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Examples of research proposals

How to write your research proposal, with examples of good proposals.

Research proposals

Your research proposal is a key part of your application. It tells us about the question you want to answer through your research. It is a chance for you to show your knowledge of the subject area and tell us about the methods you want to use.

We use your research proposal to match you with a supervisor or team of supervisors.

In your proposal, please tell us if you have an interest in the work of a specific academic at York St John. You can get in touch with this academic to discuss your proposal. You can also speak to one of our Research Leads. There is a list of our Research Leads on the Apply page.

When you write your proposal you need to:

• Highlight how it is original or significant
• Explain how it will develop or challenge current knowledge of your subject
• Identify the importance of your research
• Show why you are the right person to do this research
• Research Proposal Example 1 (DOC, 49kB)
• Research Proposal Example 2 (DOC, 0.9MB)
• Research Proposal Example 3 (DOC, 55.5kB)
• Research Proposal Example 4 (DOC, 49.5kB)

Subject specific guidance

• Writing a Humanities PhD Proposal (PDF, 0.1MB)
• Writing a Creative Writing PhD Proposal (PDF, 0.1MB)
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• How to Write a Research Proposal | Examples & Templates

How to Write a Research Proposal | Examples & Templates

Published on 30 October 2022 by Shona McCombes and Tegan George. Revised on 13 June 2023.

A research proposal describes what you will investigate, why it’s important, and how you will conduct your research.

The format of a research proposal varies between fields, but most proposals will contain at least these elements:

Introduction

Literature review.

• Research design

Reference list

While the sections may vary, the overall objective is always the same. A research proposal serves as a blueprint and guide for your research plan, helping you get organised and feel confident in the path forward you choose to take.

Table of contents

Research proposal purpose, research proposal examples, research design and methods, contribution to knowledge, research schedule, frequently asked questions.

Academics often have to write research proposals to get funding for their projects. As a student, you might have to write a research proposal as part of a grad school application , or prior to starting your thesis or dissertation .

In addition to helping you figure out what your research can look like, a proposal can also serve to demonstrate why your project is worth pursuing to a funder, educational institution, or supervisor.

Research proposal length

The length of a research proposal can vary quite a bit. A bachelor’s or master’s thesis proposal can be just a few pages, while proposals for PhD dissertations or research funding are usually much longer and more detailed. Your supervisor can help you determine the best length for your work.

One trick to get started is to think of your proposal’s structure as a shorter version of your thesis or dissertation , only without the results , conclusion and discussion sections.

Download our research proposal template

Prevent plagiarism, run a free check.

Writing a research proposal can be quite challenging, but a good starting point could be to look at some examples. We’ve included a few for you below.

• Example research proposal #1: ‘A Conceptual Framework for Scheduling Constraint Management’
• Example research proposal #2: ‘ Medical Students as Mediators of Change in Tobacco Use’

Like your dissertation or thesis, the proposal will usually have a title page that includes:

• The proposed title of your project
• Your supervisor’s name
• Your institution and department

The first part of your proposal is the initial pitch for your project. Make sure it succinctly explains what you want to do and why.

Your introduction should:

• Introduce your topic
• Give necessary background and context
• Outline your  problem statement  and research questions

To guide your introduction , include information about:

• Who could have an interest in the topic (e.g., scientists, policymakers)
• How much is already known about the topic
• What is missing from this current knowledge
• What new insights your research will contribute
• Why you believe this research is worth doing

As you get started, it’s important to demonstrate that you’re familiar with the most important research on your topic. A strong literature review  shows your reader that your project has a solid foundation in existing knowledge or theory. It also shows that you’re not simply repeating what other people have already done or said, but rather using existing research as a jumping-off point for your own.

In this section, share exactly how your project will contribute to ongoing conversations in the field by:

• Comparing and contrasting the main theories, methods, and debates
• Examining the strengths and weaknesses of different approaches
• Explaining how will you build on, challenge, or synthesise prior scholarship

Following the literature review, restate your main  objectives . This brings the focus back to your own project. Next, your research design or methodology section will describe your overall approach, and the practical steps you will take to answer your research questions.

To finish your proposal on a strong note, explore the potential implications of your research for your field. Emphasise again what you aim to contribute and why it matters.

For example, your results might have implications for:

• Improving best practices
• Informing policymaking decisions
• Strengthening a theory or model
• Challenging popular or scientific beliefs
• Creating a basis for future research

Last but not least, your research proposal must include correct citations for every source you have used, compiled in a reference list . To create citations quickly and easily, you can use our free APA citation generator .

Some institutions or funders require a detailed timeline of the project, asking you to forecast what you will do at each stage and how long it may take. While not always required, be sure to check the requirements of your project.

Here’s an example schedule to help you get started. You can also download a template at the button below.

Download our research schedule template

If you are applying for research funding, chances are you will have to include a detailed budget. This shows your estimates of how much each part of your project will cost.

Make sure to check what type of costs the funding body will agree to cover. For each item, include:

• Cost : exactly how much money do you need?
• Justification : why is this cost necessary to complete the research?
• Source : how did you calculate the amount?

To determine your budget, think about:

• Travel costs : do you need to go somewhere to collect your data? How will you get there, and how much time will you need? What will you do there (e.g., interviews, archival research)?
• Materials : do you need access to any tools or technologies?
• Help : do you need to hire any research assistants for the project? What will they do, and how much will you pay them?

Once you’ve decided on your research objectives , you need to explain them in your paper, at the end of your problem statement.

Keep your research objectives clear and concise, and use appropriate verbs to accurately convey the work that you will carry out for each one.

I will compare …

A research aim is a broad statement indicating the general purpose of your research project. It should appear in your introduction at the end of your problem statement , before your research objectives.

Research objectives are more specific than your research aim. They indicate the specific ways you’ll address the overarching aim.

A PhD, which is short for philosophiae doctor (doctor of philosophy in Latin), is the highest university degree that can be obtained. In a PhD, students spend 3–5 years writing a dissertation , which aims to make a significant, original contribution to current knowledge.

A PhD is intended to prepare students for a career as a researcher, whether that be in academia, the public sector, or the private sector.

A master’s is a 1- or 2-year graduate degree that can prepare you for a variety of careers.

All master’s involve graduate-level coursework. Some are research-intensive and intend to prepare students for further study in a PhD; these usually require their students to write a master’s thesis . Others focus on professional training for a specific career.

Critical thinking refers to the ability to evaluate information and to be aware of biases or assumptions, including your own.

Like information literacy , it involves evaluating arguments, identifying and solving problems in an objective and systematic way, and clearly communicating your ideas.

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How to write a successful research proposal

As the competition for PhD places is incredibly fierce, your research proposal can have a strong bearing on the success of your application - so discover how to make the best impression

What is a research proposal?

Research proposals are used to persuade potential supervisors and funders that your work is worthy of their support. These documents setting out your proposed research that will result in a Doctoral thesis are typically between 1,500 and 3,000 words in length.

Your PhD research proposal must passionately articulate what you want to research and why, convey your understanding of existing literature, and clearly define at least one research question that could lead to new or original knowledge and how you propose to answer it.

Professor Leigh Wilson, director of the graduate school at the University of Westminster, explains that while the research proposal is about work that hasn't been done yet, what prospective supervisors and funders are focusing on just as strongly is evidence of what you've done - how well you know existing literature in the area, including very recent publications and debates, and how clearly you've seen what's missing from this and so what your research can do that's new. Giving a strong sense of this background or frame for the proposed work is crucial.

'Although it's tempting to make large claims and propose research that sweeps across time and space, narrower, more focused research is much more convincing,' she adds. 'To be thorough and rigorous in the way that academic work needs to be, even something as long as a PhD thesis can only cover a fairly narrow topic. Depth not breadth is called for.'

The structure of your research proposal is therefore important to achieving this goal, yet it should still retain sufficient flexibility to comfortably accommodate any changes you need to make as your PhD progresses.

Layout and formats vary, so it's advisable to consult your potential PhD supervisor before you begin. Here's what to bear in mind when writing a research proposal.

Your provisional title should be around ten words in length, and clearly and accurately indicate your area of study and/or proposed approach. It should be catchy, informative and interesting.

The title page should also include personal information, such as your name, academic title, date of birth, nationality and contact details.

Aims and objectives

This is a short summary of your project. Your aims should be two or three broad statements that emphasise what you ultimately want to achieve, complemented by several focused, feasible and measurable objectives - the steps that you'll take to answer each of your research questions. This involves clearly and briefly outlining:

• how your research addresses a gap in, or builds upon, existing knowledge
• how your research links to the department that you're applying to
• the academic, cultural, political and/or social significance of your research questions.

Literature review

This section of your PhD proposal discusses the most important theories, models and texts that surround and influence your research questions, conveying your understanding and awareness of the key issues and debates.

It should focus on the theoretical and practical knowledge gaps that your work aims to address, as this ultimately justifies and provides the motivation for your project.

Methodology

Here, you're expected to outline how you'll answer each of your research questions. A strong, well-written methodology is crucial, but especially so if your project involves extensive collection and significant analysis of primary data.

In disciplines such as humanities the research proposal methodology identifies the data collection and analytical techniques available to you, before justifying the ones you'll use in greater detail. You'll also define the population that you're intending to examine.

You should also show that you're aware of the limitations of your research, qualifying the parameters that you plan to introduce. Remember, it's more impressive to do a fantastic job of exploring a narrower topic than a decent job of exploring a wider one.

Concluding or following on from your methodology, your timetable should identify how long you'll need to complete each step - perhaps using bi-weekly or monthly timeslots. This helps the reader to evaluate the feasibility of your project and shows that you've considered how you'll go about putting the PhD proposal into practice.

Bibliography

Finally, you'll provide a list of the most significant texts, plus any attachments such as your academic CV . Demonstrate your skills in critical reflection by selecting only those resources that are most appropriate.

Final checks

Before submitting this document along with your PhD application, you'll need to ensure that you've adhered to the research proposal format. This means that:

• every page is numbered
• it's professional, interesting and informative
• the research proposal has been proofread by both an experienced academic (to confirm that it conforms to academic standards) and a layman (to correct any grammatical or spelling errors)
• it has a contents page
• you've used a clear and easy-to-read structure, with appropriate headings.

Research proposal examples

To get a better idea of how your PhD proposal may look, some universities have provided examples of research proposals for specific subjects:

• The Open University - Social Policy and Criminology
• University of Sheffield - Sociological Studies
• University of Sussex
• University of York - Politics

Find out more

• Explore PhD studentships .
• For tips on writing a thesis, see 7 steps to writing a dissertation .
• Read more about PhD study .

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School of Social Sciences

How to write a research proposal

You will need to submit a research proposal with your PhD application. This is crucial in the assessment of your application and it warrants plenty of time and energy.

Your proposal should outline your project and be around 1,500 words.

Your research proposal should include a working title for your project.

Overview of the research

In this section, you should provide a short overview of your research. You should also state how your research fits into the research priorities of your particular subject area.

Here you can refer to the research areas and priorities of a particular research grouping or supervisor.

You must also state precisely why you have chosen to apply to the discipline area and how your research links into our overall profile.

Positioning of the research

This should reference the most important texts related to the research, demonstrate your understanding of the research issues, and identify existing gaps (both theoretical and practical) that the research is intended to address.

Research design and methodology

This section should identify the information that is necessary to carry out the analysis and the possible research techniques that could deliver the information.

Ethical considerations

You should identify and address any potential ethical considerations in relation to your proposed research. Please discuss your research with your proposed supervisor to see how best to progress your ideas in line with University of Manchester ethics guidance, and ensure that your proposed supervisor is happy for you to proceed with your application.

Your research proposal will be used to assess the quality and originality of your ideas, whether you are able to think critically and whether you have a grasp of the relevant literature. It also gives us important information about the perspectives you intend to take on your research area, and how you fit into the department's research profile overall. This is helpful when assigning a supervisor.

If you are applying to study an Economics postgraduate research programme, our advice and requirements are slightly different:

• How to write an economics proposal

Supervisors

We encourage you to discuss your proposal informally with a potential supervisor before making a formal application to ensure it is of mutual interest.

Please note that we cannot guarantee that we will be able to allocate you to the supervisor you initially contact and that we may allocate you to another expert in the area.

• Find a supervisor

Flexibility

You will not be forced to follow the proposal exactly once you have started to study. It is normal for students to refine their original proposal, in light of detailed literature review, further consideration of research approaches and comments received from your supervisors (and other academic staff).

Pitfalls to avoid

We sometimes have to reject students who meet the academic requirements but have not produced a satisfactory research proposal, therefore:

• Make sure that your research idea, question or problem is very clearly stated and well-grounded in academic research.
• Make sure that your proposal is well focused and conforms exactly to the submission requirements described here.
• Poorly specified, jargon-filled or rambling proposals will not convince us that you have a clear idea of what you want to do.

The University uses electronic systems to detect plagiarism and other forms of academic malpractice and for assessment. All Humanities PhD programmes require the submission of a research proposal as part of the application process. The Doctoral Academy upholds the principle that where a candidate approaches the University with a project of study, this should be original. While it is understandable that research may arise out of previous studies, it is vital that your research proposal is not the subject of plagiarism.

Example proposals

• Philosophy - Example 1
• Philosophy - Example 2
• Politics - Example 1
• Politics - Example 2
• Social Anthropology - Example 1
• Social Anthropology - Example 2
• Social Statistics - Example 1
• Social Statistics - Example 2
• Sociology - Example 1
• Sociology - Example 2

Further help

The following books may help you to prepare your research proposal (as well as in doing your research degree).

• Bell, J. (1999):  Doing Your Research Project: A Guide for First-time Researchers in Education & Social Science , (Oxford University Press, Oxford).
• Baxter, L, Hughes, C. and Tight, M. (2001):  How to Research , (Open University Press, Milton Keynes).
• Cryer, P. (2000):  The Research Student's Guide to Success , (Open University, Milton Keynes).
• Delamont, S., Atkinson, P. and Parry, O. (1997):  Supervising the PhD , (Open University Press, Milton Keynes).
• Philips, E. and Pugh, D. (2005):  How to get a PhD: A Handbook for Students and their Supervisors , (Open University Press, Milton Keynes).

If you need help and advice about your application, contact the Postgraduate Admissions Team.

Admissions contacts

University guidelines

You may also find it useful to read the advice and guidance on the University website about writing a proposal for your research degree application.

