazines continue to be an important channel for mass communication, although they have suffered much in the past decade due in part to the rise of electronic media. Television, websites, blogs, and social media are mass communication channels that you probably engage with regularly. Radio, podcasts, and books are other examples of mass media. The technology required to send mass communication messages distinguishes it from the other forms of communication. A certain amount of intentionality goes into transmitting a mass communication message since it usually requires one or more extra steps to convey the message. This may involve pressing “Enter” to send a Facebook message or involve an entire crew of camera people, sound engineers, and production assistants to produce a television show. Even though the messages must be intentionally transmitted through technology, the intentionality and goals of the person actually creating the message, such as the writer, television host, or talk show guest, vary greatly. The president’s State of the Union address is a mass communication message that is very formal, goal oriented, and intentional, but a president’s verbal gaffe during a news interview is not.

Technological advances such as the printing press, television, and the more recent digital revolution have made mass communication a prominent feature of our daily lives.

Savannah River Site – Atmospheric Technology – CC BY 2.0.

Mass communication differs from other forms of communication in terms of the personal connection between participants. Even though creating the illusion of a personal connection is often a goal of those who create mass communication messages, the relational aspect of interpersonal and group communication isn’t inherent within this form of communication. Unlike interpersonal, group, and public communication, there is no immediate verbal and nonverbal feedback loop in mass communication. Of course you could write a letter to the editor of a newspaper or send an e-mail to a television or radio broadcaster in response to a story, but the immediate feedback available in face-to-face interactions is not present. With new media technologies like Twitter, blogs, and Facebook, feedback is becoming more immediate. Individuals can now tweet directly “at” (@) someone and use hashtags (#) to direct feedback to mass communication sources. Many radio and television hosts and news organizations specifically invite feedback from viewers/listeners via social media and may even share the feedback on the air.

The technology to mass-produce and distribute communication messages brings with it the power for one voice or a series of voices to reach and affect many people. This power makes mass communication different from the other levels of communication. While there is potential for unethical communication at all the other levels, the potential consequences of unethical mass communication are important to consider. Communication scholars who focus on mass communication and media often take a critical approach in order to examine how media shapes our culture and who is included and excluded in various mediated messages. We will discuss the intersection of media and communication more in Chapter 15 “Media, Technology, and Communication” and Chapter 16 “New Media and Communication” .

“Getting Real”

What Can You Do with a Degree in Communication Studies?

You’re hopefully already beginning to see that communication studies is a diverse and vibrant field of study. The multiple subfields and concentrations within the field allow for exciting opportunities for study in academic contexts but can create confusion and uncertainty when a person considers what they might do for their career after studying communication. It’s important to remember that not every college or university will have courses or concentrations in all the areas discussed next. Look at the communication courses offered at your school to get an idea of where the communication department on your campus fits into the overall field of study. Some departments are more general, offering students a range of courses to provide a well-rounded understanding of communication. Many departments offer concentrations or specializations within the major such as public relations, rhetoric, interpersonal communication, electronic media production, corporate communication. If you are at a community college and plan on transferring to another school, your choice of school may be determined by the course offerings in the department and expertise of the school’s communication faculty. It would be unfortunate for a student interested in public relations to end up in a department that focuses more on rhetoric or broadcasting, so doing your research ahead of time is key.

Since communication studies is a broad field, many students strategically choose a concentration and/or a minor that will give them an advantage in the job market. Specialization can definitely be an advantage, but don’t forget about the general skills you gain as a communication major. This book, for example, should help you build communication competence and skills in interpersonal communication, intercultural communication, group communication, and public speaking, among others. You can also use your school’s career services office to help you learn how to “sell” yourself as a communication major and how to translate what you’ve learned in your classes into useful information to include on your resume or in a job interview.

The main career areas that communication majors go into are business, public relations / advertising, media, nonprofit, government/law, and education. [1] Within each of these areas there are multiple career paths, potential employers, and useful strategies for success. For more detailed information, visit http://whatcanidowiththismajor.com/major/communication-studies .

• Business. Sales, customer service, management, real estate, human resources, training and development.
• Public relations / advertising. Public relations, advertising/marketing, public opinion research, development, event coordination.
• Media. Editing, copywriting, publishing, producing, directing, media sales, broadcasting.
• Nonprofit. Administration, grant writing, fund-raising, public relations, volunteer coordination.
• Government/law. City or town management, community affairs, lobbying, conflict negotiation / mediation.
• Education. High school speech teacher, forensics/debate coach, administration and student support services, graduate school to further communication study.
• Which of the areas listed above are you most interested in studying in school or pursuing as a career? Why?
• What aspect(s) of communication studies does/do the department at your school specialize in? What concentrations/courses are offered?
• Whether or not you are or plan to become a communication major, how do you think you could use what you have learned and will learn in this class to “sell” yourself on the job market?

Key Takeaways

• Getting integrated: Communication is a broad field that draws from many academic disciplines. This interdisciplinary perspective provides useful training and experience for students that can translate into many career fields.
• Communication is the process of generating meaning by sending and receiving symbolic cues that are influenced by multiple contexts.
• Ancient Greeks like Aristotle and Plato started a rich tradition of the study of rhetoric in the Western world more than two thousand years ago. Communication did not become a distinct field of study with academic departments until the 1900s, but it is now a thriving discipline with many subfields of study.

There are five forms of communication: intrapersonal, interpersonal, group, public, and mass communication.

• Intrapersonal communication is communication with oneself and occurs only inside our heads.
• Interpersonal communication is communication between people whose lives mutually influence one another and typically occurs in dyads, which means in pairs.
• Group communication occurs when three or more people communicate to achieve a shared goal.
• Public communication is sender focused and typically occurs when one person conveys information to an audience.
• Mass communication occurs when messages are sent to large audiences using print or electronic media.
• Getting integrated: Review the section on the history of communication. Have you learned any of this history or heard of any of these historical figures in previous classes? If so, how was this history relevant to what you were studying in that class?
• Come up with your own definition of communication. How does it differ from the definition in the book? Why did you choose to define communication the way you did?
• Over the course of a day, keep track of the forms of communication that you use. Make a pie chart of how much time you think you spend, on an average day, engaging in each form of communication (intrapersonal, interpersonal, group, public, and mass).

Dance, F. E. X. and Carl E. Larson, The Functions of Human Communication: A Theoretical Approach (New York, NY: Holt, Reinhart, and Winston, 1976), 23.

Keith, W., “On the Origins of Speech as a Discipline: James A. Winans and Public Speaking as Practical Democracy,” Rhetoric Society Quarterly 38, no. 3 (2008): 239–58.

McCroskey, J. C., “Communication Competence: The Elusive Construct,” in Competence in Communication: A Multidisciplinary Approach , ed. Robert N. Bostrom (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1984), 260.

Poe, M. T., A History of Communications: Media and Society from the Evolution of Speech to the Internet (New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 27.

• What Can I Do with This Major? “Communication Studies,” accessed May 18, 2012, http://whatcanidowiththismajor.com/major/communication-studies ↵

Communication in the Real World Copyright © 2016 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

The Early History of Communication

• Invention Timelines
• Famous Inventions
• Famous Inventors
• Patents & Trademarks
• Computers & The Internet
• American History
• African American History
• African History
• Ancient History and Culture
• Asian History
• European History
• Latin American History
• Medieval & Renaissance History
• Military History
• The 20th Century
• Women's History

Humans have communicated with one another in some shape or form ever since time immemorial. But to understand the history of communication, all we have to go by are written records that date as far back as ancient Mesopotamia. And while every sentence starts with a letter, back then people began with a picture.

The BCE Years

powerofforever / Getty Images

The Kish tablet, discovered in the ancient Sumerian city of Kish, has inscriptions considered by some experts to be the oldest form of known writing. Dated to 3500 B.C., the stone features proto-cuneiform signs, basically rudimentary symbols that convey meaning through its pictorial resemblance to a physical object. Similar to this early form of writing are the ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs, which date back to around 3200 B.C.

Written Language

Elsewhere, written language appears to have come about around 1200 B.C. in China and around 600 B.C. in the Americas. Some similarities between the early Mesopotamian language and the one that developed in ancient Egypt suggests that a writing system originated in the Middle East. However, any kind of connection between Chinese characters and these early language systems is less likely since the cultures don’t seem to have had any contact.

Among the first non-glyph writing systems not to use pictorial signs is the phonetic system . With phonetic systems, symbols refer to spoken sounds. If this sounds familiar, it’s because the modern alphabets that many people in the world use today represent a phonetic form of communication. Remnants of such systems first appeared either around 19th century B.C. thanks to an early Canaanite population or 15th century B.C. in connection with a Semitic community that lived in central Egypt. 

Phoenician System

Over time, various forms of the Phoenician system of written communication began to spread and were picked up along the Mediterranean city-states. By the 8th century B.C., the Phoenician system reached Greece, where it was altered and adapted to the Greek oral language. The biggest alterations were the addition of vowel sounds and having the letters read from left to right.

Around that time, long-distance communication had its humble beginnings as the Greeks—for the first time in recorded history—had a messenger pigeon deliver results of the first Olympiad in the year 776 B.C. Another important communication milestone from the Greeks was the establishment of the first library in 530 B.C.

Long-Distance Communication

And as humans neared the end of the B.C. period, systems of long-distance communication started to become more commonplace. A historical entry in the book “Globalization and Everyday Life” noted that around 200 to 100 B.C:

"Human messengers on foot or horseback (were) common in Egypt and China with messenger relay stations built. Sometimes fire messages (were) used from relay station to station instead of humans."

Communication Comes to the Masses

In the year 14, the Romans established the first postal service in the western world. While it’s considered to be the first well-documented mail delivery system, others in India and China had already long been in place. The first legitimate postal service likely originated in ancient Persia around 550 B.C. However, historians feel that in some ways it wasn’t a true postal service because it was used primarily for intelligence gathering and later to relay decisions from the king.

Well-Developed Writing System

Meanwhile, in the Far East, China was making its own progress in opening channels for communication among the masses. With a well-developed writing system and messenger services, the Chinese would be the first to invent paper and papermaking when in 105 an official named Cai Lung submitted a proposal to the emperor in which he, according to a biographical account, suggested using “the bark of trees, remnants of hemp, rags of cloth, and fishing nets” instead of the heavier bamboo or costlier silk material.

First Moveable Type

The Chinese followed that up sometime between 1041 and 1048 with the invention of the first moveable type for printing paper books. Han Chinese inventor Bi Sheng was credited with developing the porcelain device, which was described in statesman Shen Kuo’s book “Dream Pool Essays.” He wrote:

“…he took sticky clay and cut in it characters as thin as the edge of a coin. Each character formed, as it were, a single type. He baked them in the fire to make them hard. He had previously prepared an iron plate and he had covered his plate with a mixture of pine resin, wax, and paper ashes. When he wished to print, he took an iron frame and set it on the iron plate. In this, he placed the types, set close together. When the frame was full, the whole made one solid block of type. He then placed it near the fire to warm it. When the paste [at the back] was slightly melted, he took a smooth board and pressed it over the surface, so that the block of type became as even as a whetstone.”

While the technology underwent other advancements, such as metal movable type, it wasn’t until a German smithy named Johannes Gutenberg built Europe’s first metal movable type system that mass printing would experience a revolution. Gutenberg’s printing press, developed between 1436 and 1450, introduced several key innovations that included oil-based ink, mechanical movable type, and adjustable molds. Altogether, this allowed for a practical system for printing books in a way that was efficient and economical.

World's First Newspaper

Around 1605, a German publisher named Johann Carolus printed and distributed the world’s first newspaper . The paper was called "Relation aller Fürnemmen und gedenckwürdigen Historien,” which translated to “Account of all distinguished and commemorable news.” However, some may argue that the honor should be bestowed upon the Dutch “Courante uyt Italien, Duytslandt, &c.” since it was the first to be printed in a broadsheet-sized format. 

Photography, Code, and Sound

Bettmann / Getty Images

By the 19th century, the world was ready to move beyond the printed word. People wanted photographs, except they didn’t know it yet. That was until French inventor Joseph Nicephore Niepce captured the world’s first photographic image in 1822 . The early process he pioneered, called heliography, used a combination of various substances and their reactions to sunlight to copy the image from an engraving.

Color Photographs

Other notable later contributions to the advancement of photography include a technique for producing color photographs called the three-color method, initially put forth by Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell in 1855 and the Kodak roll film camera, invented by American George Eastman in 1888.

The foundation for the invention of electric telegraphy was laid by inventors Joseph Henry and Edward Davey. In 1835, both had independently and successfully demonstrated electromagnetic relay, where a weak electrical signal can be amplified and transmitted across long distances.

First Commercial Electric Telegraph System

A few years later, shortly after the invention of the Cooke and Wheatstone telegraph, the first commercial electric telegraph system, an American inventor named Samuel Morse developed a version that sent signals several miles from Washington, D.C., to Baltimore. And soon after, with the help of his assistant Alfred Vail, he devised the Morse code, a system of signal-induced indentations that correlated to numbers, special characters, and letters of the alphabet.

The Telephone

Naturally, the next hurdle was to figure out a way to transmit sound to far off distances. The idea for a “speaking telegraph” was kicked around as early as 1843 when Italian inventor Innocenzo Manzetti began broaching the concept. And while he and others explored the notion of transmitting sound across distances, it was Alexander Graham Bell who ultimately was granted a patent in 1876 for "Improvements in Telegraphy," which laid out the underlying technology for electromagnetic telephones . 

Answering Machine Introduced

But what if someone tried to call and you weren't available? Sure enough, right at the turn of the 20th century, a Danish inventor named Valdemar Poulsen set the tone for the answering machine with the invention of the telegraphone, the first device capable of recording and playing back the magnetic fields produced by sound. The magnetic recordings also became the foundation for mass data storage formats such as audio disc and tape.

• “ Cai Lun. ”  New World Encyclopedia.
• “ Dream Pool Essays by Shen Kuo by Kuo Shen .” Goodreads, 24 June 2014.
• Ray, Larry J.  Globalization and Everyday Life . Routledge, 2007.
• History's 15 Most Famous Inventors
• 100 of the Most Common Kanji Characters
• A Look at the 6 Technologies That Revolutionized Communications
• The History of the Electric Telegraph and Telegraphy
• Biography of Johannes Gutenberg, German Inventor of the Printing Press
• The History of Printing and Printing Processes
• A Brief History of Writing
• The Script Writing of Ancient China
• Here Is a Brief History of Print Journalism in America
• History of Computer Printers
• William Sturgeon and the Invention of the Electromagnet
• The History of Microphones
• Alphabet - Definition and Examples
• Invention Highlights During the Middle Ages
• History of Electricity
• The History of Transportation

The 5 Means of Communication: Exploring the Different Channels for Effective Interaction

• by Brian Thomas
• October 7, 2023

In today’s fast-paced world, communication plays a pivotal role in our personal and professional lives. It allows us to convey ideas, express emotions, and build relationships. Over time, numerous means of communication have emerged, each offering unique advantages and opportunities. In this blog post, we’ll dive into the five key means of communication and explore how they shape our daily interactions.

From face-to-face conversations to the ever-expanding realm of digital communication , we’ll uncover the various channels that facilitate effective transmission of information. Additionally, we’ll touch upon the four types of nonverbal communication and how they enhance our understanding, as well as the essential tips to help you improve your overall communication skills.

So, whether you’re curious about workplace communication , nonverbal cues, or the different types of communication, keep reading as we unravel the means through which we connect, collaborate, and convey our messages to the world. Together, let’s explore the diverse avenues that make communication the cornerstone of our society.

