climate change thesis topics

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Climate Change Topics for Short Essays

Perhaps, your educator has asked you to write a short essay on climate change. Maybe you’re yet to decide what to write about because every topic you think about seems to have been written about. In that case, use this list of climate change topics for inspiration. You can write about one of these topics or develop it to make it more unique.

How climate change is responsible for the disappearing rainforest
The effects of global warming on air quality within the urban areas
Global warming and greenhouse emissions- Possible health risks
Is climate change responsible for irregular weather patterns?
How has climate change affected the food chain?
The negative effects of climate change on human wellbeing
How global warming affects agriculture
How climate change works
Why is climate change dangerous to human health?
How to minimize global warming effects on human health
How global warming affects the healthcare
Effects of climate change of life quality in rural and urban areas
How warmer temperatures support allergy-related illnesses
How climate change is a risk to life on earth
How climate change and natural disasters correlate
How climate change affects the population of the earth
How climate change relates to global warming
How global warming has caused extreme heating in most urban areas
How wildfires relate to climate change
How ocean acidification and climate change affect the world’s habitat

These climate change essay topics cover different aspects of human activities and their effects on the earth’s ecosystem. As such, writing a research paper or essay on any of these topics requires extensive research and analysis of information. That’s the only way you can come up with a solid paper that will impress the educator to award you the top grade.

Climate Change Issues that Make for Good Topics

Maybe you want to research issues that relate to climate change. Most people may have not considered such issues but they are worthy of climate change debate topics. In that case, consider these issues when choosing your climate topics for papers and essays.

Climate change and threat to natural biodiversity are equally important
Climate change in Miami and Saudi Arabia- How the effects compare
Climate change as a human activity’s effect on the environment
Preventing climate change by protecting forests
Climate change in China- How the country has declined to head to the global call about saving Mother Nature
Common causes of climate change
Common effects of climate change
The definition of climate change
What is anthropogenic climate change
Describe climate change
What drives climate change?
Renewable energy sources and climate change
Human and economics induced climate change
Climate change biology
Climate change and business
Science, Spin, and climate change
Climate change- How global warming affects populations
Climate change and social concepts
Extreme weather and climate change- How they relate
Global warming as a complex issue in climate change

These are great climate change topics for research papers and essays. However, writing about these topics requires extensive research. You should also be ready to spend energy and time finding relevant and latest sources of information before you write about these topics.

Interesting Climate Change Topics for Papers and Essays

Perhaps, you want to write an essay or paper about something interesting. In that case, consider this list of interesting climate change research paper topics.

Climate change across the globe- What experts say
Development, climate change, and disaster reduction
Critical review- Climate change and agriculture
Schools should include climate change as a subject in geography courses
Consumption and climate change- How the wind blows in Indiana
How the United Nations responds to climate change
Snowpack and climate change
How climate change threatens global security
The effects of climate change on coastal areas’ tourism
How climate change relates to Queensland Australia’s floods
How climate change affects the tourism and hospitality industry
Possible strategies for addressing the effects of climate change on urban areas
How climate change affects indigenous people
How to avoid the threats of climate change
How climate change affects coral triangle turtles
Climate change drivers in the Asian countries
Economic discourse analysis methodology in climate change
How climate change affects New Hampshire businesses
How climate change affects the life of an individual
The economic cost of the effects of climate change

These are fantastic climate change paper topics to explore. Nevertheless, you must be ready to research your topic extensively before you start writing your academic paper or essay.

Major Topics on Climate Change for Academic Writing

Perhaps, you’re looking for topics related to climate change that you write major papers about. In that case, you should consider these global climate change topics.

Early science on climate change
How the world can manage the effects of climate change
Environmental issues relating to climate change
Views comparison about the climate change problem
Asset-based community development and climate change
Experts’ evaluation of climate change
How science affects climate change
How climate change affects the ocean life
Scotland’s vulnerability to climate change
How energy conservation can solve the climate change problem
How climate change affects the world economy
International collaboration and climate change
International relations view on climate change
How transportation affects climate change
Climate change and technology
Climate change policies and human rights
Climate change from an anthropological perspective
Climate change as an international security issue
Role of the United Nations in addressing climate change
Climate change and pollution

This category has some of the best climate change thesis topics. That’s because most people will be interested in reading papers on such topics due to their global perspectives. Nevertheless, you should prepare to spend a significant amount of time researching and writing about any of these topics on climate change.

Climate Change Topics for Presentation

Perhaps, you want to write papers on topics related to climate change for presentation purposes. In that case, you need topics that most people can resonate with. Here is a list of topics about climate change that will interest most people.

How can humans stop global warming in the next ten years
Could humans have stopped global warming a decade ago?
How has the environment changed over the years and how has this change caused global warming?
How did the Obama administration try to limit climate change?
What is the influence of chemical engineering on global warming?
How is urbanization connected to climate change?
Theories that explain why some nations ignore climate change
How global warming affects the rising sea levels
How anthropogenic and natural climate change differ
How the war against terrorism differs from the war on climate change
How atmospheric change influences global climate change
Negative effects of global climate change on Minnesota
The greenhouse effect and ozone depletion
How greenhouse affects the earth’s environment
How can individuals reduce the emissions of greenhouse gasses
How climate change will affect humans in their lifetime
What are the social, physical, and economic effects of climate change
Problems and solutions to climate change on the Pacific Ocean
How climate change relates to species’ extinction
How the phenomenon of denying climate change affects animals

This list prepared by our research helpers has some of the best essay topics on climate change. Pick one of these ideas, research it, and then compose a winning paper.