Visit the University website

School of Sociology, Politics and International Studies

How to write a phd research proposal.

In order to help you with your application, the information below aims to give some guidance on how a typical research proposal might look.

Your research proposal is a concise statement (up to 3,000 words) of the rationale for your research proposal, the research questions to be answered and how you propose to address them. We know that during the early stages of your PhD you are likely to refine your thinking and methodology in discussion with your supervisors.

However, we want to see that you can construct a fairly rigorous, high quality research proposal.

We use your research proposal to help us decide whether you would be a suitable candidate to study at PhD level. We therefore assess your proposal on its quality, originality, and coherence. It also helps us to decide if your research interests match those of academics in the School of Sociology, Politics and International Studies (SPAIS) and whether they would be able to provide suitably qualified supervision for your proposed research.

Format of the research proposal

Your proposal should include the following:

Title. A short, indicative title is best.

Abstract. This is a succinct summary of your research proposal (approximately 200-300 words) that will present a condensed outline, enabling the reader to get a very quick overview of your proposed project, lines of inquiry and possible outcomes. An abstract is often written last, after you have written the proposal and are able to summarise it effectively.

Rationale for the research project. This might include a description of the question/debate/phenomenon of interest; an explanation of why the topic is of interest to you; and an outline of the reasons why the topic should be of interest to research and/ or practice (the 'so what?' question).

Aims and initial research question. What are the aims and objectives of the research? State clearly the puzzle you are addressing, and the research question that you intend to pursue. It is acceptable to have multiple research questions, but it is a good idea to clarify which is the main research question. If you have hypotheses, discuss them here. A research proposal can and should make a positive and persuasive first impression and demonstrate your potential to become a good researcher. In particular, you need to demonstrate that you can think critically and analytically as well as communicate your ideas clearly.

Research context for your proposed project. Provide a short introduction to your area of interest with a succinct, selective and critical review of the relevant literature. Demonstrate that you understand the theoretical underpinnings and main debates and issues in your research area and how your proposed research will make an original and necessary contribution to this. You need to demonstrate how your proposed research will fill a gap in existing knowledge.

Intended methodology. Outline how you plan to conduct the research and the data sources that you will use. We do not expect you to have planned a very detailed methodology at this stage, but you need to provide an overview of how you will conduct your research (qualitative and/or quantitative methods) and why this methodology is suited for your proposed study. You need to be convincing about the appropriateness and feasibility of the approaches you are suggesting, and reflective about problems you might encounter (including ethical and data protection issues) in collecting and analysing your data.

Expected outcomes and impact. How do you think the research might add to existing knowledge; what might it enable organisations or interested parties to do differently? Increasingly in academia (and this is particularly so for ESRC-funded studentships), PhD students are being asked to consider how their research might contribute to both academic impact and/or economic and societal impact. (This is well explained on the ESRC website if you would like to find out more.) Please consider broader collaborations and partnerships (academic and non-academic) that will support your research. Collaborative activity can lead to a better understanding of the ways in which academic research can translate into practice and it can help to inform and improve the quality of your research and its impact.

Timetable. What is your initial estimation of the timetable of the dissertation? When will each of the key stages start and finish (refining proposal; literature review; developing research methods; fieldwork; analysis; writing the draft; final submission). There are likely to overlaps between the stages.

Why Bristol? Why – specifically – do you want to study for your PhD at Bristol ? How would you fit into the School's  research themes and research culture . You do not need to identify supervisors at the application stage although it can be helpful if you do.

Bibliography. Do make sure that you cite what you see as the key readings in the field. This does not have to be comprehensive but you are illustrating the range of sources you might use in your research.

We expect your research proposal to be clear, concise and grammatically correct. Prior to submitting your research proposal, please make sure that you have addressed the following issues:

• Have you included a clear summary of what the proposed research is about and why it is significant?
• Have you clearly identified what your proposed research will add to our understanding of theory, knowledge or research design?
• Does it state what contributions it will make to policy and/or practice?
• Does the proposal clearly explain how you will do the research?
• Is the language clear and easy to understand by someone who is not an expert in the field?
• Is the grammar and spelling correct?

Research proposals

Your research proposal is a key part of your postgraduate application. It's your opportunity to demonstrate your knowledge of your subject and how you intend to influence your desired research area.

We match your research proposal with the appropriate supervisors to make sure you have the best support during your research degree.

Before you apply, find out which researchers are working in your subject area and contact them with any questions. Or  contact the relevant graduate school to find out more about available supervisors. Don't worry if your research idea isn't fully formed when you get in touch. It's quite usual to firm up your ideas as you further explore the topic and talk with others in your field.  

Do you need to write a proposal?

You may not need to if you are applying for a funded project. Before you apply you should contact your academic department to check:

• Do you need a proposal?
• How long does the proposal need to be?
• Do you need any additional evidence? 

Proposal structure

Your research proposal should normally include the following information, but this may vary according to which school you are applying to: 

A working title of your research; this will change over the course of your research as your project develops but it is good to have a starting point.    

Context and literature

Set the scene of your research clearly. Show that you understand the research area and have started to develop an understanding of your research topic.  

Make sure that you:

Show awareness of current knowledge and debates 

Review current literature related to your intended project and make reference to key articles and texts to demonstrate understanding of the subject

Demonstrate your own expertise gained from previous study or employment 

Explain where there is a gap in current understanding and how your original research can push knowledge forward. 

If you have identified academics involved in your research area you should contact them to discuss their work. This would be a good opportunity to get further advice about your proposal and to potentially start building a supervisor relationship. 

Aims of your research

Your research aims show the overall purpose of your study and you should consider them carefully. Keep your research proposal concise, focus on one or two key research aims and how research questions can achieve the aims. This will help you, and potential supervisors, to decide if they are achievable.

Methodology

Consider how you will carry out your research, and address this in your proposal.

What type of data do you require, for example qualitative, quantitative or a combination?

How are you going collect and analyse the data?

How will these methods address your research aims, relating to current literature?

Plan your timescale

Plan a realistic timescale for your project so that your potential supervisors can make sure they are available to support you. This will also demonstrate that your research project is achievable. You should consider:  

Possible challenges and how you aim to overcome them

What will be the milestones of your research 

What you wish to achieve each year of your research project.

Expected outcomes

You should explain your potential outcomes to show you have thought through your research and why it is important. You may include how your research builds on current knowledge and what new understanding you will bring to your field. 

Focus your reading so that your references are relevant and up-to-date. Use Harvard referencing style . 

Proofreading your proposal

Your research proposal is your chance to show you can present information accurately, coherently and concisely.

When proofreading, ask yourself:

• Is your proposal clear and easy to understand?
• Have you written in a focused and concise way? 
• Does your proposal follow a logical progression that tells the reader a short story about your research aims, why they are important, your methods, and what you hope to find out?

After submission

The research proposal you submit is the start of the research process. Once you are accepted onto a PhD programme, you will refine and develop your original proposal as your knowledge grows and regular discussions begin with your supervisory team. 

Related links

How to write your research proposal

A key part of your application is your research proposal. Whether you are applying for a self-funded or studentship you should follow the guidance below.

If you are looking specifically for advice on writing your PhD by published work research proposal, read our guide .

You are encouraged to contact us to discuss the availability of supervision in your area of research before you make a formal application, by  visiting our areas of research .

What is your research proposal used for and why is it important?

• It is used to establish whether there is expertise to support your proposed area of research
• It forms part of the assessment of your application
• The research proposal you submit as part of your application is just the starting point, as your ideas evolve your proposed research is likely to change

How long should my research proposal be?

It should be 2,000–3,500 words (4-7 pages) long.

What should be included in my research proposal?

Your proposal should include the following:

• your title should give a clear indication of your proposed research approach or key question

2. BACKGROUND AND RATIONALE

You should include:

• the background and issues of your proposed research
• identify your discipline
• a short literature review
• a summary of key debates and developments in the field

3. RESEARCH QUESTION(S)

You should formulate these clearly, giving an explanation as to what problems and issues are to be explored and why they are worth exploring

4. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

You should provide an outline of:

• the theoretical resources to be drawn on
• the research approach (theoretical framework)
• the research methods appropriate for the proposed research
• a discussion of advantages as well as limits of particular approaches and methods

5. PLAN OF WORK & TIME SCHEDULE

You should include an outline of the various stages and corresponding time lines for developing and implementing the research, including writing up your thesis.

For  full-time study  your research should be completed within three years, with writing up completed in the fourth year of registration.

For  part-time study  your research should be completed within six years, with writing up completed by the eighth year.

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY

• a list of references to key articles and texts discussed within your research proposal
• a selection of sources appropriate to the proposed research

Related pages

Fees and funding.

How much will it cost to study a research degree?

Research degrees

Find out if you can apply for a Research Degree at the University of Westminster.

Research degree by distance learning

Find out about Research Degree distance learning options at the University of Westminster.

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How to Write a Research Proposal

As part of the application for admission onto our MJur, MPhil and PhD programmes, you must prepare a research proposal outlining your proposed area of study.

What is a research proposal?

A research proposal is a concise and coherent summary of your proposed research. It sets out the central issues or questions that you intend to address. It outlines the general area of study within which your research falls, referring to the current state of knowledge and any recent debates on the topic. It also demonstrates the originality of your proposed research.

The proposal is the most important document that you submit as part of the application process. It gives you an opportunity to demonstrate that you have the aptitude for graduate level research, for example, by demonstrating that you have the ability to communicate complex ideas clearly, concisely and critically. The proposal also helps us to match your research interest with an appropriate supervisor.

What should you include in the proposal?

Regardless of whether you are applying for the MJur, MPhil or PhD programmes, your research proposal should normally include the following information:

This is just a tentative title for your intended research. You will be able to revise your title during the course of your research if you are accepted for admission.

Examples of the thesis titles of some of our current and recent research students can be seen on our Current Projects page .

2. Abstract

The proposal should include a concise statement of your intended research of no more than 100 words. This may be a couple of sentences setting out the problem that you want to examine or the central question that you wish to address.

3. Research Context

You should explain the broad background against which you will conduct your research. You should include a brief overview of the general area of study within which your proposed research falls, summarising the current state of knowledge and recent debates on the topic. This will allow you to demonstrate a familiarity with the relevant field as well as the ability to communicate clearly and concisely.

4. Research Questions

The proposal should set out the central aims and questions that will guide your research. Before writing your proposal, you should take time to reflect on the key questions that you are seeking to answer. Many research proposals are too broad, so reflecting on your key research questions is a good way to make sure that your project is sufficiently narrow and feasible (i.e. one that is likely to be completed with the normal period for a MJur, MPhil or PhD degree).

You might find it helpful to prioritize one or two main questions, from which you can then derive a number of secondary research questions. The proposal should also explain your intended approach to answering the questions: will your approach be empirical, doctrinal or theoretical etc?

5. Research Methods

The proposal should outline your research methods, explaining how you are going to conduct your research. Your methods may include visiting particular libraries or archives, field work or interviews.

Most research is library-based. If your proposed research is library-based, you should explain where your key resources (e.g. law reports, journal articles) are located (in the Law School’s library, Westlaw etc). If you plan to conduct field work or collect empirical data, you should provide details about this (e.g. if you plan interviews, who will you interview? How many interviews will you conduct? Will there be problems of access?). This section should also explain how you are going to analyse your research findings.

6. Significance of Research

The proposal should demonstrate the originality of your intended research. You should therefore explain why your research is important (for example, by explaining how your research builds on and adds to the current state of knowledge in the field or by setting out reasons why it is timely to research your proposed topic).

7. Bibliography

The proposal should include a short bibliography identifying the most relevant works for your topic.

How long should the proposal be?

The proposal should usually be around 2,500 words. It is important to bear in mind that specific funding bodies might have different word limits.

Can the School comment on my draft proposal?

We recognise that you are likely still developing your research topic. We therefore recommend that you contact a member of our staff with appropriate expertise to discuss your proposed research. If there is a good fit between your proposed research and our research strengths, we will give you advice on a draft of your research proposal before you make a formal application. For details of our staff and there areas of expertise please visit our staff pages . 

Read a sample proposal from a successful application  

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Writing a research proposal

Guidelines on preparing a thesis proposal to support your application.

These guidelines are intended to assist you in developing and writing a thesis proposal. Applications for admission to a research degree cannot be dealt with unless they contain a proposal.

Your proposal will help us to make sure that:

• The topic is viable
• That the department can provide appropriate supervision and other necessary support
• You have thought through your interest in and commitment to a piece of research
• You are a suitable candidate for admission

The process of producing a proposal is usually also essential if you need to apply for funding to pay your fees or support yourself whilst doing your research. Funding bodies will often need to be reassured that you are committed to a viable project at a suitable university.

The research proposal – an outline

Your proposal should be typed double-spaced, if possible, and be between 1,000 and 2,000 words. Your PhD proposal can be added under the 'Supporting Documents' section of the Postgraduate Applications Online System .

Your proposal should contain at least the following elements:

• A provisional title
• A key question, hypothesis or the broad topic for investigation
• An outline of the key aims of the research
• A brief outline of key literature in the area [what we already know]
• A description of the topic and an explanation of why further research in the area is important [the gap in the literature - what we need to know]
• Details of how the research will be carried out, including any special facilities / resources etc. which would be required and any necessary skills which you either have already or would need to acquire [the tools that will enable us to fill the gap you have identified]
• A plan and timetable of the work you will carry out

For more detailed information on each element of your research proposal, see our extended guidance document .

Three additional points:

• Try to be concise. Do not write too much – be as specific as you can but not wordy. It is a difficult balance to strike.
• Bear in mind that the proposal is a starting point. If you are registered to read for a PhD you will be able to work the proposal through with your supervisor in more detail in the early months.
• Take a look at the Department’s staff profiles, research centres, and research clusters. Can you identify possible supervisors and intellectual support networks within the Department?

Examples of Successful PhD Proposals

• PhD sample proposal 1
• PhD sample proposal 2
• PhD sample proposal 3
• PhD sample proposal 4
• PhD sample proposal 5
• PhD sample proposal 6
• PhD sample proposal 7
• PhD sample proposal 8

Related information

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How to write a PhD research proposal

Creating a focused and well-written research proposal - a concise and coherent summary of your proposed research - is an essential part of a successful PhD application.

A research proposal is normally required for self-funded PhDs (where you develop your own idea for a thesis), but isn't usually needed for funded studentships or pre-defined research projects.

What is a research proposal?