What are the 5 Means of Communication?

Communication is an essential aspect of human interaction, helping us convey ideas, share information, and connect with others. But did you ever stop to think about the different ways we communicate? In this article, we’ll explore the five main means of communication that we use in our daily lives. So, grab your thinking cap and prepare for a journey through the realms of human connection!

1. Verbal Communication: The Age-Old Art of Words

Ah, the spoken word, the cornerstone of communication! It’s the most obvious means of conveying our thoughts and ideas. From casual conversations to formal presentations, verbal communication allows us to express ourselves with the beautiful dance of words. And the best part? No texting required!

2. Non-Verbal Communication: The Power of the Unspoken

They say actions speak louder than words, and boy, they were right! Non-verbal communication, like body language and facial expressions, can convey a whole new level of meaning without saying a single word. It’s like having a secret language that everybody understands, even if they can’t put it into words. So, don’t forget to give that winning smile or that enthusiastic thumbs-up next time!

3. Written Communication: The Art of Penning Thoughts

In a world of emails, texts, and tweets, it’s clear that writing is here to stay. Whether it’s a heartfelt letter, a snappy email, or a gripping novel, written communication allows us to express ourselves in a more permanent form. It’s like a time capsule that captures our thoughts, emotions, and ideas for generations to come. So, grab that pen, or keyboard, and let your words flow like a mighty river!

4. Visual Communication: A Picture is Worth a Thousand Words

We’ve all heard the phrase, “A picture is worth a thousand words,” and it couldn’t be truer in the realm of communication. Visual communication, through images, graphs, charts, and videos, allows us to convey complex ideas and concepts with ease. It’s like painting a vivid masterpiece that captures the essence of our message in a single glance. So, get those creative juices flowing and let your visuals do the talking!

5. Digital Communication: The Tech-Driven Revolution

Welcome to the digital age, where emojis reign supreme and acronyms become the norm! Digital communication, through technologies like smartphones, social media, and emails, has revolutionized the way we connect with others. It’s a world of instant messaging, virtual meetings, and online communities. So, whether you’re LOLing with friends or WFH (working from home), digital communication is always there, ready to keep us connected in this technologically driven world.

In conclusion, communication comes in various forms, each with its own unique advantages and charm. From the power of words to the subtlety of non-verbal cues, the means of communication are as diverse as the people who use them. So, let’s cherish the art of communication and continue to connect, share, and understand each other in this vast and ever-changing world of human interaction.

FAQ: What are the 5 Means of Communication?

Introduction:.

Communication is an essential part of our daily lives, enabling us to connect, express ourselves, and share information. But have you ever wondered about the different means of communication? In this FAQ-style subsection, we will explore the answers to commonly asked questions related to the means of communication. So, let’s dive in and uncover the fascinating world of communication!

What are the 4 Types of Nonverbal Communication

Nonverbal communication plays a crucial role in conveying messages without words. The four main types of nonverbal communication are:

1. Body Language:

This form of communication involves gestures, postures, facial expressions, and eye contact. A simple smile or a nod can express a lot without saying a word!

2. Proxemics:

Proxemics focuses on how people use and perceive personal space. It examines the physical distance between individuals during communication and how it affects the message conveyed.

3. Paralanguage:

Paralanguage refers to the vocal cues and elements of speech that accompany verbal communication. It includes tone, pitch, volume, and the use of pauses.

4. Appearance and Adornment:

This type of nonverbal communication involves the way we present ourselves through clothing, hairstyles, accessories, and grooming. Our appearance can influence how others perceive and interpret our messages.

What are the 4 Ways of Workplace Communication

Effective communication is crucial in the workplace to foster collaboration and productivity. Here are four common ways of communicating in the work environment:

1. Verbal Communication:

The exchange of information through spoken or written words is the most common means of workplace communication. Whether it’s face-to-face conversations, phone calls, or emails, verbal communication is essential for clear understanding.

2. Written Communication:

This form of communication includes emails, memos, reports, and other written documents. It provides a permanent record and ensures consistent messaging across the organization.

3. Nonverbal Communication:

Nonverbal cues like body language, facial expressions, and gestures still play a significant role in the workplace. Being aware of these cues can help in understanding colleagues’ emotions and intentions better.

4. Digital Communication:

In the digital age, communication tools like instant messaging, video conferences, and collaboration platforms have become indispensable. These technological advancements allow for quick and efficient communication, regardless of physical distance.

What are the 7 Nonverbal Communication

Nonverbal communication goes beyond words and encompasses various aspects of our behavior. Here are seven elements of nonverbal communication:

1. Facial Expressions:

Our faces can convey a wide range of emotions, from joy and surprise to anger and sadness. Paying attention to facial expressions can provide valuable insights into a person’s feelings.

2. Eye Contact:

Eye contact plays a significant role in communication. It can indicate interest, sincerity, and attentiveness. However, it’s essential to be mindful of cultural differences in eye contact norms.

3. Posture:

How we position and carry ourselves speaks volumes about our confidence, attentiveness, and engagement in a conversation. Maintaining an open and upright posture is generally seen as positive.

4. Gestures:

Hand movements and gestures can enhance the meaning of our words or be used independently to convey messages. Think of thumbs up, waving goodbye, or pointing to indicate direction.

5. Proxemics:

Proxemics explores the use of personal space during communication. Different cultures have varying norms regarding personal space, so it’s crucial to respect individual boundaries.

6. Tone of Voice:

The way we speak, including tone, pitch, and volume, adds layers of meaning to our words. A soothing tone can make someone feel at ease, while a sharp tone may convey frustration or anger.

Physical touch carries significant meaning and can communicate emotions like comfort, support, or affection. However, it’s important to be mindful of personal boundaries and cultural norms.

What is the Most Common Type of Communication

Verbal communication, which utilizes spoken or written words to convey messages, is the most common and widely used type of communication. Whether it’s engaging in conversations, making presentations, or writing emails, verbal communication forms the backbone of human interaction.

What are 3 Tips to Help You Improve Your Communication Skills

Improving communication skills can have a profound impact on personal and professional relationships. Here are three valuable tips to enhance your communication abilities:

1. Active Listening:

Listening attentively and with an open mind is crucial for effective communication. Give your full attention, summarize to ensure understanding, and ask relevant questions to demonstrate your engagement.

2. Practice Empathy:

Being empathetic means understanding and acknowledging others’ feelings and perspectives. It helps create a safe and respectful environment for open communication.

3. Seek Feedback and Learn:

Actively soliciting feedback from others and taking the initiative to learn from it can greatly improve your communication skills. Be open to constructive criticism and work on continuously growing and developing.

What are the Means of Communication

The means of communication refer to the different methods or channels through which information is exchanged. There are several means of communication, including:

1. Verbal Communication: Spoken or written words.

2. nonverbal communication: gestures, body language, facial expressions, etc., 3. visual communication: images, graphs, charts, and visual aids., 4. written communication: letters, emails, memos, reports, etc., 5. digital communication: instant messaging, video calls, emails, etc., what are the two means of communication.

The two primary means of communication are verbal and nonverbal communication. Verbal communication involves the use of words, while nonverbal communication encompasses gestures, facial expressions, and other body language cues.

What are the 4 Means of Communication

There are four main means of communication:

1. Verbal Communication: Using spoken or written words to convey messages.

2. nonverbal communication: expressing messages through body language, gestures, etc., 3. visual communication: conveying information through visual aids like images, videos, and graphs., 4. written communication: transmitting messages through written mediums such as letters, emails, and reports., what are the 10 means of communication.

While there are various means of communication, here are ten common ones:

1. Verbal Communication

2. nonverbal communication, 3. visual communication, 4. written communication, 5. digital communication, 6. interpersonal communication, 7. intrapersonal communication, 8. mass communication, 9. public communication, 10. group communication, what are the 7 types of communication.

Communication takes on various forms to suit different contexts. Here are seven primary types of communication:

3. Written Communication

4. visual communication, 5. interpersonal communication, 6. intrapersonal communication, 7. mass communication, what are the 3 main types of communication.

Communication can generally be classified into three main types:

What are the 5 Elements of Nonverbal Communication

Nonverbal communication comprises five key elements that contribute to the overall message:

1. Body Language

2. proxemics, 3. paralanguage, 4. appearance and adornment, 5. facial expressions, how many types of communication are there.

There are several types of communication, including but not limited to verbal, nonverbal, written, visual, digital, interpersonal, intrapersonal, mass, public, and group communication. The diversity of communication types allows for effective interaction in various situations.

What are the 4 Types of Communication Styles

Communication styles can vary from person to person. However, four common communication styles are frequently observed:

1. Passive Communication Style

2. aggressive communication style, 3. passive-aggressive communication style, 4. assertive communication style, what are the 12 types of communication.

Communication takes on different forms based on purpose, medium, and context. Here are twelve types of communication:

4. Oral Communication

7. formal communication, 8. informal communication, 9. mass communication, 10. external communication, 11. internal communication, 12. group communication, what are the four building blocks of communication.

Effective communication rests on four fundamental building blocks:

4. Receiver

These building blocks work together in transmitting and receiving messages accurately.

What are the 8 Forms of Communication

Communication can take various forms. Here are eight common forms of communication:

What are the 5 Different Levels of Communication

Communication operates at different levels depending on the depth and intimacy of the interaction. Here are the five levels of communication:

1. Intrapersonal Communication

2. interpersonal communication, 3. group communication, 4. public communication, 5. mass communication, what are the 6 means of communication.

Communication can be achieved through various means. Six common means of communication include:

6. Artistic Expression

What is means of communication for class 3.

For children in class 3, the means of communication can be simplified to three main categories:

These three forms of communication are essential components of their language and social development.

Which is the Best Means of Communication

The best means of communication depends on the context, audience, and purpose. While each means of communication has its strengths, choosing the most appropriate one is crucial. For example, face-to-face communication allows for immediate feedback and connection, while written communication provides a documented record. Understanding the specific requirements will help determine the most effective means of communication in any given situation.

What are 5 Good Communication Skills

Developing good communication skills can significantly enhance personal and professional relationships. Here are five essential communication skills to focus on:

1. Active Listening

2. effective speaking, 3. empathy and understanding, 4. nonverbal communication, 5. conflict resolution, what are the 4 types of body language.

Body language is a crucial aspect of nonverbal communication. Four common types of body language include:

1. Facial Expressions

2. posture and body orientation, 3. gestures and hand movements, 4. eye contact.

Being aware of how these elements contribute to our body language can enhance communication and understanding.

What are the Methods of Communication

Various methods are employed for effective communication. Some common methods include:

1. Face-to-Face Conversations

2. phone calls, 3. video conferences, 4. email correspondence, 5. instant messaging, 6. written letters or memos, 7. reports and documentation, 8. visual presentations, 9. public speeches or presentations, 10. social media platforms.

Understanding and utilizing these methods can help convey messages clearly and effectively.

Conclusion:

Communication is a multi-faceted phenomenon that plays a vital role in our lives. Understanding the different means of communication enables us to navigate through various channels effectively. Whether it’s nonverbal cues, written messages, or the spoken word, each form of communication brings its own unique value. So, sharpen your communication skills and embrace the vast world of connectivity that surrounds us!

• body language
• communication
• crucial role
• different ways
• digital communication
• express emotions
• facial expressions
• fast-paced world
• nonverbal communication
• numerous means
• permanent form
• verbal communication
• visual communication
• written communication

Brian Thomas

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Ancient Ways of Communication Before Technology

Ancient means of communication essay: introduction, ancient methods of communication: oral-based, ancient ways of communication: visual means.

• Ancient Means of Communication: Writing Systems & Technologies

Communication in Ancient Times: The Greco-Roman World

Means of communication in ancient times: conclusion.

This ancient means of communication essay investigates a wide range of old means used by people in ancient times before technology, from the pre-writing period until the development of ancient Greek and Latin alphabets. The paper aims to capture and discuss the major information-sharing and storage methods prevailing during these periods and demonstrate how communication technologies emerged and evolved. In order to meet this objective and support the paper’s arguments, the essay evaluates recent scholarly resources on ancient ways of communication and provides examples. In conclusion, the primary prerequisites of technology evolution are discussed as well.

The need for communication, transfer, and storage of information appeared along with the emergence of human society. It is valid to say that the informational aspect of multiple activities is one of the primary factors of the intellectual and economic capabilities of individuals, communities, and states. Originating in those times when the earliest signs of human civilization began to manifest themselves, different means of communication were continuously improved by the changing life conditions, development of new cultures and technologies. The same applies to the means of data recording and processing.

Today, some of those technologies are regarded as obsolete, while others have become an integral part of the contemporary lifestyle and give modern people an ability to share their knowledge, experience, ideas, and emotions easily regularly.

However, not many individuals recognize that the complex visual and written media, which societies have nowadays, originate from simple communication technologies created in antiquity when ancient communities had to develop and discover new methods to share and record various types of information and make it understandable for others. Considering this, the following paper will discuss the history and evolution of ancient communication systems and technologies starting from the pre-writing period (30,000-20.000 years BC). The paper will proceed with the description of a few examples of technology from ancient Egypt and Greece.

To begin with, it is necessary to mention that the first intention of ancient people to communicate with one another was speech. As stated by Pochatko (2017), societal problems forerun writing and, therefore, communication technologies precede writing as well. People communicated with each other mainly by using town criers and local verbal means, which allowed them to convey simple messages, such as warnings and calls for hunting, using noises, sounds, and intonations.

The sound as such is a basic element of human communication. However, when there is a long distance between collocutors, some auxiliary and supporting communication methods are required. Therefore, people started to use such primitive technologies as whistles, animal horns, and other instruments to considerably increase the volume of the sound. For instance, since ancient times, African drum communication systems serve to convey various signals, e.g., ritualistic and military, to distant receivers (Zulu, 2017).

The evidence provided above implies that communication in antiquity was primarily linear (Agbo & Tsegba, 2015). Nevertheless, simple means of oral communication evolved into more complex systems of orality, which allowed ancient people to develop mythological and poetical discourses through text recitals and performances. The major difference of rhetoric as a communication technology from an everyday form of interpersonal communication is strict adherence to genres and registers, the materiality of recited texts (i.e., availability of references), their historicity, and the performance of social functions (Pochatko, 2017).

For example, such widely known forms of oral documentation as folk songs, cries, and rhythms were used within indigenous tribes to educate the young people and pass the knowledge about the world structure to them. As Schellnack-Kelly (2017) states, oral narratives could serve “as a means of communicating about fauna and flora” and “a language of ecological intelligence” (p. 19). However, it is worth noticing that the oral communication culture did not attempt to preserve the knowledge of skills and was not used as how-to-do-it manuals (Pochatko, 2017). Ancient singers and criers rather communicated abstract, cultural, and historical knowledge to their peers.

As it was mentioned above, oral-based communication technologies were associated with a few significant drawbacks and limitations: they implied communication through immediate and linear interactions and they were prone to inaccuracy in the delivery of information, whereas singers and criers often could not explain something in detail. Therefore, to satisfy their evolving communication needs, tribes in different parts of the world started to use various visual symbols, which consequently contributed to the technological growth of humanity.

Since the distant past, people have used light as one of the primary carriers of information. For example, Khan (2017) states that in ancient times, messages were conveyed using such methods as fire and smoke signals, and later the optical communication methodologies based on similar principles of function were used throughout the history of humanity. In the given communication system, watch posts located around settlements on specially constructed towers and sometimes simply in trees were used as information transmitters. When an enemy approached, watchers lit fire alarm to warn their neighbors about the approaching danger.

