how to make child case study

Early Childhood Education: How to do a Child Case Study-Best Practice

• Creating an Annotated Bibliography
• Lesson Plans and Rubrics
• Children's literature
• Podcasts and Videos
• Cherie's Recommended Library
• Great Educational Articles
• Great Activities for Children
• Professionalism in the Field and in a College Classroom
• Professional Associations
• Pennsylvania Certification
• Manor's Early Childhood Faculty
• Manor Lesson Plan Format
• Manor APA Formatting, Reference, and Citation Policy for Education Classes
• Conducting a Literature Review for a Manor education class
• Manor College's Guide to Using EBSCO Effectively
• How to do a Child Case Study-Best Practice
• ED105: From Teacher Interview to Final Project
• Pennsylvania Initiatives

Description of Assignment

During your time at Manor, you will need to conduct a child case study. To do well, you will need to plan ahead and keep a schedule for observing the child. A case study at Manor typically includes the following components: 

• Three observations of the child: one qualitative, one quantitative, and one of your choice. 
• Three artifact collections and review: one qualitative, one quantitative, and one of your choice. 
• A Narrative

Within this tab, we will discuss how to complete all portions of the case study.  A copy of the rubric for the assignment is attached. 

• Case Study Rubric (Online)
• Case Study Rubric (Hybrid/F2F)

Qualitative and Quantitative Observation Tips

Remember your observation notes should provide the following detailed information about the child:

• child’s age,
• physical appearance,
• the setting, and
• any other important background information.

You should observe the child a minimum of 5 hours. Make sure you DO NOT use the child's real name in your observations. Always use a pseudo name for course assignments. 

You will use your observations to help write your narrative. When submitting your observations for the course please make sure they are typed so that they are legible for your instructor. This will help them provide feedback to you. 

Qualitative Observations

A qualitative observation is one in which you simply write down what you see using the anecdotal note format listed below. 

Quantitative Observations

A quantitative observation is one in which you will use some type of checklist to assess a child's skills. This can be a checklist that you create and/or one that you find on the web. A great choice of a checklist would be an Ounce Assessment and/or work sampling assessment depending on the age of the child. Below you will find some resources on finding checklists for this portion of the case study. If you are interested in using Ounce or Work Sampling, please see your program director for a copy. 

Remaining Objective 

For both qualitative and quantitative observations, you will only write down what your see and hear. Do not interpret your observation notes. Remain objective versus being subjective.

An example of an objective statement would be the following: "Johnny stacked three blocks vertically on top of a classroom table." or "When prompted by his teacher Johnny wrote his name but omitted the two N's in his name." 

An example of a subjective statement would be the following: "Johnny is happy because he was able to play with the block." or "Johnny omitted the two N's in his name on purpose." 

• Anecdotal Notes Form Form to use to record your observations.
• Guidelines for Writing Your Observations
• Tips for Writing Objective Observations
• Objective vs. Subjective

Qualitative and Quantitative Artifact Collection and Review Tips

For this section, you will collect artifacts from and/or on the child during the time you observe the child. Here is a list of the different types of artifacts you might collect: 

Potential Qualitative Artifacts 

• Photos of a child completing a task, during free play, and/or outdoors. 
• Samples of Artwork 
• Samples of writing 
• Products of child-led activities 

Potential Quantitative Artifacts 

• Checklist 
• Rating Scales
• Product Teacher-led activities 

Examples of Components of the Case Study

Here you will find a number of examples of components of the Case Study. Please use them as a guide as best practice for completing your Case Study assignment. 

• Qualitatitive Example 1
• Qualitatitive Example 2
• Quantitative Photo 1
• Qualitatitive Photo 1
• Quantitative Observation Example 1
• Artifact Photo 1
• Artifact Photo 2
• Artifact Photo 3
• Artifact Photo 4
• Artifact Sample Write-Up
• Case Study Narrative Example Although we do not expect you to have this many pages for your case study, pay close attention to how this case study is organized and written. The is an example of best practice.

Narrative Tips

The Narrative portion of your case study assignment should be written in APA style, double-spaced, and follow the format below:

• Introduction : Background information about the child (if any is known), setting, age, physical appearance, and other relevant details. There should be an overall feel for what this child and his/her family is like. Remember that the child’s neighborhood, school, community, etc all play a role in development, so make sure you accurately and fully describe this setting! --- 1 page
• Observations of Development :   The main body of your observations coupled with course material supporting whether or not the observed behavior was typical of the child’s age or not. Report behaviors and statements from both the child observation and from the parent/guardian interview— 1.5  pages
• Comment on Development: This is the portion of the paper where your professional analysis of your observations are shared. Based on your evidence, what can you generally state regarding the cognitive, social and emotional, and physical development of this child? Include both information from your observations and from your interview— 1.5 pages
• Conclusion: What are the relative strengths and weaknesses of the family, the child? What could this child benefit from? Make any final remarks regarding the child’s overall development in this section.— 1page
• Your Case Study Narrative should be a minimum of 5 pages.

Make sure to NOT to use the child’s real name in the Narrative Report. You should make reference to course material, information from your textbook, and class supplemental materials throughout the paper . 

Same rules apply in terms of writing in objective language and only using subjective minimally. REMEMBER to CHECK your grammar, spelling, and APA formatting before submitting to your instructor. It is imperative that you review the rubric of this assignment as well before completing it. 

Biggest Mistakes Students Make on this Assignment

Here is a list of the biggest mistakes that students make on this assignment: 

• Failing to start early . The case study assignment is one that you will submit in parts throughout the semester. It is important that you begin your observations on the case study before the first assignment is due. Waiting to the last minute will lead to a poor grade on this assignment, which historically has been the case for students who have completed this assignment. 
• Failing to utilize the rubrics. The rubrics provide students with guidelines on what components are necessary for the assignment. Often students will lose points because they simply read the descriptions of the assignment but did not pay attention to rubric portions of the assignment. 
• Failing to use APA formatting and proper grammar and spelling. It is imperative that you use spell check and/or other grammar checking software to ensure that your narrative is written well. Remember it must be in APA formatting so make sure that you review the tutorials available for you on our Lib Guide that will assess you in this area. 
• << Previous: Manor College's Guide to Using EBSCO Effectively
• Next: ED105: From Teacher Interview to Final Project >>
• Last Updated: Apr 3, 2024 2:53 PM
• URL: https://manor.libguides.com/ece

Manor College Library

700 fox chase road, jenkintown, pa 19046, (215) 885-5752, ©2017 manor college. all rights reserved..

ChatGPT for Teachers

Trauma-informed practices in schools, teacher well-being, cultivating diversity, equity, & inclusion, integrating technology in the classroom, social-emotional development, covid-19 resources, invest in resilience: summer toolkit, civics & resilience, all toolkits, degree programs, trauma-informed professional development, teacher licensure & certification, how to become - career information, classroom management, instructional design, lifestyle & self-care, online higher ed teaching, current events, how to write a case study: the basics.

The purpose of a case study is to walk the reader through a situation where a problem is presented, background information provided and a description of the solution given, along with how it was derived. A case study can be written to encourage the reader to come up with his or her own solution or to review the solution that was already implemented. The goal of the writer is to give the reader experiences similar to those the writer had as he or she researched the situation presented.

Several steps must be taken before actually writing anything:

• Choose the situation on which to write
• Gather as much information as possible about the situation
• Analyze all of the elements surrounding the situation
• Determine the final solution implemented
• Gather information about why the solution worked or did not work

From these steps you will create the content of your case study.

Describe the situation/problem

The reader needs to have a clear understanding of the situation for which a solution is sought. You can explicitly state the problem posed in the study. You can begin by sharing quotes from someone intimate with the situation. Or you can present a question:

• ABC Hospital has a higher post-surgical infection rate than other health care facilities in the area.
• The Director of Nursing at ABC Hospital stated that “In spite of following rigid standards, we continue to experience high post-surgical infection rates”
• Why is it that the post-surgical infection rate at ABC Hospital  higher than any other health center in the area?

This sets the tone for the reader to think of the problem while he or she read the rest of the case study. This also sets the expectation that you will be presenting information the reader can use to further understand the situation.

Give background

Background is the information you discovered that describes why there is a problem. This will consist of facts and figures from authoritative sources. Graphs, charts, tables, photos, videos, audio files, and anything that points to the problem is useful here. Quotes from interviews are also good. You might include anecdotal information as well:

“According to previous employees of this facility, this has been a problem for several years”

What is not included in this section is the author’s opinion:

“I don’t think the infection review procedures are followed very closely”

In this section you give the reader information that they can use to come to their own conclusion. Like writing a mystery, you are giving clues from which the reader can decide how to solve the puzzle. From all of this evidence, how did the problem become a problem? How can the trend be reversed so the problem goes away?

A good case study doesn’t tell the readers what to think. It guides the reader through the thought process used to create the final conclusion. The readers may come to their own conclusion or find fault in the logic being presented. That’s okay because there may be more than one solution to the problem. The readers will have their own perspective and background as they read the case study.

Describe the solution

This section discusses the solution and the thought processes that lead up to it. It guides the reader through the information to the solution that was implemented. This section may contain the author’s opinions and speculations.

Facts will be involved in the decision, but there can be subjective thinking as well:

“Taking into account A, B and C, the committee suggested solution X. In lieu of the current budget situation, the committee felt this was the most prudent approach”

Briefly present the key elements used to derive the solution. Be clear about the goal of the solution. Was it to slow down, reduce or eliminate the problem?

Evaluate the response to the solution

If the case study is for a recent situation, there may not have been enough time to determine the overall effect of the solution:

“New infection standards were adopted in the first quarter and the center hopes to have enough information by the year’s end to judge their effectiveness”

If the solution has been in place for some time, then an opportunity to gather and review facts and impressions exists. A summary of how well the solution is working would be included here.

Tell the whole story

Case study-writing is about telling the story of a problem that has been fixed. The focus is on the evidence for the problem and the approach used to create a solution. The writing style guides the readers through the problem analysis as if they were part of the project. The result is a case study that can be both entertaining and educational.

You may also like to read

• 5 Study Skills That Can Be Taught
• When to Write a Letter of Support
• How to Write a Letter of Intent
• The Homework Debate: The Case Against Homework
• Inclusive Education: What It Means, Proven Strategies, and a Case Study
• Examples of How To Write a Letter of Support

Categorized as: Tips for Teachers and Classroom Resources

Tagged as: Adult Learners ,  Language Arts

• Programming Teacher: Job Description and Sala...
• Teaching Language Arts: Resources for Educato...
• Online & Campus Bachelor's in Secondary Educa...

• Our Mission

Making Learning Relevant With Case Studies

The open-ended problems presented in case studies give students work that feels connected to their lives.

To prepare students for jobs that haven’t been created yet, we need to teach them how to be great problem solvers so that they’ll be ready for anything. One way to do this is by teaching content and skills using real-world case studies, a learning model that’s focused on reflection during the problem-solving process. It’s similar to project-based learning, but PBL is more focused on students creating a product.

Case studies have been used for years by businesses, law and medical schools, physicians on rounds, and artists critiquing work. Like other forms of problem-based learning, case studies can be accessible for every age group, both in one subject and in interdisciplinary work.

You can get started with case studies by tackling relatable questions like these with your students:

• How can we limit food waste in the cafeteria?
• How can we get our school to recycle and compost waste? (Or, if you want to be more complex, how can our school reduce its carbon footprint?)
• How can we improve school attendance?
• How can we reduce the number of people who get sick at school during cold and flu season?

Addressing questions like these leads students to identify topics they need to learn more about. In researching the first question, for example, students may see that they need to research food chains and nutrition. Students often ask, reasonably, why they need to learn something, or when they’ll use their knowledge in the future. Learning is most successful for students when the content and skills they’re studying are relevant, and case studies offer one way to create that sense of relevance.

Teaching With Case Studies

Ultimately, a case study is simply an interesting problem with many correct answers. What does case study work look like in classrooms? Teachers generally start by having students read the case or watch a video that summarizes the case. Students then work in small groups or individually to solve the case study. Teachers set milestones defining what students should accomplish to help them manage their time.

During the case study learning process, student assessment of learning should be focused on reflection. Arthur L. Costa and Bena Kallick’s Learning and Leading With Habits of Mind gives several examples of what this reflection can look like in a classroom: 

Journaling: At the end of each work period, have students write an entry summarizing what they worked on, what worked well, what didn’t, and why. Sentence starters and clear rubrics or guidelines will help students be successful. At the end of a case study project, as Costa and Kallick write, it’s helpful to have students “select significant learnings, envision how they could apply these learnings to future situations, and commit to an action plan to consciously modify their behaviors.”

Interviews: While working on a case study, students can interview each other about their progress and learning. Teachers can interview students individually or in small groups to assess their learning process and their progress.

Student discussion: Discussions can be unstructured—students can talk about what they worked on that day in a think-pair-share or as a full class—or structured, using Socratic seminars or fishbowl discussions. If your class is tackling a case study in small groups, create a second set of small groups with a representative from each of the case study groups so that the groups can share their learning.

4 Tips for Setting Up a Case Study

1. Identify a problem to investigate: This should be something accessible and relevant to students’ lives. The problem should also be challenging and complex enough to yield multiple solutions with many layers.

2. Give context: Think of this step as a movie preview or book summary. Hook the learners to help them understand just enough about the problem to want to learn more.

3. Have a clear rubric: Giving structure to your definition of quality group work and products will lead to stronger end products. You may be able to have your learners help build these definitions.

4. Provide structures for presenting solutions: The amount of scaffolding you build in depends on your students’ skill level and development. A case study product can be something like several pieces of evidence of students collaborating to solve the case study, and ultimately presenting their solution with a detailed slide deck or an essay—you can scaffold this by providing specified headings for the sections of the essay.

Problem-Based Teaching Resources

There are many high-quality, peer-reviewed resources that are open source and easily accessible online.

• The National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science at the University at Buffalo built an online collection of more than 800 cases that cover topics ranging from biochemistry to economics. There are resources for middle and high school students.
• Models of Excellence , a project maintained by EL Education and the Harvard Graduate School of Education, has examples of great problem- and project-based tasks—and corresponding exemplary student work—for grades pre-K to 12.
• The Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning at Purdue University is an open-source journal that publishes examples of problem-based learning in K–12 and post-secondary classrooms.
• The Tech Edvocate has a list of websites and tools related to problem-based learning.

In their book Problems as Possibilities , Linda Torp and Sara Sage write that at the elementary school level, students particularly appreciate how they feel that they are taken seriously when solving case studies. At the middle school level, “researchers stress the importance of relating middle school curriculum to issues of student concern and interest.” And high schoolers, they write, find the case study method “beneficial in preparing them for their future.”

• Bipolar Disorder
• Therapy Center
• When To See a Therapist
• Types of Therapy
• Best Online Therapy
• Best Couples Therapy
• Best Family Therapy
• Managing Stress
• Sleep and Dreaming
• Understanding Emotions
• Self-Improvement
• Healthy Relationships
• Student Resources
• Personality Types
• Guided Meditations
• Verywell Mind Insights
• 2024 Verywell Mind 25
• Mental Health in the Classroom
• Editorial Process
• Meet Our Review Board
• Crisis Support

What Is a Case Study?

Weighing the pros and cons of this method of research

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Cara Lustik is a fact-checker and copywriter.

Verywell / Colleen Tighe

• Pros and Cons

What Types of Case Studies Are Out There?

Where do you find data for a case study, how do i write a psychology case study.

A case study is an in-depth study of one person, group, or event. In a case study, nearly every aspect of the subject's life and history is analyzed to seek patterns and causes of behavior. Case studies can be used in many different fields, including psychology, medicine, education, anthropology, political science, and social work.

The point of a case study is to learn as much as possible about an individual or group so that the information can be generalized to many others. Unfortunately, case studies tend to be highly subjective, and it is sometimes difficult to generalize results to a larger population.