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Climate Change Dissertation Topics

Published by Carmen Troy at January 4th, 2023 , Revised On August 11, 2023

Are you a student and want to add your share into climate change activism? Do what is important: Increase others awareness. Many climate change activists around the world are putting efforts into saving this earth from getting any further destructed by the increasing temperature. As a student, studying and informing people about its implications can be a great contribution to helping the earth.

Climate change is believed to be the most striking problem that will massively affect life on the earth. Climate change refers to the long term change in the weather pattern of the earth that is basically rising temperature due to the destruction of the ozone layer in the stratosphere.

So, if you have planned to write your dissertation on climate change, here are a few useful ideas that can help you get started with your research.

You may also want to start your dissertation by requesting a brief research proposal from our writers on any of these topics, which includes an introduction to the problem, research question , aim and objectives, literature review , along with the proposed methodology of research to be conducted. Let us know if you need any help in getting started.

Check our example dissertation to get an idea of how to structure your dissertation .

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2022 Climate Change Dissertation Topics

Topic 1: investigating the impacts of climate change on the deterioration of human health – a study on increasing cardiovascular diseases in the uk..

Research Aim: The aim of this study is to critically analyse how climate change deteriorates human health specially referring to the increasing cardiovascular diseases in the UK.

Objectives:

To critically analyse the common effects of climate change on human health.
To investigate how climate change is being a threat to human health in the UK and increasing the risks of cardiovascular diseases.
To suggest strategies about how climate change can be controlled and its adverse impacts can be mitigated to address the growing problem of cardiovascular diseases in the UK.

Topic 2: A study on the growing relevance of sustainable transport as a solution for adverse consequences of climate change in the UK.

Research Aim: This study aims to share the concept of sustainable transport thereby interpreting how it is being relevant as a solution for adverse consequences of climate change in the UK.

To exemplify the concept of sustainable transport and its potential impacts on the environment.
To evaluate the effectiveness of introducing sustainable transport to address the negative impacts of climate change in the UK.
To recommend strategies to bring sustainable transport into action to address adverse consequences of climate change in the UK.

Topic 3: Examining the initiatives to restrict the impacts of CFC emission on drastic changes in climate - a study on banning CFC in the UK.

Research Aim: The present research study aims to conduct a detailed analysis of the initiatives by the UK government to restrict CFC emission that drastically changes the climate. This study will specifically focus on the government’s strategic initiative to ban CFC.

To make a comprehensive analysis of different initiatives taken by the UK government to minimise CFC emission.
To explain how CFC emission can be restricted by the government’s strategy of banning CFC as a way to mitigate climate change.
To share innovative ideas to minimise CFC emission, ban CFC and increase awareness about its impacts.

Topic 4: Critical analysis of the drastic move by the UK government towards cleaner energy solutions to mitigate climate change – a study on the solar and wind energy generation.

Research Aim: The study aims to critically analyse the drastic move UK government towards cleaner energy solutions to mitigate climate change. This study will extensively focus on solar and wind energy generation.

To analyse the importance of adopting cleaner energy solutions to mitigate climate change.
To describe the initiatives of the UK government to develop cleaner energy solutions like solar and wind energy to address climate change.
To recommend strategies and best ways to generate solar and wind energy as best possible cleaner energy solutions against climate change.

Topic 5: A study on the far-reaching effects of climate change on food production in the UK – a case study of Nestle’s food production.

Research Aim: The aim of this study is to exemplify the impacts of climate change on food production in the UK and the study will specifically emphasise the food production practices of Nestle.

To critically interpret how climate change is impacting food production in the UK.
To describe how the food production of Nestle is being affected by climate change in the UK.
To provide a set of recommendations to Nestle for addressing climate change thereby minimising its adverse effects on food production.

Topic no.1: Global warming and greenhouse gas emission

Research aim: When radiations from the planet’s atmosphere warm the planet’s surface to a temperature that it would be without temperature, it is called the greenhouse effect. The emission of greenhouse gasses leads to greenhouse gas emissions.

The aim of the research is to identify and analyse greenhouse gas emissions and their long term ramifications on global warming. The researcher will

Topic no.2: Repercussions of climate change on lives of people

Research aim: Climate change is not a war that will end sometime, and everything will get to its place in order. It is a phenomenon that is taking us an inch closer to destruction every day. With the rapid climate change, things will not remain the same as ever.

The aim of the research is to identify, analyse, and discuss the effects of climate change on people’s lives.

Topic no.3: Climate change and marine life

Research aim: Climate change does not only affect life on the land but life inside the sea significantly. The aim of the research is to identify how climate change can affect marine life and lead marine life to incur significant changes in their habitat.

Topic no.4: Effects of global warming on agriculture

Research aim: The aim of the research is to study and evaluate the effects of global warming on agriculture. The research will also aim to find out the significant impacts on the countries that rely on agriculture and what are the necessary steps that they are required to take to avoid the results.