In their nature, the described visual communication techniques are closer to oral means of interaction as they imply an immediate, linear transmission of messages. However, along with the invention of new methods of signal communication, ancient people started to invent various means aimed to capture information and preserve it. The earliest objects that represent non-linear communication means used by ancient people are carvings on rocks, cave walls, and other natural materials.

These communication methods also are known as pictograms and petroglyphs. This finding makes it obvious that these communication means were invented during at least 30,000-20.000 years BC (Comba, 2014). The technology ancestors used to leave carving (that can be found and examined even today) was simple. They utilized a small rock to hit a spear ending, or another sharp metal tool leaned against a wall or a rock (Woods & Woods, 2011). By hitting the back of the metal piece, they drew silhouettes that reminded of deer, tigers, and other animals. One of the most ancient collections of such cave drawings is located in Chauvet Cave in France where one can find hundreds of animalistic images.

It is possible to say that the primary intention of such a communication method was to teach or warn other people about various threats. However, some of the discovered ancient cave images depict imaginary creatures, such as half-humans and half-animals. For this reason, Comba (2014) notes that the technology of cave art could also fulfill the narrative function by depicting a structure of the world consisting of invisible domains and hidden dimensions and could even be used by ecstatic practitioners “in establishing relationships with and acquiring knowledge from these multiple dimensions of the universe” (p. 1).

Woods and Woods (2011) also note that some ancient carvings depicted patterns resembling calendars of the moon’s phases. Nevertheless, no matter what particular functions cave carvings performed, this technology helped individuals leave messages to their descendants and fostered communication in a non-linear manner.

During the pre-writing period, people could also use various objects such as sticks, pebbles, and clay figures to convey particular messages. The communication using physical objects is also known as the token system, which, according to Schmandt-Besserat (2014), bore hardly any similarity with spoken language, apart from the fact that a token, like a word, stood for one concept. Additionally, Kriwaczek (2014) notes that since tokens were associated with a single type of information merely and did not imply the use of syntax, the given communication means were primarily utilized to keep count of property, commodities, and animals.

One of the bright examples illustrating communication through objects is wampumpeag used by North American indigenous tribes. Wampums are threads with shells, which could be worn as belts and body decorations or even used as money at later historical stages, yet their main historical purpose was the transmission of messages from one tribe to another by expressing indented message content through colors, quantities of shells, and their position on the thread (Allen, 2017). With the help of the Wampum belt system, some American indigenous tribes (e.g., Iroquois, Algonquin) arranged peace treaties, made alliances, and empowered ambassadors. They might keep entire archives of the documents comprised of shell beads.

Overall, in token communication systems, objects obtain a conditional signaling power and symbolic connotations, which can be understood merely in the circumstances of preliminary mutual agreement on the designated meanings of those objects. It is possible to say that communication using objects and pictures could not convey the complexity of oral speech, yet it was an important step towards the development of more elaborated communication technologies.

Ancient Means of Communication: Writing Systems & Technologies

It is possible to say that the development of writing systems was a turning point in the evolution of communication technologies. According to Schmandt-Besserat (2014), it is possible that writing could have been independently invented three times in different locations: in the Near East, China, and Mesoamerica. The Sumerian form of writing also known as cuneiform writing was among the first systems of written communication, which developed throughout a few centuries from pictograms and drawings.

While visual symbols used in pictograms depicted a particular object, it was fairly difficult to comprehend accurately. Cuneiform signs became much more simplified because they started to represent more abstract symbols − sounds. In this way, the number of symbols in the system was drastically reduced, and, at some point, they became stylized in a way that almost did not resemble pictures from which they originated.

However, it is considered that the first alphabet comprised of signs equivalent to separate syllables was created by Phoenicians in the nearly 2000 years BC (Petrariu, 2013). In total, there were 22 signs in their written communication system, yet they did not have symbols for vowel sounds. The Phoenician script was not only the first alphabetic script in history but also the most significant one because it influenced the development of other written communication systems in states that were in diplomatic relationships with Phoenicians, e.g., Egypt (Woods & Woods, 2011).

At the same time, Agbo and Tsegba (2015) state that the earliest evidence of the Ancient Egyptian writing system dates back to the period of Naqada IIIA1 (c. 3300 BC). Both studies indicate that just like in the case with token systems of communication, the major purpose of writing during the early times was counting, accounting, and composition of funerary inscriptions. Ancient Egyptians were among the first to establish an elaborate written communication system and support it through technological advancement.

They developed monumental and highly pictographic hieroglyphs. As Woods and Woods (2011) state, “ancient Egyptian hieroglyphic writing combined pictures that stood for sounds with pictures that stood for objects or ideas” (p. 29). At the early stages, these symbolic visualizations on a solid and flat rock surface were carved by picking or incising. However, later hieroglyphic scripts, which were used by a minority of ancient Egyptians, produced a cursive derivative that became widely spread among the residents of Lower and Upper Egypt.

Along with the increase in the use of the written language, people started to utilize a lighter and more convenient writing media − papyrus. The invention of paper became in handy as “numbers of public works and courts of justice multiplied, movement of products and stone up and down the Nile in-creased, and censuses of men and animals grew in number” (Kilgour, 2014, p. 23). Nevertheless, as Mark (2016) states, since papyrus manufacturing costs were relatively high, it was primarily used for writing religious and government texts.

Still, compared to clay tablets and stone palettes, papyrus was a more ergonomic solution to the storage of enormous volumes of written data even though it was less enduring than the former and required care (Woods & Woods, 2011). It is possible to say that the ease of handling the papyri sources facilitated the further transmission of information from one culture to another.

According to Mark (2016), Papyrus was widely harvested since c. 6000 (during the Predynastic Period) and lasted until the end of the Roman Egypt era (c. 640 CE). As such, this type of paper was produced from plant fibers, and the process of its production was similar to the one used to make modern papers. As stated by Kilgour (2014), “the technology of the papyrus-roll system comprised five major components: papyrus rolls on which to write, inks for writing, palettes in which to keep the inks and the rushes with which to apply them, bookselling, and archives in which to organize the rolls” (p. 28).

Early papyrus scrolls can be regarded as first books as some of them comprised a comprehensive overview and in-depth depiction of one or a few subjects. For instance, Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus (4.68 meters in length and 33 centimeters in height), contained medical explanations of various types of wounds, injuries, diagnostic and treatment methods, and so on (Woods & Woods, 2011). Additionally, one of the most prominent and culturally significant ancient compositions, the Book of the Dead is the leading source of major Egyptian religious beliefs (Kilgour, 2014).

It is worth noticing that researchers discovered are a few editions of the given papyri source. In this way, it means that along with the evolution of writing, the technological advancement in the sphere of communication largely facilitated the development of complex systems of knowledge, as well as their storage, transmission, and preservation.

Further significant advancements in the ancient communication system and technology occurred in ancient Greece. The Greek alphabet was the first to include vowels in history (Colvin, 2014). The given invention significantly helped facilitate the readability of texts which previously required interpreting complex visual symbols. It is worth noticing that the most widely used in the system of communication signs in the world, the Roman alphabet, was consequently derived from the Etruscan alphabet (800 BC), which, in its turn, was largely based on the Greek one (Woods & Woods, 2011).

The simplification of the alphabet provided ancient scholars and scientists even more opportunities for the expression of complex thoughts and knowledge. As Kilgour (2014) states, Greeks continued to enhance communication technologies and created such materials as parchment (1600 BC), sharp-tipped pens, and new inks. Compared to Egyptian papyrus, parchment made of untanned skins of animals was significantly superior in such properties as durability, flexibility, and ink reception. As a result, the given leather material played a major role in the development of the book. At the same time, the creation of such a new writing instrument as a pen allowed increasing the speed of writing. In this way, the written communication output had doubled since then.

As the findings of the literature review revealed, ancient communication was primarily oral, linear, and not recorded effectively. The pre-writing period is rather associated with the use of crude materials such as sound and light, or gestures and speech at the most. At the same time, the technology developed throughout antiquity required the implementation of intensive manual work and intellectual efforts because it was extremely difficult to operate such early systems of written communication as Egyptian hieroglyphs.

For this reason, during the early period of written communication technology emergence, its use tends to be time-consuming and not very efficient in terms of speed of message recording and transmission. However, the simplification of linguistic symbol systems and the creation of new Greek and Latin alphabets seem to improve communication effectiveness. Moreover, the invention of more enduring materials and instruments supporting writing productivity had only accelerated further technological progress.

In conclusion, it is possible to assume that the major prerequisite for the evolution of primitive communication signs and means into more elaborated systems, which people have nowadays, was the ongoing accumulation of new information and an increasing need to express more complex concepts and ideas. As stated by Buckley and Boudot (2017), the very notion of technology “consists of knowledge about how to modify our environment, passed from one generation to the next” (p. 2).

It means technology implies continual progress and advancement. The example of ancient communication technologies and materials discussed in the essay supports the given idea. It became apparent that primitive symbolic systems and means could not meet the changing communication needs. The evolution of communication technology from its ancient form was driven by the necessity to facilitate memorization of information and facts acquired from life and the need to enable a person to share this information and facts with other people, regardless of time and distance.

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Woods, M., & Woods, M. B. (2011). Ancient communication technology: From hieroglyphics to scrolls . Minneapolis, MN: Twenty-First Century Books.

Zulu, Z. (2017). African drum telegraphy and indigenous innovation .

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Then and now: communication through the ages

• Kailun Zhang
• October 20, 2015
• Arts & Culture

In 2015, getting in contact with someone is hardly ever a problem. From calling, text message and email to Snapchat, Skype and Facebook, there are a multitude of ways to chat. This generation is known for being in a constant state of interaction, but it wasn’t always this easy.

Think about Romeo and Juliet. If only they had iMessage, then maybe they wouldn’t have found themselves in such a pickle. Granted, we’ve come a long way from counting on messengers on horseback to deliver the memo.

There’s been a lot of advancement in how we stay connected. It’s strange to think that there was once a time without even telephones — when the only way to talk to old friends was with pen and paper. Yet, it was once a reality.

Here’s a look back at what it looked like, and the evolution of how we communicate.

Smoke signals Used by Indigenous tribes in the 1500s

Smoke signals are actually one of the oldest forms of long-distance communication. Native tribes had their own signalling systems and soldiers in Ancient China would send smoke off the Great Wall during war.Even today, nothing quite says “help” like sending up some smoulder.

Pigeon post Used by the Romans more than 2,000 years ago

These squawking birds weren’t always just an accessory to cobblestone streets and street meat stands. Thousands of years ago, pigeons were used as a means of communication. Pigeons would carry messages on tiny pieces of rolled up paper in a metal canister attached to their feet. They would be sent to their desired destination, sometimes by train, where they could then be given a response to fly back with.

Fun fact: pigeons actually have an internal compass that allows them to find their way home from thousands of kilometres away.

Snail mail Earliest surviving piece of mail from 255 B.C.

Postal services have been around since humans learned how to write. Through the ages, transportation of snail mail has included dogsleds, donkeys, balloons and submarines. In 2006, Canada Post delivered about five billion pieces of mail, though annual volume has since dropped to below four billion. Nowadays, mail is usually junk, but it makes receiving the rare handwritten letter all the more special.

Electrical telegraph First American electrical telegraph invented in 1836

Telegraphy revolutionized communication by bidding goodbye to physically transported messages. First formally introduced in the 1830s and  1840s, electrical telegraphy used electrical currents sent through long wire — sometimes spanning across an ocean — to deliver messages across long  distances. Morse code was developed by assigning dots and dashes to certain letters to spell out messages.

Another fun fact: Nokia’s original text message — or rather, short message service — tone was actually “SMS” in morse code.

Telephone First telephone patented in 1876

Ah, the telephone — a Canadian legacy. The first long-distance phone call was made by Alexander Graham Bell to his assistant, Thomas Watson, on Aug. 10, 1876, from Brantford to Paris, Ontario. Watson would also receive the first transcontinental phone call in 1915, where Bell said the same thing he said in 1876: “Mr. Watson, come here, I want to see you.” When Bell died in 1922, around 14 million telephones in the U.S. and Canada stopped ringing for one minute in his memory.

Text messaging First text message sent in 1992

The first person to receive a text message was simply wished a “Merry Christmas”.

The concept of sending short, quick messages was first proposed by a man named Friedhelm Hillebrand in 1984. His idea that most sentences and questions fit within 160 characters lives on in today’s 160-character text length and 140-character tweet length.

A study by Experian Marketing Services estimated that 18 to 25 year olds today send an average of 1,914 texts a month, but that may not even account for the tons of messages sent through WiFi rather than cellphone carriers. Now, a mobile phone isn’t a necessary part of sending a text message. Text messaging over the internet is gaining ground with services like iMessage, WhatsApp and even Facebook messenger, which allow texts to be sent over devices such as tablets and iPods.

Video messaging First camera phone sold in 1996 in Japan

The introduction of video calling changed the way people interact. Skype, for example, has probably salvaged many long-distance relationships. But apart from conference calling and video-chatting, apps like Snapchat and Periscope are changing the communication game. People can now rapidly interact face-to-face in small snippets, whether it be a single moment or emotion. They can also add elements to communication that don’t exist in real life — who doesn’t love a good Snapchat filter?

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4.1: History of Communication Study Overview

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• Scott T. Paynton & Laura K. Hahn with Humboldt State University Students
• Humboldt State University

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Communication is an increasingly popular major at colleges and universities. In fact, according The Princeton Review: Guide to College Majors, Communication is the 8th most popular major in the U.S. With increased demands placed on students to have “excellent communication skills” in their careers, many students choose to earn their degree in Communication. Most of us implicitly understand that humans have always communicated, but many do not realize that the intellectual study of communication has taken place for thousands of years.

As with the rest of the book, this chapter is divided by events that preceded the industrial revolution (2500 BCE – 1800’s), and those that occurred after the industrial revolution (1850’s-Present). Previous to the invention of the printing press, which pre-dated the industrial revolution by a few hundred years to develop, the formal study of communication was relatively slow. However, as a result of the printing press and the rapid expansion of technology that followed during the industrial age that increased the amount of easily shared information, the formal study of communication gained considerable momentum, developing into what you now understand as Communication departments and majors at colleges and universities around the country.

To keep our focus on the two time periods that greatly mark the development of communication study, we have divided this chapter into the Old School and New School. Part I focuses on Old School communication study by highlighting the origins of our field through the works of classical rhetorical scholars in ancient Greece and moving through the enlightenment period that ushered in the industrial age. Part II focuses on the New School of communication study by identifying how the four early periods influenced the development of communication study over the last 100+ years into what it is today.

To fully appreciate the current state of communication study, it’s important to have a historical perspective—not only to understand the field itself, but also to know how you ended up in a Communication class or major. Over time, the study of communication has largely been prompted by the current social issues of particular time periods. Knowing this, we’ll examine the pertinent questions, topics, and scholars of the Classical, Medieval, Renaissance, and Enlightenment periods to find out what they learned about communication to help them understand the world around them. Next, we will highlight the rapid growth of contemporary communication.

There is a historical bias that gives the accomplishments of male scholars in Ancient Greece the greatest recognition for the early development of our field. Because society favored and privileged European males, it is often difficult to find written records of the accomplishments of others. We believe it is essential that you understand that many of the earliest influences on communication study also came from feminine and Eastern perspectives, not just the men of ancient Greek society. No doubt you’ve heard of Aristotle, but ancient Indian literature shows evidence of rhetorical theory pre-dating Aristotle by almost half a century. In fact, Indians were so attuned to the importance of communication, they worshipped the goddess of speech, Vach (Gangal & Hosterman). The Theosophical Society states:

The Mypurohith Encyclopaedia tells us that:

Unfortunately, many of our field’s histories exclude works other than those of Ancient Greek males. Throughout the book, we try to provide a balanced view of the field by weaving in feminine and Eastern traditions to provide you with a well-rounded perspective of the development of communication study around the world. Let’s start by focusing on the earliest period of the Old School – The Classical Period.