While case studies focus on a single individual or group, they follow a format similar to other types of psychology writing. If you are writing a case study, we got you—here are some rules of APA format to reference.  

At a Glance

A case study, or an in-depth study of a person, group, or event, can be a useful research tool when used wisely. In many cases, case studies are best used in situations where it would be difficult or impossible for you to conduct an experiment. They are helpful for looking at unique situations and allow researchers to gather a lot of˜ information about a specific individual or group of people. However, it's important to be cautious of any bias we draw from them as they are highly subjective.

What Are the Benefits and Limitations of Case Studies?

A case study can have its strengths and weaknesses. Researchers must consider these pros and cons before deciding if this type of study is appropriate for their needs.

One of the greatest advantages of a case study is that it allows researchers to investigate things that are often difficult or impossible to replicate in a lab. Some other benefits of a case study:

• Allows researchers to capture information on the 'how,' 'what,' and 'why,' of something that's implemented
• Gives researchers the chance to collect information on why one strategy might be chosen over another
• Permits researchers to develop hypotheses that can be explored in experimental research

On the other hand, a case study can have some drawbacks:

• It cannot necessarily be generalized to the larger population
• Cannot demonstrate cause and effect
• It may not be scientifically rigorous
• It can lead to bias

Researchers may choose to perform a case study if they want to explore a unique or recently discovered phenomenon. Through their insights, researchers develop additional ideas and study questions that might be explored in future studies.

It's important to remember that the insights from case studies cannot be used to determine cause-and-effect relationships between variables. However, case studies may be used to develop hypotheses that can then be addressed in experimental research.

Case Study Examples

There have been a number of notable case studies in the history of psychology. Much of  Freud's work and theories were developed through individual case studies. Some great examples of case studies in psychology include:

• Anna O : Anna O. was a pseudonym of a woman named Bertha Pappenheim, a patient of a physician named Josef Breuer. While she was never a patient of Freud's, Freud and Breuer discussed her case extensively. The woman was experiencing symptoms of a condition that was then known as hysteria and found that talking about her problems helped relieve her symptoms. Her case played an important part in the development of talk therapy as an approach to mental health treatment.
• Phineas Gage : Phineas Gage was a railroad employee who experienced a terrible accident in which an explosion sent a metal rod through his skull, damaging important portions of his brain. Gage recovered from his accident but was left with serious changes in both personality and behavior.
• Genie : Genie was a young girl subjected to horrific abuse and isolation. The case study of Genie allowed researchers to study whether language learning was possible, even after missing critical periods for language development. Her case also served as an example of how scientific research may interfere with treatment and lead to further abuse of vulnerable individuals.

Such cases demonstrate how case research can be used to study things that researchers could not replicate in experimental settings. In Genie's case, her horrific abuse denied her the opportunity to learn a language at critical points in her development.

This is clearly not something researchers could ethically replicate, but conducting a case study on Genie allowed researchers to study phenomena that are otherwise impossible to reproduce.

There are a few different types of case studies that psychologists and other researchers might use:

• Collective case studies : These involve studying a group of individuals. Researchers might study a group of people in a certain setting or look at an entire community. For example, psychologists might explore how access to resources in a community has affected the collective mental well-being of those who live there.
• Descriptive case studies : These involve starting with a descriptive theory. The subjects are then observed, and the information gathered is compared to the pre-existing theory.
• Explanatory case studies : These   are often used to do causal investigations. In other words, researchers are interested in looking at factors that may have caused certain things to occur.
• Exploratory case studies : These are sometimes used as a prelude to further, more in-depth research. This allows researchers to gather more information before developing their research questions and hypotheses .
• Instrumental case studies : These occur when the individual or group allows researchers to understand more than what is initially obvious to observers.
• Intrinsic case studies : This type of case study is when the researcher has a personal interest in the case. Jean Piaget's observations of his own children are good examples of how an intrinsic case study can contribute to the development of a psychological theory.

The three main case study types often used are intrinsic, instrumental, and collective. Intrinsic case studies are useful for learning about unique cases. Instrumental case studies help look at an individual to learn more about a broader issue. A collective case study can be useful for looking at several cases simultaneously.

The type of case study that psychology researchers use depends on the unique characteristics of the situation and the case itself.

There are a number of different sources and methods that researchers can use to gather information about an individual or group. Six major sources that have been identified by researchers are:

• Archival records : Census records, survey records, and name lists are examples of archival records.
• Direct observation : This strategy involves observing the subject, often in a natural setting . While an individual observer is sometimes used, it is more common to utilize a group of observers.
• Documents : Letters, newspaper articles, administrative records, etc., are the types of documents often used as sources.
• Interviews : Interviews are one of the most important methods for gathering information in case studies. An interview can involve structured survey questions or more open-ended questions.
• Participant observation : When the researcher serves as a participant in events and observes the actions and outcomes, it is called participant observation.
• Physical artifacts : Tools, objects, instruments, and other artifacts are often observed during a direct observation of the subject.

If you have been directed to write a case study for a psychology course, be sure to check with your instructor for any specific guidelines you need to follow. If you are writing your case study for a professional publication, check with the publisher for their specific guidelines for submitting a case study.

Here is a general outline of what should be included in a case study.

Section 1: A Case History

This section will have the following structure and content:

Background information : The first section of your paper will present your client's background. Include factors such as age, gender, work, health status, family mental health history, family and social relationships, drug and alcohol history, life difficulties, goals, and coping skills and weaknesses.

Description of the presenting problem : In the next section of your case study, you will describe the problem or symptoms that the client presented with.

Describe any physical, emotional, or sensory symptoms reported by the client. Thoughts, feelings, and perceptions related to the symptoms should also be noted. Any screening or diagnostic assessments that are used should also be described in detail and all scores reported.

Your diagnosis : Provide your diagnosis and give the appropriate Diagnostic and Statistical Manual code. Explain how you reached your diagnosis, how the client's symptoms fit the diagnostic criteria for the disorder(s), or any possible difficulties in reaching a diagnosis.

Section 2: Treatment Plan

This portion of the paper will address the chosen treatment for the condition. This might also include the theoretical basis for the chosen treatment or any other evidence that might exist to support why this approach was chosen.

• Cognitive behavioral approach : Explain how a cognitive behavioral therapist would approach treatment. Offer background information on cognitive behavioral therapy and describe the treatment sessions, client response, and outcome of this type of treatment. Make note of any difficulties or successes encountered by your client during treatment.
• Humanistic approach : Describe a humanistic approach that could be used to treat your client, such as client-centered therapy . Provide information on the type of treatment you chose, the client's reaction to the treatment, and the end result of this approach. Explain why the treatment was successful or unsuccessful.
• Psychoanalytic approach : Describe how a psychoanalytic therapist would view the client's problem. Provide some background on the psychoanalytic approach and cite relevant references. Explain how psychoanalytic therapy would be used to treat the client, how the client would respond to therapy, and the effectiveness of this treatment approach.
• Pharmacological approach : If treatment primarily involves the use of medications, explain which medications were used and why. Provide background on the effectiveness of these medications and how monotherapy may compare with an approach that combines medications with therapy or other treatments.

This section of a case study should also include information about the treatment goals, process, and outcomes.

When you are writing a case study, you should also include a section where you discuss the case study itself, including the strengths and limitiations of the study. You should note how the findings of your case study might support previous research. 

In your discussion section, you should also describe some of the implications of your case study. What ideas or findings might require further exploration? How might researchers go about exploring some of these questions in additional studies?

Case Studies: Bringing Learning to Life and Making Knowledge Stick

Learning by doing is a highly effective and proven strategy for knowledge retention. But sometimes, learning about others who have “done”—using case studies, for example—can be an excellent addition to or replacement for hands-on learning. Case studies―a vital tool in the problem-based learning toolkit—can turbocharge lessons in any subject, but they are particularly useful teaching aids in subjects like Medicine, Law or Forensic Science , where hands-on experiences may not initially be possible.

Here’s a look at how this type of problem-based learning functions to make learning stick and how any faculty member can use them to facilitate deeper, richer learning experiences:

Case studies complement theoretical information 

Reading about scientific principles in a textbook challenges students to think deductively and use their imagination to apply what they’re learning to real-world scenarios. It’s an important skill set. Not all information can or should be packaged up and handed to students, pre-formed; we want students to become critical thinkers and smart decision-makers who are capable of forming their own insights and opinions. 

However, the strategic use of case studies, as a companion to required reading, can help students see theoretical information in a new light, and often for the first time. In short, a case study can bring to life what is often dry and difficult material, transforming it into something powerful, and inspiring students to keep learning. Furthermore, the ability to select or create case studies can give students greater agency in their learning experiences, helping them steer their educational experiences towards topics they find interesting and meaningful. 

What does the research show about using case studies in educational settings? For one, when used in group settings, the use of case studies is proven to promote collaboration while promoting the application of theory. Furthermore, case studies are proven to promote the consideration of diverse cultures, perspectives, and ideas. Beyond that? They help students to broaden their professional acumen —a vitally necessary part of the higher education experience. 

Case studies can be what you want them to be, but they should follow a formula  

Faculty may choose to use case studies in any number of ways, including asking students to read existing case studies, or even challenging them to build their own case studies based on real or hypothetical situations. This can be done individually or in a group. It may be done in the classroom, at home, or in a professional setting. Case studies can take on a wide variety of formats. They may be just a few paragraphs or 30 pages long. They may be prescriptive and challenge readers to create a takeaway or propose a different way of doing things. Or, they may simply ask readers to understand how things were done in a specific case. Beyond written case studies, videos or slide decks can be equally compelling formats. One faculty member even asks students to get theatrical and act out a solution in their sociology class.  

Regardless of format, a case study works best when it roughly follows an arc of problem, solution and results. All case studies must present a problem that doesn’t have an immediately clear solution or result. For example, a medical student may read a case study detailing the hospital admission of a 42-year-old woman who presents to the emergency room with persistent and severe calf pain, but has normal blood tests and ultrasound imaging. What should the physician consider next? A law student might read a case study about an elderly man involved in a car accident who denies any memory of the event. What legal angles should be considered?

Case studies – get started

Are you eager to use case studies with your students? Cengage higher education titles typically contain case studies and real-world examples that bring learning to life and help knowledge stick. Below are some learning materials, spanning a range of subjects, that can help your students reap the proven benefits of case study learning:

Accounting, 29e

Award-winning authors Carl Warren, Jefferson P. Jones and William B. Tayler offer students the opportunity to analyze real-world business decisions and show how accounting is used by real companies.

Guide to Computer Forensics and Investigations, 7e

“Guide to Computer Forensics and Investigations” by Bill Nelson, Amelia Phillips, Christopher Steuart and Robert S. Wilson includes case projects aimed at providing practical implementation experience, as well as practice in applying critical thinking skills.

Business Ethics: Case Studies and Selected Readings, 10e

Marianne M. Jennings’ best-selling “Business Ethics: Case Studies and Selected Readings, 10e” explores a proven process for analyzing ethical dilemmas and creating stronger values.

Anatomy & Physiology, 1e

Author Dr. Liz Co includes a chapter composed entirely of case studies to give students additional practice in critical thinking. The cases can be assigned at the end of the semester or at intervals as the instructor chooses.

Psychopathology and Life: A Dimensional Approach, 11e

Christopher Kearney offers a concise, contemporary and science-based view of psychopathology that emphasizes the individual first. Geared toward cases to which most college students can relate, helping them understand that symptoms of psychological problems occur in many people in different ways.

Understanding Psychological Disorders Enhanced, 12e

In “Understanding Psychological Disorders Enhanced” by David Sue, Derald Sue, Diane M. Sue and Stanley Sue, students can explore current events, real-world case studies and the latest developments from the field.

Policing in the US: Past, Present, and Future, 1e

This comprehensive and timely text by Lorenzo M. Boyd, Melissa S. Morabito and Larry J. Siegel examines the current state of American policing, offering a fresh and balanced look at contemporary issues in law enforcement. Each chapter opens with a real-life case or incident.

Public Speaking: The Evolving Art, 5e

With a student-centered approach, “Public Speaking: The Evolving Art” by Stephanie J. Coopman and James Lull includes innovative solutions to current issues, including critically assessing the credibility of information sources. A diverse collection of sample student and professional presentations encourage students to consider chapter concepts in the context of real speeches.

Theory and Practice of Counseling and Psychotherapies, 11e

Dr. Gerald Corey’s best-selling text helps readers compare and contrast the therapeutic models expressed in counseling theories.

Related articles

• NAEYC Login
• Member Profile
• Hello Community
• Accreditation Portal
• Online Learning
• Online Store

Popular Searches:   DAP ;  Coping with COVID-19 ;  E-books ;  Anti-Bias Education ;  Online Store

Casebook: Developmentally Appropriate Practice in Early Childhood Programs Serving Children from Birth Through Age 8

You are here

About the book.

• Make connections to the fourth edition of Developmentally Appropriate Practice in Early Childhood Programs 
• Think critically about the influence of context on educator, child, and family actions 
• Discuss the effectiveness of the teaching practices and how they might be improved 
• Support your responses with evidence from the DAP position statement and book 
• Explore next steps beyond the case details 
• Apply the learning to your own situation 