A research proposal sets out the central issues or questions that you intend to address. It outlines the general area of study within which your research falls, referring to the current state of knowledge and any recent debates on the topic. It should also demonstrate the originality of your proposed research.

What it should include

As a guide, research proposals should be around 2,000-3,000 words and contain:

• A title – this is just tentative and can be revised over the course of your research
• An abstract – a concise statement of your intended research
• Context - a brief overview of the general area of study within which your proposed research falls, summarising the current state of knowledge and recent debates on the topic
• Research questions - central aims and questions that will guide your research
• Research methods - outline of how you are going to conduct your research, for example, visiting particular libraries or archives, field work or interviews
• Research significance - demonstrate the originality of your intended research
• A bibliography.

Crucially, it is also an opportunity for you to communicate your passion for the subject area and to make a persuasive argument about the impact your project can achieve.

Your research proposal will be assessed by our academic schools to assess the quality of your proposed research and  to establish whether they have the expertise to support your proposed area of PhD study.

Thesis writing classes and support for international research students

The University’s English Language Centre (ELC)  provides thesis writing support for international PhD students. Classes run throughout semesters one and two and are designed to help develop the academic writing skills needed to write up research effectively.

The sessions are taught by tutors with their own research experience. They have PhDs themselves and have many years of experience in analysing writing in different disciplines.

The course also provides an opportunity for students to receive individual feedback on samples of their own writing.

The following classes are available:

• Thesis Writing for Science, Technology, Engineering and Medicine
• Thesis Writing for Humanities and Social Sciences

In addition to these thesis writing classes, the ELC also provides a 1:1 Academic Writing Consultation service.

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Writing a research proposal

If your supervisor asks you to formalise your idea as a research proposal (this is not always a requirement) this needs to define a clear research question.

You should also be prepared to explain how this contributes to and develops (or challenges) any existing theories in the field.

It’s important to tailor your proposal to the department you’re applying to.

Different departments may also have different format requirements (e.g. word limit, content) so it’s important to discuss these with your potential supervisor in advance.

For more general advice on how to write a good proposal, see  FindaPhd.com .

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Writing a research proposal

The research proposal is the main way in which we evaluate the quality of your research plans. You should aim to make your proposal about 1500-2000 words long.

Your proposal should include the following:

The title indicates the overall question or topic of the PhD. It should include any key concepts, empirical focus, or lines of inquiry that you aim to pursue, and it should be concise and descriptive. You can normally discuss changes in the title with your supervisor(s) should you be successful but it is important to try to choose a clear and engaging title.

Research questions

What are the questions or problems for politics or international relations that you are trying to understand and solve? In explaining these, it will be helpful to spell out what else we need to know in order to understand why you are framing the problem this way.

Research aims

In answering these questions, what will your research project do? What will it shed light on or help us to understand that we don’t really understand better?

Contribution

Why this project? Explain why your project is interesting, what its broader implications are, and – if you think this is relevant – why you are particularly well placed to tackle it. It is also valuable to reflect on who has worked on the topic before and to provide a brief literature review. Are there any good approaches to the topic, or particular articles or books, that you are drawing on or bad ones you want to push back against?

What are the sources you plan to use to answer your research questions? These will vary according to the nature of your research but may include study of particular texts, interviews, published or unpublished data, archival or policy documents, or field site visits, among others. Try to be as specific as you can and assess the possibility of access to relevant sources.

This includes thinking about the research methods you will use to analyse empirical sources (e.g., sampling, survey or interview design, data collection, discourse analysis) but may also include setting out the kind of theoretical framework you will employ or your approach to history or political ideas. What prior knowledge and skills do you bring to the project? What extra training may you need?

Structure and timetable

Include a provisional chapter structure and timetable to completion, covering the three years of the full-time programme or six years of the part-time programme, as appropriate.

To help you with your application here are some examples of PhD proposals which were successful in obtaining funding:  PhD sample research proposal 1 (PDF , 96kb) PhD sample research proposal 2 (PDF , 79kb) PhD sample research proposal 3 (PDF , 197kb)

Apply for a PhD now

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Writing your research proposal

The purpose of the research proposal is to demonstrate that the research you wish to undertake is significant, necessary and feasible, that you will be able to make an original contribution to the field, and that the project can be completed within the normal time period. Some general guidelines and advice on structuring your proposal are provided below. Research proposals should be between 1,000 and 3,000 words depending on the programme (excluding the reference list/bibliography).

Title sheet

Topic statement, research aims, review of the literature, study design / theoretical orientation, research methods, tentative chapter outline, references/bibliography.

Applying for a research degree

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Writing your research proposal

When applying to study for a PhD or MPhil in the School of Psychology and Clinical Language Sciences, you will typically need to send us an initial 500-word research proposal.

The content and structure of your research proposal will be influenced by the nature of the project you wish to pursue. The guidance and suggested headings provided here should help you to structure and present your ideas clearly.

Your initial research proposal

When writing your initial research proposal, you can either address it to the School generally, or to a specific supervisor if you have one in mind. 

Potential supervisors in the School will review your initial research proposal, and get in touch with you to discuss it. Your proposal may change following this conversation. Depending on the supervisor and the outcome of this discussion, you may be asked to produce a longer research proposal of between 2,000 and 4,000 words.

Tips on writing a research proposal

Before you write your research proposal, we strongly recommend that you check our  research page  and  individual supervisor profiles  to view our areas of expertise.

• You should avoid the use of overly long sentences and technical jargon.
• It is important that the proposed research is realistic and feasible so that the outcomes can be achieved within the scale of a typical research degree programme. This is usually three years full-time for a PhD (or two years for an MPhil). 
• A strong research proposal can and should make a positive first impression about your potential to become a good researcher. It should demonstrate that your ideas are focused, interesting and realistic.

Although you should write your proposal yourself, it is best if you discuss its contents with your proposed supervisor before you submit it. If this is not possible, then try to get someone else (such as an academic at your current or previous institution) to read and comment on it to ensure that it is sufficiently clear.

Your proposal needs a clear working title that gives an indication of what you want to study. You are not committed to continuing with the same title once you begin your studies.

Research question

For many projects, you'll usually address one main question, which can sometimes be broken down into several sub-questions. However, it's OK to have two or three research questions where appropriate.

In your research proposal, you'll need to state your main research question(s), explain its significance, and locate it within the relevant literature, in order to set out the context into which your research will fit. You should only refer to research that is directly relevant to your proposal. 

Questions to address in your research proposal

You will need to address questions such as:

• What is the general area in which you will be working, and the specific aspect(s) of that area that will be your focus of inquiry?
• What is the problem, shortcoming, or gap in this area that you would like to address?
• What is the main research question or aim that you want to address?
• What are the specific objectives for the proposed research that follow from this?
• Why is the proposed research significant, why does it matter (either theoretically or practically), and why does it excite you?
• How does your work relate to other relevant research in the department?

Methodology

You will need to explain how you will go about answering your question (or achieving your aim), and why you will use your intended approach to address the question/aim. 

Questions you might need to address include:

• What steps will you take and what methods will you use to address your question? For instance, do you plan to use quantitative or qualitative methods?
• How will your proposed method provide a reliable answer to your question?
• What sources or data will you use?
• If your project involves an experimental approach, what specific hypothesis or hypotheses will you address?
• What specific techniques will you use to test the hypothesis? For example, laboratory procedures, interviews, questionnaires, modelling, simulation, text analysis, use of secondary data sources.
• What practical considerations are there? For example, what equipment, facilities, and other resources will be required?
• What relevant skills and experience do you have with the proposed methods?
• Will you need to collaborate with other researchers and organisations?
• Are there particular ethical issues that will need to be considered (for example, all projects using human participants require ethical approval)?
• Are there any potential problems or difficulties that you foresee (for example, delays in gaining access to special populations or materials) that might affect your rate of progress?

You will need to provide a rough timeline for the completion of your research to show that the project is achievable (given the facilities and resources required) in no more than three years of full-time study (or part-time equivalent) for a PhD, and two years for an MPhil.

Expected outcomes

You need to say something about what the expected outcomes of your project would be.

How, for example, does it make a contribution to knowledge? How does it advance theoretical understanding? How might it contribute to policy or practice?

If you are aiming to study for a PhD, then you need to say how your proposed research will make an original contribution to knowledge. This is not essential if you are aiming to study for an MPhil, although you will still need to show originality in the application of knowledge.

List of references

You will need to provide a list of any key articles or texts that you have referred to in your proposal.

References should be listed in the appropriate style for your subject area (e.g. Harvard). You should only reference texts that you think are central to your proposed work, rather than a bibliography listing everything written on the subject. 

Format and proofreading

Make sure that your proposal is well structured and clearly written. It is important that you carefully check your proposal for typographical and spelling errors, consistency of style, and accuracy of references, before submitting it.

The proposal should be aesthetically well presented, and look professional (e.g. no font inconsistencies, headings clearly identifiable). If you include figures, then they should be accompanied by captions underneath).

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Research Proposals

• the research topic briefly outline the area and topic of your research.
• the research context relate your proposed research to other work in its field or related fields, and indicate in what ways your research will differ; you might mention monographs on the subject, as well as important theoretical models or methodological exemplars. This is a chance to show your understanding of the background against which your research will be defined.
• the contribution you will make this is your chance to show how you have arrived at your position and recognised the need for your research, and what it is that makes it both new and important; you should indicate what areas and debates it will have an impact on, what methodological example it sets (if appropriate) – in short how it contributes to knowledge and to the practice of our subject. Give examples of the sort of evidence you might consider, and of the questions it might help you to raise. Show that you are already thinking about the area in detail and not only in outline.
• your methods in some cases there will be little to say here, but if there is something striking about your methodology, you should explain it.
• the sources and resources you will use you should delimit your field of enquiry, showing where the project begins and ends; in certain cases, Cambridge will have unique collections and resources of central relevance to your project, and you should mention these.
• how the project will develop you might indicate some of the possible ways in which the project could develop, perhaps by giving a broader or narrower version depending on what materials and issues you uncover

You should ask yourself how your work might change the present state of scholarship in your field, and whether the topic is well suited to the resources provided at Cambridge. Even for MPhil courses we generally aim to admit not just those who propose a sensible topic, but those who have the potential to modify the present paradigms of research in their field. Most students, though, refine their research topics after they arrive in the light of what they discover or of advice from their supervisor, so you need not feel that you are inscribing your future in tablets of stone as you compose your proposal.

You may find it helpful to look at the following examples of successful research proposals.

It is vital that you show that your research is necessary. It is not enough that it happens to interest you. You should make clear that it will be of use and interest to others working in your field, or on a particular author, or indeed in neighbouring fields. You should show how your work will make a contribution to knowledge and to the practice of our subject.

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Writing your research proposal

Your proposal is your chance to tell us why you want to study your PhD at Sussex. Follow our guide to making your research proposal as strong as possible.

Your research proposal

If you are considering studying a PhD, there are two options available to you.

• apply for a funded PhD where you research a set project
• design your own research project, which you can either fund yourself, or apply for external funding.

If you decide to design your own research project, you need to write a research proposal which will form a central part of your PhD application.

Follow our step-by-step guide below to help you through the process of writing your research proposal.

Plan your research proposal

You should contact the relevant academic department before applying to Sussex and check if there are any additional requirements for your research proposal.

Even at this early stage, you may be asked questions regarding your research, and so you should start thinking about:

• the questions driving your research
• how your research makes 'an original contribution' to your field and how will you achieve this
• if your research provides new knowledge, or reinterprets existing ideas in an original way
• how you intend to do the research i.e. the methodology you'll use and how you'll structure your work
• how Sussex can aid you in your research and what you want to study here.

Ask for advice

If you need further advice you can contact our academic staff working in your field.

You can also ask research students and academic staff at your current university for help. It is good practice to discuss your ideas with others in your research area and use their suggestions to further your understanding and strengthen your proposal.

During this process you should start making detailed notes. You might also want to start planning your research proposal. If so, breaking it down into the traditional sections below may help you organise and manage your thoughts:

• introduction
• research background
• research methods
• bibliography.

Find a supervisor

Choosing the right supervisor is one of the most important steps towards a successful and rewarding PhD.

Before approaching a supervisor, you'll need to have a clear idea of the research you hope to undertake.

Once you have established a relationship with a potential supervisor, you can ask them to read the first draft of your research proposal. They can give you valuable feedback and help you refine your ideas before you submit your application.

Discover how to find a supervisor

Write your proposal

You may now be in a position to start writing your proposal. This is central to your final application.

A strong research proposal:

• formulates a precise, interesting research question
• establishes the relevance and value of the proposed research question in the context of current academic thinking
• describes the data or source material your research requires
• outlines a clear and practical methodology, which enables you to answer the research question
• states clearly what you hope to discover at the end of your research and what new areas it might open up.

The exact content and structure of your research proposal will depend on your subject area.

Below you can see information from each academic school which shows what they expect a research proposal to contain:

Length: 8-10 pages

Your research proposal should include the following sections:

Introduction

You should:

• include a short summary of the central question behind your research
• explain the background of your proposed project
• describe the expected outcome of your project.

Thesis statement

Write a summary of your overarching research question and include:

• why your research area is of academic and practical interest
• how your research builds on existing work
• what has inspired you to pursue your area of research
• your knowledge of the research area.

Literature review

You must show you have the ability to review current research (literature and papers) within your field of study. Your literature review should demonstrate that your research question is relevant, you are aware of the work of others in your field, and how your research will contribute new findings to the subject area.

Theoretical Framework

The theoretical framework provides the rationale behind your research proposal. You must provide a critical review of existing theories, which are closely related to your research topic. Show how these theories frame your research questions and the overall structure of your research proposal.

Methodology

You must show how you will carry out the research and analyse your findings. Include potential sources, how data will be collected, and any difficulties there may be in conducting your research.

Ethical considerations

Outline any ethical concerns which arise from your research topic or your proposed methods. Read the existing codes of conduct in the social sciences before writing this part of your research proposal.

Bibliography

List the sources you have used in your literature review and any potential sources you may use for your research.

For more information visit the Business School .

Length: 2,000 - 3,000 words excluding references

Your research proposal should describe what you want to research, why it is important to do this research, and how you plan to conduct your study. Here is a suggested structure:

Provide a clear working title for your research.

The introduction will indicate the focus of your research and your main research question. It should also address:

• why this topic is an important area of research
• why the subject is important to you
• how your research will contribute to our knowledge and understanding.