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• Survey of Communication Study. Authored by : Scott T Paynton and Linda K Hahn. Provided by : Humboldt State University. Located at : en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Survey_of_Communication_Study/Preface. License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike

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Essay On Ways of Communicating In The Past And Now

Type of paper: Essay

Topic: Communication , Technology , People , Horses , Face

Published: 01/16/2020

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Old Ways of Communication

Communication in the past was totally different from these days, because in the past communication was permeative. There were not many ways of communication that people could use in order to talk with each other. People were communicating face to face and with the invention of paper, they started to write messages to one another.

In addition, they used animals such as pigeons and horses to convey their messages. Pigeons carried messages back and forth between people, but with pigeons it took a long time for a message to reach its destination and occasionally messages got lost. For instance, people used to ride horses from one place to other so that they could send messages. On the contrary, nowadays communication is more advanced. With the help of new technology, people become able to communicate in various ways.

Currently, people communicate using cell phones, emails, SMS and in many other ways. These kinds of communication are faster than the old communication methods (paper messages) and people respond to each other within seconds. For example, people email each other and receive immediate responses. With the presence of technological advances everyday, people create new ways to communicate with each other that facilitates talking and transmitting information in a more convenient manner. In conclusion, communication has changed significantly from the past and with the technological inventions that occurred in the 21st century, communicational techniques have developed and are still developing with the purpose to facilitate ways in which people can reach each other.

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Essay on Importance of Communication for Students and Children

500+ words essay on importance of communication:.

Communication is one of the important tools that aid us to connect with people. Either you are a student or a working professional, good communication is something that will connect you far ahead. Proper communication can help you to solve a number of issues and resolve problems. This is the reason that one must know how to communicate well. The skills of communication essential to be developed so that you are able to interact with people. And able to share your thoughts and reach out to them. All this needs the correct guidance and self-analysis as well.

Meaning of Communication

The word communication is basically a process of interaction with the people and their environment . Through such type of interactions, two or more individuals influence the ideas, beliefs, and attitudes of each other.

Such interactions happen through the exchange of information through words, gestures, signs, symbols, and expressions. In organizations, communication is an endless process of giving and receiving information and to build social relationships.

Importance of Communication

Communication is not merely essential but the need of the hour. It allows you to get the trust of the people and at the same time carry better opportunities before you. Some important points are as follows –

Help to Build Relationships 

No matter either you are studying or working, communication can aid you to build a relationship with the people. If you are studying you communicate with classmates and teachers to build a relationship with them. Likewise in offices and organizations too, you make relationships with the staff, your boss and other people around.

Improve the Working Environment 

There are a number of issues which can be handled through the right and effective communication. Even planning needs communication both written as well as verbal. Hence it is essential to be good in them so as to fill in the communication gap.

Foster strong team

Communication helps to build a strong team environment in the office and other places. Any work which requires to be done in a team. It is only possible if the head communicates everything well and in the right direction.

Find the right solutions

Through communication, anyone can find solutions to even serious problems. When we talk, we get ideas from people that aid us to solve the issues. This is where communication comes into play. Powerful communication is the strength of any organization and can help it in many ways.

Earns more respect

If your communication skills are admirable, people will love and give you respect. If there is any problem, you will be the first person to be contacted. Thus it will increase your importance. Hence you can say that communications skills can make a big change to your reputation in society.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Don’t Go Overboard With Your Point

The conversation is about to express your thoughts. And to let the other person know what you feel. It is not mean to prove that your point is correct and the other person is wrong. Don’t Overboard other With Your Point.

Watch Your Words

Before you say something to Watch Your Words. At times, out of anger or anxiousness, we say somethings that we must not say. Whenever you are in a professional meeting or in some formal place, where there is a necessity of communicating about your product or work then it is advised to practice the same beforehand

Communication is the greatest importance. It is important to sharing out one’s thoughts and feelings to live a fuller and happier life. The more we communicate the less we suffer and the better we feel about everything around. However, it is all the more necessary to learn the art of effective communication to put across ones point well.

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Essays About Communication: Top 5 Examples and Prompts

Are you writing essays about communication? Check out our top essay examples and writing prompts to help you get started.

Communication is power and is critical to building a well-connected society. Communicating well is vital in working with people and shedding light on problems and solutions. Practical communication skills can help build relationships. 

If you’re writing an essay on communication and are having a hard time choosing a topic to focus on, here is our round-up of the best essay examples to get you started:  

1. The Benefits of Communication and Teamwork by Karenina Loayza

2. it’s time to tune in: why listening is the real key to communication by kate murphy, 3. a love language spoken with hands by ross showalter, 4. the role of body language in communication by ashley tulio, 5. the power of storytelling in marketing by dylan jacob, 1. how-to develop communication skills, 2. how-to write an inspiring speech, 3. should all leaders be good communicators, 4. theories of mass communication, 5. how are schools developing children’s communication skills, 6. communicating face-to-face vs. online , 7. marketing communications: what are they, 8. is communicating on social media effective, 9. is it possible to communicate effectively on virtual workplace platforms, 10. how-to communicate in the workplace.

“In one task, we were blindfolded and had to describe a set of irregular pieces. With varying degrees of English and different experiences of the world, it was like explaining an elephant to an alien.” 

Loayza narrates an exercise in class where they have to describe surrounding objects as accurately as possible to keep others from stumbling on them. The writer said the exercise demonstrated effectively the need for good communication skills for teams to succeed.

“Schools and universities have courses in debate, rhetoric and elocution, but rarely classes that teach listening. You can get a doctorate in speech communication and join Toastmasters International to perfect your speaking skills, but who strives for excellence in listening?”

Murphy muses on a world that glorifies the speakers but leaves no room for the listeners like her. She points out how social media has created a generation that prefers interacting behind the screen and filtering out opinions that do not resonate with theirs. Instead, Murphy emphasizes listening as a foundation for better human relations and offers solutions for how others can develop their listening for successful communication. 

“Will showed me that not everyone makes promises they don’t intend to fulfil. I don’t have to invest in someone who promises an action they’ll never do. Relationships only move forward once the work of communication begins.”

Showalter, a deaf man, laments how non-deaf ex-lovers have promised to learn sign language to better communicate with him – only to see these promises broken. Then, one morning, a remarkable man in his life sends a video message reviving hopes for Showalter and redefines his standard in relationships for the better. 

“Non-verbal communication can affect our words as it can reiterate our message, contradict our words, reinforce our statement, substitute the meaning of what we are trying to say, and complement what we are trying to say. Body language is something that is usually natural and is often done instinctively rather than consciously.”

Tulio, a communications specialist, stresses the importance of using body language for expression. She provides tips on maximizing gestures and body movement to convey emotions in person and through videoconferencing. 

“In marketing, storytelling provides an avenue to connect to consumers unlike any other. Brands are empowered to share and sell their values and personality in a form that feels less like advertising and more like a concerted effort to strengthen relationships with customers.

The author cites the viewpoints of a business school professor who explains how storytelling can shape the world’s perception of a brand. Finally, the author outlines the vital elements that make an exciting story capable of connecting with an audience and effecting action among consumers.

10 Writing Prompts On essays about communication

To further expand your horizon on the subject, you can work around our list of prompts that are interesting and relevant to date:

You can narrow down this essay to target employees, students, aspiring leaders, or those who want to improve their conversation skills. First, list down recommendations such as expanding their vocabulary and listening. Then, explain how they can incorporate this into their daily routine. 

Writing a speech that strikes a chord requires extra work in developing empathy and understanding the audience. Next, you can focus on providing recommendations for your essay, such as putting in a personal touch and linking this story to the broader subject. Make sure you also offer simple writing tips such as using the active voice as much as possible, keeping sentences short, and keeping the tone conversational. 

Cite research studies that detail why effective communication is a critical skill that makes a leader. Then, write about the organizational pitfalls of poor communication. Later, leaders who can speak engagingly and listen attentively to their team members can address these pitfalls. 

Communication theory is the study of processes in sending and receiving information. Discuss the four main theories of mass communication: the Authoritarian Theory, the Libertarian Theory, the Soviet-Communist Theory, and the Social-Responsibility Theory. Explain each one. Explain how each remains relevant in understanding modern communication processes. 

Interview schools within your community and learn about their language curriculum and other efforts to empower children to communicate well. You can also interview child development experts. Find out the biggest challenges in helping children improve how they express their thoughts and ideas. Then, find out what schools and parents are doing to address them. 

While you’d hear many people expressing a preference for face-to-face meetings, there are undoubtedly benefits to online meetings, which some usually dismiss. Weigh in on the pros and cons of in-person and online meetings, especially in the current scenario of an ongoing pandemic. 

What are the new marketing channels marketers are leveraging to reach their audience? Several surveys and studies show where most marketing campaigns allocate their budgets. One example is video content. 

An interesting angle would also involve looking at epic brand fails. Cite two or more cases, find a communication mishap common between them and provide what lessons can today’s brands learn from these epic fails. 

From interacting with loved ones and finding someone to date and love, social media has dramatically changed our ways of communication. It might be great to interview the elders who have experienced communicating through snail mail. Dive into their nostalgia and discover how they compare the experience of letter writing against instant chatting through mobile apps. 

Several apps today aim to transform workplaces to be more connected for interaction and communication. First, list down the top apps most used in the corporate world and discuss why these communication forms are preferred over email. Then, delve into the drawbacks and aspects of the apps that need improvements according to what business users say. 

Recent studies show that employees quit their jobs when they feel unable to talk about their needs in the workplace. Research the communication culture in the top companies in a specific field. How are they engaging with their employees? How are they driving conversations toward critical concerns?

TIP: You don’t have to write an extended essay. Here is a guide to writing a concise and organized five-paragraph essay.

For more help with writing, check out our best essay writing tips for a stress-free writing process. 

Yna Lim is a communications specialist currently focused on policy advocacy. In her eight years of writing, she has been exposed to a variety of topics, including cryptocurrency, web hosting, agriculture, marketing, intellectual property, data privacy and international trade. A former journalist in one of the top business papers in the Philippines, Yna is currently pursuing her master's degree in economics and business.

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Power of Effective Communication Essay

Introduction, what is effective communication, models of effective communication, the mbi communication model, barriers to effective communication, how to communicate effectively, effective communication in the global context.

Communicating effectively has been one of the important factors that help a person to succeed in the chosen profession. Studies have estimated that employees typically spend about 75% of their time communicating with colleagues or customers. Personnel who interface with their clients need exceptionally effective communicating skills. Various features related to effective communications are discussed in this paper. Issues and opportunities such as what is effective communication, models of effective communication, global communication strategies, and others are examined.

Keane (July 2007) has suggested that effective communication is the skill of stating ideas, thoughts, instructions, or reports, in an unambiguous manner and with clarity so that the audience understands the intended meaning. Effective Communication is the process where information and ideas are relayed and received. Ideas are conveyed in spoken, written, or visual contexts and when a person is speaking, the tone of voice and the body language are very important. According to Keane, words make up for 7 percent of the communicated information, tone accounts for 55 %, and body language for 38 %. To be effective communicators, people should be aware of these forms, their use, and possible communication barriers The author rates effective communication along with skills such as delegation, time management, motivation, and leadership skills. To work or lead effectively, a manager or supervisor has to know how to explain clearly what needs to be done and how it has to be done. Keane has argued that an organization in effect acts like a human decision-making system and the quality and depth of the decisions that are taken depend on the effectiveness of the system used for communication.

Blitefield (2006) has presented a detailed discussion of the process of communication. According to the author, the process of communication has one communicator and at least one or more receivers. Effective communication starts with how completely the communicator can relate the information and how much of the information that is relayed is understood by the receivers. Effective communication between different disciplines has become one key aspect in organizations. In many cases, the communication process becomes complex when the subjects are controversial or there are multiple and diverse teams. The author speaks of the need to bridge the differences and this is one of the most important factors. The author has defined effective communication as the transmission of subjects and meaning between people and minimizing any misunderstand between them. Several models have been proposed for effective communications and some of them are discussed in the next paragraphs.

Robbins (2003) has suggested that the models of effective communication essentially start with a clear understanding of how people bridge their communication differences or the communication gap as it is called. The author argues that people tend to interpret information by using their reference frame and these references have been shaped by cultural backgrounds or group associations. The process of bridging is an try to minimize the inherent differences by trying to understand the reference frame that others are using. The process of bridging again needs to be a two-way process and both the sender and receiver have to attempt to remove any obstacles. The process of bridging the cultural differences among different groups becomes very important in business contexts such as management. Hofstede (1980) had proposed a framework that would help to assess the cultures by identifying 5 important value dimensions of the national cultures. The model was later expanded by other research organizations till no dimensions were identified. Myers (1985) has proposed the Myer Briggs Type Indicator that makes up the personality framework and explains the behavior of individuals and the concepts can be used to explain the different relationships between cultures.

The Map-Bridge-Integrate model has three interacting components and provides a means to bridge the cultural differences (DiStefano et all, 2002)

Map – Understand the Differences: The Map component is used in describing and understanding any differences between team members and also specifying the impact that these differences have on team objectives. There are three aspects and they are: selecting the characteristics to be mapped; description of members’ characteristics and identification of the impact of the characteristics.

Bridging – Communicate across the Differences: The Bridging component deals with communicating effectively across the group differences to bring ideas and people together. The main aim of this component is to stop miscommunication There are three aspects to this component: preparing and motivating members to build confidence and communicate so that problems are overcome. This is important since there is a possibility that because of lack of motivation, communication may not happen even after the differences are understood. Decentring where the team members try to explain their understanding of the difference in the process of communication by altering their behavior and thought process. This allows other cultures to be accommodated in their understanding. Re-centring is another aspect and team members try to create a new basis on which interactions can be created. A good understanding of differences is required and consent on shared norms has to be agreed upon.

Integrating – manage the Differences: The integrating component ensures that people use their differences to make good decisions. The understanding developed in the mapping component is converted to obtain positive results. There are three aspects for this component and they are: managing the participation to ensure that all members have an equal opportunity to participate by accommodating different norms for participation that would result from cultural differences; resolving disagreements or possible conflicts so that any disputes are addressed before they increase. The mapping component helps to detect early any probable areas and conflict zones while the bridging component helps to make manageable any personal conflicts. The third aspect is the building on ideas which is the final aspect. Individual ideas are taken as the starting point for any discussion and the concept of ownership needs to be left.

McAteer (March 2007) speaks of certain barriers to communication and the author defines barriers as Barriers are factors that break down or impede a continuous relay of information. These barriers tend to disrupt the process and act of communication. The author has suggested several factors that act as barriers and they are: Nonassertive behavior, Task preoccupation, frustration and anger at the communicator, any personal enmity or bias, diversity in the team with little areas of common interest, lack of confidence in self or on the communicator; complex organizational structure, distractions, tunnel vision, external and internal interruptions and so on.