Table of Contents

• Editors, Contributors, and Reviewers
• Introduction and Book Overview | Jennifer J. Chen and Dana Battaglia
• 1.1 Missed Opportunities: Relationship Building in Inclusive Classrooms | Julia Torquati
• 1.2 “My Name Is Not a Shame” | Kevin McGowan
• 1.3 Fostering Developmentally Appropriate Practice Through Virtual Family Connections | Lea Ann Christenson
• 1.4 Counting Collections in Community | Amy Schmidtke
• 1.5 The Joy Jar: Celebrating Kindness | Leah Schoenberg Muccio
• 1.6 Prioritizing Listening to and Learning from Families | Amy Schmidtke 
• 2.1 Julio’s Village: Early Childhood Education Supports for Teen Parents | Donna Kirkwood
• 2.2 Healthy Boundaries: Listening to Children and Learning from Families | Jovanna Archuleta
• 2.3 Roadmap of Family Engagement to Kindergarten: An Ecological Systems Approach | Marcela Andrés
• 2.4 Taking Trust for Granted? The Importance of Communication and Outreach in Family Partnerships | Suzanna Ewert
• 2.5 Book Reading: Learning About Migration and Our Family Stories | Sarah Rendón García 
• 3.1 Pairing Standardized Scale with Observation | Megan Schumaker-Murphy
• 3.2 The Power of Observing Jordan | Marsha Shigeyo Hawley and Barbara Abel
• 3.3 “But What Is My Child Learning?” | Janet Thompson and Jennifer Gonzalez
• 3.4 Drawing and Dialogue: Using Authentic Assessment to Understand Children’s Sense of Self and Observe Early Literacy Skills | Brandon L. Gilbert
• 3.5 The ABCs of Kindergarten Registration: Assessment, Background, and Collaboration Between Home and School | Bridget Amory
• 3.6 Creating Opportunities for Individualized Assessment Activities for Biliteracy Development | Esther Garza
• 3.7 Observing Second-Graders’ Vocabulary Development | Marie Ann Donovan
• 3.8 Writing Isn’t the Only Way! Multiple Means of Expressing Learning | Lee Ann Jungiv 
• 4.1 Engaging with Families to Individualize Teaching | Marie L. Masterson 
• 4.2 Tumbling Towers with Toddlers: Intention and Decision Making Over Blocks | Ron Grady  
• 4.3 What My Heart Holds: Exploring Identity with Preschool Learners | Cierra Kaler-Jones 
• 4.4 “I See a Really Big Gecko!” When Background Knowledge and Teaching Materials Don’t Match | Germaine Kaleilehua Tauati and Colleen E. Whittingham 
• 4.5 Using a Humanizing and Restorative Approach for Young Children to Develop Responsibility and Self-Regulation | Saili S. Kulkarni, Sunyoung Kim, and Nicola Holdman 
• 4.6 Joyful, Developmentally Appropriate Learning Environments for African American Youth | Lauren C. Mims, Addison Duane, LaKenya Johnson, and Erika Bocknek 
• 5.1 Using the Environment and Materials as Curriculum for Promoting Infants’ and Toddlers’ Exploration of Basic Cause-and-Effect Principles | Guadalupe Rivas 
• 5.2 Social Play Connections Among a Small Group of Preschoolers | Leah Catching 
• 5.3 Can Preschoolers Code? A Sneak Peek into a Developmentally Appropriate Coding Lesson | Olabisi Adesuyi-Fasuyi 
• 5.4 Everyday Gifts: Children Show Us the Path—We Observe and Scaffold | Martha Melgoza 
• 5.5 Learning to Conquer the Slide Through Persistence and Engaging in Social Interaction | Sueli Nunes 
• 5.6 “Sabes que todos los caracoles pueden tener bebés? Do You Know that All Snails Can Have Babies?” Supporting Children’s Emerging Interests in a Dual Language Preschool Classroom | Isauro M. Escamilla 
• 5.7 “Can We Read this One?” A Conversation About Book Selection in Kindergarten | Larissa Hsia-Wong  
• 6.1 Take a Chance on Coaching: It’s Worth It! | Lauren Bond 
• 6.2 It Started with a Friendship Parade | Angela Vargas 
• 6.3 The World Outside of the Classroom: Letting Your Voice Be Heard | Meghann Hickey 
• 7.1 Communication as a Two-Way Street? Creating Opportunities for Engagement During Meaningful Language Routines | Kameron C. Cardenv 
• 7.2 Eli Goes to Preschool: Inclusion for a Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder | Abby Hodges
• 7.3 Preschool Classroom Supports and Embedded Interventions with Coteaching | Racheal Kuperus and Desarae Orgo
• 7.4 Addressing Challenging Behavior Using the Pyramid Model | Ellie Bold
• 7.5 Dual Language or Disability? How Teachers Can Be the First to Help | Alyssa Brillante
• 7.6 Adapting and Modifying Instruction Using Reader’s Theater | Michelle Gonzalez
• 7.7 Supporting Children with Learning Disabilities in Mathematics: The Importance of Observation, Content Knowledge, and Context | Renee B. Whelan 
• 8.1 Facilitating a Child’s Transition from Home to Group Care Through the Use of Cultural Caring Routines | Josephine Ahmadein
• 8.2 Engaging Dual Language Learners in Conversation to Support Translanguaging During a Small Group Activity | Valeria Erdosi and Jennifer J. Chen
• 8.3 Incorporating Children’s Cultures and Languages in Learning Activities | Eleni Zgourou
• 8.4 Adapting Teaching Materials for Dual Language Learners to Reflect Their Home Languages and Cultures in a Math Lesson | Karen Nemeth
• 8.5 Studying Celestial Bodies: Science and Cultural Stories | Zeynep Isik-Ercan
• 8.6 Respecting Diverse Cultures and Languages by Sharing and Learning About Cultural Poems, Songs, and Stories From Others | Janis Strasser

Book Details

Faculty resources.

To access tips and resources for teaching the cases, please complete this brief form.  You’ll be able to download the items after you complete the form. 

Teacher Inquiry Group Resources

To access reflection questions to deepen your learning, please click here.

More DAP Resources

To read the position statement, access related resources, and stay up-to-the-minute on all things DAP, visit  NAEYC.org/resources/developmentally-appropriate-practice .

Pamela Brillante,  EdD, is professor in the Department of Special Education, Professional Counseling and Disability Studies, at William Paterson University. She has worked as an early childhood special educator, administrator, and New Jersey state specialist in early childhood special education. She is the author of the NAEYC book The Essentials: Supporting Young Children with Disabilities in the Classroom. Dr. Brillante continues to work with schools to develop high-quality inclusive early childhood programs. 

Jennifer J. Chen, EdD, is professor of early childhood and family studies at Kean University. She earned her doctorate from Harvard University. She has authored or coauthored more than 60 publications in early childhood education. Dr. Chen has received several awards, including the 2020 NAECTE Foundation Established Career Award for Research on ECTE, the 2021 Kean Presidential Excellence Award for Distinguished Scholarship, and the 2022 NJAECTE’s Distinguished Scholarship in ECTE/ECE Award. 

Stephany Cuevas, EdD, is assistant professor of education in the Attallah College of Educational Studies at Chapman University. Dr. Cuevas is an interdisciplinary education scholar whose research focuses on family engagement, Latinx families, and the postsecondary trajectories of first-generation students. She is the author of Apoyo Sacrifical, Sacrificial Support: How Undocumented Parents Get Their Children to College (Teachers College Press). 

Christyn Dundorf, PhD, has more than 30 years of experience in the early learning field as a teacher, administrator, and adult educator. She serves as codirector of Teaching Preschool Partners, a nonprofit organization working to grow playful learning and inquiry practices in school-based pre-K programs and infuse those practices up into the early grades.

Emily Brown Hoffman, PhD, is assistant professor in early childhood education at National Louis University in Chicago. She received her PhD from the University of Illinois at Chicago in Curriculum & Instruction, Literacy, Language, & Culture. Her focuses include emergent literacy, leadership, play and creativity, and school, family, and community partnerships. 

Daniel R. Meier, PhD, is professor of elementary education at San Francisco State University. His publications include Critical Issues in Infant-Toddler Language Development: Connecting Theory to Practice (editor), Supporting Literacies for Children of Color: A Strength-Based Approach to Preschool Literacy (author), and Learning Stories and Teacher Inquiry Groups: Reimagining Teaching and Assessment in Early Childhood Education (coauthor). 

Gayle Mindes, EdD, is professor emerita, DePaul University. She is the author of Assessing Young Children , fifth edition (with Lee Ann Jung), and Social Studies for Young Children: Preschool and Primary Curriculum Anchor, third edition (with Mark Newman). Dr. Mindes is also the editor of Teaching Young Children with Challenging Behaviors: Practical Strategies for Early Childhood Educators and Contemporary Challenges in Teaching Young Children: Meeting the Needs of All Students . 

Lisa R. Roy, EdD, is executive director for the Colorado Department of Early Childhood. Dr. Roy has supported families with young children for over 30 years, serving as the director of program development for the Buffett Early Childhood Institute, as the executive director of early childhood education for Denver Public Schools, and in various nonprofit and government roles.

• - Google Chrome

Intended for healthcare professionals

• Access provided by Google Indexer
• My email alerts
• BMA member login
• Username * Password * Forgot your log in details? Need to activate BMA Member Log In Log in via OpenAthens Log in via your institution

Search form

• Advanced search
• Search responses
• Search blogs
• Writing a case report...

Writing a case report in 10 steps

• Related content
• Peer review
• Victoria Stokes , foundation year 2 doctor, trauma and orthopaedics, Basildon Hospital ,
• Caroline Fertleman , paediatrics consultant, The Whittington Hospital NHS Trust
• victoria.stokes1{at}nhs.net

Victoria Stokes and Caroline Fertleman explain how to turn an interesting case or unusual presentation into an educational report

It is common practice in medicine that when we come across an interesting case with an unusual presentation or a surprise twist, we must tell the rest of the medical world. This is how we continue our lifelong learning and aid faster diagnosis and treatment for patients.

It usually falls to the junior to write up the case, so here are a few simple tips to get you started.

First steps

Begin by sitting down with your medical team to discuss the interesting aspects of the case and the learning points to highlight. Ideally, a registrar or middle grade will mentor you and give you guidance. Another junior doctor or medical student may also be keen to be involved. Allocate jobs to split the workload, set a deadline and work timeframe, and discuss the order in which the authors will be listed. All listed authors should contribute substantially, with the person doing most of the work put first and the guarantor (usually the most senior team member) at the end.

Getting consent

Gain permission and written consent to write up the case from the patient or parents, if your patient is a child, and keep a copy because you will need it later for submission to journals.

Information gathering

Gather all the information from the medical notes and the hospital’s electronic systems, including copies of blood results and imaging, as medical notes often disappear when the patient is discharged and are notoriously difficult to find again. Remember to anonymise the data according to your local hospital policy.

Write up the case emphasising the interesting points of the presentation, investigations leading to diagnosis, and management of the disease/pathology. Get input on the case from all members of the team, highlighting their involvement. Also include the prognosis of the patient, if known, as the reader will want to know the outcome.

Coming up with a title

Discuss a title with your supervisor and other members of the team, as this provides the focus for your article. The title should be concise and interesting but should also enable people to find it in medical literature search engines. Also think about how you will present your case study—for example, a poster presentation or scientific paper—and consider potential journals or conferences, as you may need to write in a particular style or format.

Background research

Research the disease/pathology that is the focus of your article and write a background paragraph or two, highlighting the relevance of your case report in relation to this. If you are struggling, seek the opinion of a specialist who may know of relevant articles or texts. Another good resource is your hospital library, where staff are often more than happy to help with literature searches.

How your case is different

Move on to explore how the case presented differently to the admitting team. Alternatively, if your report is focused on management, explore the difficulties the team came across and alternative options for treatment.

Finish by explaining why your case report adds to the medical literature and highlight any learning points.

Writing an abstract

The abstract should be no longer than 100-200 words and should highlight all your key points concisely. This can be harder than writing the full article and needs special care as it will be used to judge whether your case is accepted for presentation or publication.

Discuss with your supervisor or team about options for presenting or publishing your case report. At the very least, you should present your article locally within a departmental or team meeting or at a hospital grand round. Well done!

Competing interests: We have read and understood BMJ’s policy on declaration of interests and declare that we have no competing interests.

We use essential cookies to make Venngage work. By clicking “Accept All Cookies”, you agree to the storing of cookies on your device to enhance site navigation, analyze site usage, and assist in our marketing efforts.

Manage Cookies

Cookies and similar technologies collect certain information about how you’re using our website. Some of them are essential, and without them you wouldn’t be able to use Venngage. But others are optional, and you get to choose whether we use them or not.

Strictly Necessary Cookies

These cookies are always on, as they’re essential for making Venngage work, and making it safe. Without these cookies, services you’ve asked for can’t be provided.

Show cookie providers

• Google Login

Functionality Cookies

These cookies help us provide enhanced functionality and personalisation, and remember your settings. They may be set by us or by third party providers.

Performance Cookies

These cookies help us analyze how many people are using Venngage, where they come from and how they're using it. If you opt out of these cookies, we can’t get feedback to make Venngage better for you and all our users.

• Google Analytics

Targeting Cookies

These cookies are set by our advertising partners to track your activity and show you relevant Venngage ads on other sites as you browse the internet.

• Google Tag Manager
• Infographics
• Daily Infographics
• Popular Templates
• Accessibility
• Graphic Design
• Graphs and Charts
• Data Visualization
• Human Resources
• Beginner Guides

Blog Business How to Present a Case Study like a Pro (With Examples)

How to Present a Case Study like a Pro (With Examples)

Written by: Danesh Ramuthi Sep 07, 2023

Okay, let’s get real: case studies can be kinda snooze-worthy. But guess what? They don’t have to be!

In this article, I will cover every element that transforms a mere report into a compelling case study, from selecting the right metrics to using persuasive narrative techniques.

And if you’re feeling a little lost, don’t worry! There are cool tools like Venngage’s Case Study Creator to help you whip up something awesome, even if you’re short on time. Plus, the pre-designed case study templates are like instant polish because let’s be honest, everyone loves a shortcut.

Click to jump ahead: 

What is a case study presentation?

What is the purpose of presenting a case study, how to structure a case study presentation, how long should a case study presentation be, 5 case study presentation examples with templates, 6 tips for delivering an effective case study presentation, 5 common mistakes to avoid in a case study presentation, how to present a case study faqs.

A case study presentation involves a comprehensive examination of a specific subject, which could range from an individual, group, location, event, organization or phenomenon.

They’re like puzzles you get to solve with the audience, all while making you think outside the box.

Unlike a basic report or whitepaper, the purpose of a case study presentation is to stimulate critical thinking among the viewers. 

The primary objective of a case study is to provide an extensive and profound comprehension of the chosen topic. You don’t just throw numbers at your audience. You use examples and real-life cases to make you think and see things from different angles.

The primary purpose of presenting a case study is to offer a comprehensive, evidence-based argument that informs, persuades and engages your audience.

Here’s the juicy part: presenting that case study can be your secret weapon. Whether you’re pitching a groundbreaking idea to a room full of suits or trying to impress your professor with your A-game, a well-crafted case study can be the magic dust that sprinkles brilliance over your words.

Think of it like digging into a puzzle you can’t quite crack . A case study lets you explore every piece, turn it over and see how it fits together. This close-up look helps you understand the whole picture, not just a blurry snapshot.

It’s also your chance to showcase how you analyze things, step by step, until you reach a conclusion. It’s all about being open and honest about how you got there.

Besides, presenting a case study gives you an opportunity to connect data and real-world scenarios in a compelling narrative. It helps to make your argument more relatable and accessible, increasing its impact on your audience.

One of the contexts where case studies can be very helpful is during the job interview. In some job interviews, you as candidates may be asked to present a case study as part of the selection process.

Having a case study presentation prepared allows the candidate to demonstrate their ability to understand complex issues, formulate strategies and communicate their ideas effectively.

The way you present a case study can make all the difference in how it’s received. A well-structured presentation not only holds the attention of your audience but also ensures that your key points are communicated clearly and effectively.

In this section, let’s go through the key steps that’ll help you structure your case study presentation for maximum impact.

Let’s get into it. 

Open with an introductory overview 

Start by introducing the subject of your case study and its relevance. Explain why this case study is important and who would benefit from the insights gained. This is your opportunity to grab your audience’s attention.

Explain the problem in question

Dive into the problem or challenge that the case study focuses on. Provide enough background information for the audience to understand the issue. If possible, quantify the problem using data or metrics to show the magnitude or severity.

Detail the solutions to solve the problem

After outlining the problem, describe the steps taken to find a solution. This could include the methodology, any experiments or tests performed and the options that were considered. Make sure to elaborate on why the final solution was chosen over the others.

Key stakeholders Involved

Talk about the individuals, groups or organizations that were directly impacted by or involved in the problem and its solution. 

Stakeholders may experience a range of outcomes—some may benefit, while others could face setbacks.

For example, in a business transformation case study, employees could face job relocations or changes in work culture, while shareholders might be looking at potential gains or losses.

Discuss the key results & outcomes

Discuss the results of implementing the solution. Use data and metrics to back up your statements. Did the solution meet its objectives? What impact did it have on the stakeholders? Be honest about any setbacks or areas for improvement as well.

Include visuals to support your analysis

Visual aids can be incredibly effective in helping your audience grasp complex issues. Utilize charts, graphs, images or video clips to supplement your points. Make sure to explain each visual and how it contributes to your overall argument.

Pie charts illustrate the proportion of different components within a whole, useful for visualizing market share, budget allocation or user demographics.

This is particularly useful especially if you’re displaying survey results in your case study presentation.

Stacked charts on the other hand are perfect for visualizing composition and trends. This is great for analyzing things like customer demographics, product breakdowns or budget allocation in your case study.

Consider this example of a stacked bar chart template. It provides a straightforward summary of the top-selling cake flavors across various locations, offering a quick and comprehensive view of the data.

Not the chart you’re looking for? Browse Venngage’s gallery of chart templates to find the perfect one that’ll captivate your audience and level up your data storytelling.

Recommendations and next steps

Wrap up by providing recommendations based on the case study findings. Outline the next steps that stakeholders should take to either expand on the success of the project or address any remaining challenges.

Acknowledgments and references

Thank the people who contributed to the case study and helped in the problem-solving process. Cite any external resources, reports or data sets that contributed to your analysis.

Feedback & Q&A session

Open the floor for questions and feedback from your audience. This allows for further discussion and can provide additional insights that may not have been considered previously.

Closing remarks

Conclude the presentation by summarizing the key points and emphasizing the takeaways. Thank your audience for their time and participation and express your willingness to engage in further discussions or collaborations on the subject.