Research context

Provide a concise overview of the context in which you plan to conduct your research.

This section provides a concise review of related research within your field of study. It demonstrates that you are aware of the work of others and how your research will contribute new knowledge. It should also demonstrate critical engagement with relevant conceptual and theoretical frameworks and make clear your theoretical position about the issues you are researching, how this frames your research questions and your methodological approach.

Methodology and methods

Indicate your methodological approach, followed by details of how you plan to answer your research questions. This should include information about:

• how you plan to collect data (through which research methods)
• how you plan to select participants
• how you plan to analyse the data
• how you will address ethical considerations.

Provide a timeline, including time to conduct the research, process and analyse your data and write your final thesis.

Provide a bibliography of all citations used in your proposal.

For more information visit the School of Education and Social Work .

Length: 2,000 words

You should identify which research group you want to work with and check that we can support your area of research before writing your research proposal.

Your research proposal should include:

• your interest in the particular research area and the topic you want to study
• the specific research questions you want to investigate
• a description of your knowledge of the subject
• the relevant research literature you have read
• the methods and techniques you will use for your research
• an explanation of your motivations for applying for a PhD degree and an outline of your career aspirations
• a timetable for your project (monthly for the first year, and quarterly for subsequent years).

For more information visit the School of Engineering and Informatics

Length: about 2,000 words

You must provide a working title for your research. This is likely to change over time, but provides a good starting point.

You should introduce the questions and issues central to your research and explain how your research will benefit the field.

Research background

Expand on the information you have given in your introduction and try to answer the following questions:

• what are the key texts already existing in your field?
• how does your proposal differ from existing research?
• what will your project contribute to existing work in the field?
• how does your project expand our understanding and knowledge of the subject?

You must set out your research questions as clearly as possible and explain the problems you want to explore.

Research methods

Show how you plan to carry out your research:

• does your project involve archives, databases or specialist libraries?
• is your study interdisciplinary?
• what are the theoretical resources you intend to use and why?
• is your research based on a single author or a group of writers and texts?

Set out your timescale for completing your study. You need to think about dividing your research into sections and indicate how you plan to write up each section.

Include a bibliography, which lists the books and articles, you have referred to in the proposal.

Extra information

Some of these sections will be easier to write than others at this preliminary stage. The selectors who read your proposal know that it is a provisional statement and that your ideas, questions, and approaches will change during the course of your research.

You should treat the proposal as an opportunity to show that you have begun to explore an important area of study and that you have a question, or questions, that challenge and develop that area. It is also necessary to demonstrate that you can express your ideas in clear and precise English, accessible to a non-specialist.

For more information visit the Department of English

Length: 1,000-2,000 words

Include a short summary of your central question. You should tell us what you are attempting to research and why it is significant.

Thesis statement and literature review

Explain the subject matter of your project, and why you think the issues raised are important. You should also show us you are familiar with texts in the field, and can show how your research area is relevant, and in context to current academic thinking.

You must explain how your proposed project is original and will increase our understanding of the subject matter.

You must state clearly what you hope to discover at the end of your research.

Theoretical framework

Show how you plan to carry out your research and how you will analyse the findings.

Outline any ethical concerns which arise from either your research topic or your proposed methods of collating data.

List the sources you have used in your literature review and point to potential sources for your research.

For more information visit the School of Global Studies

You must provide a working title for your research, this is likely to change over time, but provides a good starting point for your proposal.

Include a bibliography, which lists the books and articles you have referred to in the proposal.

For more information visit the School of History, Art History and Philosophy

Length: 2000-3500 words (excluding bibliography)

Your title should give a clear indication of your proposed research approach or key question.

Include a short summary of your central question. You should tell us what you are attempting to research and why it is significant. You must state clearly what you hope to discover at the end of your research.

Explain the subject matter of your project and why you think the issues raised are important. Provide a summary of the key debates and developments in your chosen area and demonstrate your knowledge and grasp of the specific literature (global) that you will be engaging with during your research. You should show that you are familiar with texts in your chosen area, and what are the gaps in the literature that your research is attempting to fill, i.e., how your proposed research is original and will increase our understanding of the subject matter. Through this, you should detail how your research area fits into current academic thinking and/or policy discourse.

The theoretical framework provides the rationale behind your research proposal. You must provide a critical review of existing theories or concepts (global), which are closely related to your research topic. Show how these theories/concepts frame your research questions and the overall structure of your research proposal, and clearly state the specific theoretical concepts/analytical frameworks that you are engaging with.

You should outline your draft overall research question and any relevant sub-research questions and hypotheses through engagement with the theoretical literature.

State to what extent your approach is distinctive or new or builds on/deepens existing theoretical literature in your chosen area.

Research Design

Show how you plan to carry out your research (including fieldwork) and how you will analyse the findings. You should also show how this relates to your hypothesis. Put details of your research design in terms of approaches, methods and tools, along with some indication of specifics such as sample size (i.e., give an idea of the scope of your research project).

Outline any ethical concerns that arise from either your research topic or your proposed methods of collecting and collating data.

List the sources you have used in your literature review. Also, separately, point to potential sources that will be appropriate for your proposed research.

For more information about the PhD in Development Studies by Research visit the Institute of Development Studies website .

Length: 2,000-3,000 words

• what has inspired you to pursue your area of research.

You must show you have the ability to review current research within your field of study. Your literature review should demonstrate that your research question is relevant, you are aware of the work of others in your field, and show how your research will contribute new findings to the subject area.

Outline any ethical concerns which arise from your research topic or your proposed methods.

For more information visit the School of Law, Politics and Sociology

Length: 1,500-2,000 words

You should identify the research group you want to work with and ensure that we can support your area of research before writing your research proposal.

• a general personal statement, which describes a broad topic of interest to you and how your areas of academic strength would benefit the topic
• a specific personal statement, which shows us why you are the right person for one of our advertised research projects
• explain your motivation for applying for a PhD degree and outline your career aspirations
• your knowledge of the subject and relevant research literature you have read
• the methods and techniques you will use for your research.

If you are applying for an advertised research project you should tell us:

• which project or PhD scholarship you want to be considered for in the financial information session
• if you have another way of funding your studies if we are unable to offer you a place on a funded project
• the name of your sponsor, if you will be funded by a third party.

For more information visit the School of Life Sciences

You should identify the research area (and/or the researchers) you want to be involved with.

You should either:

• write a new research proposal
• write a general personal statement, which describes a broad topic of interest to you and how your areas of academic strength would benefit the topic
• write a specific personal statement, which shows us why you are the right person for one of our advertised research projects.
• explain your interest in the research area, your motivation for carrying out the research and your career aspirations
• describe the questions you want to investigate
• describe your knowledge of the subject and relevant previous research experience and skills
• tell us about the relevant research literature you've read
• describe the methods and techniques you will use to achieve your aims.

If you are applying for advertised funding you should tell us:

• which project or PhD scholarship you want to be considered for in the financial information section

For more information visit the School of Mathematical and Physical Sciences

Length: about 2,000 words (not including bibliography)

You must provide a working title for your research. This is likely to change over time but provides a good starting point for your proposal.

Brief abstract

Write a paragraph summarising your proposed project.

Research questions and rationale

Introduce your main research questions and why you think your research matters. Indicate how you think your research will be an original contribution to the knowledge and understanding of the subject. Describe the form of your anticipated outputs if your proposal includes creative practice. You may want to explain how you think your research will connect with existing research interests at Sussex.

Conceptual framework

The conceptual framework should elaborate the rationale behind your research proposal. You should demonstrate a critical engagement with theories and secondary literature or other artefacts that are relevant to your research topic. Show how these theories frame your research questions and the overall structure of your research proposal. If relevant, reflect on the research dimension of your creative practice.

Methodology and Research Ethics

Show us how you intend to achieve your research aims and outcomes and how you will answer your research questions. Include information about specific methods and access to relevant sources. If your project involves creative practice in some way, it is important that you describe what facilities you will need and indicate your experience in the relevant production techniques. You may want to include a practice portfolio, or provide links to online examples of your work. Reflect on any ethical considerations relevant to the conduct of your research.

Indicative timeline

Provide an account of how you envisage conducting your research to completion within the period of registration. Note that we fully expect proposals and attendant timelines to evolve in practice, but we are keen to see your ability to design a research project, bearing this in mind.

Include any literature, audiovisual or online resources you have referenced in the proposal.

For more information visit the School of Media, Film and Music

Length: 1,000-1,500 words Your research proposal should contain the following sections:

• why your research topic is interesting and important
• what we know already about the research area and how your study will expand our knowledge of it.

You should assume you are writing your research proposal for someone who has a good understanding of psychology, but not an expert in your area of research.

You should identify any gaps in our knowledge in your research area, and how your research will fill them. At the end of the section outline your aims and hypotheses.

We are interested in your ability to think critically. You should answer the following questions:

• what kind of control conditions are needed for your research?
• what do you need to measure and how?
• do you need to run any pilot studies?
• what difficulties might you have carrying out your research, and how can these be overcome?

You are expected to show how your initial idea can be developed and expanded over the duration of your PhD degree.

Reference list

You must add in a reference list in American Psychological Association format.

For more information visit the School of Psychology.

Proofread your research proposal

Once you have completed your proposal, check it through thoroughly. You should make sure all the information you have cited is accurate. Correct spelling and punctuation is also essential.

Write in clear sentences and structure your research proposal in a logical format that is easy for the reader to follow.

It is easy to miss errors in your own work, so ask someone else to proofread your research proposal before submitting it to Sussex.

You might also be interested in:

• finding a supervisor
• using our postgraduate application system
• how to apply for a PhD

How To Write A Research Proposal

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Imagine this: you're sitting in your cluttered dorm room, surrounded by piles of books and stacks of notes. It's the middle of the night, and you're desperately trying to piece together your thoughts for that looming research proposal deadline. The pressure is on – you know this research proposal could be the ticket to kickstarting your academic career or securing that much-needed funding for your groundbreaking research idea. But how to write a research proposal? Don't worry, you're not alone. Making a research proposal can seem daunting, but fear not – with the right approach, it's entirely achievable. In this blog, we'll take you through each step of writing a research proposal, from understanding the basics to putting together a winning research proposal that grabs attention and gets results. 

What is a research proposal used for, and why is it important?

A research proposal is important because it helps determine if there is enough expertise to support your research area. It is a key part of evaluating your application, showing that your project is feasible and fits within the institution's strengths. However, the proposal is just the beginning. Your ideas will likely change as you delve deeper into your research, but it provides a clear starting point. This initial plan helps both you and the institution understand the potential direction and significance of your research, laying solid foundations for your future. 

What Things to keep in mind while writing a research proposal?

Academics often need to write research proposals to get funding for their projects. As a student, you might need to write one when applying to grad school or before starting your thesis or dissertation. A proposal helps you shape your research plans and shows why your project is valuable to funders, educational institutions, or supervisors.

• Relevance: Show your reader why your project is interesting, unique, and important.
• Context: Show that you are comfortable and knowledgeable in your field. Make it clear that you understand the current research on your topic.
• Approach: Explain why you chose your methodology. Show that you've thought carefully about the data, tools, and steps needed to do your research.
• Achievability: Make sure your project can be done within the time frame of your program or funding deadline.
• Tone: When you write research proposals or any academic work, keep it formal and objective. Remember, being clear and to the point is important. Keep your writing concise; being formal doesn't mean using fancy language.

How long should my research proposal be?

Usually, research proposals for bachelor’s and master’s theses are just a few pages. But for bigger projects like Ph.D. dissertations or asking for funding, they can be longer and more detailed. The main aim of a research proposal is to explain what your research will do clearly. So, while the length of the proposal matters less, what’s really important is that you cover all the necessary information in it.

Sections of a research proposal

Research proposals usually have a simple layout. To meet the goals we talked about earlier, here’s how to write a research proposal:

If your proposal is really long, you might want to add a summary and a list of what's inside to help your reader find their way around. Just like your dissertation or thesis, your proposal should have a title page with the following

• The title of your project
• Your supervisor’s name
• Your school and department

Introduction section of research proposal

The beginning of your proposal is like the first pitch for your project. Make it clear and brief, explaining what you want to do and why.

In your introduction:

• Introduce your topic
• Provide background and context
• Explain the problem you're addressing and your research questions

To help you with your introduction, include:

• Who might care about your topic (like scientists or policymakers)
• What's already known about it
• What's still unknown
• How your research will add new information
• Why do you think this research matters

Literature review

As you begin, it's important to show that you know about the key research on your topic. A good literature review tells your reader that your project is based on solid existing knowledge. It also shows that you're not just repeating what others have said but adding something new.

In this part, explain how your project fits into the ongoing discussion in the field by:

• Comparing different theories, methods, and debates
• Looking at the strengths and weaknesses of different ideas
• Saying how you'll use past research in your own work - whether you'll build on it, challenge it, or bring it together with new ideas

If you're not sure where to start, check out our guide on writing a literature review.

Background significance

Your background section sets the stage for your research. Here, you explain why your topic matters and what questions you're trying to answer. It's like showing the backstory of your project, giving readers a clear picture of why it's worth their attention. In your research proposal, it's crucial to cover:

• Background and why your research is important
• Your field of study
• A brief look at existing research
• The main arguments and changes happening in your area

Research design, methods, and schedule

After looking at existing research, it's time to talk about your plans in this methodology section of a research proposal. One key thing to remember when learning how to write a research proposal is to include details about your research methods, like how you'll collect data and analyse it. Here's what your materials and methods in research proposal should cover:

• What kind of research you'll be doing - qualitative or quantitative, and whether you're gathering new data or using existing data.
• Whether your research is experimental, looking at connections, or describing things.
• Details about your data - if you're in social sciences, who you're studying and how you'll pick them.
• The tools you'll use to gather data - like experiments, surveys, or observations, and why they're right for your research.

When figuring out how to write a research proposal, start by clearly stating your research question and explaining why it's important and don't forget to include:

• Your timeline for the research.
• How much money do you need?
• Any problems you might face and how you'll deal with them.

Suppositions and Implications

Even though you won't know your research results until you do the work, you should have a clear idea of how your project will help and contribute to your field. Knowing how to write a research proposal also involves explaining the potential impact of your study. This part of your research proposal is extremely crucial because it explains why your research is necessary.