Smith (December 2007) has pointed that two types of major differences create barriers to effective communication and they are: Cultural differences and Group differences. Cultural differences occur when people from different cultures are involved in the communication process. Culture is defined informally as a set of shared traditions, values, and beliefs that control the formation and behavior of different social groups. The author argues that cultures have a strong influence on how people communicate and relate with each other. The cultural differences often create a bias or a barrier between the communicator and the receivers. Group differences on the other hand are due to peer pressure among group members and it is the predominant group mentality that creates a barrier against communication. The author argues that groups can be based according to work natures, ethnicity, and nationality, profession, and gender. Groups can also be formed as per the roles they play such as engineers, doctors, students, teachers, and so on and in many cases, the groups may even form associations. Groups with whom people are associated are called in-groups while groups with which people are not associated are called out-groups. The author suggests that these groups often have their vocabulary, mannerisms, and code of conduct and when one such group tries to communicate with the others, these mannerisms are not carried through and it can result in miscommunications.

Taylor (July 2006) has stressed that effective communications have to be a two-way process and begin with the communicator or the sender who would convey the required information necessary. The sender must have to be proactive and ensure that the receiver can understand the information. Certain key factors that need to be followed are: stating one idea at a time; putting forward the ideas in a medium that is understood; take extra care to elaborate and repeat if required, understand the body language of the audience and ask questions now and then to keep them involved in the discussion. Taylor has defined the four A’s of successful communication and they are Attention; Appreciation, Action, and Assimilation. The Four A’s are illustrated in Figure 3.

Attention: this is the first step in the process of effective communication and it deals with getting the receiver’s attention. This can be achieved by: overcoming distractions such as disturbing mannerisms, noise, emotional and attitude problems, negative and sarcastic attitude, and so on; using an appropriate greeting, showing respect and empathy for the people

Appreciation: Appreciation is a critical step and it is the responsibility of the communicator to ensure that understanding takes place and that there is a positive reception of the message. A good relationship between the sender and the receiver will help to ensure that appreciation is received. Encouraging a free flow of input from the receiver is also a good way to ensure that this step is carried out properly.

Assimilation: This is the third step and though a person understands a message, it may not be accepted fully. Communication is considered only after the recipient assimilates the information, takes and uses it. It leads to active participation, collaboration, and harmony.

Action: This is the final step and moves the theory of communication into reality. In some cases, a good idea or a meaningful message is accepted superficially but is not translated into action. If complete assimilation takes place, the action from the receiver has to follow. A two-sided communication is brought into action and results in the required activity.

Yates (et all, 2006) have stressed the importance of effective communication for organizations that operate globally. Such organizations operate in different time zones and have employees who have different backgrounds and nationalities. In such a scenario, a proper communication strategy has to be in place to ensure that the messages given out by management are not distorted and the true intent is assimilated. The authors surveyed some leading global organizations to understand how they managed the communication strategy. They used a survey instrument to identify the best practices and the response percentages are shown in Figure 4.

The study showed that only about 18% of the organizations had an established and documented global communication strategy. What many enterprises are learning is that the traditional approach to global communication – translating messages into several languages and shipping them to local managers for dissemination – simply doesn’t work. This approach often results in messages that are misunderstood, miscommunicated, and sometimes not communicated at all. Several multinationals have recognized the value of bringing a global perspective to their communication strategies. The author has reported several steps that such companies are taking up and they are:

Getting global participation: One of the biggest challenges in developing a global strategy is ensuring that the strategy supports and drives corporate goals without overlooking the distinct needs of separate regions, countries, and business areas. Inputs from people around the world are needed to strike the right balance (Maznevski, M. L., 1994).

Making global teams effective: Enterprises that put together effective global teams to develop and maintain the communication strategy are achieving some very positive results. The keyword here, though, is effective. Research into the performance of global teams – and this is not just global communication teams – shows that such teams don’t always deliver the value the enterprise expects. Cultural differences represented in multicultural teams provide great potential for creating value.

Creating messages with a global appeal: Global input provides insight into cultural sensitivities, compliance and legislative differences, and the unique characteristics of each market. Effective communicators use this insight to craft messages that are easy to interpret, translate and adapt to local needs. They also look at the type and content of messages to determine how widely they need to be communicated. The best global communicators determine which messages cannot be tinkered with and which areas of content are open for local customization. Moreover, they make it clear to local managers, which messages must be delivered exactly as presented and which ones can be adapted or expanded to address local needs.

Training local managers to communicate: While some multinationals have dedicated internal communicators on a regional basis, some of them have dedicated communicators on a country or local basis. Some companies rely on local managers to interpret and deliver messages. Functionally, these managers might be responsible for HR, plant management, or operations, so they often don’t have expertise in communication. Unfortunately, few companies provide training and support for these local managers and fewer still have processes in place to ensure that messages were delivered and understood.

Choosing the right delivery mechanisms: Effective internal communicators take advantage of a variety of media and technologies to communicate corporate messages. Options enable local managers to select the tools and information that work best for local employees. Face-to-face presentations work better in some parts of the world, while self-learning tools work better in others.

Measuring success: There are a variety of ways to measure, from focus groups and comprehensive annual employee surveys to quarterly targeted surveys, short feedback questionnaires for forums and workshops, and phone calls to local managers and employees. Such activities help to keep a pulse on whether or not people are receiving, understanding, and embracing messages. As the measurement processes are developed, the ultimate goal should be to identify the links between communication effectiveness and improved productivity and business performance.

The paper has discussed various issues related to effective communication. Effective communication is the process where the exchange of information takes place clearly and unambiguously. Global companies are facing an increasing challenge in inputting into a place an effective communication strategy that would reach employees from different cultural backgrounds.

Blitefield Jerry. (2006). The Rhetoric of RHETORIC: The Quest for Effective Communication. Journal of Rhetoric & Public Affairs. East Lansing. Volume 9. Issue 4. pp: 710-714.

DiStefano, J. J. Ekelund, B. Z. (2002). The MBI Model of Managing Differences Effectively. In Heritage & Management: Identity as a Competitive Tool, J. M. Fladmark (ed.), Donhead Publishing, Edinburgh.

Hofstede, G. (1980). Cultural Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values. Sage, Beverly Hills, CA.

Keane Tess. (2007). Power of effective communication. Nursing Standard: Harrow on the Hill. Volume 21. Issue 45. pp: 78-80.

Maznevski, M. L. (1994). Synergy and Performance in Multicultural Teams, Ph.D. dissertation. The University of Western Ontario.

McAteer Teal. (2007). Strategic Organizational Change. Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences. Halifax. Volume. 24. Issue 1. pp: 74-76.

Robbins, S. P. (2003). Organizational Behavior. Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ.

Smith Marolee Beaumont. (December 2006). A Study on South African Corporate Business Failures. Journal of The Business Review, Cambridge. Hollywood. Volume 6. Issue 1. pp: 168-173.

Taylor Shirley. (2006). Communicating across Cultures. The British Journal of Administrative Management. Orpington. pp: 12-15.

Yates Kathryn. Beech Roger. (2006). Six crucial steps to effective global communication. Journal of Strategic Communication Management. Chicago. Volume 10. Issue 5. pp: 26-30.

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IvyPanda. (2021, September 18). Power of Effective Communication. https://ivypanda.com/essays/power-of-effective-communication/

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Essay on Communication in 100, 200 and 300 Words: The Essence of Survival

• Updated on  
• Oct 20, 2023

Do you know how important it is to communicate with others? Communication is the primary means through which individuals share information, ideas and thoughts. Communication fosters strong relationships. In this essence, writing an essay on communication becomes important where you highlight the importance of communication, how it affects our everyday lives and what skills are required to become a communication professional . Let’s explore all these questions with some essays on communication.

Table of Contents

• 1 Essay on Communication in 100 Words
• 2 Essay on Communication in 200 Words
• 3 Essay on Communication in 300 Words

Also Read: Essay on Freedom Fighters

Essay on Communication in 100 Words

Communication is the cornerstone of human interaction and is crucial to sharing ideas, thoughts and information. By communicating, people foster relationships, which is vital for personal and professional growth. Effective communication facilitates understanding, resolves conflicts, and promotes collaboration. Whether verbal or nonverbal, it forms the basis of successful teamwork, decision-making, and social integration.

Clear communication is key to a harmonious society, nurturing empathy, and building trust. It encourages brainstorming, creative thinking, and the development of new solutions to complex problems. Its impact is profound, shaping the way we interact, learn, and evolve, making it an indispensable tool for human connection and progress. 

Essay on Communication in 200 Words

What makes communication important is that it serves as the bedrock for exchanging ideas, information, and emotions. It is the essence of human interaction, enabling us to convey our thoughts, beliefs, and intentions to others. Effective communication is essential in every aspect of life, whether in personal relationships, professional environments, or social interactions.

Effective communication can form the basis of trust and mutual understanding and understanding. In personal relationships, communication fosters understanding and empathy, allowing individuals to express their feelings and needs, while also listening to and acknowledging others. 

In the professional realm. Communication allows the smooth functioning of organizations. With communication, individuals can disseminate information, set clear expectations and encourage collaboration among team members. Moreover, effective communication in the workplace enhances productivity and promotes a positive work culture.

The uses and benefits of communication are not limited to just personal and professional realms. In social environments also, communication allows diverse groups to understand each other’s cultures, beliefs, and values, promoting inclusivity and harmony in society.

You can call communication a fundamental pillar of human existence, as it helps in shaping our relationships, work environments, and societal interactions. Its effective practice is essential for nurturing empathy, building trust, and fostering a more connected and understanding world.

Also Read: Essay on the Importance of English Language

Essay on Communication in 300 Words

How crucial communication is can be explained by the fact that it allows the smooth transfer of ideas, thoughts, feelings and information. Communication is the lifeblood of human interaction, playing a crucial role in the exchange of ideas, information, and emotions. It serves as the cornerstone of relationships, both personal and professional, and is integral to the functioning of society as a whole. 

In personal relationships, it is essential to have effective communication for clear understanding and empathy. It allows individuals to express their thoughts, feelings, and needs, while also providing a platform for active listening and mutual support. Strong communication fosters trust and intimacy, enabling individuals to build meaningful and lasting connections with others.

Without communication, you might struggle for organizational success in the professional world. Clear and effective communication within a team or workplace ensures that tasks are understood, roles are defined, and goals are aligned. It enables efficient collaboration, problem-solving, and decision-making, contributing to a positive and productive work environment. Moreover, effective communication between employers and employees promotes a sense of transparency and fosters a healthy work culture.

In a broader sense, communication is vital for social integration and cultural understanding. It bridges the gaps between diverse groups, facilitating the exchange of values, beliefs, and perspectives. Effective communication fosters inclusivity and respect for cultural differences, contributing to a more harmonious and cohesive community.

However, communication is not just about sharing information and ideas. It also encompasses nonverbal cues such as body language, facial expressions, and tone of voice, all of which play a significant role in conveying meaning and emotions. It is the glue that binds individuals and communities together, fostering understanding, empathy, and collaboration. Practicing clear and empathetic communication is vital for creating a more connected, inclusive, and harmonious world.

Related Articles:

Communication is the process of exchanging ideas, information, thoughts and feelings between individuals or groups through the use of verbal and nonverbal methods.

To write an essay on communication, you need to describe what communication is, what the importance of communication in our lives and how it can help us know different aspects of life.

To become an effective communicator, you must become an active listener and understand what others have to say. You must learn to express your thoughts clearly and concisely. You also need to ensure your body language, facial expressions, and tone of voice perfectly align with your ideas.

For more information on such interesting topics, visit our essay writing page and follow Leverage Edu .

Shiva Tyagi

With an experience of over a year, I've developed a passion for writing blogs on wide range of topics. I am mostly inspired from topics related to social and environmental fields, where you come up with a positive outcome.

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Communication Essay

500+ words communication essay, the different types of communication and the importance of communication .

Communication is the act of transferring or exchanging information from one place, person or group of people to another. In other words, it means sharing information or ideas by talking or writing and receiving information by listening or reading. It is basically an interaction between two or more people. Communication plays an important role in human life and society. Along with exchanging information and knowledge, it also helps in building relationships with other people.

But why is it important to communicate? Communication or social interaction is how we express our ideas, desires, wants and needs. Everything from education to the workplace and even human societies depend on communication to understand each other. Communication is as old as our civilization itself, from time immemorial man, nature and animals communicated with each other verbally and non-verbally.

Read on to learn more about the definition and different types of communication in this communication essay. This communication essay also helps you understand its importance.

Definition of communication

Communication can be defined as the sharing or exchanging of thoughts, opinions, or information by speech, writing, gestures, listening, etc. 

The word “communication” is derived from the word “communis.” Communis is a Latin word, which means common. The common component in all kinds of interactions and communication is understanding. Without understanding, there would be no transfer of information or knowledge and the communication becomes directionless. Communication plays an important role in sharing ideas, opinions, thoughts and clarifying doubts. 

Read on to learn the different processes in communication in this communication essay.

The Different Processes of Communication

• It’s between two parties: From the definition, we understand that communication is a two-way process. There is always a sender and a receiver and both can be an individual or a group of individuals. 
• It always carries a message: Communication between two parties always includes a message. The message can be information, instructions or guidance, a question or enquiry, an opinion, feeling, thought or idea.
• Commonness of understanding: For communication to be successful, both parties should understand the message. Both the sender and receiver should understand the communication or it becomes miscommunication. Understanding is also influenced by several factors like emotions, culture, language, upbringing and location. 
• Method of communication: A message can be communicated in different ways. It can be verbal, which means talking, or it can be conveyed in writing. Along with these, the receiver and sender can also communicate using signs, gestures, expressions etc. 
• Evoking a response: A communication should be able to get a response from the receiver. It can be a verbal or nonverbal response or it can be behavioral changes too.

Now that you know what communication is, read on to learn the different kinds of communication in this communication essay.

Also explore: Leadership qualities essay and Personality essay .

Different Types Of Communication

There are two main types of communication, they are:

• Verbal communication: Verbal communication uses words and languages to interact and exchange information.  A verbal interaction between the receiver and sender can be oral or written. So all communication that uses speaking, reading, writing, listening comes under verbal communication. Additionally, verbal communication is used more widely because it usually gets an immediate response.
• Nonverbal communication: Nonverbal communication doesn’t use words, instead it uses signs, gestures, expressions and other forms of body language. The responses for this sort of communication will vary depending on how a particular cue is interpreted.

But why is communication and developing good communication skills important? Learn about the importance of communication in this communication essay.

The Importance of Communication

Communicating is a very important part of our everyday lives. Without communication, we wouldn’t be able to express ourselves or relay information. It’s also important to understand others, to develop social skills and build human relationships. 

• Education: Good communication skills are necessary to succeed in academics. Students should be able to listen and understand information and knowledge in all stages of education. Additionally, communication skills are extremely important for their future career too.
• Professional life: Landing a good job doesn’t just need good grades, a person will also need excellent communication skills to get better employment opportunities. It is also closely related to leadership skills. A leader with good communication skills can inspire and motivate his team to work towards a desired goal. It also helps foster good relationships with other employees, colleagues and superiors. Additionally, good communication skills also help avoid misunderstandings and issues that arise from it.
• Personal life: Healthy communication skills also comes in handy in a person’s personal life too. It helps us deal with and resolve conflicts, face challenges and build stronger, healthier relationships.
• Avoiding miscommunication: Miscommunications can lead to misunderstanding and issues. These problems can be avoided or minimized with good communication skills. Miscommunications can especially be troublesome or even lethal in healthcare. Good communication skills enables patients to communicate clearly with their healthcare providers and understand each other.

So the importance of good communication skills cannot be underestimated. Excellent communication skills lead to good conversations and help in building strong, lasting relationships.

We hope this communication essay was useful to you. For more essays like these, check Osmo’s essays for kids . 

Frequently Asked Questions On Communication

What is communication.

Communication is the act of conveying or receiving information, knowledge, ideas, thoughts, feelings, opinions, etc. It can be conveyed through verbal or nonverbal communication.