Topic no.5: Global warming and natural disasters:

Research aim: The many natural disasters occurring in the world are due to global warming. The aim of the research is to study the interrelationship of global warming and natural disasters and study how natural disasters can be stopped by controlling global warming.

Topic no.6: Analysis of climate change activism

Research aim: Climate change activism is the need of the hour as the least we can do for saving the earth is stopping climate change from getting worse. Climate change activism is running all over the world. The aim of the research is to analyse and evaluate how this activism works, is it effective, and identify the areas that need to be improved for making it more powerful.

Topic no.7: Analysing global policies about climate change

Research aim: The aim of the research is to analyse and evaluate how stakeholders and those in power respond to climate change and what are the policies(if) they have made. The research will also analyse if the policies are any effective to control global warming.

Topic no.8: Global warming and Africa

Research aim: The aim of the research is to study the effects of global warming that challenging life in Africa today and what it would be if it were uncontrolled today.

Topic no.9: Impact of climate change on the gulf countries

Research aim: Gulf countries, especially landlocked countries, can be affected massively due to global warming. The aim of the research will be to analyse and assess the impact of climate change on Gulf countries.

Topic no.10: Climate change across the world

Research aim: It is important to understand the current state of climate change to take the imperative steps on time. The research will study and analyse the climate change that has occurred and impacted life and earth and provide suggestions for controlling it immediately.

How Can ResearchProspect Help?

ResearchProspect writers can send several custom topic ideas to your email address. Once you have chosen a topic that suits your needs and interests, you can order for our dissertation outline service which will include a brief introduction to the topic, research questions , literature review , methodology , expected results , and conclusion . The dissertation outline will enable you to review the quality of our work before placing the order for our full dissertation writing service !

Topic no.11: Climate change and the efforts of UN

Research aim: The aim of the research is to find out how United Nations is working to cope up with the striking problem of climate change. It will analyse and explore the key effort made by the institution that leads to sustainable results.

Topic no.12: The financial cost of climate change

Research aim: Climate change has a lot to do with humans, and affecting them financially is one of them. The financial costs that humans may need to pay to recover and control the massive destructions posed by climate change will be immensive. The main goal of the research would be to estimate and calculate the financial cost of climate change that humans will pay steadily over time.

Also Read: Finance and Accounting Dissertation Topics

Topic no.13: Efforts to control climate change

Research aim: The time should not be wasted regretting over what has already happened but investing in doing useful planning and execution to stop it from getting worse. The aim of the research will aim to find out the primly important efforts essential to control climate change.

Topic no.14: Impact of climate change on Asia

Research aim: Asia, being the largest and densely populated continent, may have faced serious results of climate change. The aim of the research is to identify the social, physical, and economic impact of climate change on Asia.

Topic no.15: Media and climate change activism:

Research aim: Media is sometimes called the fifth pillar of the state, and there is no way one can deny that media plays immense importance in making a matter more important in people’s eyes. The aim of the research would be to understand and analyse how global media is playing a significant role in boosting or leading climate change activism. It will also suggest how inclusive role media can play to make a

Topic no.16: Climate injustice; the theoretical model

Research aim: Climate injustice is a theoretical framework that talks about the ethical dimension of climate change. According to this approach, the activists are calling climate change an ethical problem as it is an environmental problem.

The aim of the research is to study and analyse the application of climate injustice and how much it is relevant in today’s context. It will also critically analyse the scope of theory in future.

Topic no.17: Greenhouse effect and ozone depletion:

Research aim: The aim of the research is to find out the relationship between the greenhouse effect and ozone depletion.

Topic no.18: How well-informed people are about climate change

Research aim: The aim of the research is to find out how many people in a particular area are aware of climate change as a serious environmental threat. The research will help analyse if climate activism is effective or not.

Topic no.19: climate change and the rapid increase in industrialisation

Research aim: Industrialisation has contributed a lot to climate change in the last few decades. The aim of the research is to study the prospects in the field of industrialisation and if climate change is in consideration of the stakeholders.

Topic no.20: climate change and global security

Research aim: It is inevitable that climate change will affect humans in all possible ways. The aim of the research will be to undersatand climate change and its impacts on life security, such as natural disasters, diseases, and famine, etc.

Conducting research can be one of the most exciting things, but when it comes to writing, students become dreadful. But do not worry, we have got your back. Whether you want a section of the dissertation to be written impeccably or the whole of it, we are here. Don’t wait; click here .

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Frequently Asked Questions

How to find climate change dissertation topics.

To find climate change dissertation topics:

Study IPCC reports and recent research.
Analyze local/global impacts and adaptations.
Explore policy and technological aspects.
Consider interdisciplinary angles.
Brainstorm solutions or communication strategies.
Select a topic resonating with your passion and expertise.

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Climate change is an urgent global issue, characterized by rising temperatures, melting glaciers, and extreme weather events. Writing a thesis on this topic requires a clear and concise statement that guides the reader through the significance, focus, and scope of your study. In this piece, we will explore various examples of good and bad thesis statements related to climate change to guide students in crafting compelling research proposals.