Well, the length of a case study presentation can vary depending on the complexity of the topic and the needs of your audience. However, a typical business or academic presentation often lasts between 15 to 30 minutes. 

This time frame usually allows for a thorough explanation of the case while maintaining audience engagement. However, always consider leaving a few minutes at the end for a Q&A session to address any questions or clarify points made during the presentation.

When it comes to presenting a compelling case study, having a well-structured template can be a game-changer. 

It helps you organize your thoughts, data and findings in a coherent and visually pleasing manner. 

Not all case studies are created equal and different scenarios require distinct approaches for maximum impact. 

To save you time and effort, I have curated a list of 5 versatile case study presentation templates, each designed for specific needs and audiences. 

Here are some best case study presentation examples that showcase effective strategies for engaging your audience and conveying complex information clearly.

1 . Lab report case study template

Ever feel like your research gets lost in a world of endless numbers and jargon? Lab case studies are your way out!

Think of it as building a bridge between your cool experiment and everyone else. It’s more than just reporting results – it’s explaining the “why” and “how” in a way that grabs attention and makes sense.

This lap report template acts as a blueprint for your report, guiding you through each essential section (introduction, methods, results, etc.) in a logical order.

Want to present your research like a pro? Browse our research presentation template gallery for creative inspiration!

2. Product case study template

It’s time you ditch those boring slideshows and bullet points because I’ve got a better way to win over clients: product case study templates.

Instead of just listing features and benefits, you get to create a clear and concise story that shows potential clients exactly what your product can do for them. It’s like painting a picture they can easily visualize, helping them understand the value your product brings to the table.

Grab the template below, fill in the details, and watch as your product’s impact comes to life!

3. Content marketing case study template

In digital marketing, showcasing your accomplishments is as vital as achieving them. 

A well-crafted case study not only acts as a testament to your successes but can also serve as an instructional tool for others. 

With this coral content marketing case study template—a perfect blend of vibrant design and structured documentation, you can narrate your marketing triumphs effectively.

4. Case study psychology template

Understanding how people tick is one of psychology’s biggest quests and case studies are like magnifying glasses for the mind. They offer in-depth looks at real-life behaviors, emotions and thought processes, revealing fascinating insights into what makes us human.

Writing a top-notch case study, though, can be a challenge. It requires careful organization, clear presentation and meticulous attention to detail. That’s where a good case study psychology template comes in handy.

Think of it as a helpful guide, taking care of formatting and structure while you focus on the juicy content. No more wrestling with layouts or margins – just pour your research magic into crafting a compelling narrative.

5. Lead generation case study template

Lead generation can be a real head-scratcher. But here’s a little help: a lead generation case study.

Think of it like a friendly handshake and a confident resume all rolled into one. It’s your chance to showcase your expertise, share real-world successes and offer valuable insights. Potential clients get to see your track record, understand your approach and decide if you’re the right fit.

No need to start from scratch, though. This lead generation case study template guides you step-by-step through crafting a clear, compelling narrative that highlights your wins and offers actionable tips for others. Fill in the gaps with your specific data and strategies, and voilà! You’ve got a powerful tool to attract new customers.

Related: 15+ Professional Case Study Examples [Design Tips + Templates]

So, you’ve spent hours crafting the perfect case study and are now tasked with presenting it. Crafting the case study is only half the battle; delivering it effectively is equally important. 

Whether you’re facing a room of executives, academics or potential clients, how you present your findings can make a significant difference in how your work is received. 

Forget boring reports and snooze-inducing presentations! Let’s make your case study sing. Here are some key pointers to turn information into an engaging and persuasive performance:

• Know your audience : Tailor your presentation to the knowledge level and interests of your audience. Remember to use language and examples that resonate with them.
• Rehearse : Rehearsing your case study presentation is the key to a smooth delivery and for ensuring that you stay within the allotted time. Practice helps you fine-tune your pacing, hone your speaking skills with good word pronunciations and become comfortable with the material, leading to a more confident, conversational and effective presentation.
• Start strong : Open with a compelling introduction that grabs your audience’s attention. You might want to use an interesting statistic, a provocative question or a brief story that sets the stage for your case study.
• Be clear and concise : Avoid jargon and overly complex sentences. Get to the point quickly and stay focused on your objectives.
• Use visual aids : Incorporate slides with graphics, charts or videos to supplement your verbal presentation. Make sure they are easy to read and understand.
• Tell a story : Use storytelling techniques to make the case study more engaging. A well-told narrative can help you make complex data more relatable and easier to digest.

Ditching the dry reports and slide decks? Venngage’s case study templates let you wow customers with your solutions and gain insights to improve your business plan. Pre-built templates, visual magic and customer captivation – all just a click away. Go tell your story and watch them say “wow!”

Nailed your case study, but want to make your presentation even stronger? Avoid these common mistakes to ensure your audience gets the most out of it:

Overloading with information

A case study is not an encyclopedia. Overloading your presentation with excessive data, text or jargon can make it cumbersome and difficult for the audience to digest the key points. Stick to what’s essential and impactful. Need help making your data clear and impactful? Our data presentation templates can help! Find clear and engaging visuals to showcase your findings.

Lack of structure

Jumping haphazardly between points or topics can confuse your audience. A well-structured presentation, with a logical flow from introduction to conclusion, is crucial for effective communication.

Ignoring the audience

Different audiences have different needs and levels of understanding. Failing to adapt your presentation to your audience can result in a disconnect and a less impactful presentation.

Poor visual elements

While content is king, poor design or lack of visual elements can make your case study dull or hard to follow. Make sure you use high-quality images, graphs and other visual aids to support your narrative.

Not focusing on results

A case study aims to showcase a problem and its solution, but what most people care about are the results. Failing to highlight or adequately explain the outcomes can make your presentation fall flat.

How to start a case study presentation?

Starting a case study presentation effectively involves a few key steps:

• Grab attention : Open with a hook—an intriguing statistic, a provocative question or a compelling visual—to engage your audience from the get-go.
• Set the stage : Briefly introduce the subject, context and relevance of the case study to give your audience an idea of what to expect.
• Outline objectives : Clearly state what the case study aims to achieve. Are you solving a problem, proving a point or showcasing a success?
• Agenda : Give a quick outline of the key sections or topics you’ll cover to help the audience follow along.
• Set expectations : Let your audience know what you want them to take away from the presentation, whether it’s knowledge, inspiration or a call to action.

How to present a case study on PowerPoint and on Google Slides?

Presenting a case study on PowerPoint and Google Slides involves a structured approach for clarity and impact using presentation slides :

• Title slide : Start with a title slide that includes the name of the case study, your name and any relevant institutional affiliations.
• Introduction : Follow with a slide that outlines the problem or situation your case study addresses. Include a hook to engage the audience.
• Objectives : Clearly state the goals of the case study in a dedicated slide.
• Findings : Use charts, graphs and bullet points to present your findings succinctly.
• Analysis : Discuss what the findings mean, drawing on supporting data or secondary research as necessary.
• Conclusion : Summarize key takeaways and results.
• Q&A : End with a slide inviting questions from the audience.

What’s the role of analysis in a case study presentation?

The role of analysis in a case study presentation is to interpret the data and findings, providing context and meaning to them. 

It helps your audience understand the implications of the case study, connects the dots between the problem and the solution and may offer recommendations for future action.

Is it important to include real data and results in the presentation?

Yes, including real data and results in a case study presentation is crucial to show experience,  credibility and impact. Authentic data lends weight to your findings and conclusions, enabling the audience to trust your analysis and take your recommendations more seriously

How do I conclude a case study presentation effectively?

To conclude a case study presentation effectively, summarize the key findings, insights and recommendations in a clear and concise manner. 

End with a strong call-to-action or a thought-provoking question to leave a lasting impression on your audience.

What’s the best way to showcase data in a case study presentation ?

The best way to showcase data in a case study presentation is through visual aids like charts, graphs and infographics which make complex information easily digestible, engaging and creative. 

Don’t just report results, visualize them! This template for example lets you transform your social media case study into a captivating infographic that sparks conversation.

Choose the type of visual that best represents the data you’re showing; for example, use bar charts for comparisons or pie charts for parts of a whole. 

Ensure that the visuals are high-quality and clearly labeled, so the audience can quickly grasp the key points. 

Keep the design consistent and simple, avoiding clutter or overly complex visuals that could distract from the message.

Choose a template that perfectly suits your case study where you can utilize different visual aids for maximum impact. 

Need more inspiration on how to turn numbers into impact with the help of infographics? Our ready-to-use infographic templates take the guesswork out of creating visual impact for your case studies with just a few clicks.

Related: 10+ Case Study Infographic Templates That Convert

Congrats on mastering the art of compelling case study presentations! This guide has equipped you with all the essentials, from structure and nuances to avoiding common pitfalls. You’re ready to impress any audience, whether in the boardroom, the classroom or beyond.

And remember, you’re not alone in this journey. Venngage’s Case Study Creator is your trusty companion, ready to elevate your presentations from ordinary to extraordinary. So, let your confidence shine, leverage your newly acquired skills and prepare to deliver presentations that truly resonate.

Go forth and make a lasting impact!

Discover popular designs

Infographic maker

Brochure maker

White paper online

Newsletter creator

Flyer maker

Timeline maker

Letterhead maker

Mind map maker

Ebook maker

How to write a case study — examples, templates, and tools

It’s a marketer’s job to communicate the effectiveness of a product or service to potential and current customers to convince them to buy and keep business moving. One of the best methods for doing this is to share success stories that are relatable to prospects and customers based on their pain points, experiences, and overall needs.

That’s where case studies come in. Case studies are an essential part of a content marketing plan. These in-depth stories of customer experiences are some of the most effective at demonstrating the value of a product or service. Yet many marketers don’t use them, whether because of their regimented formats or the process of customer involvement and approval.

A case study is a powerful tool for showcasing your hard work and the success your customer achieved. But writing a great case study can be difficult if you’ve never done it before or if it’s been a while. This guide will show you how to write an effective case study and provide real-world examples and templates that will keep readers engaged and support your business.

In this article, you’ll learn:

What is a case study?

How to write a case study, case study templates, case study examples, case study tools.

A case study is the detailed story of a customer’s experience with a product or service that demonstrates their success and often includes measurable outcomes. Case studies are used in a range of fields and for various reasons, from business to academic research. They’re especially impactful in marketing as brands work to convince and convert consumers with relatable, real-world stories of actual customer experiences.

The best case studies tell the story of a customer’s success, including the steps they took, the results they achieved, and the support they received from a brand along the way. To write a great case study, you need to:

• Celebrate the customer and make them — not a product or service — the star of the story.
• Craft the story with specific audiences or target segments in mind so that the story of one customer will be viewed as relatable and actionable for another customer.
• Write copy that is easy to read and engaging so that readers will gain the insights and messages intended.
• Follow a standardized format that includes all of the essentials a potential customer would find interesting and useful.
• Support all of the claims for success made in the story with data in the forms of hard numbers and customer statements.

Case studies are a type of review but more in depth, aiming to show — rather than just tell — the positive experiences that customers have with a brand. Notably, 89% of consumers read reviews before deciding to buy, and 79% view case study content as part of their purchasing process. When it comes to B2B sales, 52% of buyers rank case studies as an important part of their evaluation process.

Telling a brand story through the experience of a tried-and-true customer matters. The story is relatable to potential new customers as they imagine themselves in the shoes of the company or individual featured in the case study. Showcasing previous customers can help new ones see themselves engaging with your brand in the ways that are most meaningful to them.

Besides sharing the perspective of another customer, case studies stand out from other content marketing forms because they are based on evidence. Whether pulling from client testimonials or data-driven results, case studies tend to have more impact on new business because the story contains information that is both objective (data) and subjective (customer experience) — and the brand doesn’t sound too self-promotional.

Case studies are unique in that there’s a fairly standardized format for telling a customer’s story. But that doesn’t mean there isn’t room for creativity. It’s all about making sure that teams are clear on the goals for the case study — along with strategies for supporting content and channels — and understanding how the story fits within the framework of the company’s overall marketing goals.

Here are the basic steps to writing a good case study.

1. Identify your goal

Start by defining exactly who your case study will be designed to help. Case studies are about specific instances where a company works with a customer to achieve a goal. Identify which customers are likely to have these goals, as well as other needs the story should cover to appeal to them.

The answer is often found in one of the buyer personas that have been constructed as part of your larger marketing strategy. This can include anything from new leads generated by the marketing team to long-term customers that are being pressed for cross-sell opportunities. In all of these cases, demonstrating value through a relatable customer success story can be part of the solution to conversion.

2. Choose your client or subject

Who you highlight matters. Case studies tie brands together that might otherwise not cross paths. A writer will want to ensure that the highlighted customer aligns with their own company’s brand identity and offerings. Look for a customer with positive name recognition who has had great success with a product or service and is willing to be an advocate.

The client should also match up with the identified target audience. Whichever company or individual is selected should be a reflection of other potential customers who can see themselves in similar circumstances, having the same problems and possible solutions.

Some of the most compelling case studies feature customers who:

• Switch from one product or service to another while naming competitors that missed the mark.
• Experience measurable results that are relatable to others in a specific industry.
• Represent well-known brands and recognizable names that are likely to compel action.
• Advocate for a product or service as a champion and are well-versed in its advantages.

Whoever or whatever customer is selected, marketers must ensure they have the permission of the company involved before getting started. Some brands have strict review and approval procedures for any official marketing or promotional materials that include their name. Acquiring those approvals in advance will prevent any miscommunication or wasted effort if there is an issue with their legal or compliance teams.

3. Conduct research and compile data

Substantiating the claims made in a case study — either by the marketing team or customers themselves — adds validity to the story. To do this, include data and feedback from the client that defines what success looks like. This can be anything from demonstrating return on investment (ROI) to a specific metric the customer was striving to improve. Case studies should prove how an outcome was achieved and show tangible results that indicate to the customer that your solution is the right one.

This step could also include customer interviews. Make sure that the people being interviewed are key stakeholders in the purchase decision or deployment and use of the product or service that is being highlighted. Content writers should work off a set list of questions prepared in advance. It can be helpful to share these with the interviewees beforehand so they have time to consider and craft their responses. One of the best interview tactics to keep in mind is to ask questions where yes and no are not natural answers. This way, your subject will provide more open-ended responses that produce more meaningful content.

4. Choose the right format

There are a number of different ways to format a case study. Depending on what you hope to achieve, one style will be better than another. However, there are some common elements to include, such as:

• An engaging headline
• A subject and customer introduction
• The unique challenge or challenges the customer faced
• The solution the customer used to solve the problem
• The results achieved
• Data and statistics to back up claims of success
• A strong call to action (CTA) to engage with the vendor

It’s also important to note that while case studies are traditionally written as stories, they don’t have to be in a written format. Some companies choose to get more creative with their case studies and produce multimedia content, depending on their audience and objectives. Case study formats can include traditional print stories, interactive web or social content, data-heavy infographics, professionally shot videos, podcasts, and more.

5. Write your case study

We’ll go into more detail later about how exactly to write a case study, including templates and examples. Generally speaking, though, there are a few things to keep in mind when writing your case study.

• Be clear and concise. Readers want to get to the point of the story quickly and easily, and they’ll be looking to see themselves reflected in the story right from the start.
• Provide a big picture. Always make sure to explain who the client is, their goals, and how they achieved success in a short introduction to engage the reader.
• Construct a clear narrative. Stick to the story from the perspective of the customer and what they needed to solve instead of just listing product features or benefits.
• Leverage graphics. Incorporating infographics, charts, and sidebars can be a more engaging and eye-catching way to share key statistics and data in readable ways.
• Offer the right amount of detail. Most case studies are one or two pages with clear sections that a reader can skim to find the information most important to them.
• Include data to support claims. Show real results — both facts and figures and customer quotes — to demonstrate credibility and prove the solution works.