Why are good communication skills important?

Communication skills help in getting a sound education and makes way for better employment opportunities too. It is also important for decision making, leadership skills and to build strong, healthy relationships.

To find more information, explore related articles such as technology essay and essay on internet . 

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• Essay On Importance Of Communication

Importance of Communication Essay

500+ words importance of communication essay.

For every human being, communication is one of the essential parts of our lives. People build relationships in their personal and professional lives based on communication. Effective communication works as a foundation for respect and trust to grow. It helps in better understanding a person and the context of the conversation. People always believe that their way of communication is better than others. To communicate effectively, individuals should understand the motion behind the said information. We know that communication is effortless, but miscommunication between two or more individuals sometimes leads to conflicts and distress. Building relationships at home, work, and social affairs will be easier if you know the right way to communicate effectively. It is required to have better communication skills such as non-verbal communication, listening and managing stress can improve the relationship between individuals.

Meaning of Communication

Communication is essential for all of us, whether humans or animals. Communication is a part of written and spoken language, and altogether it completes the communication process. Both use different languages to communicate because it’s hard to survive in this world without communication.

Good communication skills are all about exchanging ideas and thoughts to convey information. It is a two-way conversation that includes vocalisation as well as a gesture. One of the crucial purposes of communication is to express ideas, needs or thoughts, and one’s beliefs with clarity for a mutually accepted solution.

Communication skills cannot be underestimated. Before languages were invented, people communicated with their hand gestures, body language, etc. We all require better communication skills at every step of our life. Personal and professional life will get hampered if you lack practical communication.

Importance of Effective Communication

People understand the importance of communication, but sometimes they cannot communicate through communication. It happens due to a lack of better communication skills. Below, we have discussed a few ways to communicate effectively.

• Interruption: It becomes very annoying when someone disrupts you while talking. It looks pretty unethical to disrupt someone while talking constantly, and the conversation can take a different turn. So, while talking, let the other person complete their talk before you start talking.
• Listen patiently: Listen patiently when someone tries to make a healthy conversation. It is one of the ways to do effective communication, as it gives a clear understanding of what the person is trying to say.
• View your body language: Body language speaks about your personality. Some people make uncomfortable gestures through their body language. So, you should keep your body language friendly and warm rather than keeping it arrogant.
• Do not go over your point: Communication is all about expressing thoughts so that the other person can understand. It is not that you are trying to prove something correct and the other person incorrect. Some people try to win the conservation, which leads to struggles and arguments.
• Watch your words: Before telling someone something, make sure you know what you are saying. We often say things that we should not do out of anger or anxiety. Remember, once spoken, words can not be withdrawn. Thus, it is suggested that you do not say something that you can regret later.
• Practice: If there is a professional meeting where you need to communicate about your product or work, it is recommended to practise already. Practise in front of the mirror or with a friend only. Choose how your conversation will begin, all the points you cover, and how you will end it.

As many people may feel comfortable communicating, communication is an art developed through practice and evaluation; every good communicator passes through a process to learn communication and practice skills, review themselves, and decrease where they can be.

Communication is essential to share our thoughts and feelings to live a happy life. Better communication makes us feel better about everything surrounding us and makes us suffer less. So, it is necessary to learn the art of communication to put across one point well.

Therefore, communication is a vital aspect of our existence. Effective communication can be achieved by being mindful of different elements of communication. Using appropriate communication in appropriate settings is essential for effective communication.

From our BYJU’S website, students can also access CBSE Essays related to different topics. It will help students to get good marks in their exams.

Frequently asked Questions on the Importance of communication Essay

How important is communication.

Communication of ideas, and thoughts is an important skill to be acquired. Conveying things in an effective manner is necessary for both our personal and professional lives.

What are types of communication?

There are 4 main types of communication are verbal, non verbal, visual and written forms of communication.

What are the factors that act as a barrier for communication?

Language is obviously the biggest barrier for communication between peoples of the world. Then comes the physical barrier. Geographical separation hinders communication. There are other factors like the gender barrier, cultural differences that prevail in the society. Last but not the least, emotional barriers too hinder proper understanding between persons involved in communication.

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Communication Essay

Communication is sending and receiving information via phone calls, emails, and in-person conversations. When information is conveyed effectively, the receiver may understand it extremely well and there is no room for misunderstandings. Here are a few sample essays on communication.

• 100 Words Essay On Communication

Every one of us uses a medium to communicate our daily experiences; this might be an expression, a gesture, a speech pattern, etc. These are all many forms of communication. Communication is a way for people to share their opinions with one another. Being a good communicator is useful in many facets of life, whether one in a school/university, in the workplace, or in personal relationships. Miscommunication results from poor communication skills. The widespread use of smartphones has resulted in a whole new culture of communication. Due to the cameras on smartphones, video calls are now more common, and group conference calls are also now an option.

200 Words Essay On Communication

500 words essay on communication.

The notion of communication has undergone a significant alteration in just a few years since technology's invention. Earlier forms of communication required people to discuss their thoughts, feelings, and emotions while seated next to one another or in a group. Thanks to technology, it is possible to deliver a message to a large group via email. For both commercial and personal communication, this generation of millennials is adjusting to social media sites like Twitter, Facebook, and Instagram.

Flow of Communication

People's attitudes, beliefs, and even methods of thinking can change as a result of communication. In daily life, communication is essential. It is possible to transmit knowledge through conversation. It transfers knowledge from one area, individual, or group to another. Communication serves as a way or means for connecting people and places. It has expanded to relate to diverse perspectives.

Every kind of communication conveys a message. Communication that flows from superiors to subordinates is downward communication like from principal to teachers or from teachers to students. Communication that flows from subordinates to superiors is upward communication like from students to teachers or teachers to principal. Horizontal communica­tion takes place between two equals, that is, between two teachers or between two students.

There are two sides to every conversation. There is a sender and a recipient involved. A message may be sent in the form of facts, instructions, questions, feelings, opinions, ideas, or in any other way. Only when the sender and the recipient have a shared understanding can communication take place. Common elements such as culture, language, and environment are included in the commonness. For persons with comparable cultural origins, words, phrases, idioms, proverbs, gestures, and expressions have tremendous potential for communication.

Importance of Communication

The idea that effective communication is the only thing that will get the work done is still true despite the tremendous advancements in technology. Understanding the components and varieties of communication is necessary before learning how to communicate with people more effectively. The sender generates the message, followed by the message itself, which should be extremely clear and understood, and the recipient’s responsibility is to decode the message. There is a good chance that two distinct persons will have completely different perspectives on the same message. The sender can prevent this issue if they are aware of the communication channel.

Types of Communication

Verbal, non-verbal, written, visual, formal, and informal communication are different forms of communication that exist.

Verbal communication includes both the sender and the recipient using voice and language. Here, words are used to communicate the message.

The body language of the individuals engaged in communication or debate is crucial in nonverbal communication. Since the conversation is not particularly loud, it is probable that the indicators may be overlooked or misunderstood. To be able to decipher the subtleties of non-verbal communication, one must be an astute observer.

The written mode of communication is incredibly important. One must very carefully construct the words in a written form as this can be documented for years to come. Professional documents including circulars, memoranda, letters, and bank statements are examples of written communication.

Information may be communicated visually by using graphical images like pie charts, bar graphs, and statistical statistics. This should all be supported by actual data, not just conjecture.

With teachers and principals, the formal method of communication is observed, where the students convey everything in a formal manner.

Informal communication takes place among groups of peers and friends and can be relaxed with no rules, commitments, or formality.

The effects of poor communication skills might vary in severity for various people. Therefore, one must master the principles and value of effective communication.

How To Be A Good Communicator

The first and most important stage is understanding the audience one is targeting. If there is a younger audience, the language ought to be straightforward and tailored to them. In this situation, it is pointless to demonstrate one's skill using complex language and big words.

Speak confidently.

Nonverbal communication may be used quite successfully like making eye contact when speaking, this can help you gauge how much of what you're saying is being understood by the audience.

Before speaking, preparation is crucial. The significance and goal of the message to be given must be well understood.

If necessary, one must explain the use of photos and drawings since they might provide the audience with a new perspective.

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Communication In The 21st Century

Communication is the key to social integration. Communication enables people to share ideas, express their feelings and contribute to discussions and debates. In most cases, language poses a significant barrier to communication between different cultures or communities. In the 21st century, the world has become a global community. This means that different cultural backgrounds are now readily integrating than ever before. This integration is brought about due to the need for world trade. Businesses have established branches in the various countries; people are migrating to other countries for settlement and people are intermarrying. To help break the language barrier and arrive at a common ground, people have to understand and comprehend the behavioural and reaction differences brought about by cultural differences.

Communication in the 21st-century overview

There is increased diversity in today’s workplace. Co-workers and employers have to cope with great diversity in age, cultural and gender. In the 21st century workplace, communication both verbal and non-verbal is at the foundation of everything we do. No matter how poor one might be in communication, it is easy to learn the skill of communication with the right training. To become a competent communicator, you have to embrace the diversity brought about by cultural differences. To become an overall communicator there are target certain areas that are crucial, and they include verbal and non-verbal cues and behaviours, behaviour patterns, confidence, conflict resolution, leadership, team building, the function and process of communication, criticism and constructive feedback and communicating more effectively with technology.

Communication in the 21st century has significantly changed as compared to communication in the 20th and 19th centuries. Keeping in touch with one another has been the trademark of the 21st century. In this century, there are various forms of communications that meant to connect people to each other. For example, text messaging is a phenomenon of the 21st century. Although texting does not involve face to face contact, healthy relationships have emerged just from texting. When used effectively, messaging can be a very crucial means of communicating and relaying information between people.

Changes in communication in the 21st century

With the global technology advancement, there is a great shift in communication in the 21st century. There has been the development of social media platforms where people engage in charts and exchange ideas and life experiences. These social media platforms have changed the world into a global community. When used effectively, they are a good way of communicating and relaying information between people.

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• Government reform
• Civil service reform
• Election guidance for civil servants
• Cabinet Office
• Civil Service

General election guidance 2024: guidance for civil servants (HTML)

Updated 23 May 2024

© Crown copyright 2024

This publication is licensed under the terms of the Open Government Licence v3.0 except where otherwise stated. To view this licence, visit nationalarchives.gov.uk/doc/open-government-licence/version/3 or write to the Information Policy Team, The National Archives, Kew, London TW9 4DU, or email: [email protected] .

Where we have identified any third party copyright information you will need to obtain permission from the copyright holders concerned.

This publication is available at https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/election-guidance-for-civil-servants/general-election-guidance-2024-guidance-for-civil-servants-html

1. General elections have a number of implications for the work of departments and civil servants. These arise from the special character of government business during an election campaign, and from the need to maintain, and be seen to maintain, the impartiality of the Civil Service, and to avoid any criticism of an inappropriate use of official resources. This guidance takes effect from 00:01 on 25 May 2024 at which point the ‘election period’ begins. The Prime Minister will write separately to Ministers advising them of the need to adhere to this guidance and to uphold the impartiality of the Civil Service. 

2. This guidance applies to all UK civil servants, and the board members and staff of Non-Departmental Public Bodies (NDPBs) and other arms’ length bodies.  

General Principles 

3. During the election period, the Government retains its responsibility to govern, and Ministers remain in charge of their departments. Essential business (which includes routine business necessary to ensure the continued smooth functioning of government and public services) must be allowed to continue. However, it is customary for Ministers to observe discretion in initiating any new action of a continuing or long term character. Decisions on matters of policy on which a new government might be expected to want the opportunity to take a different view from the present government should be postponed until after the election, provided that such postponement would not be detrimental to the national interest or wasteful of public money.   

4. Advice on handling such issues is set out in this guidance. This guidance will not cover every eventuality, but the principles should be applied to the particular circumstances.  

5. The principles underlying the conduct of civil servants in a general election are an extension of those that apply at all times, as set out in the Civil Service Code

• The basic principle for civil servants is not to undertake any activity that could call into question their political impartiality or that could give rise to criticism that public resources are being used for party political purposes. This principle applies to all staff working in departments.  
• Departmental and NDPB activity should not be seen to compete with the election campaign for public attention. The principles and conventions set out in this guidance also apply to public bodies.  
• It is also a requirement of the Ministerial Code that Ministers must not use government resources for party political purposes and must uphold the political impartiality of the Civil Service.  

Election queries 

6. For any detailed queries on this guidance, or other questions, officials should in the first instance seek guidance from their line management chain, and, where necessary, escalate to their Permanent Secretary who may consult the Cabinet Secretary, or the Propriety and Ethics Team in the Cabinet Office. 

7. The Propriety and Ethics Team handle general queries relating to conduct during the election period, provide advice on the handling of enquiries and any necessary co-ordination where enquiries raise issues that affect a number of departments (through their Permanent Secretary). 

8. In dealing with queries, the Propriety and Ethics Team will function most effectively if it is in touch with relevant developments in departments. 

Departments should therefore: 

• draw to their attention, for advice or information, any approach or exchange that raises issues that are likely to be of interest to other departments; and 
• seek advice before a Minister makes a significant Ministerial statement during the election period. 

Section A: Enquiries, Briefing, Requests for Information and attending events 

1. This note gives guidance on: 

• the handling by departments and agencies of requests for information and other enquiries during a general election campaign; 
• briefing of Ministers during the election period;  
• the handling of constituency letters received from Members of Parliament before dissolution, and of similar letters from parliamentary candidates during the campaign; and 
• the handling of FOI requests. 

2. At a general election, the government of the day is expected to defend its policies to the electorate. By convention, the governing party is entitled to check with departments that statements made on its behalf are factually correct and consistent with government policy. As at all times, however, government departments and their staff must not engage in, or appear to engage in, party politics or be used for party ends. They should provide consistent factual information on request to candidates of all parties, as well as to organisations and members of the public, and should in all instances avoid becoming involved or appearing to become involved, in a partisan way, in election issues. 

Requests for Factual Information 

3. Departments and agencies should provide any parliamentary candidate, organisation or member of the public with information in accordance with the Freedom of Information Act 2000. Local and regional offices should deal similarly with straightforward enquiries, referring doubtful cases through their line management chain and, where necessary to their Permanent Secretary for decision. 

4. Other requests for information will range from enquiries about existing government policy that are essentially factual in nature, to requests for justification and comment on existing government policy. All requests for information held by departments must be dealt with in accordance with the requirements of the Freedom of Information Act 2000. The handling of press enquiries is covered in Section I.  

5. Where the enquiry concerns the day-to-day management of a non-ministerial department or executive agency and the chief executive would normally reply, he or she should do so in the usual way, taking special care to avoid becoming involved in any matters of political controversy. 

6. Enquiries concerning policies newly announced in a party manifesto or for a comparison of the policies of different parties are for the political party concerned. Civil servants should not provide any assistance on these matters. See also paragraph 14.  

7. Officials should draft replies, whether for official or Ministerial signature, with particular care to avoid party political controversy, especially criticism of the policies of other parties. Ministers may decide to amend draft replies to include a party political context. Where this is the case, Ministers should be advised to issue the letter on party notepaper. The guiding principle is whether the use of departmental resources, including headed paper, would be a proper use of public funds for governmental as opposed to party political purposes, and could be defended as such. 

Speed of Response 

8. The circumstances of a general election demand the greatest speed in dealing with enquiries. In particular, the aim should be to answer enquiries from parliamentary candidates or from any of the political parties’ headquarters within 24 hours. All candidates should be treated equally. 

9. Where a request will take longer to deal with, the requester should be advised of this as he/she may wish to submit a refined request. 