Good Examples

Focused Approach: “This thesis will analyze the impact of climate change on the intensity and frequency of hurricanes, using data from the last three decades.” Lack of Focus: “Climate change affects weather patterns.”

The good statement is specific, indicating a focus on hurricanes and providing a time frame. In contrast, the bad statement is too vague, covering a broad topic without any specific angle.

Clear Stance: “Implementing carbon taxes is an effective strategy for governments to incentivize companies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.” Not So Clear: “Carbon taxes might be good for the environment.”

The good statement takes a clear position in favor of carbon taxes, while the bad statement is indecisive, not providing a clear standpoint.

Researchable and Measurable: “The thesis explores the correlation between the rise in global temperatures and the increase in the extinction rates of North American mammal species.” Dull: “Global warming is harmful to animals.”

The good statement is researchable and measurable, with clear variables and a focused geographic location, while the bad statement is generic and lacks specificity.

Bad Examples

Overly Broad: “Climate change is a global problem that needs to be addressed.”

This statement, while true, is overly broad and doesn’t propose a specific area of focus, making it inadequate for guiding a research study.

Lack of Clear Argument: “Climate change has some negative and positive effects.”

This statement doesn’t take a clear stance or highlight specific effects, making it weak and uninformative.

Unoriginal and Unengaging: “Climate change is real.”

While the statement is factual, it doesn’t present an original argument or engage the reader with a specific area of climate change research.

Crafting a compelling thesis statement on climate change is crucial for directing your research and presenting a clear, focused, and arguable position. A good thesis statement should be specific, take a clear stance, and be researchable and measurable. Avoid overly broad, unclear, unoriginal, or unengaging statements that do not provide clear direction or focus for your research. Utilizing the examples provided, students can navigate the intricate process of developing thesis statements that are not only academically rigorous but also intriguing and relevant to the pressing issue of climate change.

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Climate change, energy, environment and sustainability topics research guide

What is climate change.

Climate change refers to long-term shifts in temperatures and weather patterns. The world is now warming faster than at any point in recorded history, which disrupts the usual balance of nature and is a threat to human beings and other forms of life on Earth. This topic guide includes sample keywords and search terms, databases to find sources, and samples of online books.

Example keywords and subtopics

Example keywords or search terms:

Climate change
global warming
greenhouse effect or greenhouse gas
climate crisis
environmental change
clean energy
alternative energy or renewable energy
green energy or renewable energy or clean energy
Low carbon or carbon neutral
Carbon offsetting
sustainability environment or sustainability
environmental protection
pollution or contamination
impact or effect or influence
cost or price or expense or money or financial
fossil fuels or coal or oil or gas

Tip: This is a big topic with lots written so you can often focus on one or two subtopics. This will help to find more relevant sources, more quickly and be a better fit for an assignment.

Possible subtopics ideas: Pick one or two subtopics and then add those words to your search.

Health impacts of climate changes (e.g. air pollution, water pollution, etc.)
impacts on a specific city, state, region or country
political impacts (e.g. voting, government policy, etc.)
impact on specific population or culture (e.g. children, elderly, racial or ethic group, country, etc.)
specific types of renewable or alternative energy (e.g. solar, wind, bio, etc.)
example of new technology (e.g. electric cars or electric vehicles or hybrid vehicles
economic impacts (e.g. business, employment, industry (e.g. oil, coal, etc.)
weather and impacts (e.g. rising sea levels, flooding, droughts or heat waves, etc.)
media aspects (e.g. news coverage, advertising, misinformation, movies, music, etc.)
Tutorial: Creating an effective search strategy

Creating an effective search strategy tutorial video. 3 minutes 24 seconds.

Use meaningful keywords to find the best sources
Apply search strategies like AND and OR to connect keywords
Tutorial: What is a library database and why should I use one?

What is a library database and why should I use one tutorial video. 3 minutes.

Identify what a library database is
Recognize the two main types of library databases
Know why you should use them
Understand why searching a library database is different than searching the general internet

Databases for finding sources

Article Databases -

Use articles to find new research, specific information and evidence to support or refute a claim. You can also look at the bibliography or works cited to find additional sources. Some articles give an overview of a specific topic -- sometimes called "review articles" or "meta-analyses" or "systematic review." Databases are like mini-search engines for finding articles (e.g. Business Source Premier database searches business journals, business magazines and business newspapers). Pick a database that searches the subject of articles you want to find.

Agricultural & Environmental Science Database Search journals and literature on agriculture, pollution, animals, environment, policy, natural resources, water issues and more. Searches tools like AGRICOLA, Environmental Sciences & Pollution Management (ESPM), and Digests of Environmental Impact Statements (EIS) databases.
GreenFILE Collection of scholarly, government and general-interest titles. Multidisciplinary by nature, GreenFILE draws on the connections between the environment and agriculture, education, law, health and technology. Topics covered include global climate change, green building, pollution, sustainable agriculture, renewable energy, recycling, and more.
Ethnic NewsWatch Ethnic NewsWatch is a current resource of full-text newspapers, magazines, and journals of the ethnic and minority press from 1990, providing researchers access to essential, often overlooked perspectives.
Opposing Viewpoints in Context Find articles on current issues, including viewpoint articles, topic overviews, statistics, primary documents, magazine and newspaper articles.