In this section on how to write a research proposal, make sure you cover the following:

• How your work might challenge current ideas, theories and assumptions in your field.
• Why your research is a good starting point for future studies.
• How your findings could be useful for professionals, teachers, and other researchers.
• The problems your research could potentially help solve.
• Any rules or guidelines that could change because of what you find.
• How your research could be used in schools or other places, and how that'll make things better.

Basically, in this section of a research proposal, you're not saying exactly what you'll find. Instead, you're explaining why whatever you discover will be important.

When applying for research funding, it's likely you'll need to provide a thorough budget. This demonstrates your projected costs for different aspects of your project. Be sure to review the funding body's guidelines to see what expenses they're willing to fund. For each item in your budget, include:

• Cost : How much money do you need?
• Why : Why do you need this money for your research?
• Source : How did you figure out this amount?

When you're making your budget, think about:

• Travel : Do you need to go somewhere to get your data? How will you get there, and how long will it take? What will you do there?
• Materials : Do you need any special tools or tech?
• Help : Do you need to hire someone to help with your research? What will they do, and how much will you pay them?

In this section of a research proposal, you tie everything together. Your conclusion section, much like the conclusion paragraph of an essay, gives a quick rundown of your research proposal and strengthens the purpose you've laid out. It reminds the reader of the main points and emphasises why your research matters. It's your final chance to leave a lasting impression and make a case for the importance of your work.

Bibliography

Writing a bibliography is essential alongside your literature review. In this part of your research proposal structure, unlike the review, where you explain why you chose your sources and sometimes even question them. The bibliography just lists your sources and who wrote them.

Citing depends on the style guide, like MLA , APA , or Chicago . Each has its own rules, even for unusual sources like websites or speeches. If you don't need a full bibliography, a references list with just the sources you cited is enough. If unsure, ask your supervisor.  Be sure to include:

• A list of references to important articles and texts you talked about in your research proposal.
• Choose sources that fit well with your proposed research.

Editing and proofreading a research proposal

When writing a research proposal, use the same six-step process you apply to all your writing tasks. Once you've drafted it, give it some time to cool off before proofreading. This helps you spot errors and gaps more effectively, ensuring a polished final version. Taking breaks between writing and revising enhances the quality of your work.

Common mistakes to avoid when writing a research proposal

When you’re writing a research proposal, avoid these common pitfalls: 

Being too wordy

Remember, being formal doesn't mean using fancy words. In fact, it's best to keep your writing short and direct. The clearer and more concise you are about your purpose and goals, the stronger your proposal will be.

Failing to cite relevant sources

When you do research, you contribute to what we already know about your topic. Your proposal should mention important past research in your field and explain how your work relates to it. This shows not just why your work matters but also that you know your stuff. Referencing landmark studies gives your proposal credibility and strengthens your argument.

Focusing too much on minor issues

Your research likely has many important reasons behind it, but you don't need to list them all in your proposal. Including too many details can distract from your main goal, making your proposal weaker. Focus on the big, key issues you'll address. Save the smaller details for your actual research paper. Keeping your proposal focused strengthens your argument and makes it more effective.

Failing to make a strong argument for your research

Overloading your proposal with too many minor issues can weaken it significantly, as this approach is more subjective than others. Essentially, a research proposal is a form of persuasive writing. While it's presented objectively, the aim is to convince the reader to support your work. This applies universally whether your audience is your supervisor, department head, admissions board, funding provider, or journal editor. Keeping your proposal focused enhances its persuasiveness.

Polish your writing into a stellar proposal

When you're seeking approval for research, especially when funding is involved, your proposal needs to be perfect. Spelling mistakes, grammar errors, or awkward wording can hurt your credibility. Even if you've edited carefully, it's essential to double-check. Your research deserves the strongest proposal possible to make the best impression and secure the support it needs.

If you're unsure how to write a research proposal, don't worry! There are plenty of resources and examples available to guide you through the process. We hope this blog helped you answer your question of “how to write a research proposal”. Practice is key when learning how to write a research proposal, so don't be afraid to ask for feedback and revise your proposal until it's clear and compelling.  

Frequently Asked Questions

How to write an abstract for a research proposal, what is the research proposal format , how to write a proposal for a research paper, how to write a dissertation proposal, how to write a phd proposal.

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Market Research Proposal

Proposal maker.

Setting the direction for any market research effort is an essential and critical step that you have to consider whenever you would like to look into the trends in the marketplace or assess the key factors that affect the purchasing decisions of your target audience. Before doing any program or activity related to the specified matter, you first have to know how to execute an effective proposal writing procedure.

Developing a comprehensive and detailed market research proposal can help you a lot in terms of organizing the market research processes that you would like to conduct as well as the resources that you will be needing.

• Google Docs

Size: A4, US

State the objectives, scope of work, research methodology, target market, and other such important information of your market research by downloading and using this above-shown research  proposal example  template. This ready-made template’s content can be edited and customized in various file formats such as MS Word, Pages, Gooogle Docs, and editable PDF. Hurry up and try it out now!

Market Research Proposal Example

Download and make use of this market research template so that you can conduct your market research effectively. Using this, you can conveniently outline the objectives and goals for your market research, thereby, saving you enough time to do other tasks related to the research. Edit and customize using  MS Word and Pages. You can also click on  multimedia project proposal examples .

Marketing Research Proposal Example

It is important to not let yourself get confused between a market research proposal and a marketing research proposal. The marketing research proposal deals with the presentation of potential promotional and advertising activities that can be implemented by a company to present and market its products, services, deals, and other offers while the marketing research proposal is focused on learning the market movement based on the market’s trends, activities, and size.

Proposal for Market Research Example

Size: 10 KB

If you want to create your market research proposal, one of the things that you can do to help you have an easier time when developing the document is to look into references like downloadable examples. Simply browse through the market research proposal examples in PDF that are available in this post so you can have an idea of how to properly create the best market research proposal for your business.

Free Market Research Proposal Example

Size: 340 KB

Importance of a Market Research Proposal

A market research proposal helps you properly think of the things that truly matter when it comes to the market research. With the help of this document, you can give priority to the factors and elements that can contribute to the advancement and growth of your business .

Using a market research proposal can also give you time to put together relevant and necessary processes that are most likely helpful in achieving not only the goals of your market research activities but the corporate goals of the business as well. Here are some of the reasons why you need to create and use a market research proposal:

1. A market research proposal is one of the most essential documents that are used by businesses to properly plan the entire process of their market research activities. It presents the outline of the market research’s goals and it also focuses on the action plans that can lead the business to the achievement of its objectives and vision.

2. A market research proposal can give an idea about the funding that is needed by the team to execute the activities for market research. Financial support from the organization is needed to be addressed to make sure that all plotted procedures will be implemented accordingly. You may also see business proposal examples .

Developing the market research proposal with the knowledge that funding will be given for its implementation can make the marketing team, as well as the other people involved in the activity, become more proactive and efficient as it is most likely that what they envisioned and planned will be realized.

3. A market research proposal, especially one that contains a marketing SWOT analysis and a market condition overview, can help you look into the external and internal factors that affect your business operations.

The knowledge about the nature of your business, the competition that you need to look out for, the threats and risks that you need to prepare for, the needs and demands of your audience, the movement and shifts in the marketplace, and the opportunities that you should grab can make you become more well-rounded and multifaceted when drafting the market research proposal that you would like to present. You may also check out project proposal examples .

4. A market research proposal can discuss the milestones that are expected to be achieved by the business with the help of market research strategies and general action plans . Hence, this document can persuade and convince its target audience that a proposed market research activity must be approved especially if expected results can excessively benefit the business or provide a solution to its current issues, problems, and concerns.

Sample Marketing Research Proposal Example

Size: 90 KB

Proposal for Marketing Research and Market Intelligence Example

Size: 607 KB

Market Research and Analysis Report for Proposal Referencing Example

Size: 152 KB

Market Research Proposal Content

Different market research proposals have different sections, clauses, or areas of discussion. The content of a market research proposal depends on the purpose of its usage, the scope of the activity, the expected returns of the business, the professional goals of the market research, and the relation of the document’s usage to the vision of the business.

Even if there are differences when it comes to the information that you can see in many market research proposals used in various industries, there are still common or usual information that is seen in any market research proposal. Some of the details that are essential to be included in a market research proposal are as follows:

1. Develop a hypothesis. This is very important as you need to present the potential impacts of the market research proposal when implemented. This can also help you identify the ways on how you can interlink or align all the elements that are essential for the successful execution of all the market research proposal’s areas. You may also see short proposal examples .

2. Present an overview of the market research activities that you would like the business to consider. You have to sum up the intent of the market research as well as the output that you expect from it. More so, you have to discuss the feasibility, attainability, and sustainability of your general plans . Being able to showcase these strengths can help your market research proposal become more appealing and relevant.

3. Just like when making a development project proposal , use a timeline that can give an idea of the entire duration of the market research proposal’s actual usage. You have to set time frames where specific deliverables should be seen or observed already. With this, you can ensure your target audience that the proposal is time-bound and realistic.

4. Especially if you will use technical terms, a proper definition of terms is highly suggested to be included in your market research proposal. This part of the document can make the general proposal more understandable for any reasonable person.

5. Know your targets so you can easily come up with the methodology that is relevant to your needs. All the practices and activities that you would like to immerse in should be thoroughly defined in the document so that the general analysis of the measures of your proposal can be objectively done.

6. Discuss the current market conditions in the marketplace where your business belongs. Aside from the trends that you need to consider, you also have to list down the opportunities that the business can take to help it achieve its goals and return of investments.

Marketing Information Management System Research Proposal Example

Size: 399 KB

Research Proposal Usable for Market Study Example

Size: 99 KB

Market Research and Developing a Marketing Plan Proposal Example

Market Research Conduct and Proposal Drafting Example

Size: 131 KB

Discussion Flow for a Simple Market Research Proposal

The format and discussion flow of the market research proposal can contribute to the document’s successes, or the lack thereof. This is the reason why you have to be careful with how you will present the market research proposal to your audience. You have to ensure that the document is visually pleasing and well-organized so that people will not have a hard time reviewing its content. You may also see  freelance proposal examples .

A basic discussion flow that you can use when presenting the details of your market research proposal are listed below:

• The title of your market research  proposal sample
• The date when the market research proposal has been made and the dates of its updates
• The name of the company who can benefit from the document
• The name of the person who prepared the proposal and the department or division where he or she is assigned at
• The executive summary of the market research proposal
• The objectives of the market research proposal
• The current condition of the business and the market as well as other important existing knowledge
• The expected output of the document’s usage, when approved
• The demographics targeted by the business with the help of the market research proposal
• The processes of data gathering, collection, assessment, and presentation
• The methodology that will be applied for the  research project plan intended for a particular market
• The dates and periods where particular tasks should already be done
• The budget proposed by the team or the individual who made the proposal
• Any ethical considerations that must be looked into before the implementation of the market research

Proposal to Conduct Consumer Experience of Care Surveys or Market Research

Size: 103 KB

Request for Proposal for Solicitation for Contract for Market Research Example

Size: 344 KB

Marketing Research Group Project Proposal Example

Marketing Research Firm Proposal Example

Size: 477 KB

Tips to Develop an Impressive Market Research Proposal

Aside from having an advertising and marketing business plan , you should also have a market research plan. It is not enough for you to rely on your knowledge about the things that you can control. You also have to think of the elements that are not within your hands like the trends in the marketplace and the reaction of your audience and competition with regards to these trends and/or any other market changes.

Listed below are a few of the tips that you can use if you want to develop an impressive market research proposal for your business:

1. Since a market research proposal is one of the first documents that you will be needing for your market research, you have to ensure that the content of the document is flexible enough to adapt to possible changes within the development of the market research planning and implementation phases. You have to ensure that there are windows where appropriate changes can be inserted as well as channels, mediums, or platforms where you can incorporate backup plans when necessary or called for.

2. Keep in mind that the language and tone that you will use when creating the content of the market research proposal must be highly considered.

You have to ensure that the document is formal, business-appropriate, and compelling. Aside from the fact that the market research proposal is expected to be complete with all the details about your proposed market research plan, it is also imperative for you to make sure that the document is understandable, well-defined, and clear. You may also see security proposal examples .

3. Know the basics of market research proposal organization. There are different kinds of structures that you can look into so that your market research proposal can look cohesive and well put together.

The structure of the document should depend on the length of your discussion, the details that you will incorporate in your market research undertakings, and the key factors that you need to give focus and highlight on when presenting the complexity of the market research. You may also like budget proposal examples .

It will rather be more efficient for you if you plan to use references like templates and examples while preparing your market research proposal.

Maximize the help that you can get from the downloadable examples in this post as well as the related discussion that we have presented. Always ensure that there is an organization in the procedures of market research proposal development so you can be well-guided in terms of getting the output that you would like to have for your market research undertaking.

Text prompt

• Instructive
• Professional

Generate a proposal for a new school recycling program

Compose a proposal for a school field trip to a science museum.

• UCL-Wits University Strategic Partner Funds 2023-24

UCL-Wits University Strategic Partner Funds 2024-25

UCL and the University of Witwatersrand (Wits) are pleased to invite proposals to support collaborative research initiatives through a joint call for proposals.

The 2024/25 funding call will close on 21 June 2024, 11:59 pm BST

The office of the Vice-Provost (Research, Innovation and Global Engagement) at University College London (UCL) and the University of Witwatersrand (Wits) are pleased to invite proposals to support collaborative research initiatives through a joint call for proposals.

• This call invites proposals for a) UCL-Wits bilateral projects and b) trilateral/multilateral Wits-UCL-ARUA projects in areas of mutual interest and complementary strengths. 
• Proposals should be led by a Principal Investigator at each institution (one at UCL and one at Wits) and can include a wider group of participants at each partner, as appropriate to the activities proposed. 
• Applicants involving ARUA partners should demonstrate how they contribute to strengthening the African research narrative by enhancing connections and closer relationships between Wits, UCL and wider African research institutions. 
• Applications must demonstrate how the proposed activity will provide a platform for longer-term, larger-scale collaboration between UCL and Wits in the relevant field, for example, by providing a basis for ongoing joint research and education activity and / or applications to external bodies for research grant funding. Applications from any field are welcome. 
• Applications from UCL and Wits staff that meet the eligibility criteria under section 2 are welcome; those that build best practice across early career researchers and support emerging research collaborations are particularly encouraged to apply. 
• Up to six joint projects will be selected for funding (four awards for the UCL-Wits bilateral projects and two awards for the trilateral/multilateral Wits-UCL-ARUA projects).  
• Proposals will be assessed by a committee composed of members from both institutions. 