FOI requests 

10. Requests that would normally be covered by the Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) must be handled in accordance with the requirements of the Act and the deadlines set therein. Where the application of the public interest balance requires more time, that is permitted under the Act but there is no general power to defer a decision.   

11. Where a request needs to be considered under FOIA it will not normally be possible to get back to the parliamentary candidate, or others, within 24 hours and he or she should be advised of this as they may wish to submit a request more in line with paragraph 8 above. 

Role of Ministers in FOIA decisions 

12. Ministers have a number of statutory functions in relation to requests for information. They are the qualified person for the purpose of using section 36 of the FOI Act for their departments. During the general election period, Ministers will be expected to carry out these functions.  

13. Where there is any doubt, requests should be referred to the FOI Policy team in the Cabinet Office. 

Briefing and Support for Ministers 

14. Ministers continue to be in charge of departments. It is reasonable for departments to continue to provide support for any necessary governmental functions, and receive any policy advice or factual briefing necessary to resolve issues that cannot be deferred until after the election. 

15. Departments can check statements for factual accuracy and consistency with established government policy. Officials should not, however, be asked to devise new arguments or cost policies for use in the election campaign. Departments should not undertake costings or analysis of Opposition policies during the election period.  

Officials attending public or stakeholder events 

16. Officials should decline invitations to events where they may be asked to respond on questions about future government policy or on matters of public controversy. 

Constituency Correspondence 

17. During the election period, replies to constituency letters received from Members of Parliament before the dissolution, or to similar letters from parliamentary candidates, should take into account the fact that if they become public knowledge they will do so in the more politically-charged atmosphere of an election and are more likely to become the subject of political comment. Outstanding correspondence should be cleared quickly. Letters may be sent to former MPs at the House of Commons after dissolution, to be picked up or forwarded. Departments and agencies whose staff routinely deal directly with MPs’ enquiries should ensure that their regional and local offices get early guidance on dealing with questions from parliamentary candidates. Such guidance should reflect the following points: 

a. Once Parliament is dissolved, a Member of Parliament’s constitutional right to represent his or her constituents’ grievances to government disappears, and all candidates for the election are on an equal footing. This doctrine should be applied in a reasonable way. In general, replies should be sent by Ministers to constituency letters that were written by MPs before dissolution. Where there is a pressing need for Ministers to reply to letters on constituency matters written after the dissolution by former Members, this should be handled in a way that avoids any preferential treatment or the appearance of preferential treatment between letters from the governing party and those from other candidates. It will normally be appropriate to send a Private Secretary reply to letters on constituency matters from prospective parliamentary candidates who were not Members before the dissolution. 

b. The main consideration must be to ensure that the citizen’s interests are not prejudiced. But it is possible that a personal case may become politically controversial during the election period. Departments should therefore make particular efforts to ensure, so far as possible, that letters are factual, straightforward and give no room for misrepresentation. 

c. Replies to constituency correspondence to be sent after polling day should, where there has been a change of MP, normally be sent direct to the constituent concerned. It should be left to the constituent to decide whether or not to copy the letter to any new MP. Where there is no change in MP, correspondence should be returned to the MP in the normal way.

Section B: Special Advisers 

1. Special Advisers must agree with the Cabinet Office the termination of their contracts  on or before 30 May (except for a small number of Special Advisers who may remain in post, where the express agreement of their appointing Minister and the Prime Minister to continue in post has been given).     

2. An exception to this is where a Special Adviser has been publicly identified as a candidate or prospective candidate for election to the UK Parliament, in which case they must instead resign at the start of the short campaign period ahead of the election. 

3. Special Advisers who leave government for any reason will no longer have preferential access to papers and officials. Any request for advice from a former Special Adviser will be treated in the same way as requests from other members of the public.  

4. On leaving government, Special Advisers should return all departmental property e.g. mobile phones, remote access and other IT equipment. Special Advisers may leave a voicemail message or out of office reply on departmental IT with forwarding contact details.  

5. Special Advisers receive severance pay when their appointment is terminated, but not where they resign. Severance pay for Special Advisers is taxable as normal income and will be paid as a lump sum. The amount an individual is entitled to will be determined by their length of service as set out in the Model Contract for Special Advisers. Special Advisers are required to agree that if they are reappointed, they will repay any amount above that which they would have been paid in salary had they remained in post. Any excess severance will be reclaimed automatically through payroll on reappointment.  

6. If the Prime Minister agrees exceptionally that a Special Adviser should remain in post during the election period, their appointment will be automatically terminated the day after polling day. In those cases, Special Advisers may continue to give advice on government business to their Ministers as before. They must continue to adhere to the requirements of the Code of Conduct for Special Advisers and may not take any public part in the campaign. Section A is also relevant in relation to the commissioning of briefing. 

7. Different arrangements can be made for Special Advisers on, or about to begin, maternity leave when a UK general election is called. These arrangements are set out in the Maternity Policy for Special Advisers, and Special Adviser HR are best placed to advise on specific circumstances.

8. If there is no change of government following the election, a Special Adviser may be reappointed. The Prime Minister’s approval will be required before any commitments are made, and a new contract issued, including for any advisers who have stayed in post.

Section C: Contacts with the Opposition Party 

1. The Prime Minister has authorised pre-election contact between the main opposition parties and Permanent Secretaries from 11 January 2024. These contacts are strictly confidential and are designed to allow Opposition spokespeople to inform themselves of factual questions of departmental organisation and to inform civil servants of any organisational or policy changes likely in the event of a change of government.  

2. Separate guidance on handling such contacts is set out in the Cabinet Manual.

Section D: Contact with Select Committees 

1. House of Commons Select Committees set up by Standing Order continue in existence, technically, until that Standing Order is amended or rescinded. In practice, when Parliament is dissolved pending a general election, membership of committees lapses and work on their inquiries ceases.  

2. House of Lords Select Committees are not set up by Standing Orders and technically cease to exist at the end of each session. 

3. The point of contact for departments continues to be the Committee Clerk who remains in post to process the basic administrative work of the committee (and prepare for the re-establishment of the Committee in the next Parliament).  

4. Departments should continue to work, on a contingency basis, on any outstanding evidence requested by the outgoing committee and on any outstanding government responses to committee reports. It will be for any newly-appointed Ministers to approve the content of any response. It will be for the newly-appointed committee to decide whether to continue with its predecessor committee’s inquiries and for the incoming administration to review the terms of draft responses before submitting to the newly appointed committee. 

5. It is for the newly-appointed committee to decide whether to publish government responses to its predecessor reports. There may be some delay before the committee is reconstituted, and an incoming government may well wish to publish such responses itself by means of a Command Paper. In this event, the department should consult the Clerk of the Committee before publication of the report response.

Section E: Political Activities of Civil Servants 

1. Permanent Secretaries will wish to remind staff of the general rules governing national political activities. These are set out in the Civil Service Management Code and departmental staff handbooks. 

2. For this purpose, the Civil Service is divided into three groups: 

a. the “politically free” – industrial and non-office grades; 

b. the “politically restricted” – members of the Senior Civil Service, civil servants in Grades 6 and 7 (or equivalent) and members of the Fast Stream Development Programme; and

c. civil servants outside the “politically free” and “politically restricted” groups  

3. Civil servants on secondment to outside organisations (or who are on any form of paid or unpaid leave) remain civil servants and the rules relating to political activity continue to apply to them. Departments should seek to contact individuals on secondment outside the civil service to remind them of this. Individuals seconded into the Civil Service are also covered by these rules for the duration of their appointment. 

Civil Servants Standing for Parliament  

4. All civil servants are disqualified from election to Parliament (House of Commons Disqualification Act 1975) and must resign from the Civil Service before standing for election. Individuals must resign from the Civil Service on their formal adoption as a prospective parliamentary candidate, and must complete their last day of service before their adoption papers are completed. If the adoption process does not reasonably allow for the individual to give full notice, departments and agencies may at their discretion pay an amount equivalent to the period of notice that would normally be given. 

Other Political Activity 

5. “Politically restricted” civil servants are prohibited from any participation in national political activities.  

6. All other civil servants may engage in national political activities with the permission of the department, which may be subject to certain conditions.  

7. Where, on a case by case basis, permission is given by departments, civil servants must still act in accordance with the requirements of the Civil Service Code, including ensuring that they meet the Code’s values and standards of behaviour about impartiality and political impartiality. Notwithstanding any permission to engage in national political activities, they must ensure that their actions (and the perception of those actions) are compatible with the requirements to: 

• serve the government, whatever its political persuasion, to the best of their ability in a way which maintains political impartiality and is in line with the requirements of the Code, no matter what their own political beliefs are; and 
• act in a way which deserves and retains the confidence of ministers, while at the same time ensuring that they will be able to establish the same relationship with those whom they may be required to serve in some future government. 

Reinstatement 

8. Departments and agencies must reinstate former civil servants who have resigned from “politically free” posts to stand for election and whose candidature has proved unsuccessful, provided they apply within a week of declaration day.  

9. Departments and agencies have discretion to reinstate all other former civil servants who have resigned to stand for election and whose candidature has proved unsuccessful. Former civil servants in this category seeking reinstatement should apply within a week of declaration day if they are not elected. Departments are encouraged to consider all applications sympathetically and on their merits. For some individuals, it may not be possible to post them back to their former area of employment because, for instance, of the sensitivity of their work and/or because their previous job is no longer vacant. In these cases, every effort should be made to post these staff to other areas rather than reject their applications.

Section F: Cabinet and Official Documents 

1. In order to enable Ministers to fulfil their continuing responsibilities as members of the Government during the election period, departments should retain the Cabinet documents issued to them. Cabinet documents refers to all papers, minutes and supplementary materials relating to Cabinet and its committees. This is applicable to meetings of and correspondence to Cabinet and its committees. 

2. If there is no change of government after the election, Ministers who leave office or who move to another Ministerial position must surrender any Cabinet or Cabinet committee papers or minutes (including electronic copies) and they should be retained in the department in line with guidance issued by the Cabinet Office.  Ministers who leave office or move to another Ministerial position should also not remove or destroy papers that are the responsibility of their former department: that is, those papers that are not personal, party or constituency papers. 

3. If a new government is formed, all Cabinet and Cabinet committee documents issued to Ministers should be destroyed. Clearly no instructions can be given to this effect until the result of the election is known, but Permanent Secretaries may wish to alert the relevant Private Secretaries.  

4. The conventions regarding the access by Ministers and Special Advisers to papers of a previous Administration are explained in more detail in the Cabinet Manual. Further guidance to departments will be issued by the Cabinet Office once the outcome of the election is known.  

5. More detailed guidance on managing records in the event of a change of administration will be held by your Departmental Records Officer. The Head of Public Records and Archives in the Cabinet Office can also provide further advice and written guidance can be found here: 

Guidance management of private office information and records

Section G: Government Decisions 

1. During an election campaign the Government retains its responsibility to govern and Ministers remain in charge of their departments. Essential business (including routine business necessary to ensure the continued smooth functioning of government and public services) must be carried on. Cabinet committees are not expected to meet during the election period, nor are they expected to consider issues by correspondence. However there may be exceptional circumstances under which a collective decision of Ministers is required. If something requires collective agreement and cannot wait until after the General Election, the Cabinet Secretary should be consulted.  

2. However, it is customary for Ministers to observe discretion in initiating any action of a continuing or long term character. Decisions on matters of policy, and other issues such as large and/or contentious commercial contracts, on which a new government might be expected to want the opportunity to take a different view from the present government, should be postponed until after the election, provided that such postponement would not be detrimental to the national interest or wasteful of public money. 

Statutory Instruments 

3. The principles outlined above apply to making statutory instruments. 

Departmental lawyers can advise in more detail, in conjunction with the Statutory Instrument Hub.  

4. The general principle that Ministers should observe discretion in initiating any new action of a continuing or long-term character applies to the making of commencement orders, which during the election period should be exceptional.  As is usual practice, statutory instruments are required to go through the Parliamentary Business and Legislation Committee process before they can be laid.

Section H: Public and Senior Civil Service Appointments

1. All appointments requiring approval by the Prime Minister, and other Civil Service and public appointments likely to prove sensitive (including those where Ministers have delegated decisions to officials or other authorities) should be frozen until after the election, except in exceptional circumstances (further detail below). This includes appointments where a candidate has already accepted a written offer (and the appointment has been announced before the election period), but where the individual is not due to take up post until after the election. The individual concerned should be told that the appointment will be subject to confirmation by the new Administration after the election. 

2. It is recognised that this may result in the cancellation (or delay) of an appointment by the new Administration, and that the relevant department could be vulnerable to legal action by a disappointed candidate. To reduce the risk of this, departments might wish to: 

• recommend to their Secretary of State the advisability of bringing forward or delaying key stages in the process, where an appointment would otherwise likely take effect just before or after an election; 
• issue a conditional offer letter, making it clear that the formal offer of the appointment will need to be confirmed by a new Administration. 

3. In cases where an appointment is due to end between dissolution and election day, and no announcement has been made concerning the new appointment, it will normally be possible for the post to be left vacant or the current term extended until incoming Ministers have been able to take a decision either about reappointment of the existing appointee or the appointment of a new person. This situation is also likely to apply to any appointments made by Letters Patent, or otherwise requiring royal approval, since it would not be appropriate to invite His Majesty to make a conditional appointment. 

4. In exceptional cases where it is not possible to apply these temporary arrangements and there is an essential need to make an appointment during the election period, departments may wish to advise their Ministers about consulting the Opposition before a final decision is taken. Departments should consult the Public Appointments Policy Team in the Cabinet Office. 

5. In the case of public and Senior Civil Service appointments, departments should delay the launch of any open competition during an election period, to give any incoming Administration the option of deciding whether to follow the existing approach.  

6. In those cases where an appointment is required to be made, it is acceptable, in the case of sensitive Senior Civil Service positions, to allow temporary promotion.  

Section I: Communication Activities during a General Election

1. The general principle governing communication activities during a general election is to do everything possible to avoid competition with parliamentary candidates for the attention of the public, and not to undertake any activity that could call into question civil servants’ political impartiality or that could give rise to criticism that public resources are being used for party political purposes. Special care must be taken during the course of an election since material produced with complete impartiality, which would be accepted as objective in ordinary times, may generate criticism during an election period when feelings are running high. All communication activity should be conducted in line with Government Communication Service (GCS) guidance on propriety and propriety in digital and social media .  

2. Departmental communications staff may properly continue to discharge their normal function during the election period, to the extent of providing factual explanation of current government policy, statements and decisions. They must be particularly careful not to become involved in a partisan way in election issues.  

3. During the election period, access to departmental briefing systems will be restricted to permanent civil servants who will produce briefing, and answer requests for information, in line with the principles set out in Section A of the election guidance. Any updating of lines to take should be confined to matters of fact and explanations of existing government policy in order to avoid criticism of serving, or appearing to serve, a party political purpose.  

News Media  

4. In response to questions departments should, where possible, provide factual information by reference to published material, including that on websites. Specific requests for unpublished material should be handled in accordance with the requirements of the Freedom of Information Act. 

5. Routine factual press notices may continue to be issued – for example statistics that are issued on a regular basis or reports of publicly-owned bodies, independent committees etc., which a department is required to publish. 

6. There would normally be no objection to issuing routine factual publications, for example health and safety advice, but these should be decided on a case by case basis, in consultation with the Director or Head of Communications, who should take account of the subject matter and the intended audience. A similar approach should apply to blogs and social media. 

7. Press releases and other material normally sent to Members of Parliament should cease at the point at which this guidance comes into effect. 