6. Promote your story

Marketers have a number of options for distribution of a freshly minted case study. Many brands choose to publish case studies on their website and post them on social media. This can help support SEO and organic content strategies while also boosting company credibility and trust as visitors see that other businesses have used the product or service.

Marketers are always looking for quality content they can use for lead generation. Consider offering a case study as gated content behind a form on a landing page or as an offer in an email message. One great way to do this is to summarize the content and tease the full story available for download after the user takes an action.

Sales teams can also leverage case studies, so be sure they are aware that the assets exist once they’re published. Especially when it comes to larger B2B sales, companies often ask for examples of similar customer challenges that have been solved.

Now that you’ve learned a bit about case studies and what they should include, you may be wondering how to start creating great customer story content. Here are a couple of templates you can use to structure your case study.

Template 1 — Challenge-solution-result format

• Start with an engaging title. This should be fewer than 70 characters long for SEO best practices. One of the best ways to approach the title is to include the customer’s name and a hint at the challenge they overcame in the end.
• Create an introduction. Lead with an explanation as to who the customer is, the need they had, and the opportunity they found with a specific product or solution. Writers can also suggest the success the customer experienced with the solution they chose.
• Present the challenge. This should be several paragraphs long and explain the problem the customer faced and the issues they were trying to solve. Details should tie into the company’s products and services naturally. This section needs to be the most relatable to the reader so they can picture themselves in a similar situation.
• Share the solution. Explain which product or service offered was the ideal fit for the customer and why. Feel free to delve into their experience setting up, purchasing, and onboarding the solution.
• Explain the results. Demonstrate the impact of the solution they chose by backing up their positive experience with data. Fill in with customer quotes and tangible, measurable results that show the effect of their choice.
• Ask for action. Include a CTA at the end of the case study that invites readers to reach out for more information, try a demo, or learn more — to nurture them further in the marketing pipeline. What you ask of the reader should tie directly into the goals that were established for the case study in the first place.

Template 2 — Data-driven format

• Start with an engaging title. Be sure to include a statistic or data point in the first 70 characters. Again, it’s best to include the customer’s name as part of the title.
• Create an overview. Share the customer’s background and a short version of the challenge they faced. Present the reason a particular product or service was chosen, and feel free to include quotes from the customer about their selection process.
• Present data point 1. Isolate the first metric that the customer used to define success and explain how the product or solution helped to achieve this goal. Provide data points and quotes to substantiate the claim that success was achieved.
• Present data point 2. Isolate the second metric that the customer used to define success and explain what the product or solution did to achieve this goal. Provide data points and quotes to substantiate the claim that success was achieved.
• Present data point 3. Isolate the final metric that the customer used to define success and explain what the product or solution did to achieve this goal. Provide data points and quotes to substantiate the claim that success was achieved.
• Summarize the results. Reiterate the fact that the customer was able to achieve success thanks to a specific product or service. Include quotes and statements that reflect customer satisfaction and suggest they plan to continue using the solution.
• Ask for action. Include a CTA at the end of the case study that asks readers to reach out for more information, try a demo, or learn more — to further nurture them in the marketing pipeline. Again, remember that this is where marketers can look to convert their content into action with the customer.

While templates are helpful, seeing a case study in action can also be a great way to learn. Here are some examples of how Adobe customers have experienced success.

Juniper Networks

One example is the Adobe and Juniper Networks case study , which puts the reader in the customer’s shoes. The beginning of the story quickly orients the reader so that they know exactly who the article is about and what they were trying to achieve. Solutions are outlined in a way that shows Adobe Experience Manager is the best choice and a natural fit for the customer. Along the way, quotes from the client are incorporated to help add validity to the statements. The results in the case study are conveyed with clear evidence of scale and volume using tangible data.

The story of Lenovo’s journey with Adobe is one that spans years of planning, implementation, and rollout. The Lenovo case study does a great job of consolidating all of this into a relatable journey that other enterprise organizations can see themselves taking, despite the project size. This case study also features descriptive headers and compelling visual elements that engage the reader and strengthen the content.

Tata Consulting

When it comes to using data to show customer results, this case study does an excellent job of conveying details and numbers in an easy-to-digest manner. Bullet points at the start break up the content while also helping the reader understand exactly what the case study will be about. Tata Consulting used Adobe to deliver elevated, engaging content experiences for a large telecommunications client of its own — an objective that’s relatable for a lot of companies.

Case studies are a vital tool for any marketing team as they enable you to demonstrate the value of your company’s products and services to others. They help marketers do their job and add credibility to a brand trying to promote its solutions by using the experiences and stories of real customers.

When you’re ready to get started with a case study:

• Think about a few goals you’d like to accomplish with your content.
• Make a list of successful clients that would be strong candidates for a case study.
• Reach out to the client to get their approval and conduct an interview.
• Gather the data to present an engaging and effective customer story.

Adobe can help

There are several Adobe products that can help you craft compelling case studies. Adobe Experience Platform helps you collect data and deliver great customer experiences across every channel. Once you’ve created your case studies, Experience Platform will help you deliver the right information to the right customer at the right time for maximum impact.

To learn more, watch the Adobe Experience Platform story .

Keep in mind that the best case studies are backed by data. That’s where Adobe Real-Time Customer Data Platform and Adobe Analytics come into play. With Real-Time CDP, you can gather the data you need to build a great case study and target specific customers to deliver the content to the right audience at the perfect moment.

Watch the Real-Time CDP overview video to learn more.

Finally, Adobe Analytics turns real-time data into real-time insights. It helps your business collect and synthesize data from multiple platforms to make more informed decisions and create the best case study possible.

Request a demo to learn more about Adobe Analytics.

https://business.adobe.com/blog/perspectives/b2b-ecommerce-10-case-studies-inspire-you

https://business.adobe.com/blog/basics/business-case

https://business.adobe.com/blog/basics/what-is-real-time-analytics

• Reference Manager
• Simple TEXT file

People also looked at

Perspective article, how policy implementation shapes the impact of u.s. food assistance policies: the case study of the child and adult care food program.

• 1 Department of Nutrition, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, United States
• 2 Seed 2 Roots LLC, Mankato, MN, United States
• 3 Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics, Rudd Center for Food Policy and Health, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, United States

Much of the chronic disease burden in the U.S. population can be traced to poor diet. There has been a sustained focus on influencing children's diets and encouraging healthier eating habits by changing policies for what foods and beverages can be served to children through large federally-funded nutrition assistance programs. Yet without attention to how nutrition policies are implemented, and the surrounding context for these policies, these policy changes may not have the intended results. In this perspective, we used Bullock et al.'s (2021) Process Model of Implementation from a Policy Perspective to analyze how the complexities of the implementation process of large-scale nutrition policies can dilute potential health outcomes. We examine the Child and Adult Care Food Program (CACFP), a federal program focused on supporting the provision of nutritious meals to over 4 million children attending childcare, as a case study. We examine how the larger societal contexts of food insecurity, attitudes towards the social safety net, and a fragmented childcare system interact with CACFP. We review the “policy package” of CACFP itself, in terms of its regulatory requirements, and the various federal, state, and local implementation agencies that shape CACFP's on-the-ground implementation. We then review the evidence for how each component of the CACFP policy implementation process impacts uptake, costs, feasibility, equity, and effectiveness at improving children's nutrition. Our case study demonstrates how public health researchers and practitioners must consider the complexities of policy implementation processes to ensure effective implementation of nutrition policies intended to improve population health.

1. Introduction

The United States (U.S.) faces substantial public health challenges related to poor nutrition. Diet-related chronic diseases ( 1 )—including heart disease, stroke, type II diabetes mellitus, and certain types of cancer ( 2 , 3 )– are experienced by most U.S. adults, contributing to poor health and early mortality ( 4 , 5 ). Moreover, inequities in access to affordable, nutritious foods have resulted in socioeconomic and racial/ethnic disparities in diet quality ( 6 – 8 ). Income and race are also closely linked with a higher risk of food insecurity ( 9 ), which further increases the risk of both poor diet and cardiometabolic diseases ( 10 , 11 ). These problems start in childhood ( 2 , 12 , 13 ).

To address these population-wide challenges, policymakers have leveraged federal child nutrition assistance programs, such as the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC), the National School Lunch and Breakfast Programs (NSLP/SBP), and the Child and Adult Care Food Program (CACFP), as policy levers for achieving public health nutrition goals ( 14 – 17 ). These programs, which provide financial support to improve food security and access for Americans, especially those with lower incomes, show promise for improving diet quality and reducing health inequities. In recent years, efforts to bring minimum nutrition standards for WIC and NSLP/SBP in line with current dietary science have resulted in substantial improvements in the diet quality and chronic disease risk of program participants ( 18 – 24 ), suggesting that policy changes to these programs can be a promising approach to population health. However, similar updates to CACFP appear to have had less strong effects ( 25 ).

In this perspective, we use a conceptual framework of policy implementation, developed by Bullock et al. ( 26 ), to outline the challenges in leveraging federal nutrition policies as public health interventions. We specifically examine CACFP, which provides reimbursements to child and adult daycare providers to support serving meals and snacks meeting basic nutritional standards ( 27 ), as a case study (we focus here solely on childcare providers and child-level outcomes, given that these are the majority beneficiaries of CACFP). Given that CACFP appears to have less consistently strong impacts on child nutrition compared to other federal nutrition programs, we seek to understand how its policy implementation process may explain why.

2. Conceptual framework for the analysis

Bullock et al.'s Process Model of Policy Implementation (2021) ( 26 ) posits that policies are first borne out of a larger context of existing ideas, interests, and other external factors that determine how a problem is defined and whether it is addressed by policy in the first place. This brings about the development of a policy package, a collection of strategies like regulations or statutes, economic incentives, voluntary guidelines, or information campaigns. The implementation process of the policy package then flows through implementing organizations to street-level bureaucrats to recipients. To evaluate policy implementation, outcomes at several levels can be considered, including implementation outcomes ( 28 ) (e.g., fidelity, uptake, acceptability, costs, feasibility, sustainability), service outcomes (e.g., effectiveness, equity, efficiency), recipient outcomes (e.g., changes in actual recipient behavior, satisfaction), and policy/system level outcomes (e.g., reductions in food insecurity at a population level).

Figure 1 presents an adaptation of Bullock et al.'s model for this paper's analysis of CACFP. In the following sections, we explore each of the key phases of the implementation process described in the Process Model—context, developing the policy package, processing through implementing organizations, street-level bureaucrats, and recipients, and finally outcomes—for CACFP.

Figure 1 . Process model of policy implementation applied to the Child and Adult Care Food Program.

3. CACFP's implementation process and how its attributes determine implementation outcomes

3.1. outer context: child food insecurity, child development, the childcare industry, and attitudes towards social safety net programs.

CACFP exists in a larger context related to child health, and specifically children's nutrition, in the U.S. Food insecurity currently affects 12.5% of households with children in the U.S. ( 9 ). Additionally, even for children not experiencing food insecurity, the nutritional quality of foods available to and consumed by children is often poor, with high amounts of inexpensive, highly palatable ultraprocessed foods ( 29 ) and inadequate consumption of vegetables, whole grains, and lean protein sources ( 12 , 30 ). Several decades ago, a key dietary concern was inadequate intake of essential micronutrients; more recently, overconsumption of foods and beverages that can lead to excess weight gain for healthy growth has become a concern for children ( 31 – 36 ).

While social safety net programs have been designed to mitigate these public health nutrition challenges for households with low incomes, there are disagreements on how comprehensive the programs should be ( 37 ).CACFP falls within this challenging context.

This struggle can be seen in CACFP's history ( 38 ). CACFP's roots lie in a federal pilot program called the Special Food Service Program for Children, started in 1968, at a time in U.S. history when the social safety net was being radically expanded through President Lyndon B. Johnson's “War on Poverty”. This program was expanded and formalized into CACFP across the 1970s and 1980s providing childcare providers with resources to serve free rather than including meal costs in tuition or not serving meals at all ( 38 ). However, in the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996—a law which made several safety net programs more difficult to access—CACFP was modified to cut costs. This law reduced the number of meals for which providers could receive reimbursements and introduced an income-based tiering system for reimbursements that reduced the overall financial support most providers could receive and also introduced additional administrative burden ( 39 ) to the program, as it necessitated providers' collection of income information for the families they served ( 38 ). Although future legislative actions allowed for relatively small expansions of the program after this, little changed about CACFP until 2017, when the nutrition standards for CACFP meals were updated as part of the Healthy, Hunger Free Kids Act of 2010 ( 40 , 41 ). A report by the National Academies of Medicine in 2011 suggested sweeping changes were needed to bring CACFP meal pattern standards in line with dietary science regarding child health and development ( 38 ), yet no additional federal funding was appropriated to support these changes ( 41 ).

An additional complexity is how fractured and underfunded the childcare system is in the U.S. Unlike most other economically developed countries; the U.S. has no universal public system of childcare ( 42 ). The childcare industry mostly relies on tuition payments from families and depressed wages for childcare workers in order to function ( 43 ). The industry has been referred to as a “textbook example” of a broken market ( 44 ): parents have to pay so much in tuition that it prohibits many from participating in the workforce at all, educators and other staff are underpaid, and owners are often barely able to keep the programs breaking even. Childcare providers and educators, who face substantial physical and mental health challenges personally ( 45 ), thus often face multiple intense challenges related to simply maintaining operations and adhering to their state's existing regulatory requirements. In this organizational context, participating in CACFP, or even serving meals in the first place, can add an additional layer of complexity to an already challenging situation.

3.2. Policy package: what are the regulations and unofficial rules that make up CACFP?

The regulations for CACFP (7 CFR Part 226) ( 46 ) outline minimum requirements for foods and beverages served for various age groups (see Table 1 ). Participating providers can receive reimbursements for up to three meals and/or snacks. The reimbursement amount for centers varies according to the household income status of the recipient child; reimbursements for family childcare providers (who provide care in their home to a smaller group of children compared to childcare centers) vary based on neighborhood-level income metrics (using either Census or local school meals data) ( 46 ). To participate in CACFP, providers must prove that they either have a nonprofit status or that they serve at least 25% of children from low income households ( 47 ) and must prove financial viability ( 46 ). They must submit paperwork on the foods and beverages served for each meal, the amounts served, and child attendance as well as documentation of receipts and compliance with civil rights law. Providers and key staff participate in annual trainings and periodic monitoring visits from state auditors to assess compliance ( 46 ).

Table 1 . CACFP meal pattern requirements and reimbursements per meal, 2023-2024.

3.3. Implementing organizations and street-level bureaucrats: who implements CACFP?

CACFP is a federal program that is administered by state agencies. At the federal level, the U.S. Department of Agriculture Food and Nutrition Service (USDA FNS) tracks participation, issues guidance to state agencies on how to comply with regulations, releases technical assistance tools (like recipes and worksheets), and commissions program evaluations. State agencies, however—typically education or public health agencies—are the organizations that are responsible for most administrative activities, including approving and onboarding new participating providers, disbursing reimbursements, monitoring compliance, providing technical assistance, and maintaining participation records ( 48 ).

The state agency is also responsible for registering and working with sponsoring agencies or sponsors, which also support implementation. Family childcare providers are required to work with sponsors so that these agencies can complete some of their administrative paperwork and provide technical assistance; depending on the state, some centers can also work with sponsors, or operate independently ( 49 ).

The “street-level bureaucrats” involved in implementing CACFP on the ground are state agency staff responsible for auditing participating programs and sponsors, as well as sponsors themselves, who help participating providers comply with program rules.

3.4. Recipients: childcare programs and children

One unusual aspect of CACFP is that childcare providers can be thought of both as the recipients of the program—they receive the reimbursements for the meals they serve—and also a type of “street-level bureaucrat” as they are implementing the program day-to-day: planning menus, obtaining or preparing food, gathering families' income-eligibility information, participating in training, maintaining paperwork, and submitting to monitoring visits. The other recipients of the program are the children receiving the meals and snacks.