Sample of online books

Below are a selection of online books and readings on the broad topic. We have more online books, journal articles, and sources in our Libraries Search and article databases.

A climate policy revolution : what the science of complexity reveals about saving our planet by Roland Kupers ISBN: 9780674246812 Publication Date: 2020 "In this book, Roland Kupers argues that the climate crisis is well suited to the bottom-up, rapid, and revolutionary change complexity science theorizes; he succinctly makes the case that complexity science promises policy solutions to address climate change."

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Current Topics: An Undergraduate Research Guide
Climate Change

Current Topics: An Undergraduate Research Guide : Climate Change

Writing, Citing, & Research Help
Black Lives Matter Movement
Hate Crimes
Fast Fashion
Health Care
Sexual Assault/Rape
Sexual Harassment
Newspaper Source Plus Newspaper Source Plus includes 1,520 full-text newspapers, providing more than 28 million full-text articles.
Newspaper Research Guide This guide describes sources for current and historical newspapers available in print, electronically, and on microfilm through the UW-Madison Libraries. These sources are categorized by pages: Current, Historical, Local/Madison, Wisconsin, US, Alternative/Ethnic, and International.

Organizations

Carbon Migration Initative The Carbon Mitigation Initiative (CMI) is a 20-year partnership between Princeton University and BP with the goal of finding solutions to the carbon and climate problem.
Climate Change and Wisconsin's Great Lakes From the State of Wisconsin's Department of Natural Resources (DNR)
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) - Climate Change
Kyoto Protocol The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement linked to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, which commits its Parties by setting internationally binding emission reduction targets.
Union of Concerned Scientists Our scientists and engineers develop and implement innovative, practical solutions to some of our planet’s most pressing problems—from combating global warming and developing sustainable ways to feed, power, and transport ourselves, to fighting misinformation and reducing the threat of nuclear war.

About Climate Change

Rising global temperatures have been accompanied by changes in weather and climate. It is usually attributed to an enhanced greenhouse effect, tending to intensify with the increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide. This Research Guide includes sources relevant to the investigation for causes and effects on the environment of the atmospheric greenhouse effect and global climate change.

Try searching these terms using the resources linked on this page: climate change*, greenhouse effect, greenhouse gas*, global climate change, global warming, greenhouse gas mitigation , carbon dioxide mitigation , carbon sequestration , global temperature changes, paleoclimatology , deglaciation , fossil fuel* and climate change*

Overview Resources - Background Information

Global Climate Change From NASA
Opposing Viewpoints Resource Center Opposing Viewpoints Resource Center (OVRC) provides viewpoint articles, topic overviews, statistics, primary documents, links to websites, and full-text magazine and newspaper articles related to controversial social issues.
State of the Climate Fact sheets & briefs from the Pew Center on Global Climate Change

Articles - Scholarly and Popular

Academic Search Includes scholarly and popular articles on many topics.
Environmental Sciences and Pollution Management Includes articles on basic science areas of bacteriology, ecology, toxicology, environmental engineering, environmental biotechnology, waste management, and water resources.
Meteorological & Geoastrophysical Abstracts Includes articles on the fields of meteorology, climatology, physical oceanography, hydrology, glaciology, and atmospheric chemistry and physics
Web of Science Includes predominately scholarly articles on a wide range of scientific disciplines.

Statistics and Data

Center for Climate and Energy Solutions (C2ES) An independent, nonpartisan, nonprofit organization working to advance strong policy and action to address our climate and energy challenges.
National Climatic Data Center NOAA's National Climatic Data Center (NCDC) provids public access to the largest archive of climatic and historical weather data.
U.S. Global Change Research Program The U.S. Global Change Research Program (USGCRP) was established by Presidential Initiative in 1989 and mandated by Congress in the Global Change Research Act (GCRA) of 1990 to “assist the Nation and the world to understand, assess, predict, and respond to human-induced and natural processes of global change.”
U.S. Greenhouse Gas Inventory Report: 1990-2014 EPA develops an annual report called the Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks (Inventory). This report tracks total annual U.S. emissions and removals by source, economic sector, and greenhouse gas going back to 1990. EPA uses national energy data, data on national agricultural activities, and other national statistics to provide a comprehensive accounting of total greenhouse gas emissions for all man-made sources in the United States.
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URL: https://researchguides.library.wisc.edu/current

Climate Change

UBC Resources & Guides
Articles & Databases
Archives & Historical Sources

UBC Theses & Dissertations

Reports & Policies
Data Sources & Visualizations
News & Social Media
Civic Engagement
Indigenous Perspectives
UBC Library Climate Action

Across UBC, faculty and students contribute to research on climate change. See below for recent theses on a few select topics, and search cIRcle , UBC's open access repository, for publications, theses/dissertation, and presentations to find more.

RSS feed searching the UBC Theses and Dissertations Collection for: "Global warming" OR "Climate change" OR "Greenhouse gas" OR "Renewable energy":

Bielefeld Academic Search Engine
EThOS UK e-theses online service (UK's national thesis service)
NDLTD: Networked Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations A collaborative effort of the NDLTD, OCLC, VTLS, and Scirus, the NDLTD Union Catalog contains more than one million records of electronic theses and dissertations.
Open Access Theses and Dissertations (OATD)
OpenAire Explore

Open only to UBC students, faculty, staff and on-site Library users.