8. Statements that refer to the future intentions of the Government should not be handled by a department and should be treated as party political statements. Where a Minister considers it necessary to hold a governmental press conference to make clear the Government’s existing policies on a particular subject prior to the election, then his or her department should provide facilities and give guidance. Ultimately, each case must be judged on its merits, including consideration of whether an announcement needs to be made, in consultation with the Director or Head of Communications.  

9. The Propriety and Ethics Team in the Cabinet Office must be consulted before a Minister makes an official Ministerial statement during the election period. 

10. Statements or comments referring to the policies, commitments or perceived intentions of Opposition parties should not be handled by departments. 

Press Articles, Interviews, and Broadcasts and Webcasts by Ministers  

11. During the election period, arrangements for newspaper articles, interviews and broadcasts by Ministers, including online, will normally be made on the political network. Care should be taken by communications staff in arranging any press interviews for Ministers during this period because of the possibility that such interviews would have a strong political content. They should not arrange broadcasts through official channels unless they are satisfied there is a need to do so and that the Minister is speaking in a government, not party, capacity. 

Paid Media 

12. Advertising, including partnership and influencer marketing. New campaigns will in general be postponed and live campaigns will be paused (across all advertising and marketing channels). A very small number of campaigns (for example, relating to essential recruitment, or public health, such as blood and organ donation or health and safety) may be approved by the Permanent Secretary, in consultation with GCS and the Propriety and Ethics Team.

a. International activity. Where marketing is delivered outside the UK and targeting non-UK citizens, the campaign can continue during the election period, subject to Permanent Secretary approval and as long as consideration has been given to the potential for the campaign to garner interest within the UK and to reach UK diaspora. If continuing the campaign is likely to generate domestic interest, it should be paused.

b. Official radio ‘fillers’ will be reviewed and withdrawn unless essential.

13. Films, videos and photographs from departmental libraries or sources should not be made available for use by political parties.  

14. Printed material should not normally be given any fresh distribution in the United Kingdom during the election period, in order to avoid any competition with the flow of election material. The effect on departments that distribute posters and leaflets to the public is as follows: 

a. Posters. The normal display of existing posters on official premises may continue but efforts should not be made to seek display elsewhere. Specific requests by employers, trade unions etc for particular posters may, however, be met in the ordinary way. 

b. Leaflets. Small numbers of copies of leaflets may be issued on request to members of the public and to parliamentary candidates, in consultation with the Director or Head of Communications, who should take account of the subject matter and the intended audience. Bulk supplies should not be issued to any individuals or organisations without appropriate approval. 

c. Export promotion stories and case studies for overseas use may continue to be sought  in the UK but it must be made clear on each occasion that this information is needed for use abroad, and permission must be sought from the Permanent Secretary before proceeding. 

d. The use of public buildings for communication purposes is covered in Section L. 

15. Exhibitions. Official exhibitions on a contentious policy or proposal should not be kept open or opened during the election period. Official exhibitions that form part of a privately sponsored exhibition do not have to be withdrawn unless they are contentious, in which case they should be withdrawn. 

Social Media and Digital Channels 

16. Official websites and social media channels will be scrutinised closely by news media and political parties during the election period. All content must be managed in accordance with GCS propriety guidance.

Publishing content online  

17. Content Design: planning, writing and managing content guidance   should be consulted when publishing any online content.

18. Material that has already been published in accordance with the rules on propriety and that is part of the public domain record can stand. It may also be updated for factual accuracy, for example a change of address. However, while it can be referred to in handling media enquiries and signposting in response to enquiries from the public, nothing should be done to draw further attention to it. 

19. Updating the public with essential factual information may continue (e.g. transport delays) but social media and blogs that comment on government policies and proposals should not be updated for the duration of the election period.  

20. Ministers’ biographies and details of their responsibilities can remain on sites, no additions should be made. Social media profiles should not be updated during this period. 

21. Site maintenance and planned functional and technical development for existing sites can continue, but this should not involve new campaigns or extending existing campaigns.  

22. News sections of websites and blogs must comply with the advice on press releases. News tickers and other mechanisms should be discontinued for the election period. 

23. In the event of an emergency, digital channels can be used as part of Crisis Communication  activity in the normal way. 

Further Guidance 

24. In any case of doubt about the application of this guidance in a particular case, communications staff should consult their Director or Head of Communications in the first instance, then, if necessary, the Chief Executive, Government Communication Service, Chief Operating Officer, Government Communication Service, or the departmental Permanent Secretary who will liaise with the Propriety and Ethics Team in the Cabinet Office.

Section J: Guidance on Consultations during an election period 

1. In general, new public consultations should not be launched during the election period. If there are exceptional circumstances where launching a consultation is considered essential (for example, safeguarding public health), permission should be sought from the Propriety and Ethics Team in the Cabinet Office. 

2. If a consultation is on-going at the time this guidance comes into effect, it should continue as normal. However, departments should not take any steps during an election period that will compete with parliamentary candidates for the public’s attention. This effectively means a ban on publicity for those consultations that are still in process. 

3. As these restrictions may be detrimental to a consultation, departments are advised to decide on steps to make up for that deficiency while strictly observing the guidance. That can be done, for example, by: 

a. prolonging the consultation period; and 

b. putting out extra publicity for the consultation after the election in order to revive interest (following consultation with any new Minister). 

4. Some consultations, for instance those aimed solely at professional groups, and that carry no publicity, will not have the impact of those where a very public and wide-ranging consultation is required. Departments need, therefore, to take into account the circumstances of each consultation. Some may need no remedial action – but this is a practical rather than propriety question so long as departments observe the broader guidance here. 

5. During the election period, departments may continue to receive and analyse responses with a view to putting proposals to the incoming government but they should not make any statement or generate publicity during this period.   

Section K: Statistical Activities during a General Election 

1. This note gives guidance on the conduct of statistical activities across government during a general election period.  [footnote 1]

2. The same principles apply to social research and other government analytical services.  

3. Under the terms of the Statistics and Registration Service Act 2007, the UK Statistics Authority, headed by the National Statistician, is responsible for promoting and safeguarding the integrity of official statistics. It should be consulted in any cases of doubt about the application of this guidance.  

Key Principles 

4. Statistical activities should continue to be conducted in accordance with the Code of Practice for Official Statistics and the UK Government’s Prerelease Access to Official Statistics Order 2008, taking great care, in each case, to avoid competition with parliamentary candidates for the attention of the public. 

Statistical publications, releases, etc. 

5. The greatest care must continue to be taken to ensure that information is presented impartially and objectively. 

6. Regular pre-announced statistical releases (e.g. press notices, bulletins, publications or electronic releases) will continue to be issued and published. Any other ad hoc statistical releases should be released only in exceptional circumstances and with the approval of the National Statistician, consulting with the Propriety and Ethics Team in the Cabinet Office where appropriate. Where a pre-announcement has specified that the information would be released during a specified period (e.g. a week, or longer time period), but did not specify a precise day, releases should not be published within the election period. The same applies to social research publications

Requests for information 

7. Any requests for unpublished statistics, including from election candidates, should be handled in an even-handed manner, in accordance with the Freedom of Information Act. Guidance on handling FOI requests can be found in Section A.  

Commentary and Briefing 

8. Special care must be taken in producing commentary for inclusion in announcements of statistical publications issued during the election period. Commentary that would be accepted as impartial and objective analysis or interpretation at ordinary times, may attract criticism during an election. Commentary by civil servants should be restricted to the most basic factual clarification during this period. Ultimately the content of the announcement is left to the discretion of the departmental Head of Profession, seeking advice from the National Statistician as appropriate. 

9. Pre-election arrangements for statistics, whereby pre-release access for briefing purposes is given to Ministers or chief executives (and their appropriate briefing officials) who have policy responsibility for a subject area covered by a particular release, should continue, in accordance with the principles embodied in the UK Government’s Pre-release Access to Official Statistics Order 2008.  

10. In general, during this period, civil servants involved in the production of official statistics will not provide face to face briefing to Ministers. Only if there is a vital operational need for information, (e.g. an out of the ordinary occurrence of market-sensitive results with significant implications for the economy, or some new management figures with major implications for the running of public services), should such briefing be provided. Any such briefing should be approved by the National Statistician.  

11. Requests for advice on the interpretation or analysis of statistics should be handled with care, and in accordance with the guidance in paragraphs 6 and 7.  

12. Requests for factual guidance on methodology should continue to be met. 

13. Requests for small numbers of copies of leaflets, background papers or free publications that were available before the election period may continue to be met but no bulk issues to individuals or organisations should be made without appropriate approval. Regular mailings of statistical bulletins to customers on existing mailing lists may continue. 

Censuses, Surveys and other forms of quantitative or qualitative research enquiry  

14. Regular, continuous and on-going censuses and surveys of individuals, households, businesses or other organisations may continue. Ad hoc surveys and other forms of research that are directly related to and in support of a continuing statistical series may also continue. Ad hoc surveys and other forms of research that may give rise to controversy or be related to an election issue should be postponed or abandoned. 

Consultations 

15. Statistical consultations that are on-going at the point at which Parliament dissolves should continue as normal, but any publicity for such consultations should cease. New public consultations, even if preannounced, should not be launched but should be delayed until after the result of the election is officially declared.  

Further Advice 

16. If officials working on statistics in any area across government are unsure about any matters relating to their work during the election period, they should seek the advice of their Head of Profession in the first instance. Heads of Profession should consult the National Statistician in any cases of doubt. Queries relating to social research, or other analytical services should similarly be referred to the relevant Head of Profession or departmental lead and Permanent Secretary’s office in the first instance. Further advice can be sought from the Propriety and Ethics Team in the Cabinet Office.

Section L: Use of Government Property 

1. Neither Ministers, nor any other parliamentary candidates, should involve government establishments in the general election campaign by visiting them for electioneering purposes. 

2. In the case of NHS property, decisions are for the relevant NHS Trust but should visits be permitted to, for example, hospitals, the Department of Health and Social Care advise that there should be no disruption to services and the same facilities should be offered to other candidates. In any case, it is advised that election meetings should not be permitted on NHS premises. NHS England publishes its own information to NHS organisations about the pre-election period.

3. Decisions on the use of other public sector and related property must be taken by those legally responsible for the premises concerned – for example, for schools, the Governors or the Local Education Authority or Trust Board, and so on. If those concerned consult departments, they should be told that the decision is left to them but that they will be expected to treat the candidates of all parties in an even-handed way, and that there should be no disruption to services. The Department for Education will provide advice to schools on the use of school premises and resources.  

4. It is important that those legally responsible for spending public funds or the use of public property ensure that there is no misuse, or the perception of misuse, for party political purposes. Decision-makers must respect the Seven Principles of Public Life when considering the use of public funds or property during the election period. The principles include an expectation that public office holders take decisions impartially, fairly and on merit and maintain their accountability to the public for their decisions and actions.

Section M: International Business 

1. This guidance specifically addresses the principles that will apply to international business.  

2. International business will continue as normal during the period of the general election.  

International meetings 

3. Decisions on Ministerial attendance and representation at international meetings will continue to be taken on a case by case basis by the lead UK Minister. For example, Ministers will be entitled to attend international summits (such as meetings of the G20).  

4. When Ministers speak at international  meetings, they are fully entitled to pursue existing UK Government policies. All Ministers, whether from the UK Government or the Devolved Administrations, should avoid exploiting international engagements for electoral purposes. Ministers should observe discretion on new initiatives and before stating new positions or making new commitments (see Section G for further advice on Government decision-making).

5. Where a Minister is unable to attend an international meeting that has been assessed as of significant interest to the UK, the UK may be represented by a senior official. In this case, where an item is likely to be pressed to a decision (a legislative decision, or some other form of commitment, e.g. a resolution, conclusions), officials should engage in negotiations and vote in line with the cleared UK position and in line with a detailed brief cleared by the lead UK Minister. Officials should engage actively where there will be a general discussion or orientation debate, but should seek to avoid taking high profile decisions on issues of domestic political sensitivity. If decisions fall to be taken at an international summit that risk being controversial between the UK political parties, departments should consult their Permanent Secretary about the line to follow who may in turn wish to consult the Cabinet Secretary. 

Changes to International Negotiating Positions

6. There may be an unavoidable need for changes to a cleared UK position that require the collective agreement of Ministers. This may arise, for example, through the need for officials to have sufficiently clear negotiating instructions or as a result of the agreed UK position coming under pressure in the closing stages of negotiation. If collective agreement is required, the Cabinet Secretary should be consulted (see Section G). The Cabinet Secretariat can advise departments where they are unsure whether an issue requires further collective agreement. 

7. Departments should note that the reduced availability of Ministers during the election period means that it will be necessary to allow as much time as possible for Ministers to consider an issue. 

Relations with the Press 

8. Departmental Communication staff may properly continue to discharge, during the election period, their normal function only to the extent of providing factual explanation of current government policy, statements and decisions. They must be particularly careful not to become involved in a partisan way in election issues. 

9. Ministers attending international meetings will no doubt wish to brief the press afterwards in the normal manner. But where officials attend meetings in place of Ministers, they should be particularly circumspect in responding to the press on any decision or discussion in the meeting that could be regarded as touching on matters of domestic political sensitivity. If departments wish to issue press notices following international meetings on the discussions or decisions that took place, they should be essentially factual. Any comment, especially on items of domestic sensitivity, should be made by Ministers. In doing so, consideration will need to be given as to whether such comment should be handled by the department or the party. This must be agreed in advance with the Permanent Secretary.  

International Appointments 

10. The UK should not normally make nominations or put forward candidates for senior international appointments until after the election. It remains possible to make nominations or put forward candidates for other positions. Departments should consult their Permanent Secretary and the Propriety and Ethics Team in Cabinet Office on appointments that risk being controversial between the UK political parties.

Section N: The Devolved Administrations

1. The general election does not affect the devolved administrations in the same way. The devolved legislatures are elected separately to the House of Commons. Devolved Ministers in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland will continue to carry out their devolved functions in those countries as usual.

2. Under the Civil Service Code, which also applies to all civil servants, civil servants in the devolved administrations serve Ministers elected through elections in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland and do not report to the UK Government. Accordingly, this guidance does not apply to them. They will continue to support their Ministers in their work. 

3. However, the devolved administrations acknowledge that their activities could have a bearing on the general election campaign. While the devolved administrations will continue largely as normal, they are aware of the need to avoid any action that is, or could be construed as being, party political or likely to have a direct bearing on the general election. Staff in the devolved administrations will continue to refer requests for information about reserved issues from MPs, parliamentary candidates and political parties to the relevant UK department. Requests for information about devolved issues will be handled in accordance with relevant FOI legislation, taking account of the need for prompt responses in the context of an election period. 

4. Officials in the devolved administrations are subject to the rules in Section E as regards their personal political activities, in the same way as UK Government officials. 

5. Discussions with the devolved administrations during the election period should be conducted in this context. For more general details on how best to work with the devolved administrations see the Cabinet Office guidance: Devolution guidance for civil servants

Section O: Public Bodies 

1. The general principles and conventions set out in this guidance apply to the board members and staff of all NDPBs and similar public bodies. Some NDPBs and ALBs employ civil servants.  

2. NDPBs and other public sector bodies must be, and be seen to be, politically impartial. They should avoid becoming involved in party political controversy. Decisions on individual matters are for the bodies concerned in consultation with their sponsor department who will wish to consider whether proposed activities could reflect adversely on the work or reputation of the NDPB or public body in question.

This includes departments and their agencies and other relevant public bodies including all public bodies deemed to be producers of official statistics by dint of an Order in Parliament.  ↩

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