3.5. Outcomes: what do we know about CACFP's impact?

3.5.1. implementation outcomes.

These include acceptability, adoption, appropriateness, costs, feasibility, fidelity, uptake (penetration), and sustainability ( 26 , 28 ). We present evidence for four of these constructs with existing evidence below.

3.5.1.1. Penetration

While the USDA estimates that CACFP served up to 4.6 million children in 2021, it does not track the percentage of eligible programs that participate. A recent analysis of state administrative records, however, estimated that only about a third of licensed childcare centers participate in CACFP nation-wide, with large variability across states (16%–86%) ( 50 ).

3.5.1.2. Fidelity

Studies of the degree to which programs adhere to CACFP's regulatory standards generally suggest that programs meet the standards most of the time, but not perfectly ( 25 , 51 , 52 ).

3.5.1.3. Feasibility

Providers have consistently reported that CACFP is difficult to use, citing the burden of paperwork, inadequate staff, insufficient reimbursements, mismatch of the meal pattern standards with child preferences, and inflexibility of the standards for cultural foods as being key barriers to feasibility ( 53 – 56 ).

3.5.1.4. Cost

Although CACFP reimburses providers for each qualifying meal and snack served (as described above), many studies have found that the reimbursement is not adequate. While some studies have found that the reimbursement covers the costs of food ( 57 – 59 ), studies have also found that the reimbursement is not adequate for supporting foods with more variety that can improve diet quality and support children's preferences ( 60 , 61 ), and that the reimbursement is not adequate to cover labor costs ( 59 ).

3.5.2. Service outcomes

Include efficiency, safety, effectiveness, equity, client-centeredness, and timeliness ( 26 , 28 ). We present analysis for four of these constructs with existing evidence below.

3.5.2.1. Efficiency

As described above, there are substantial monitoring activities involved that make CACFP's efficiency questionable. Daily meal and attendance counts, menu planning, managing food receipts to demonstrate compliance, reviewing food labels to assess whether foods are creditable, and also the work involved in soliciting and organizing income-eligibility paperwork from parents all contribute to substantial administrative burden ( 39 ).

3.5.2.2. Effectiveness

A recent systematic review of studies of the impact of CACFP on the nutritional quality of meals served in childcare programs found mixed evidence overall for a beneficial impact of CACFP, partly due to a lack of rigorous, large-scale studies. Existing studies either find null associations between CACFP and nutritional quality or typically very small positive associations ( 62 ).

3.5.2.3. Equity

It is unknown whether CACFP is accessed inequitably. There are concerns, however, in how programs located in food deserts—which often track with both rural locale and with areas subjected to racialized segregation ( 63 , 64 )—may have difficulty accessing foods compliant with CACFP meal pattern standards. Additionally, the administrative burden of this program itself may produce inequities. Childcare providers serving higher income families can opt out of CACFP. Such programs can either have parents provide meals themselves, or pay extra in tuition to cover meal service costs. Therefore, the administrative burden is borne by providers serving children from households with lower income.

3.5.3. Recipient outcomes

3.5.3.1. providers.

It is unclear the extent to which CACFP benefits providers themselves; most studies evaluate the impacts of CACFP on childcare program practices and policies. For example, it is unclear whether CACFP actually helps providers financially so that they have less business challenges or are able to keep program tuition lower. It is also unclear whether CACFP helps with providers' own health and wellness. Notably, despite the fact that childcare teachers are strongly encouraged to sit and eat with children during mealtimes, meals for teachers are not reimbursable through CACFP currently.

3.5.3.2. Children

Similar to what has been found in evaluations of CACFP's impact on childcare program-level food practices and policies, evidence for a beneficial impact of CACFP on child-level outcomes, including diet quality, food security, and healthy weight, are mixed, with studies either finding null or very slightly positive associations ( 62 ).

3.5.4. Policy outcomes

Overall, it is unclear whether CACFP has population-level impacts on childcare meal quality or child health.

4. Discussion

Nutrition policies, especially federal nutrition assistance programs, show enormous potential for supporting children's nutrition on a population level. CACFP could be particularly promising given that it focuses on supporting healthy meals for young children, who are at a crucial stage of development. Yet despite its promise, it has not been shown to have strong impacts on child food insecurity, growth, or diet quality ( 62 ) While it is often suggested that CACFP participants need more training or technical assistance to support better adoption of CACFP, the analysis above suggests that simply providing training or technical assistance is not enough; rather, we argue that several key misalignments between CACFP's policy implementation process and the current structure of the childcare industry have contributed to weaker impacts. These include:

4.1. Fractured childcare industry and conflict over resources for safety net programs

The daily challenges that childcare providers face in maintaining operations—low wages, high staff turnover, high operating costs, and the need to comply with multiple regulations outside of food-related rules—may make participation in CACFP infeasible for many programs; they just may not have the bandwidth given the current structure of childcare. While increasing operational and financial support given through CACFP could increase its feasibility for programs, as well as providing more support and structure to the childcare industry in general, this would require expansions of the existing social safety net that are controversial in the current political climate.

4.2. Insufficient financial support for providers to effectively implement the program

While existing reimbursements may cover food costs on average, they do not appear to be adequate for covering the cost of the labor needed to complete CACFP's administrative requirements or to plan and prepare meals. They also may not be adequate for supporting a variety of foods that can fit children's preferences or help towards introducing children to new foods, leaving providers with a situation where they are repeating the same few meals and reducing satisfaction with the program. Reimbursements that fairly cover the costs of labor and can support a truly healthful food service—with the provision of a variety of foods that meet CACFP's nutritional standards and children's preferences—are needed.

4.3. Inadequate implementation structure for some programs

An implementation structure more similar to that of the NSLP/SBP—where there are agencies with dedicated staff for overseeing compliance paperwork, planning meals, and preparing and serving meals—could be helpful. For many childcare providers, especially those without a sponsor, participating in CACFP would be akin to asking school principals and teachers to add school meal compliance paperwork and food service to their workloads. Sponsoring agencies help support family childcare providers and some centers in overseeing administrative duties; perhaps a more robust role for these agencies, with support available for more center-based programs and more help with the meal planning and food preparation tasks necessary for participation, could be a solution.

Additionally, increasing communication across levels of implementation (federal, state, sponsor, provider) is needed. The agency involved in setting policy—USDA—is far removed from the day-to-day activities involved in implementation. One implication of this is that some of the policy memorandums that USDA provides to try to support implementation, as well as informational resources designed to help providers comply, may be out of sync with what providers need. For example, one co-author, who is involved in providing food service for CACFP-participating programs, has found that USDA's example recipes often include foods that are too expensive (like nuts or dried fruits) and/or foods that are not creditable for that dish. Communication between state agencies and food vendors could be further developed, rather than relying on childcare centers to navigate those communications. Finally, supporting newly-formed childcare providers in the transition of opening could be a useful investment to ensure the food programs are a support rather than a burden to newly-formed business enterprises.

5. Conclusions

Policymakers and others involved in policy formulation and implementation processes should consider strategies to reshape CACFP's implementation to better fit the existing context of childcare in the U.S.—not only through more robust financial support, but also through perhaps a reconsideration of what administrative paperwork is truly necessary for program participation and a retooling of existing implementation supports, like training, technical assistance, and meal planning, that are available to childcare programs. Meanwhile, as this analysis demonstrates, we suggest that researchers, policymakers, and public health practitioners who want to leverage food policies to promote public health nutrition must go beyond focusing only on requiring the provision of foods and beverages in line with dietary science—we must also carefully consider the context in which these policies operate, and the implementation process that can determine their success.

Data availability statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/Supplementary Material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Author contributions

EK: Conceptualization, Data curation, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Project administration, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. MP: Conceptualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. NF: Conceptualization, Data curation, Investigation, Writing – review & editing. KK: Data curation, Writing – review & editing. RM: Data curation, Formal Analysis, Project administration, Writing – review & editing. TA: Conceptualization, Writing – review & editing.

The author(s) declare financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

This study was supported by a National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases Career Development Award (K01DK125278) and a training grant (5T32HL098048-14) of the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to acknowledge the CACFP-participating childcare providers and sponsors that they have engaged with over the past several years in their research and practice. Without their sharing their experiences and insights with us, we would not have been able to conceptualize this article. We would also like to dedicate this paper to Dianne S. Ward, an irreplaceable mentor to several of us, whose scientific leadership and dedication to improving the health of young children and childcare workers have shaped the field of early childhood nutrition and public health. Without her pioneering work and her commitment to bringing more researchers and practitioners into the field, it is unlikely that much of the work and analysis we present in this paper would have been possible.

Conflict of interest

NF is employed by Seed 2 Roots LLC.

The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher's note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

1. GBD 2017 Diet Collaborators. Health effects of dietary risks in 195 countries, 1990-2017: a systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2017. Lancet . (2019) 393(10184):1958–72. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(19)30041-8

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

2. Liu J, Rehm CD, Onopa J, Mozaffarian D. Trends in diet quality among youth in the United States, 1999-2016. JAMA . (2020) 323(12):1161–74. doi: 10.1001/jama.2020.0878

3. Rehm CD, Peñalvo JL, Afshin A, Mozaffarian D. Dietary intake among US adults, 1999–2012. JAMA . (2016) 315(23):2542–53. doi: 10.1001/jama.2016.7491

4. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. About chronic diseases (2023). Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/chronicdisease/about/index.htm (Accessed July 31, 2023).

5. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Leading causes of death (2023). Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/leading-causes-of-death.htm (Accessed July 31, 2023).

6. Odoms-Young AM. Examining the impact of structural racism on food insecurity: implications for addressing racial/ethnic disparities. Fam Commun Health . (2018) 41:S3–6. doi: 10.1097/FCH.0000000000000183

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

7. Cooksey Stowers K, Jiang Q, Atoloye AT, Lucan S, Gans K. Racial differences in perceived food swamp and food desert exposure and disparities in self-reported dietary habits. Int J Environ Res Public Health . (2020) 17(19):7143. doi: 10.3390/ijerph17197143

8. Carroll-Scott A, Gilstad-Hayden K, Rosenthal L, Peters SM, McCaslin C, Joyce R, et al. Disentangling neighborhood contextual associations with child body mass index, diet, and physical activity: the role of built, socioeconomic, and social environments. Soc Sci Med . (2013) 95:106–14. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2013.04.003

9. Coleman-Jensen A, Rabbitt MP, Gregory CA, Singh A. Household food security in the United States. Econ Res Rep . (2022) 155.

Google Scholar

10. Seligman HK, Berkowitz SA. Aligning programs and policies to support food security and public health goals in the United States. Annu Rev Public Health . (2019) 40:319–37. doi: 10.1146/annurev-publhealth-040218-044132

11. Te Vazquez J, Feng SN, Orr CJ, Berkowitz SA. Food insecurity and cardiometabolic conditions: a review of recent research. Curr Nutr Rep . (2021) 10(4):243–54. doi: 10.1007/s13668-021-00364-2

12. Welker EB, Jacquier EF, Catellier DJ, Anater AS, Story MT. Room for improvement remains in food consumption patterns of young children aged 2–4 years. J Nutr . (2018) 148(9S):1536S–46S. doi: 10.1093/jn/nxx053

13. Larson N, Story M. Barriers to equity in nutritional health for US children and adolescents: a review of the literature. Curr Nutr Rep . (2015) 4(1):102–10. doi: 10.1007/s13668-014-0116-0

14. Mozaffarian D, Angell SY, Lang T, Rivera JA. Role of government policy in nutrition—barriers to and opportunities for healthier eating. Br Med J . (2018) 361:k2426. doi: 10.1136/bmj.k2426

15. Bleich SN, Moran AJ, Vercammen KA, Frelier JM, Dunn CG, Zhong A, et al. Strengthening the public health impacts of the supplemental nutrition assistance program through policy. Annu Rev Public Health . (2020) 41:453–80. doi: 10.1146/annurev-publhealth-040119-094143

16. Koleilat M, Whaley SE, Esguerra KB, Sekhobo JP. The role of WIC in obesity prevention. Curr Pediatr Rep . (2017) 5:132–41. doi: 10.1007/s40124-017-0135-6

17. World Health Organization. Assessing the existing evidence base on school food and nutrition policies: a scoping review. (2021).

18. Daepp MIG, Gortmaker SL, Wang YC, Long MW, Kenney EL. WIC Food package changes: trends in childhood obesity prevalence. Pediatrics . (2019) 143(5):e20182841. doi: 10.1542/peds.2018-2841

19. Tester JM, Leung CW, Crawford PB. Revised WIC food package and childrens diet quality. Pediatrics . (2016) 137(5):e20153557. doi: 10.1542/peds.2015-3557

20. Schultz DJ, Byker Shanks C, Houghtaling B. The impact of the 2009 special supplemental nutrition program for women, infants, and children food package revisions on participants: a systematic review. J Acad Nutr Diet . (2015) 115(11):1832–46. doi: 10.1016/j.jand.2015.06.381

21. Kenney EL, Barrett JL, Bleich SN, Ward ZJ, Cradock AL, Gortmaker SL. Impact of the healthy, hunger-free kids act on obesity trends. Health Aff (Millwood) . (2020) 39(7):1122–9. doi: 10.1377/hlthaff.2020.00133

22. Mozer L, Johnson DB, Podrabsky M, Rocha A. School lunch entrees before and after implementation of the healthy, hunger-free kids act of 2010. J Acad Nutr Diet . (2019) 119(3):490–9. doi: 10.1016/j.jand.2018.09.009

23. Kinderknecht K, Harris C, Jones-Smith J. Association of the healthy, hunger-free kids act with dietary quality among children in the US national school lunch program. JAMA . (2020) 324(4):359–68. doi: 10.1001/jama.2020.9517

24. Johnson DB, Podrabsky M, Rocha A, Otten JJ. Effect of the healthy hunger-free kids act on the nutritional quality of meals selected by students and school lunch participation rates. JAMA Pediatr . (2016) 170(1):e153918. doi: 10.1001/jamapediatrics.2015.3918

25. Andreyeva T, Mozaffarian RS, Kenney EL. Updated meal patterns in the child and adult care food program and changes in quality of food and beverages served: a natural experimental study. Nutrients . (2022) 14(18):3786. doi: 10.3390/nu14183786

26. Bullock HL, Lavis JN, Wilson MG, Mulvale G, Miatello A. Understanding the implementation of evidence-informed policies and practices from a policy perspective: a critical interpretive synthesis. Implement Sci . (2021) 16:1–24. doi: 10.1186/s13012-021-01082-7

27. United States Department of Agriculture. Child and adult care food program (CACFP) (2018). Available at: https://www.fns.usda.gov/cacfp/child-and-adult-care-food-program

28. Proctor EK, Landsverk J, Aarons G, Chambers D, Glisson C, Mittman B. Implementation research in mental health services: an emerging science with conceptual, methodological, and training challenges. Adm Policy Ment Health . (2009) 36(1):24–34. doi: 10.1007/s10488-008-0197-4

29. Wang L, Steele EM, Du M, Pomeranz JL, O’Connor LE, Herrick KA, et al. Trends in consumption of ultraprocessed foods among US youths aged 2–19 years, 1999–2018. JAMA . (2021) 326(6):519–30. doi: 10.1001/jama.2021.10238

30. Banfield EC, Liu Y, Davis JS, Chang S, Frazier-Wood AC. Poor adherence to US dietary guidelines for children and adolescents in the national health and nutrition examination survey population. J Acad Nutr Diet . (2016) 116(1):21–7. doi: 10.1016/j.jand.2015.08.010

31. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Childhood overweight and obesity (2022). Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/obesity/childhood/index.html (Accessed August 1, 2023).

32. World Health Organization. Commission on ending childhood obesity: facts and figures on childhood obesity (2017). Available at: https://www.who.int/end-childhood-obesity/facts/en/ (Accessed August 1, 2023).