SciELO Scientific Electronic Library Online
UBC Library Guide: Theses and Dissertations A research guide for locating theses and dissertations from UBC, British Columbia, Canada, and International databases and repositories.
UBC Theses and Dissertations UBC graduate theses and dissertations are available through the Open Collections portal dating back to 1919.
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Last Updated: Apr 22, 2024 11:15 AM
URL: https://guides.library.ubc.ca/climate

6.4 Annotated Student Sample: “Slowing Climate Change” by Shawn Krukowski

Learning outcomes.

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Identify the features common to proposals.
Analyze the organizational structure of a proposal and how writers develop ideas.
Articulate how writers use and cite evidence to build credibility.
Identify sources of evidence within a text and in source citations.

Introduction

The proposal that follows was written by student Shawn Krukowski for a first-year composition course. Shawn’s assignment was to research a contemporary problem and propose one or more solutions. Deeply concerned about climate change, Shawn chose to research ways to slow the process. In his proposal, he recommends two solutions he thinks are most promising.

Living by Their Own Words

A call to action.

student sample text The earth’s climate is changing. Although the climate has been changing slowly for the past 22,000 years, the rate of change has increased dramatically. Previously, natural climate changes occurred gradually, sometimes extending over thousands of years. Since the mid-20th century, however, climate change has accelerated exponentially, a result primarily of human activities, and is reaching a crisis level. end student sample text

student sample text Critical as it is, however, climate change can be controlled. Thanks to current knowledge of science and existing technologies, it is possible to respond effectively. Although many concerned citizens, companies, and organizations in the private sector are taking action in their own spheres, other individuals, corporations, and organizations are ignoring, or even denying, the problem. What is needed to slow climate change is unified action in two key areas—mitigation and adaptation—spurred by government leadership in the United States and a global commitment to addressing the problem immediately. end student sample text

annotated text Introduction. The proposal opens with an overview of the problem and pivots to the solution in the second paragraph. end annotated text

annotated text Thesis Statement. The thesis statement in last sentence of the introduction previews the organization of the proposal and the recommended solutions. end annotated text

Problem: Negative Effects of Climate Change

annotated text Heading. Centered, boldface headings mark major sections of the proposal. end annotated text

annotated text Body. The three paragraphs under this heading discuss the problem. end annotated text

annotated text Topic Sentence. The paragraph opens with a sentence stating the topics developed in the following paragraphs. end annotated text

student sample text For the 4,000 years leading up to the Industrial Revolution, global temperatures remained relatively constant, with a few dips of less than 1°C. Previous climate change occurred so gradually that life forms were able to adapt to it. Some species became extinct, but others survived and thrived. In just the past 100 years, however, temperatures have risen by approximately the same amount that they rose over the previous 4,000 years. end student sample text

annotated text Audience. Without knowing for sure the extent of readers’ knowledge of climate change, the writer provides background for them to understand the problem. end annotated text

student sample text The rapid increase in temperature has a negative global impact. First, as temperatures rise, glaciers and polar ice are melting at a faster rate; in fact, by the middle of this century, the Arctic Ocean is projected to be ice-free in summer. As a result, global sea levels are projected to rise from two to four feet by 2100 (U.S. Global Change Research Program [USGCRP], 2014a). If this rise actually does happen, many coastal ecosystems and human communities will disappear. end student sample text

annotated text Discussion of the Problem. The first main point of the problem is discussed in this paragraph. end annotated text

annotated text Statistics as Evidence. The writer provides specific numbers and cites the source in APA style. end annotated text

annotated text Transitions . The writer uses transitions here (first, as a result , and second in the next paragraph) and elsewhere to make connections between ideas and to enable readers to follow them more easily. At the same time, the transitions give the proposal coherence. end annotated text

student sample text Second, weather of all types is becoming more extreme: heat waves are hotter, cold snaps are colder, and precipitation patterns are changing, causing longer droughts and increased flooding. Oceans are becoming more acidic as they increase their absorption of carbon dioxide. This change affects coral reefs and other marine life. Since the 1980s, hurricanes have increased in frequency, intensity, and duration. As shown in Figure 6.5, the 2020 hurricane season was the most active on record, with 30 named storms, a recording-breaking 11 storms hitting the U.S. coastline (compared to 9 in 1916), and 10 named storms in September—the highest monthly number on record. Together, these storms caused more than $40 billion in damage. Not only was this the fifth consecutive above-normal hurricane season, it was preceded by four consecutive above-normal years in 1998 to 2001 (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2020). end student sample text

annotated text Discussion of the Problem. The second main point of the problem is discussed in this paragraph. end annotated text

annotated text Visual as Evidence. The writer refers to “Figure 6.4” in the text and places the figure below the paragraph. end annotated text

annotated text Source Citation in APA Style: Visual. The writer gives the figure a number, a title, an explanatory note, and a source citation. The source is also cited in the list of references. end annotated text