Eligibility

• Professor or equivalent
• Associate Professor/ Reader or equivalent
• Senior Lecturer/Principal Researcher/Principal Research Associate or equivalent
• Lecturer/Senior Research Associate or equivalent
• Post Doc/Researcher/Research Associate or equivalent
• Applicants from UCL must have an open-ended UCL contract or a fixed-term contract which lasts until at least July 2025.
• Applicants are not required to have a doctorate to apply but do need to hold a role at one of the levels described above.
• PhD students are not eligible to apply but are encouraged to take part in the project.
• UCL Professional Service & VP Office staff are not eligible to apply but can take part in the project where this supports the aims and objective.
• Principal Investigators from UCL should be aware of changes made to the 2024/25 GE (Global Engagement) Partner Fund process relating to the number of applications that can be submitted per Investigator across all calls, the number of awards that can received, and eligibility for award holders from the 23/24 round. See further details in the information text box of the Partner Funds webpage here . 
• academic / research staff or
• post-doctoral fellows.
• Must have a PhD.
• Applicants from Wits must be permanently employed or on a fixed-term contract which lasts until at least July 2025.

Collaborative Activities

Funding can support a broad range of activities as appropriate to the aims and objectives of the collaboration. This includes, but is not limited to:  

• Joint seminar(s)/workshop(s) with UCL & Wits partners (remotely or in person) which might lead to joint publications, future research collaborations, grant applications, or other follow up activity. Funding may be used for external services required to facilitate the event, e.g. professional moderation or technical support.
• Meetings, or preliminary scoping work and baseline research/data gathering, to underpin the preparation of a long-term collaborative partnership (e.g. preparation of a PhD summer school, double degree, future exchange agreement, etc).
• Stipends for research assistants and interns. UCL student casual wage costs for working on the collaboration can be covered, as can travel, accommodation and subsistence essential to the activity, in line with UCL’s expense policy, sustainability agenda and coronavirus guidance. Please note that teaching buyouts are not eligible.

What cannot be funded by the UCL-Wits Strategic Partner Funds?

• Activity which does not involve UCL & Wits partners; work for which there is already a significant existing funding stream; activity that has already happened.
• Costings should be appropriate and relevant to the activity, for example the provision of alcoholic beverages for partners is not considered a valuable use of funds, unless it can be described how hospitality is critical for the building of this relationship or necessary/culturally significant for an event e.g., a public exhibition.
• Items which would normally be included in a research or teaching grant. This seed funding supports and develops UCL & Wits collaboration and lacks the scale and resources to support the core components of a research or teaching project.
• A Work tribe costing for UCL applicants is NOT necessary for UCL-Wits Strategic Partner Funds.
• Teaching time buyout cannot be funded.

Value and Duration

The maximum funding that a successful project could receive would be £5000 for the UCL-Wits bilateral projects (roughly R119000) and £10000 (roughly R238400 for the trilateral/multilateral Wits-UCL-ARUA award). Funding will be jointly provided by UCL and Wits. However, only one proposal per project should be submitted.

Please note that British and South African universities have different financial years, and this will have an impact on funding schedule. Funds provided by UCL must be spent by 31 July 2025, whereas funds provided by Wits must be spent by 31 December 2025. Applicants should take this into account when planning their proposed activity.

How to apply

• For further inquiries and questions, we will be holding an online information session on 5th June 2024. Registration for the information session will be launched in parallel with the call launching on this link . 
• Proposals should be prepared and submitted jointly. Only one proposal should be submitted per project.  
• Proposals should be submitted through the 'Apply now' button below. Please note, only UCL applicants can access the online application system. 
• Proposals must be submitted  by 21st June 2024 . 

Mustafa Sakr Global Engagement Manager (Africa and the Middle East) Email: [email protected]

Dr Mahomed Moolla Head of Strategic Partnerships Email: [email protected]

Keep up to date 

For the latest news about UCL’s international activity, partnerships and opportunities, subscribe to the bimonthly   Global Update newsletter . 

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Funding from ucl rige.

GE's funding streams are part of UCL Research, Innovation & Global Engagement (RIGE)'s wider funding calls. Find out more about the other funding calls under UCL RIGE  here .

Meta Submits Changes to UK Privacy Compliance Proposals, CMA Says

FILE PHOTO: A security guard stands watch by the Meta sign outside the headquarters of Facebook parent company Meta Platforms Inc in Mountain View, California, U.S. November 9, 2022. REUTERS/Peter DaSilva/File Photo

(Reuters) - Meta Platforms has offered to limit the use of certain data from all advertisers on its Facebook Marketplace platform, as part of amendments to the proposals accepted by the Competition Market Authority (CMA) in November, the regulator said on Friday.

The CMA had accepted commitments from Meta in November that would prevent the social media giant from "exploiting" its advertising customers' data.

Those proposals included giving competitors that advertise on its platforms the ability to opt out of having their data used for improving Facebook Marketplace.

The British competition watchdog has accepted the proposed changes on a provisional basis and is inviting views from interested third parties on the matter. The consultation closes on June 14.

Other changes, if any, to Meta's proposals, accepted earlier, were not disclosed.

Amazon.com in November also committed to not using marketplace data from rival sellers to ensure an even playing field for third-party sellers.

(Reporting by Zaheer Kachwala in Bengaluru; Editing by Tasim Zahid)

Copyright 2024 Thomson Reuters .

Tags: United States , United Kingdom , Europe

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This paper is in the following e-collection/theme issue:

Published on 27.5.2024 in Vol 26 (2024)

Assessing the Content and Effect of Web-Based Decision Aids for Postmastectomy Breast Reconstruction: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials

Authors of this article:

• Lin Yu 1 , MD   ; 
• Jianmei Gong 1 , PhD   ; 
• Xiaoting Sun 1 , MD   ; 
• Min Zang 1 , MD   ; 
• Lei Liu 1 * , PhD   ; 
• Shengmiao Yu 2 * , BS  

1 School of Nursing, Liaoning University of Chinese Traditional Medicine, Shenyang, China

2 Outpatient Department, The Fourth Affiliated Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China

*these authors contributed equally

Corresponding Author:

Lei Liu, PhD

School of Nursing, Liaoning University of Chinese Traditional Medicine

No.79 Chongshan Dong Road

Shenyang, 110000

Phone: 86 17824909908

Email: [email protected]

Background: Web-based decision aids have been shown to have a positive effect when used to improve the quality of decision-making for women facing postmastectomy breast reconstruction (PMBR). However, the existing findings regarding these interventions are still incongruent, and the overall effect is unclear.

Objective: We aimed to assess the content of web-based decision aids and its impact on decision-related outcomes (ie, decision conflict, decision regret, informed choice, and knowledge), psychological-related outcomes (ie, satisfaction and anxiety), and surgical decision-making in women facing PMBR.

Methods: This systematic review and meta-analysis followed the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines. A total of 6 databases, PubMed, Embase, Cochrane Library, CINAHL, PsycINFO, and Web of Science Core Collection, were searched starting at the time of establishment of the databases to May 2023, and an updated search was conducted on April 1, 2024. MeSH (Medical Subject Headings) terms and text words were used. The Cochrane Risk of Bias Tool for randomized controlled trials was used to assess the risk of bias. The certainty of evidence was assessed using the Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation approach.

Results: In total, 7 studies included 579 women and were published between 2008 and 2023, and the sample size in each study ranged from 26 to 222. The results showed that web-based decision aids used audio and video to present the pros and cons of PMBR versus no PMBR, implants versus flaps, and immediate versus delayed PMBR and the appearance and feel of the PMBR results and the expected recovery time with photographs of actual patients. Web-based decision aids help improve PMBR knowledge, decisional conflict (mean difference [MD]=–5.43, 95% CI –8.87 to –1.99; P =.002), and satisfaction (standardized MD=0.48, 95% CI 0.00 to 0.95; P =.05) but have no effect on informed choice (MD=–2.80, 95% CI –8.54 to 2.94; P =.34), decision regret (MD=–1.55, 95% CI –6.00 to 2.90 P =.49), or anxiety (standardized MD=0.04, 95% CI –0.50 to 0.58; P =.88). The overall Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation quality of the evidence was low.

Conclusions: The findings suggest that the web-based decision aids provide a modern, low-cost, and high dissemination rate effective method to promote the improved quality of decision-making in women undergoing PMBR.

Trial Registration: PROSPERO CRD42023450496; https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/display_record.php?RecordID=450496

Introduction

Breast cancer (BC) is a major global health problem. In 2020, more than 2.3 million newly diagnosed cases and 685,000 deaths were associated with BC [ 1 ]. There has been a gradual increase in the incidence of BC globally over the past few decades, which has been attributed to lifestyle changes (eg, increase in BMI and decrease in birth rate), as well as an increase in screening detection as BC becomes more recognized [ 2 - 4 ]. Although BC has the highest incidence rate among all types of cancer, its mortality rate declined by 43% between 1989 and 2020, and it is concentrated in larger areas [ 2 , 5 ]. Advances in the early detection and treatment of BC have improved patient survival rates, which, in turn, have led to an increased focus on improving the quality of life of the survivors of BC. The surgical approach to BC is complex and usually involves the decision to undergo breast-conserving surgery and mastectomy. For women undergoing mastectomy, the change in appearance due to the missing breast can lead to various types of psychological problems including physical imagery discomfort, psychological distress, anxiety, and depression [ 6 ]. Postmastectomy breast reconstruction (PMBR) is now an option for women to restore their appearance [ 7 ].

However, when women face a PMBR decision, they must decide whether to use PMBR, and if they choose to do so, they should further decide on the timing and type of PMBR (ie, implant, autologous tissue, or combination) [ 8 , 9 ]. Delayed autologous PMBR results in a localized or regional recurrence rate similar to immediate PMBR [ 10 ]. A BC diagnosis can leave patients feeling anxious and uncertain, which is often exacerbated by presenting multiple, complex treatment options for women to choose from in a short period [ 11 ]. Most patients with BC who are considering PMBR immediately have clinically substantially decision conflict [ 12 , 13 ]. Patients experience postoperative complications leading to decision regret [ 14 ]. These issues can lead to poorer health outcomes, negative perceptions of the health care system, and lower quality of life [ 14 , 15 ]. Therefore, more preoperative patient education about possible complications includes the patient’s anatomy, which PMBR to choose, the associated pros and cons, and previous surgical and medication history. Women should be fully informed of their options and given the tools to weigh the pros and cons of each option, which may reduce the incidence of these adverse effects [ 16 ]. At the same time, personalized medicine is increasingly becoming the standard of care for patients with BC [ 17 ], and based on the current evidence, patients should have equal access to all eligible PMBR options [ 10 ]. In a sample of 126 patients who underwent mastectomy, a minority of patients made high-quality decisions about PMBR. Specifically, 43.3% of patients were adequately informed and accepted treatment decisions that were consistent with their preferences [ 11 ]. Therefore, patients and providers must work together through dialogue to optimize treatment options and engage in shared decision-making. However, it is not easy for inexperienced physicians to perform shared decision-making in an orderly and correct manner in a limited amount of time [ 18 ]. Decision aids may be helpful before a patient decides to undergo PMBR. Some studies [ 19 ] also suggest that decision aids may be helpful for some women even after undergoing a PMBR, as some women exhibit decision conflicts after the consultation. Decision aids are powerful tools to support patients in making informed choices based on their own values and are available via the internet, DVDs, and printed materials [ 20 ]. With the increasing popularity of the internet worldwide, web-based dissemination of information has been recognized as one of the most promising of all available formats (eg, leaflets, brochures, audio, and video) for delivering decision aids to patients. Web-based decision aids are characterized as being interactive, dynamic, and customizable [ 21 ]. On the one hand, web-based decision aids have a greater advantage in facilitating patient access than face-to-face interaction with physicians. On the other hand, decision aids on the internet can store and disseminate information over a longer period than traditional, static decision aids and can personalize the visit according to the patient’s values and preferences [ 21 - 23 ].

Prior Research

Paraskeva et al [ 24 ] conducted a systematic review exploring the effectiveness of interventions to assist women in making decisions about PMBR, which consisted of 6 studies with mixed results in terms of knowledge, decision-making, overall satisfaction, and quality of life. Berlin et al [ 25 ] assessed PMBR decision aids in a systematic review and meta-analysis, concluding that PMBR reduces decision conflict, improves information satisfaction, promotes participation in the decision-making process, and enhances the awareness of participation in the decision-making process. However, the authors included all types of trials (ie, quantitative and qualitative) and only meta-analyzed decision conflict. This review also did not include the effects of decision aids on outcome indicators such as psychologically relevant outcomes. Yang et al [ 26 ] conducted a meta-analysis exploring the effects of decision aids on decision-making in PMBR; however, the authors did not compare whether different forms of decision aids would have different effects. Zhao et al [ 27 ] conducted a scoping review with the aim of reviewing, comparing, and discussing the current incorporation of the adverse effects of BC treatments into decision aids and examined how web-based decision aids personalized BC treatment decision-making tools in patient–health care provider communication, clinician decision-making processes, and shared decision-making, as yet unassessed patient outcomes (eg, knowledge and anxiety). In summary, there is a lack of descriptions of the impact of web-based decision aids on the decision-making of women facing PMBR. Overall, existing systematic evaluations on related topics have produced mixed results, and more importantly, many primary trials [ 28 - 31 ], following these reviews, have produced conflicting results, which may provide new evidence. Therefore, there is a need for a new systematic evaluation to provide a comprehensive overview of the effectiveness of web-based decision aids on the quality of decision-making for women faced with PMBR, drawn from all available evidence from randomized controlled trials (RCTs) that meet high standards for evidence-based research.

The aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to assess the content of the web-based decision aids and evaluate their effectiveness on decision-related outcomes (ie, decision conflict, decision regret, informed choice, and knowledge), psychological-related outcomes (ie, satisfaction and anxiety), and surgical decision-making in women facing PMBR.

This is a systematic review and meta-analysis reported in accordance with PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses; Multimedia Appendix 1 ) guidelines [ 32 ]. The protocol was registered in PROSPERO (CRD42023450496).

Eligibility and Exclusion Criteria

An overview of the inclusion and exclusion criteria can be found in Textbox 1 .