33. Must A, Strauss RS. Risks and consequences of childhood and adolescent obesity. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord . (1999) 23(Suppl 2):S2–11. doi: 10.1038/sj.ijo.0800852

34. Ward ZJ, Long MW, Resch SC, Giles CM, Cradock AL, Gortmaker SL. Simulation of growth trajectories of childhood obesity into adulthood. N Engl J Med . (2017) 377(22):2145–53. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1703860

35. May AL, Kim SA, Sherry B, Blanck HM. Childhood obesity task forces established by state legislatures, 2001-2010. Prev Chronic Dis . (2013) 10:E144. doi: 10.5888/pcd10.120153

36. Geserick M, Vogel M, Gausche R, Lipek T, Spielau U, Keller E, et al. Acceleration of BMI in early childhood and risk of sustained obesity. N Engl J Med . (2018) 379(14):1303–12. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1803527

37. Pew Research Center. Views of the economic system and social safety net (2019). Available at: https://www.pewresearch.org/politics/2019/12/17/views-of-the-economic-system-and-social-safety-net/#long-term-opinion-trends-views-of-the-social-safety-net-and-nations-economic-system (Accessed August 1, 2023).

38. Murphy SP, Yaktine AL, West Suitor C, Moats S. Child and adult care food program: aligning dietary guidance for all. In: Murphy SP, Yaktine AL, West Suitor C, Moats S, editors. Child and adult care food program: Aligning dietary guidance for all . Washington: National Academies Press (2010). p. xiv+258. doi: 10.17226/12959.

39. Herd P, Moynihan DP. Administrative burden: policymaking by other means . New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation (2019).

40. Healthy, Hunger-Free Kids Act of 2010, Public Law 296, U.S. Statutes at Large 124 (2010). p. 3183–266.

41. United States Department of Agriculture F and NS. Child and adult care food program: meal pattern revisions related to the healthy, hunger-free kids act of 2010. Washington, DC (2015). Available at: Available from: Available at: https://www.federalregister.gov/articles/2015/01/15/2015-00446/child-and-adult-care-food-program-meal-pattern-revisions-related-to-the-healthy-hunger-free-kids-act

42. U.S. Department of the Treasury. The economics of child care supply in the United States . Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Treasury (2021).

43. Child Care Aware of America. Demanding change: repairing our child care system (2022). Available at: https://info.childcareaware.org/hubfs/2022-03-FallReport-FINAL%20(1).pdf (Accessed August 1, 2023).

44. Yellen J. Remarks by secretary of the treasury Janet L. Yellen on shortages in the child care system (2021). Available at: https://home.treasury.gov/news/press-releases/jy0355 (Accessed August 1, 2023).

45. Lessard LM, Wilkins K, Rose-Malm J, Mazzocchi MC. The health status of the early care and education workforce in the USA: a scoping review of the evidence and current practice. Public Health Rev . (2020) 41(1):2. doi: 10.1186/s40985-019-0117-z

46. Part 226–Child and Adult Care Food Program. Washington, DC: U.S. Congress; 2023. Available at: https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-7/subtitle-B/chapter-II/subchapter-A/part-226

47. United States Department of Agriculture Food and Nutrition Service. Final rule: for-profit center participation in the CACFP (2006). Available at: https://www.fns.usda.gov/cacfp/fr-102306 (Accessed August 1, 2023).

48. United States Department of Agriculture Food and Nutrition Service. Child and adult care food program: state agency (2021). Available at: https://www.fns.usda.gov/cacfp/state-agency (Accessed August 1, 2023).

49. United States Department of Agriculture Food and Nutrition Service. Child and adult care food program: program operator (2021). Available at: https://www.fns.usda.gov/cacfp/program-operator (Accessed August 1, 2023).

50. Andreyeva T, Moore TE, da Cunha Godoy L, Kenney EL. Federal nutrition assistance for young children: under-utilized and unequally accessed. Am J Prev Med . (2023) 13:S0749-3797(23)00354-9. doi: 10.1016/j.amepre.2023.09.008

51. Chriqui JF, Leider J, Schermbeck RM, Sanghera A, Pugach O. Changes in child and adult care food program (CACFP) practices at participating childcare and education centers in the United States following updated national standards, 2017–2019. Nutrients . (2020) 12(9):2818. doi: 10.3390/nu12092818

52. Dave JM, Cullen KW. Foods served in child care facilities participating in the child and adult care food program: menu match and agreement with the new meal patterns and best practices. J Nutr Educ Behav . (2018) 50(6):582–8. doi: 10.1016/j.jneb.2018.01.010

53. Earnesty D, Mphwanthe G, Rau K, Weatherspoon L. A qualitative study: perceived barriers and facilitators to nutrition standard adherence by in-home childcare providers. J Acad Nutr Diet . (2022) 122(4):786–96.e4. doi: 10.1016/j.jand.2021.08.104

54. Jana B, Loefstedt K, Vu M, Ward D, Erinosho T. “It has a lot to do with the cumbersome paperwork”: barriers and facilitators of center-based early care and education program participation in the child and adult care food program. J Acad Nutr Diet . (2023) 123(8):1173–1186.e1. doi: 10.1016/j.jand.2023.03.014

55. Andreyeva T, Sun X, Cannon M, Kenney EL. The child and adult care food program: barriers to participation and financial implications of underuse. J Nutr Educ Behav . (2022) 54(4):327–34. doi: 10.1016/j.jneb.2021.10.001

56. Lee DL, Gurzo K, Yoshida S, Homel Vitale E, Hecht K, Ritchie LD. Compliance with the new 2017 child and adult care food program standards for infants and children before implementation. Child Obes . (2018) 14(6):393–402. doi: 10.1089/chi.2018.0092

57. Poole MK, Cradock AL, Kenney EL. Implementing the new child and adult care food program’s nutrition standards in Boston. Prev Chronic Dis . (2020) 17:E44. doi: 10.5888/pcd17.190426

58. Poole MK, Cradock AL, Kenney EL. Changes in foods served and meal costs in Boston family child care homes after one year of implementing the new child and adult care food program nutrition standards. Nutrients . (2020) 12(9):2817. doi: 10.3390/nu12092817

59. Logan CW, Connor P, LeClair L, Patlan K, Glenn M, Stidsen C, et al. Study of nutrition and activity in childcare settings. Alexandria, VA (2021). Available at: https://fns-prod.azureedge.us/sites/default/files/resource-files/SNACS-AppendixE.pdf (Accessed August 1, 2023).

60. Monsivais P, Johnson DB. Improving nutrition in home child care: are food costs a barrier? Public Health Nutr . (2011) 15(2):370–6. doi: 10.1017/S1368980011002382

61. Monsivais P, Kirkpatrick S, Johnson DB. More nutritious food is served in child-care homes receiving higher federal food subsidies. J Am Diet Assoc . (2011) 111(5):721–6. doi: 10.1016/j.jada.2011.02.007

62. Kenney EL, Tucker K, Plummer RS, Mita C, Andreyeva T. The child and adult care food program and young children’s health: a systematic review. Nutr Rev . (2023) 81(11):1402–13. doi: 10.1093/nutrit/nuad016.

63. Dutko P, Ver Ploeg M, Farrigan T. Characteristics and influential factors of food deserts (2012). [Report] Economic research report number 140. p. 36. doi: 10.22004/ag.econ.262229

64. Hardin-Fanning F, Rayens MK. Food cost disparities in rural communities. Health Promot Pract . (2014) 16(3):383–91. doi: 10.1177/1524839914554454

Keywords: policy, implementation science, nutrition assistance, childcare, public health

Citation: Kenney EL, Poole MK, Frost N, Kinderknecht K, Mozaffarian RS and Andreyeva T (2023) How policy implementation shapes the impact of U.S. food assistance policies: the case study of the Child and Adult Care Food Program. Front. Health Serv. 3:1286050. doi: 10.3389/frhs.2023.1286050

Received: 30 August 2023; Accepted: 18 October 2023; Published: 2 November 2023.

Reviewed by:

© 2023 Kenney, Poole, Frost, Kinderknecht, Mozaffarian and Andreyeva. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Erica L. Kenney [email protected]

This article is part of the Research Topic

Learning for Action in Policy Implementation

A Paradigm Shift in How Scientists Study Kids

T here is an open secret in the study of child development: Most of what we think we know about how babies develop is actually based on a specific subset of kids—those born to families from Western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic (a.k.a. WEIRD) nations. The acronym was first coined in an influential 2010 paper to describe the wildly unrepresentative populations that many psychology studies have long relied on. This is an issue in the field generally, and certainly a thorny problem in developmental psychology, which primarily studies children: According to one paper, WEIRD subjects make up 96 percent of the data used in published developmental-science studies but represent only 12 percent of the world’s population.

As a result, it’s hard to be certain whether many things we think we know about babies’ development are truly universal elements of human nature. It means that we tell an incomplete story about the process of our own becoming. Yet the problem has remained hard to fix. Even within the U.S., similar demographic biases have arisen: The families that most often participate in research studies tend to be white, affluent, and highly educated. The type of parent who brings their baby to a study typically lives near a university, many of which are located in cities, and has the resources and free time to travel to a lab and wait. “Some labs can book a single baby for a day” to collect one data point, Elizabeth Bonawitz, a cognitive scientist at Harvard, told me.

The upheaval of the coronavirus pandemic, however, provided an unexpected opportunity. In spring 2020, Laura Schulz, a cognitive scientist at MIT, and collaborators released a tool called Lookit. At the time, in-person studies were hard to do and research groups had started running online ones instead. Lookit recruited families, connected them with institutions that needed subjects, and hosted virtual studies—including game-based experiments, surveys, and video interviews. Last year, the site merged with Children Helping Science, or CHS, a virtual bulletin board (also co-founded by Schulz) where researchers can advertise studies they need online participants for. Today, CHS has enrolled more than 8,000 children for studies spanning more than 200 labs in all 50 U.S. states and on multiple continents.

The basic technology that underlies CHS is straightforward: a combination of video capture, messaging, and gaming interfaces. In a typical experiment, a child might play a computer game devised by a researcher, the subject can be recorded during play, and both in-game responses and the video are reviewed by scholars later. The platform started in 2013 as a side project for Kim Scott, then a graduate student in Schulz’s lab, but it wasn’t an easy sell to many academics. “Some people still have attachments to doing developmental science in front of a child in their lab, controlling the environment,” Schulz told me. The pandemic meant that scholars had no choice but to relinquish some of that control.

Online experiments might have grown out of necessity, but they help address two of modern developmental psychology’s core problems. First, not enough children participate in experiments in general, so researchers are less likely to identify rarer or more subtle behaviors in them. Second, the WEIRD issue: When experiments consider just a slice of the world’s children, can they really claim that their conclusions are universal?

Take the famed marshmallow study of the 1970s, which offered preschoolers either one marshmallow immediately or two of them if they could wait. The study ultimately suggested that children who delayed short-term gratification in favor of a bigger reward had better outcomes later in life. But the original study was both small (32 children) and demographically specific (all were students of Bing Nursery School at Stanford University). Subsequent attempts to replicate the experiment found the effect diminished or absent altogether. In 2020, researchers even demonstrated that for children from low-socioeconomic-status backgrounds, snapping up that treat immediately could predict future success. In unstable environments, “it may be more effective for you to just go ahead, when you have an opportunity, to take advantage,” Candice Mills, a developmental psychologist at the University of Texas at Dallas, told me.

[ Read: Why rich kids are so good at the marshmallow test ]

Other developmental processes that scientists long thought were universal, such as language acquisition, can be affected by one’s environment too. For years, scientists believed that children gained language through one-on-one interactions with adults , but in an island community in Oceania, children largely learn from one another.

Scientists have tried various methods to tackle the field’s biases. The Stanford psychologist Anne Fernald, for example, traveled in an RV to a low-income community in Northern California in order to collect data on how children learn language. But this took time and money that not every experimenter has. In recent years, broader movements within academia at large—including Open Science and Big Team Science —have embraced sharing data among research groups and collaborating on studies. And in the developmental-science world, tools such as Databrary (a video and audio library) and CHILDES (primarily a repository of language transcripts) help scientists use existing data for new studies.

CHS is an extension of these efforts. Elena Tenenbaum, a clinical psychologist at Duke University, is studying younger siblings of autistic children, who are up to 17 times more likely to receive a diagnosis of autism compared with the general public. Yet this population is a particularly difficult one to bring into the lab. “These families that are already stretched thin from their appointments for their older child—if they need to come into the lab, it gets really challenging, really quickly,” Tenenbaum told me. With CHS, researchers can test this group—for example, measuring how many words they know or whether they can pay attention to and remember faces—to see if early hints precede more obvious symptoms of autism without needing them to come to a lab.

But the implications are bigger than any one study: Online testing tools have the potential to use technology to understand the whole child. For instance, one kid could participate in different studies at different labs—for example, to do with language, or motor skills, or causal reasoning—all connected through CHS. “How does change in one ability relate to changes in another ability?” Schulz said. “We’re going to get a much, much better window into a developing child.”

Crucially, the platform also has the potential to broaden geographic and ethnic sample diversity within the U.S. For instance, data supplied by CHS show that 13.1 percent of its subjects are Latino and 5.5 percent are Black. Many researchers don’t record the demographics of their in-person study subjects, but CHS’s figures are a striking increase from numbers reported by a survey of top journals, which estimated that more than 90 percent of subjects are so-called convenience samples—in other words, people who live near a university or research center, who tend to be white and affluent.

Even with a tool like CHS, developmental psychology still needs to reach more international, rural, and low-socioeconomic-status communities. Most of the world’s children are growing up in Africa and Asia, some of them “in rural settings, very often with some access to electricity, but not necessarily a tablet or easy access to internet,” Alejandrina Cristia, a linguist at the École Normale Supérieure in Paris, told me. And domestically, for CHS to expand further, researchers may need to bring laptops to recreational centers and libraries, Lisa Oakes, a developmental psychologist at UC Davis and an early CHS adopter, told me. Melissa Kline Struhl, the executive director of CHS, hopes that improving the platform’s functionality on smartphones will widen its reach too.

Indeed, forming truly universal theories of how children develop was never going to be an easy task, and still has a long way to go. Yet a shift to online studies is helping provide one thing that the smaller, less representative samples of the past couldn’t: kids who don’t typically come to university labs. For developmental psychology, that alone is a vital step.

Up to 40pc of mental health conditions are linked to child abuse and neglect, study finds

In 1996, Ange McAuley was just 11 years old when ABC's Four Corners profiled her family living on Brisbane's outskirts.

At the time her mother was pregnant with her sixth child and her father had long ago moved back to Perth.

WARNING: This story contains details that may be distressing to some readers.

It was a story about child protection and the program was profiling the role of community volunteers helping her mother, who had been in and out of mental health wards.

Ange was the eldest and it fell to her to get her younger siblings ready for school.

By the time the new baby arrived, she would stay home and change nappies.

"It was pretty crazy back then — I wasn't going to school a lot," she said.

By that age she was already holding a secret — she'd been sexually abused at age six by her stepfather, who would later be convicted of the crime.

"Back in the nineties, a lot of people kept stuff hidden and it wasn't spoken about outside of the family," she said.

"I've carried all these big burdens that weren't even mine. Sexual abuse happened to me. I didn't ask for it."

She says the trauma triggered a lifetime of mental health problems from substance abuse and self-harm as a teen, right through to post-natal depression.

Hidden source of our mental health crisis

A new study from the University of Sydney's Matilda Centre has established just how much Australia's mental health crisis can be traced back to this kind of childhood abuse and neglect.

The research has found that childhood maltreatment is responsible for up to 41 per cent of common mental health conditions including anxiety, depression, substance abuse, self-harm and suicide attempts.

The research, which draws on a 2023 meta-analysis of 34 research studies covering 54,000 people, found maltreatment accounted for 41 per cent of suicide attempts in Australia, 35 per cent of self-harm cases and 21 per cent of depression episodes.