Solutions: Mitigation and Adaptation

annotated text Heading. The centered, boldface heading marks the start of the solutions section of the proposal. end annotated text

annotated text Body. The eight paragraphs under this heading discuss the solutions given in the thesis statement. end annotated text

student sample text To control the effects of climate change, immediate action in two key ways is needed: mitigation and adaptation. Mitigating climate change by reducing and stabilizing the carbon emissions that produce greenhouse gases is the only long-term way to avoid a disastrous future. In addition, adaptation is imperative to allow ecosystems, food systems, and development to become more sustainable. end student sample text

student sample text Mitigation and adaptation will not happen on their own; action on such a vast scale will require governments around the globe to take initiatives. The United States needs to cooperate with other nations and assume a leadership role in fighting climate change. end student sample text

annotated text Objective Stance. The writer presents evidence (facts, statistics, and examples) in neutral, unemotional language, which builds credibility, or ethos, with readers. end annotated text

annotated text Heading. The flush-left, boldface heading marks the first subsection of the solutions. end annotated text

annotated text Topic Sentence. The paragraph opens with a sentence stating the solution developed in the following paragraphs. end annotated text

student sample text The first challenge is to reduce the flow of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. The Union of Concerned Scientists (2020) warns that “net zero” carbon emissions—meaning that no more carbon enters the atmosphere than is removed—needs to be reached by 2050 or sooner. As shown in Figure 6.6, reducing carbon emissions will require a massive effort, given the skyrocketing rate of increase of greenhouse gases since 1900 (USGCRP, 2014b). end student sample text

annotated text Synthesis. In this paragraph, the writer synthesizes factual evidence from two sources and cites them in APA style. end annotated text

annotated text Visual as Evidence. The writer refers to “Figure 6.5” in the text and places the figure below the paragraph. end annotated text

student sample text Significant national policy changes must be made and must include multiple approaches; here are two areas of concern: end student sample text

annotated text Presentation of Solutions. For clarity, the writer numbers the two items to be discussed. end annotated text

student sample text 1. Transportation systems. In the United States in 2018, more than one-quarter—28.2 percent—of emissions resulted from the consumption of fossil fuels for transportation. More than half of these emissions came from passenger cars, light-duty trucks, sport utility vehicles, and minivans (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency [EPA], 2020). Priorities for mitigation should include using fuels that emit less carbon; improving fuel efficiency; and reducing the need for travel through urban planning, telecommuting and videoconferencing, and biking and pedestrian initiatives. end student sample text

annotated text Source Citation in APA Style: Group Author. The parenthetical citation gives the group’s name, an abbreviation to be used in subsequent citations, and the year of publication. end annotated text

student sample text Curtailing travel has a demonstrable effect. Scientists have recorded a dramatic drop in emissions during government-imposed travel and business restrictions in 2020. Intended to slow the spread of COVID-19, these restrictions also decreased air pollution significantly. For example, during the first six weeks of restrictions in the San Francisco Bay area, traffic was reduced by about 45 percent, and emissions were roughly a quarter lower than the previous six weeks. Similar findings were observed around the globe, with reductions of up to 80 percent (Bourzac, 2020). end student sample text

annotated text Source Citation in APA Style: One Author. The parenthetical citation gives the author’s name and the year of publication. end annotated text

student sample text 2. Energy production. The second-largest source of emissions is the use of fossil fuels to produce energy, primarily electricity, which accounted for 26.9 percent of U.S. emissions (EPA, 2020). Fossil fuels can be replaced by solar, wind, hydro, and geothermal sources. Solar voltaic systems have the potential to become the least expensive energy in the world (Green America, 2020). Solar sources should be complemented by wind power, which tends to increase at night when the sun is absent. According to the Copenhagen Consensus, the most effective way to combat climate change is to increase investment in green research and development (Lomborg, 2020). Notable are successes in the countries of Morocco and The Gambia, both of which have committed to investing in national programs to limit emissions primarily by generating electricity from renewable sources (Mulvaney, 2019). end student sample text

annotated text Synthesis. The writer develops the paragraph by synthesizing evidence from four sources and cites them in APA style. end annotated text

student sample text A second way to move toward net zero is to actively remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Forests and oceans are so-called “sinks” that collect and store carbon (EPA, 2020). Tropical forests that once made up 12 percent of global land masses now cover only 5 percent, and the loss of these tropical forest sinks has caused 16 to 19 percent of greenhouse gas emissions (Green America, 2020). Worldwide reforestation is vital and demands both commitment and funding on a global scale. New technologies also allow “direct air capture,” which filers carbon from the air, and “carbon capture,” which prevents it from leaving smokestacks. end student sample text

student sample text All of these technologies should be governmentally supported and even mandated, where appropriate. end student sample text

annotated text Synthesis. The writer develops the paragraph by synthesizing evidence from two sources and cites them in APA style. end annotated text

annotated text Heading. The flush-left, boldface heading marks the second subsection of the solutions. end annotated text

student sample text Historically, civilizations have adapted to climate changes, sometimes successfully, sometimes not. Our modern civilization is largely the result of climate stability over the past 12,000 years. However, as the climate changes, humans must learn to adapt on a national, community, and individual level in many areas. While each country sets its own laws and regulations, certain principles apply worldwide. end student sample text