• The population included in the study was aged ≥18 years and women who had been diagnosed with breast cancer (BC) and were considering postmastectomy breast reconstruction (PMBR) but had not yet had the surgery and had internet access. If the patient, at the time of enrollment, had attempted PMBR; did not have BC (ie, were considering prophylactic mastectomy); and had an active psychiatric, cognitive, or visual impairment, they were not eligible.

Intervention

• Studies focusing on web-based decision aids (including websites and apps)
• Controls for usual care, counseling, health education pamphlets, and non–web-based decision aids
• The primary outcomes were decision-related outcomes (ie, informed choice, knowledge, decision conflict, and decision regret); psychological outcomes (ie, satisfaction and anxiety); and PMBR options and tool usability (ie, women’s feedback on use)
• Randomized controlled trials

Search Strategy

A systematic search of studies was carried out using English databases such as PubMed, Embase, Cochrane Library, CINAHL, PsycINFO, and Web of Science Core Collection from the date of inception of each database to May 2023, and an updated search was conducted on April 1, 2024, to cover new research. Medical Subject Headings terms and text words were used. The keywords used included “Mastectomy,” “mammaplasty,” “mastectomy,” “informed choice*,” “shared decision making,” “computer,” “web based,” and “Internet,” which are English search terms. These index terms and keywords were explored and modified according to the different grammatical rules of the database. Specific details of the search algorithm are available in Multimedia Appendix 2 . The reference lists of the included studies and relevant articles were hand-searched to identify other potentially eligible articles. The search was limited to articles in English and had no limitations with regard to publication year.

The results were input into EndNote X9, and duplicates were removed automatically. After removing duplicates, 2 reviewers independently screened the titles and abstracts of identified articles and removed irrelevant citations in accordance with the selection criteria. After the removal of irrelevant studies, the full texts of potentially relevant studies were retrieved. Next, both reviewers independently assessed the full texts. Any disagreements were settled by discussion with a third reviewer.

Data Extraction

Characteristics of the included RCTs (eg, author, year of publication, country, sample size, subject characteristics, form, content, development method and team, theoretical basis, duration of use, reading level, a brief description of the intervention in the control group, outcome measurements, follow-up, and results) were extracted into tables. We wrote to the authors to obtain more information about the results. Two reviewers compared the findings independently.

Risk of Bias Assessment

The quality of RCTs was evaluated using the Cochrane Handbook for RCTs [ 33 ]. The tool consists of 7 items: randomized sequence generation, allocation concealment, participant and personnel blinding, blinding for outcome assessment, incomplete outcome, data selective reporting, and other bias. The risk of bias for each domain was judged as low risk of bias, high risk of bias, or unclear risk of bias. The evaluation of study quality was performed independently by 2 reviewers, and a third reviewer was consulted if necessary.

Statistical Analysis

Statistical analysis was performed using Review Manager (version 5.3; Cochrane), illustrated using a forest plot when at least 2 studies were measured for the same outcomes for a PMBR decision at the longest follow-up time point [ 34 , 35 ]. We used mean differences (MDs) for continuous variables that were measured with the same instrument, standardized MDs (SMDs) when a similar outcome was assessed with different instruments, and relative risks for dichotomous variables. We calculated possible missing values such as SD and 95% CI [ 33 ]. In the study, heterogeneity was assessed via the Higgins I 2 statistic with I 2 values of ≤25%, 50%, and ≥75% deemed to represent low, medium, and high heterogeneity, respectively [ 33 ]. When there was no significant heterogeneity, the fixed effects model ( I 2 ≤50%) was used; otherwise, the random effects model was used, resulting in a more conservative summary effect estimate [ 33 ]. To identify potential sources of clinical heterogeneity, we also conducted a post hoc sensitivity analysis to determine the stability of the results by omitting each test [ 36 ].

Study Selection

Figure 1 shows the research selection process and results based on the PRISMA 2020 guidelines. A total of 844 studies were identified. A total of 129 of these studies were excluded because they were repetitive. After selecting titles and abstracts, 21 studies were included for the next stage. Consequently, 7 studies met the inclusion criteria.

Study Characteristics

The 7 studies included 579 women and were published between 2008 and 2023, and the sample size in each study ranged from 26 to 222. The average age of the women was approximately 50 years; they were in the early stages of BC and facing the PMBR decision. The studies were conducted in 3 countries; 6 studies were conducted in high-income countries—4 in the United States [ 30 , 31 , 37 , 38 ] and 2 in Australia [ 29 , 39 ]—and 1 in an upper–middle-income country, China [ 28 ]. Detailed characteristics of the included studies are shown in Table 1 .

a BC: breast cancer.

b DCS: Decision Conflict Scale.

c BR-DMPS: Breast Reconstruction-Decision-Making Process Scale.

d DRS: Decision Regret Scale.

e BIS: Body Image Scale.

f HADS: Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale.

g DC: decisional conflict.

h DR: decisional regret.

i STAI: State-Trait Anxiety Inventory.

j BR: breast reconstruction.

k DQI: Decision Quality Index.

l DASS-21: Depression Anxiety Stress Scale.

m SSQ-6: Social Support Questionnaire.

Characteristics of the Interventions and Controls

The characteristics of the interventions and controls are shown in Multimedia Appendix 3 [ 28 - 31 , 37 - 39 ].

Characteristics of the Interventions

In total, 5 of the studies [ 28 - 30 , 38 , 39 ] explained that the web-based decision aids development team includes survivors of BC who have undergone mastectomy, plastic or reconstructive surgeons who perform PMBR, and software engineers. The methodology used to develop web-based decision aids includes qualitative research, evidence review and mentoring, and pilot study group meetings. The theoretical basis for the development of web-based decision aids is usually the International Patient Decision Aid Standards [ 29 , 30 , 39 ] or the Ottawa Decision Support Framework [ 28 ]. Except for 2 studies [ 28 , 37 ] that did not report the time of use, most web-based decision aids took between 20 and 74 minutes. Two web-based decision aids [ 29 , 30 , 39 ] were developed at a reading level written at a seventh- and eighth-grade reading level. The web-based decision aids content specifically includes the patient population and reconstruction options, including implant reconstruction (ie, tissue expanders and implant types), autologous flap reconstruction (ie, latissimus dorsi, rectus abdominis, and free flaps and deep epithelial perforator flaps in the lower abdomen), and skin-sparing and preserving mastectomies (ie, 1-phase and 2-phase procedures). There are also contraindications and general eligibility criteria. Timing of reconstruction includes immediate versus delayed reconstruction, as well as factors that influence the type and timing of reconstruction. It also includes information about the pros and cons of reconstruction versus no reconstruction, implants versus flaps, immediate versus delayed reconstruction, the look and feel of PMBR, and the expected recovery time. The probability of possible implant (eg, wrinkled breast appearance, periosteal contracture after radiation therapy, and possible need for implant replacement over time) and flap (eg, muscle weakness and flap failure) are clearly described in a balanced format with quotes of real patients’ opinions. The web-based decision aids show photographs, high-quality 3D animated images, pre- and postoperative photographs, audio, and video of actual patients of different skin colors and body types, A list of frequently asked questions from clinicians is also included. Elements in the tool include patient-tailored risk assessments, patient value clarification exercises, techniques for managing emotions, and strategies for communicating with family members about PMBR decisions. Women’s stories explaining their reasons for choosing particular methods and their impact on their lives are also included. Users enter their questions and the system prompts them to print a summary to use in a consultation with their physician. This customized printable page also helps patients discuss their concerns and options with their families.

Characteristics of the Controls

The control for the study by Politi et al [ 30 ] was the enhanced urgent care and American Society of Plastic Surgeons pamphlet on PMBR. Varelas et al [ 31 ] used traditional counseling. The control for the study by Fang et al [ 28 ] was the provider-provided urgent care+pamphlet, which describes the types of surgery, including mastectomy, implant-based PMBR, and autologous PMBR, as well as the advantages and disadvantages of the different types of surgeries. The control for the study by Manne et al [ 38 ] was the 56-page pamphlet available at no cost from the Cancer Support Community focusing on PMBR. For the study by Sherman et al [ 39 ], the control was the web-based access to excerpts of the public brochure, including basic information on breast surgery and reconstruction, but excluding content unique to the intervention group (ie, video interviews with patients or surgeons, and values clarification exercises). In the study by Mardinger et al [ 29 ], the control was the decision aids, which is unvalidated that contains 6 text-based pages that can be accessed in both interactive and noninteractive formats. The control for the study by Heller et al [ 37 ] was the group that received the standard patient education, including printed materials in books and pamphlets as well as personal instruction from the attending physician, physician-in-training, physician assistant, and nurse practitioner.

Outcome Measure

A total of 5 studies [ 28 , 29 , 31 , 38 , 39 ] measured decision conflict using the Decision Conflict Scale (DCS), and 1 study [ 30 ] measured decision conflict using the 4-item SURE scale. Three studies [ 28 , 29 , 39 ] measured decision regret using the Decision Regret Scale (DRS) and 2 studies [ 28 , 29 ] measured informed choice using the subdimension of the DCS—feeling informed. Knowledge was measured primarily by the percentage of correct answers to self-administered multiple-choice questions about specific plastic surgery procedures in 6 studies [ 28 - 31 , 37 , 38 ]. Satisfaction was measured using the Satisfaction with Decision Scale [ 29 ] and some scales adapted from those used in previous studies [ 28 , 37 - 39 ]. Anxiety was primarily measured using the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale [ 28 ] and the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory [ 31 , 38 ].

Decision-Related Outcomes

Decision conflict.

In total, 6 studies [ 28 - 31 , 38 , 39 ] investigated the impact of decision conflicts in PMBR. The 5 studies [ 28 , 29 , 31 , 38 , 39 ] that used DCS included in the meta-analysis showed a statistically significant positive impact of web-based decision aids interventions on decision conflict (MD=–5.43, 95% CI –8.87 to –1.99; P =.002). Heterogeneity experiments indicated that there was evidence of statistical heterogeneity in the expected summary results ( I 2 =63%; Figure 2 ). Politi et al [ 30 ] used the 4-item SURE DCS and reported that there was no difference between the 2 groups in terms of decisional conflict ( P >.05).

Decision Regret

In total, 3 studies [ 28 , 29 , 39 ] used DRS to investigate the impact of decision regret in PMBR. The meta-analysis showed that the difference in decision regret after the intervention was not statistically significant compared with the control group (MD=–1.55, 95% CI –6.00 to 2.90; P =.49). Heterogeneity experiments indicated that there was evidence of no statistical heterogeneity in the expected summary results ( I 2 =0%; Figure 2 ).

Informed Choice

In total, 2 studies [ 28 , 29 ] investigated the impact of informed choice by DCS in PMBR surgery. The meta-analysis showed that the difference in informed choice after the intervention was not statistically significant compared to the control group (MD=–2.80, 95% CI –8.54 to 2.94; P =.34). Heterogeneity experiments indicate that there was evidence of no statistical heterogeneity in the expected summary results ( I 2 =0%; Figure 2 ).

We did not conduct a meta-analysis of knowledge as an outcome because most of the instruments measuring knowledge were self-administered. The study by Heller et al [ 37 ] found significantly higher levels of knowledge in the web-based decision aids group, with a mean increase in correctly answered questions of 14% compared to 8% in the control group ( P =.02). Politi et al [ 30 ] found that participants using web-based decision aids had higher objective knowledge, answering an average of 85% (9.35/11) of the questions correctly compared to 58% (6.35/11) in the control group ( P <.001). Similarly, Varlas et al [ 31 ] showed improved knowledge assessment scores in both groups but significantly higher knowledge assessment scores in the intervention group (control=70.8%, SD 15.5%; intervention=83.1%, SD 13.8%; P =.02). However, Manne et al [ 38 ] reported similar effects of web-based decision aids on PMBR knowledge versus the booklet, and Fang et al [ 28 ] also reported no difference in the amount of PMBR-related medical information between web-based decision aids and the control group at 1 week after consultation ( P =.13), suggesting that women in both groups had a similar level of comprehension of medical information, whether using the booklet alone or in combination with the web-based decision aids. Mardinger et al [ 29 ] also reported that both groups had similar scores on the true or false PMBR knowledge questionnaire over time ( P >.05).

Psychological Outcomes

Satisfaction.

In total, 5 studies [ 28 , 29 , 31 , 38 , 39 ] used different scales to investigate the impact of satisfaction. The meta-analyses indicated that web-based decision aids may improve current form:satisfaction compared to controls, but the results were not statistically significant (SMD=0.48, 95% CI 0.00 to 0.95; P =.05). Heterogeneity experiments indicated that there was evidence of statistical heterogeneity in the expected summary results ( I 2 =79%; Figure 3 ). Similarly, Heller et al [ 37 ] reported a higher level of satisfaction with the way in which information about PMBR was obtained in the web-based decision aids group than in the control group ( P =.03).

A total of 3 studies used Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale and State-Trait Anxiety Inventory [ 28 , 31 , 38 ] to investigate the impact of anxiety in PMBR. The meta-analysis showed that there was no statistically significant difference in the combination of SMD after intervention (SMD=0.04, 95% CI –0.50 to 0.58; P =.88). Heterogeneity experiments indicated that there was evidence of statistical heterogeneity in the expected summary results ( I 2 =61%; Figure 3 ). Heller et al [ 37 ] reported that in the web-based decision aids group, there was a trend toward lower levels of anxiety between the preoperative and postoperative visits, but the difference between the groups was not significant as determined by generalized estimating equation modeling.

Choice of Surgery

The surgical choices differed between the two groups in the study by Fang et al [ 28 ]: 56% (27/48) in the web-based decision aids group and 46% (22/48) in the control group opted for immediate PMBR ( P =.05). In addition, most patients chose implantable PMBR, with no difference between groups. Notably, the web-based decision aids group in the study by Mardinger et al [ 29 ] was unbalanced in terms of the choice of type of PMBR, with 10 (36%) women in the web-based decision aids group refusing PMBR compared with 6 (21%) women in the control group ( P =.20). The results of the study by Politi et al [ 30 ] showed that 95 (79.2%) women underwent reconstruction; among them, nearly all (92/95, 97%) underwent immediate PMBR, and there were no differences between groups in median preference scores for reconstruction, type, or time.