It defined childhood maltreatment as physical, sexual, emotional abuse, emotional or physical neglect and domestic violence before the age of 18.

Lead researcher Lucy Grummitt said it is the first piece of work to quantify the direct impact of child abuse on long-term mental health. 

It found if childhood maltreatment was eradicated it would avert more than 1.8 million cases of depression, anxiety and substance use disorders.

"It shows just how many people in Australia are suffering from mental health conditions that are potentially preventable," she said.

Dr Grummitt said they found in the year 2023 child maltreatment in Australia accounted for 66,143 years of life lost and 118,493 years lived with disability because of the associated mental health conditions.

"We know that when a child is exposed to this level of stress or trauma, it does trigger a lot of changes in the brain and body," Dr Grummitt said.

"Things like altering the body's stress response will make a child hyper-vigilant to threat. It can lead to difficulties with emotion regulation, being able to cope with difficult emotions."

While some areas of maltreatment are trending down, figures from the landmark Australian child maltreatment study last year show rising rates of sexual abuse by adolescents and emotional abuse.

That study found more than one in three females and one in seven males aged 16 to 24 had experienced childhood sexual abuse.

Dr Grummit says childhood trauma can affect how the brain processes emotions once children become teens.

"It could be teenagers struggling to really cope with difficult emotions and certainly trauma can play a huge role in causing those difficult emotions," she said.

Mental health scars emerge early

For Ange, the trauma of her early years first showed itself in adolescence when she started acting out — she remembers punching walls and cars, binge drinking and using drugs.

"I would get angry and just scream," she said.

"I used to talk back to the teachers. I didn't finish school. Mum kicked me out a lot as a teenager. I was back and forth between mum and dad's."

By the time she disclosed her abuse, she was self-harming and at one point tried to take her own life.

"I was just done," she said.

"I was sick of having to get up every day. I didn't want to do it anymore."

Later on, she would have inappropriate relationships with much older men and suffered from depression, including post-natal depression.

"It's definitely affected relationships, it's affected my friendships, it's affected my intimate relationships," she said.

"Flashbacks can come in at the most inappropriate times — you're back in that moment and you feel guilt and shame.

"I feel like it's held me back a lot."

Calls for mental health 'immunisation'

Dr Grummitt said childhood abuse and neglect should be treated as a national public health priority.

In Australia, suicide is the leading cause of death for young people. 

"It's critical that we are investing in prevention rather than putting all our investments into treatment of mental health problems," she said.

Her team has suggested child development and mental health check-ins become a regular feature across a person's lifetime and have proposed a mental health "immunisation schedule".

Chief executive of mental health charity Prevention United, Stephen Carbone, said they estimate that less than 1 per cent of mental health funding goes toward prevention.

"There's been a big steady increase in per capita funding for mental health over the last 30 years but that hasn't translated into reductions," Dr Carbone, a GP, said. 

"You're not going to be able to prevent mental health conditions unless you start to tackle some of these big causes, in particular child maltreatment."

He said most of Australia's child protection system was about reacting to problems rather than trying to prevent them.

"If you're not tackling the upstream risk factors or putting in place protective factors you just keep getting more and more young people experiencing problems and services being overwhelmed," he said.

Now a mother of two teens herself, Ange says she wants to break the cycle and has been going to therapy regularly to help identify and avoid destructive patterns that she's seen herself fall into.

"I love my girls so much and I want better for them."

• X (formerly Twitter)

Related Stories

Generation overwhelmed: these kids fought back against a national health crisis — and won.

'It's a really massive deal': Unpacking what's going on with Gen Z and ways to improve teen mental health

'The air went out of the room': Shocking new statistics on the abuse and neglect of Australian children

• Child Abuse
• Child Health and Behaviour
• Mental Health
• Post Traumatic Stress Disorder
• University of New South Wales

• Schedule an Appointment

• Undergraduate Students in AS&E and SMFA
• Graduate Students in AS&E and SMFA
• Faculty & Staff
• Parents and Families
• What is a Career Community?
• Reflect, Discover & Explore Multiple Interests
• Arts, Communications & Media
• Education, Nonprofit & Social Impact
• Engineering, Technology & Physical Sciences
• Finance, Consulting, Entrepreneurship & Business
• Government, International Affairs & Law
• Healthcare, Life Sciences & the Environment
• Exploring Your Interests, Careers & Majors
• Writing Resumes & Cover Letters
• Finding an Internship
• Finding Jobs & Fellowships
• Preparing for Interviews
• Applying to Graduate & Professional School
• First Generation
• International Students
• Black, Indigenous & People of Color
• Students with Disabilities
• Students with Undocumented Status
• Women & Gender
• For Employers
• Contact & Location
• Career Fellows
• Career Services by School

Case Interview: Complete Prep Guide

• Share This: Share Case Interview: Complete Prep Guide on Facebook Share Case Interview: Complete Prep Guide on LinkedIn Share Case Interview: Complete Prep Guide on X

Welcome to our preparation tips for case interviews!  Whether you are just curious about case interviews or are planning to apply for consulting internships or full-time jobs, these tips and resources will help you feel more prepared and confident.

A case interview is a role playing exercise in which an employer assesses how logically and persuasively you can present a case. Rather than seeing if you get the “correct” answer, the objective is to evaluate your thought process. ( Adapted with permission from Case In Point: Complete Case Interview Preparation by Marc Cosentino). 

Case interviews are very commonly used in the interview process for consulting firms and companies in similar industries. In the case interview, you will typically be given a business problem and then asked to solve it in a structured way. Learning this structure takes preparation and practice. You can learn more and practice using the resources listed below.  

Why are Case Interviews Used?

Case interviews allow employers to test and evaluate the following skills:

• Analytical skills and logical ability to solve problems
• Structure and thought process
• Ability to ask for relevant data/information
• Tolerance for ambiguity and data overload
• Poise and communication skills under pressure and in front of a client

How can I prepare for Case Interviews?

1.) Read Management Consulted’s “Case Interview: Complete Prep Guide (2024)”

Management Consulted is a FREE resource for Tufts students : case and consulting resources such as 500 sample cases, Case Interview Bootcamp,  Market Sizing Drills, Math Drills, case videos, consulting firm directory, and more

2.) Review additional resources:

• Case in Point – This book, by Marc Cosentino, is a comprehensive guide that walks you through the case interview process from beginning to end. This guide has helped many students over the years and can serve as an excellent foundation for how to approach business problems
• Casequestions.com – The companion website to Marc Cosentino’s book listed above offers preparation for case interviews, along with links to top 50 consulting firms
• Management Consulting Case Interviews: Cracking The Case – tips for case interviews from the other side of the table, from Argopoint, a Boston management consulting firm specializing in legal department consulting for Fortune 500 companies
• Preplounge.com – Free case preparation access for to up to 6 practice interviews with peers, selected cases, and video case solutions
• RocketBlocks – Features consulting preparation such as drills and coaching
• Practice sample online cases on consulting firm websites such as McKinsey , BCG , Bain , Deloitte and more!  

3.) Schedule a mock case interview appointment with  Karen Dankers or Kathy Spillane , our advisors for the Finance, Consulting, Entrepreneurship, and Business Career Community.

4.) PRACTICE PRACTICE PRACTICE cases out loud on your own (yes, that can feel odd) or preferably, with another person. See #2 and #3 above for resources and ideas to find partners to practice live cases

5.) Enjoy and have fun solving business problems!

• Log in/Log out (Opens in new window)
• All content
• Rural Alaska
• Crime & Courts
• Alaska Legislature
• ADN Politics Podcast
• National Opinions
• Letters to the Editor
• Nation/World
• Film and TV
• Outdoors/Adventure
• High School Sports
• UAA Athletics
• National Sports
• Food and Drink
• Visual Stories
• Alaska Journal of Commerce (Opens in new window)
• The Arctic Sounder
• The Bristol Bay Times
• Legal Notices (Opens in new window)
• Peak 2 Peak Events (Opens in new window)
• Educator of the Year (Opens in new window)
• Celebrating Nurses (Opens in new window)
• Top 40 Under 40 (Opens in new window)
• Alaska Spelling Bee (Opens in new window)
• Alaska Craft Brew Festival
• Best of Alaska
• Spring Career Fair (Opens in new window)
• Achievement in Business
• Youth Summit Awards
• Lynyrd Skynyrd Ticket Giveaway
• Teacher of the Month
• 2024 Alaska Summer Camps Guide (Opens in new window)
• 2024 Graduation (Opens in new window)
• Alaska Visitors Guide 2024 (Opens in new window)
• 2023 Best of Alaska (Opens in new window)
• Alaska Health Care (Opens in new window)
• Merry Merchant Munch (Opens in new window)
• On the Move AK (Opens in new window)
• Senior Living in Alaska (Opens in new window)
• Youth Summit Awards (Opens in new window)
• Alaska Visitors Guide
• ADN Store (Opens in new window)
• Classifieds (Opens in new window)
• Jobs (Opens in new window)
• Place an Ad (Opens in new window)
• Customer Service
• Sponsored Content

Star witness Michael Cohen directly implicates Trump in testimony at hush money trial

Michael Cohen leaves his apartment building on his way to Manhattan criminal court, Monday, May 13, 2024, in New York. (AP Photo/Julia Nikhinson)

NEW YORK — Donald Trump was intimately involved with all aspects of a scheme to stifle stories about sex that threatened to torpedo his 2016 campaign, his former lawyer said Monday in matter-of-fact testimony that went to the heart of the former president’s hush money trial.

“Everything required Mr. Trump’s sign-off,” said Michael Cohen, Trump’s fixer-turned-foe and the prosecution’s star witness in a case now entering its final, pivotal stretch.

In hours of highly anticipated testimony, Cohen placed Trump at the center of the hush money plot, saying the then-candidate had promised to reimburse the lawyer for the money he fronted and was constantly updated about behind-the-scenes efforts to bury stories feared to be harmful to the campaign.

“We need to stop this from getting out,” Cohen quoted Trump as telling him in reference to porn actor Stormy Daniels’ account of a sexual encounter with Trump a decade earlier.

A similar episode occurred when Cohen alerted Trump that a Playboy model was alleging that she and Trump had an extramarital affair. “Make sure it doesn’t get released,” Cohen said Trump told him. The woman, Karen McDougal, was paid $150,000 in an arrangement that was made after Trump received a “complete and total update on everything that transpired.”

“What I was doing was at the direction of and benefit of Mr. Trump,” Cohen testified.

Trump has pleaded not guilty and denied having sexual encounters with the two women.

Cohen is by far the prosecution’s most important witness, and though his testimony lacked the electricity that defined Daniels’ turn on the stand, he nonetheless linked Trump directly to the payments and helped illuminate some of the drier evidence such as text messages and phone logs that jurors had previously seen.

The testimony of a witness with such intimate knowledge of Trump’s activities could heighten the legal exposure of the presumptive Republican presidential nominee if jurors deem him sufficiently credible. But prosecutors’ reliance on a witness with such a checkered past — Cohen pleaded guilty to federal charges related to the payments — also carries sizable risks with a jury and could be a boon to Trump politically as he fundraises off his legal woes and paints the case as the product of a tainted criminal justice system.

The men, once so close that Cohen boasted that he would “take a bullet” for Trump, had no visible interaction inside the courtroom. The sedate atmosphere was a marked contrast from their last courtroom faceoff, when Trump walked out of the courtroom in October after his lawyer finished questioning Cohen during his civil fraud trial.

This time around, Trump sat at the defense table with his eyes closed for long stretches of testimony as Cohen recounted his decade-long career as a senior Trump Organization executive, doing work that by his own admission sometimes involved lying and bullying others on his boss’s behalf.

Jurors had previously heard from others about the tabloid industry practice of “catch-and-kill,” in which rights to a story are purchased so that it can then be quashed. But Cohen’s testimony, which continues Tuesday, is crucial to prosecutors because of his direct communication with the then-candidate about embarrassing stories he was scrambling to suppress.

Michael Cohen, left, testifies on the witness stand in Manhattan criminal court, Monday, May 13, 2024, in New York. (Elizabeth Williams via AP)

Cohen also matters because the reimbursements he received from a $130,000 hush money payment to Daniels, which prosecutors say was meant to buy her silence in advance of the election, form the basis of 34 felony counts charging Trump with falsifying business records. Prosecutors say the reimbursements were logged, falsely, as legal expenses to conceal the payments’ true purpose. Defense lawyers say the payments to Cohen were properly categorized as legal expenses.

Under questioning from a prosecutor, Cohen detailed the steps he took to mask the payments. When he opened a bank account to pay Daniels, an action he said he told Trump he was taking, he told the bank it was for a new limited liability corporation but withheld the actual purpose.

“I’m not sure they would’ve opened it,” he said, if they knew it was “to pay off an adult film star for a nondisclosure agreement.”

To establish Trump’s familiarity with the payments, Cohen said Trump had promised to reimburse him and called him while the lawyer was on a December 2016 family vacation. Trump told him: “Don’t worry about that other thing. I’m going to take care of it when you get back.”

The two men even discussed with Allen Weisselberg, a former Trump Organization chief financial officer, how the reimbursements would be paid as “legal expenses” over monthly installments, Cohen testified.

And though Trump’s lawyers have said he acted to protect his family from salacious stories, Cohen described Trump as preoccupied instead by the impact they would have on the campaign. He said Trump implored him to delay finalizing the Daniels transaction until after Election Day so he wouldn’t have to pay her.

“Because,” Cohen testified, “after the election it wouldn’t matter” to Trump.

Cohen also gave jurors an insider account of his negotiations with David Pecker, the then-publisher of the National Enquirer, who was such a close Trump ally that Pecker told Cohen his publication maintained a “file drawer or a locked drawer” where files related to Trump were kept. That effort took on added urgency following the October 2016 disclosure of an “Access Hollywood” recording in which Trump was heard boasting about grabbing women sexually.

The Daniels payment was finalized several weeks after that revelation, but Monday’s testimony also centered on a deal earlier that fall with McDougal.

Cohen testified that he went to Trump immediately after the National Enquirer alerted him to a story about the alleged McDougal affair. “Make sure it doesn’t get released,” he said Trump told him.

Trump checked in with Pecker about the matter, asking him how “things were going” with it, Cohen said. Pecker responded: “‘We have this under control, and we’ll take care of this,’” Cohen testified.

Cohen also said he was with Trump as Trump spoke to Pecker on a speakerphone in his Trump Tower office.

“David stated it would cost $150,000 to control the story,” Cohen said. He quoted Trump as saying: “No problem, I’ll take care of it,” meaning that the payments would be reimbursed.

To lay the foundation that the deals were done with Trump’s endorsement, prosecutors elicited testimony from Cohen designed to show Trump as a hands-on manager. Acting on Trump’s behalf, Cohen said, he sometimes lied and bullied others, including reporters.

“When he would task you with something, he would then say, ‘Keep me informed. Let me know what’s going on,’” Cohen testified. He said that was especially true “if there was a matter that was troubling to him.”

Republican presidential candidate, former U.S. President Donald Trump attends his hush money trial in New York, Monday, May 13, 2024. (Steven Hirsch/New York Post via AP, Pool)

Defense lawyers have teed up a bruising cross-examination of Cohen, telling jurors during opening statements that he’s an “admitted liar” with an “obsession to get President Trump.”

Prosecutors aim to blunt those attacks by acknowledging Cohen’s past crimes to jurors and by relying on other witnesses whose accounts, they hope, will buttress Cohen’s testimony. They include a lawyer who negotiated the hush money payments on behalf of Daniels and McDougal, as well as Pecker and Daniels.

After Cohen’s home and office were raided by the FBI in 2018, Trump showered him with affection on social media and predicted that Cohen would not “flip.” Months later, Cohen did exactly that, pleading guilty to federal campaign-finance charges.

Cohen later admitted lying to Congress about a Moscow real estate project that he had pursued on Trump’s behalf during the heat of the 2016 campaign. He was sentenced to three years in prison, but spent much of it in home confinement.