Evaluation of the Intervention

In total, 3 studies reported different benefits of web-based decision aids compared to controls. Heller et al [ 37 ] reported an upward trend in the number of patients in the web-based decision aids group who reported that they received all the necessary information and improved their ability to choose a PMBR plan, but the difference between the groups was not significant. Manne et al [ 38 ] reported that 81% of participants in the web-based decision aids found logging in and navigating easy and the length of time was rated as “just right,” and that the web-based decision aids were more helpful, interesting, and valuable than the brochures. Sherman et al [ 39 ] found that women in the intervention group found the web-based decision aids to be 2.94 (SD 0.76) informative, very useful, easy to use, contained enough information, and helped them to clarify their reconstruction ideas. However, Varelas et al [ 31 ] reported that surgeon satisfaction was also significantly higher in the intervention group than in the control group. Meanwhile, consultation time was shorter in the intervention group, but the difference was not statistically significant ( P =.46). Similarly, Politi et al [ 30 ] reported no difference between the web-based decision aids group and the control group in terms of mean counseling time after the intervention (29.7 vs 30.0 minutes; P >.05). Mardinger et al [ 29 ] showed that although women used both decision aids with comparable frequency, the total time spent counseling and the time spent per counseling session was significantly greater for women in the intervention than that for the control group ( P <.05). Women in the study by Fang et al [ 28 ] indicated no difference between the 2 groups in terms of perceived impact and utility of web-based decision aids on PMBR decisions.

Sensitivity Analysis

We conducted sensitivity analyses of decision conflict, satisfaction, and anxiety by removing each study. Sensitivity analysis showed that for decision conflict and satisfaction, after removing 1 study [ 31 ], contrary to the previous results, web-based decision aids did improve satisfaction (the I 2 range was 79%-12%) but did not improve decision conflict (the I 2 range was 63%-2%). We found that by removing the study by Manne et al [ 38 ], the stability of anxiety did not change but the heterogeneity was reduced from 62% to 0% ( Figure 4 ).

Risk of Bias

Figure 5 [ 28 - 31 , 37 - 39 ] presents the summary of the risk of deviation for the included studies. In 6 [ 28 - 31 , 37 , 39 ] of the 7 studies, the description of the method used in random assignment was clearly stated (ie, web-based automated randomization software and random number generator), and in the remaining study [ 38 ], the information obtained about random assignment was insufficient to make a definitive judgment. Of the 7 studies, 5 [ 30 , 31 , 37 - 39 ] were unable to make definitive judgments in this area because of underreporting, whereas in the remaining 2 trials [ 28 , 29 ] sufficient information was obtained about allocation concealment (individually sealed envelopes to conceal allocation). Furthermore, 6 studies [ 28 - 30 , 37 - 39 ] were judged to be at unclear risk of bias because the effect of unblinding was unknown, and 1 study [ 31 ] described the blinding of participants. Seven studies [ 28 - 31 , 37 - 39 ] achieved blinding of outcome evaluators (ie, clinic and surgical staff were blinded to condition assignment) or the blinding was unclear, but the outcome was objectively measured and not subjective to interpretation. Incomplete outcome data appeared to be adequately addressed in 7 studies [ 28 - 31 , 37 - 39 ] (ie, incomplete data were fairly evenly balanced across intervention groups or intention-to-treat analyses were reported). In addition, 3 studies [ 28 , 30 , 39 ] underwent clinical registration or reported relevant protocols, showing that outcomes were reported in full. The impact of selective reporting in the remaining 4 studies [ 29 , 31 , 37 , 38 ] was unclear, and this area was judged to be at unclear risk of bias. Information on other potential sources of bias was sufficient. Therefore, this area was judged to be at low risk of bias for all studies [ 28 - 31 , 37 - 39 ].

Certainty of Evidence

We assessed the certainty of evidence for the included RCTs using Grades of Recommendation Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE; Multimedia Appendix 4 ) except for decision regret, for which the certainty of evidence was low. The certainty of evidence was very low for the rest, that is, decision conflict, satisfaction, anxiety, and informed choice.

Principal Findings

Our systematic review and meta-analysis showed that the modules of web-based decision aids include basic information on PMBR, patient stories, risk assessment, value clarification, and emotion management and that patients can be directed to seek information and obtain personalized decision support based on their individual needs. Therefore, these web-based decision aids are helpful and recommended for women. Regarding the effectiveness of web-based decision aids, the results showed that they may improve PMBR knowledge, decision conflict, and satisfaction but have no effect on informed choice, decision regret, or anxiety. The overall GRADE quality of evidence for decision regret was low, and the overall GRADE quality of evidence for informed choice, decision conflict, and anxiety was very low.

The Content of Web-Based Decision Aids

First, regarding the content of web-based decision aids, few of the studies included in our systematic review and meta-analyses reported comprehensive development of their web-based decision aids. The types of decisions on which most web-based decision aids primarily focused were PMBR decision types and reconstruction times. In addition, some of the studies reported that the development of the tool was obtained through a decisional needs assessment. Research suggests that people tend to have decisional needs when confronted with known outcomes with multiple choices, uncertain outcomes, or valuing people differently and that unmet needs lead to poor quality decisions, which adversely affect health outcomes [ 40 ]. Research has shown that some patients have difficulty imagining plastic surgery without photos of women of different body types and skin colors when faced with a decision. Therefore, the use of 3D images during the counseling process is an acceptable web-based decision aid, and the results of our review suggest that web-based decision aids on PMBR decision-making show real photographs of patients by incorporating high-quality, 3D animated images and that viewing 3D images may increase presurgical preparation by giving patients a more realistic understanding of what is actually achievable after PMBR [ 41 ]. There are web-based decision aids that are designed with the goal of making patients more comfortable receiving information in a less-stressful environment outside of the hospital, and it also allows family members and friends who are members of the patient support group, but who may not necessarily be able to participate in the counseling, to receive specific information about the procedure and participate in the decision-making process. Women and their families are allowed to express their views about breast surgery because family members act as advocates and care coordinators in the decision-making process [ 42 ]. In this era of increasing emphasis on evidence-based medicine, the PMBR risk assessment calculator can help individualize and quantify risk to better inform surgical decisions and better manage patient expectations [ 43 ]. The purpose of the values clarification exercise is to help women assess, explore, and identify their personal values and to encourage them to think about how their values affect their decision-making. Using the values clarification exercise can help women increase their satisfaction with their appearance. Patient stories are also important to web-based decision aids, and research has shown that women express a need to learn about other women’s experiences to gain a deeper understanding of the impact of PMBR on their daily lives. Web-based decision aids have achieved this by telling the stories of patients who have had previous mastectomies, with or without PMBR. These stories illustrate the decision-making experiences of these patients and the impact of their decisions on their daily lives [ 44 ]. Another advantage of web-based decision aids is that they allow patients to absorb the information without being overwhelmed by other information or distracted by other issues. Research has shown that some people feel prepared and emotionally supported for PMBR decision-making, while others feel that the elements of supportive care are missing, making the inclusion of an emotion management module in web-based decision aids essential for women’s psychosocial support [ 45 ]. However, although the internet has become an easily accessible tool, there is still a persistent digital divide. Therefore, special attention should be given to the sociodemographic characteristics of the population, building more resources for health care infrastructure in underserved communities and providing free or discounted Wi-Fi connections and mobile devices in low-income areas [ 46 ]. These actions, combined with the popularity of smartphone users, are measures that may narrow the digital divide [ 21 ].

Effectiveness of Web-Based Decision Aids

In line with the results of a previous meta-analysis [ 26 ], web-based decision aids reduced decision conflict. Decision conflicts were as high as 45.68 (SD 23.40) among women who were newly diagnosed with early-stage BC in China [ 47 ]. Decision conflict was significantly higher among women who chose mastectomy with or without combined reconstruction compared to women who chose conservative breast surgery. Greater decision conflict is associated with less information, higher uncertainty in weighing choices based on personal values, and inadequate social support [ 40 ]. Women may second-guess their decisions after the fact, even if those decisions have already been made. Women who face PMBR decision-making need support in making this complex decision, especially those who do not have a strong preference for PMBR. Decision conflict can be reduced by addressing factors of uncertainty, such as providing information about the benefits and risks of each option and helping patients understand their own values [ 48 ]. Web-based decision aids can improve the quality of PMBR decision-making by enhancing patient knowledge and providing personalized risk assessments, reducing decision conflict [ 18 ].

Uncertainty about whether they are making the best decision can trigger emotional turmoil, and decision regret occurs when women compare the unfavorable outcome of a decision with alternative choices they may have [ 11 , 47 ]. The results of our meta-analysis showed that there was no effect of web-based decision aids on decision regret in the intervention group compared to the control. Women who choose decisions that result in unexpected clinical outcomes or lower-than-expected outcomes will inevitably experience decision regret, a very common but negative emotion, even though the patient’s preferences and needs are honored and considered in their treatment [ 49 ]. Decision regret can be used as an indicator of decision-making quality, which can contribute to performance improvement in the health care system. Other studies from a psychological perspective have shown that if a decision is regretted, the following “preference reversal” may cause patients to favor another unselected option, which may completely offset their health outcomes, with the degree of decision regret varying widely. However, Becerra Pérez et al [ 50 ] reported that most studies reported a low mean DRS, resulting in an overall mean score of 16.5 out of 100 across studies. It is important to note that there is no consensus on specific thresholds for clinically important decision regret based on DRS, and authors have rarely justified their choice of thresholds; therefore, minimum and maximum efficiency may limit our ability to perform statistical analyses [ 51 ].

Previous research has shown that women with BC who use decision aids receive more information that helps them make informed and values-based decisions [ 26 ]. Our results, in contrast, showed no effect of web-based decision aids on informed choice in the intervention group compared to the control group possibly because, compared to other forms, web-based decision aids require more effort. Therefore, some women in the web-based decision aids group may have been less inclined to seek more information and consider it carefully. This may explain why women in the web-based decision aids group did not feel less uninformed about their decisions [ 52 ]. The results of previous meta-analyses [ 25 , 26 ] suggest that web-based decision aids are promising interventions for improving knowledge related to PMBR decision-making and that web-based decision aids can help patients’ knowledge of PMBR and treatment options and can identify patients’ PMBR preferences and goals for quality decision-making with their health care providers; however, it is important to note that in this review, the impact of web-based decision aids on PMBR knowledge was mixed, which may be because most of the current instruments on PMBR decision-making knowledge measurement are self-administered scales. We found that web-based decision aids improved PMBR knowledge compared to a control group of some conventional education [ 37 ], traditional counseling [ 31 ], or conventional pamphlets [ 30 ]. When the control group was using pamphlets [ 19 , 28 ] or noninteractive decision aids [ 29 ] that contained similar information, web-based decision aids did not have a statistically significant effect on PMBR knowledge. Therefore, to elucidate the impact of web-based decision aids on knowledge, measurement studies using validated and sensitive instruments are needed.

Because the initial anxiety experienced by women may be related to the new diagnosis and anticipated surgery, this anxiety lessened once the surgery was over. There was no difference in the level of anxiety experienced after surgery between the 2 groups. Given the severity of a BC diagnosis, it is very reassuring that web-based decision aids did not exacerbate anxiety while providing benefits in terms of patient satisfaction and knowledge as well as surgeon satisfaction. Several studies have shown that patient satisfaction is higher when receiving PMBR information digitally [ 53 ]. Our study also suggests that web-based decision aids improve patient satisfaction with decision-making. Although most of the studies included in our systematic review reported that the use of web-based decision aids increased women’s satisfaction with PMBR, most of the measurement tools used to assess the outcomes used self-administered scales. Therefore, more high-quality evidence, including studies using validated and sensitive instruments, is needed to elucidate the impact of web-based decision aids on satisfaction [ 26 ].

Some of the outcome indicators in this review (ie, decision conflict, satisfaction, and anxiety) showed significant heterogeneity, which may be related to factors such as the fact that the measurement tools were different and the web-based decision aids were delivered in an inconsistent form and content. We conducted sensitivity analyses for decision conflict, satisfaction, and anxiety, and the adjusted total estimates of anxiety did not significantly change these results when studies were progressively omitted, excluding the study by Manne et al [ 38 ]. With respect to decision conflict and satisfaction, the adjusted total estimates changed significantly, a result that excludes the study by Varelas et al [ 31 ]. Contrary to the original results, the effect of web-based decision aids on improving satisfaction was statistically significant, and the effect of web-based decision aids on improving decision conflict was similar to the control group effect; therefore, the effect of web-based decision aids on decision conflict and satisfaction should be carefully interpreted. Regarding the heterogeneity of this meta-analysis, sensitivity analyses showed that the heterogeneity of all outcomes was also reduced by excluding 1 study.

Limitations

Some limitations of this review must be recognized. First, we did not perform an assessment of publication bias because only 7 studies were ultimately included in the analysis, which may cause publication bias. In addition, the included studies had no follow-up surveys and lacked evidence of the long-term impact of the interventions. Our findings serve as a reminder that even when statistical information is effectively communicated, participants may not make estimates of the same order of magnitude after a period. Finally, the number of included studies was small. Some studies had inconsistent outcome indicators and were therefore not included.

Conclusions

This review shows that web-based decision aids can increase knowledge and satisfaction, and reduce levels of decision conflict among women facing PMBR decision-making; however, there is no effect on informed choice, decision regret, or anxiety. Currently, web-based decision aids for women’s PMBR decision-making are relatively easy to implement in terms of content and form. Due to limitations in the number of included studies in our meta-analysis, well-designed studies, including multicenter RCTs using high-quality decision aids, are necessary in the future to further validate our conclusion that web-based decision aids play a role in the quality of decision-making for women facing PMBR.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the authors of studies in this review who took the time to become involved in guiding the development of this review.

Authors' Contributions

LY, LL, SY, JG, XS, and MZ made substantial contributions to the conception and design, acquisition of data, or analysis and interpretation of data and were involved in drafting the manuscript or revising it critically for important intellectual content. All authors provided final approval for the version to be published and agreed to be accountable for all aspects of the work in ensuring that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work are appropriately investigated and resolved.

Conflicts of Interest

None declared.

PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) statement.

Search strategy.

Characteristics of the interventions and controls.

Certainty of evidence.

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Abbreviations

Edited by S Ma, S Gardezi; submitted 22.10.23; peer-reviewed by A Trojan, T Lund-Jacobsen; comments to author 13.03.24; revised version received 16.04.24; accepted 16.04.24; published 27.05.24.

©Lin Yu, Jianmei Gong, Xiaoting Sun, Min Zang, Lei Liu, Shengmiao Yu. Originally published in the Journal of Medical Internet Research (https://www.jmir.org), 27.05.2024.

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