student sample text 1. Infrastructure. Buildings—residential, commercial, and industrial—produce about 33 percent of greenhouse gas emissions worldwide (Biello, 2007). Stricter standards for new construction, plus incentives for investing in insulation and other improvements to existing structures, are needed. Development in high-risk areas needs to be discouraged. Improved roads and transportation systems would help reduce fuel use. Incentives for decreasing energy consumption are needed to reduce rising demands for power. end student sample text

student sample text 2. Food waste. More than 30 percent of the food produced in the United States is never consumed, and food waste causes 44 gigatons of carbon emissions a year (Green America, 2020). In a landfill, the nutrients in wasted food never return to the soil; instead, methane, a greenhouse gas, is produced. High-income countries such as the United States need to address wasteful processing and distribution systems. Low-income countries, on the other hand, need an infrastructure that supports proper food storage and handling. Educating consumers also must be a priority. end student sample text

annotated text Source Citation in APA Style: Group Author. The parenthetical citation gives the group’s name and the year of publication. end annotated text

student sample text 3. Consumerism. People living in consumer nations have become accustomed to abundance. Many purchases are nonessential yet consume fossil fuels to manufacture, package, market, and ship products. During World War II, the U.S. government promoted the slogan “Use It Up, Wear It Out, Make It Do, or Do Without.” This attitude was widely accepted because people recognized a common purpose in the war effort. A similar shift in mindset is needed today. end student sample text

student sample text Adaptation is not only possible but also economically advantageous. One case study is Walmart, which is the world’s largest company by revenue. According to Dearn (2020), the company announced a plan to reduce its global emissions to zero by 2040. Among the goals is powering its facilities with 100 percent renewable energy and using electric vehicles with zero emissions. As of 2020, about 29 percent of its energy is from renewable sources. Although the 2040 goal applies to Walmart facilities only, plans are underway to reduce indirect emissions, such as those from its supply chain. According to CEO Doug McMillon, the company’s commitment is to “becoming a regenerative company—one that works to restore, renew and replenish in addition to preserving our planet, and encourages others to do the same” (Dearn, 2020). In addition to encouraging other corporations, these goals present a challenge to the government to take action on climate change. end student sample text

annotated text Extended Example as Evidence. The writer indicates where borrowed information from the source begins and ends, and cites the source in APA style. end annotated text

annotated text Source Citation in APA Style: One Author. The parenthetical citation gives only the year of publication because the author’s name is cited in the sentence. end annotated text

Objections to Taking Action

annotated text Heading. The centered, boldface heading marks the start of the writer’s discussion of potential objections to the proposed solutions. end annotated text

annotated text Body. The writer devotes two paragraphs to objections. end annotated text

student sample text Despite scientific evidence, some people and groups deny that climate change is real or, if they admit it exists, insist it is not a valid concern. Those who think climate change is not a problem point to Earth’s millennia-long history of changing climate as evidence that life has always persisted. However, their claims do not consider the difference between “then” and “now.” Most of the change predates human civilization, which has benefited from thousands of years of stable climate. The rapid change since the Industrial Revolution is unprecedented in human history. end student sample text

student sample text Those who deny climate change or its dangers seek primarily to relax or remove pollution standards and regulations in order to protect, or maximize profit from, their industries. To date, their lobbying has been successful. For example, the world’s fossil-fuel industry received $5.3 trillion in 2015 alone, while the U.S. wind-energy industry received $12.3 billion in subsidies between 2000 and 2020 (Green America, 2020). end student sample text

Conclusion and Recommendation

annotated text Heading. The centered, boldface heading marks the start of the conclusion and recommendation. end annotated text

annotated text Conclusion and Recommendation. The proposal concludes with a restatement of the proposed solutions and a call to action. end annotated text

student sample text Greenhouse gases can be reduced to acceptable levels; the technology already exists. But that technology cannot function without strong governmental policies prioritizing the environment, coupled with serious investment in research and development of climate-friendly technologies. end student sample text

student sample text The United States government must place its full support behind efforts to reduce greenhouse gasses and mitigate climate change. Rejoining the Paris Agreement is a good first step, but it is not enough. Citizens must demand that their elected officials at the local, state, and national levels accept responsibility to take action on both mitigation and adaptation. Without full governmental support, good intentions fall short of reaching net-zero emissions and cannot achieve the adaptation in attitude and lifestyle necessary for public compliance. There is no alternative to accepting this reality. Addressing climate change is too important to remain optional. end student sample text

Biello, D. (2007, May 25). Combatting climate change: Farming out global warming solutions. Scientific American. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/combating-climate-change-farming-forestry/

Bourzac, K. (2020, September 25). COVID-19 lockdowns had strange effects on air pollution across the globe. Chemical & Engineering News. https://cen.acs.org/environment/atmospheric-chemistry/COVID-19-lockdowns-had-strange-effects-on-air-pollution-across-the-globe/98/i37

Dearn, G. (2020, September 21). Walmart said it will eliminate its carbon footprint by 2040 — but not for its supply chain, which makes up the bulk of its emissions. Business Insider. https://www.businessinsider.com/walmart-targets-zero-carbon-emissions-2040-not-suppliers-2020-9

Green America (2020). Top 10 solutions to reverse climate change. https://www.greenamerica.org/climate-change-100-reasons-hope/top-10-solutions-reverse-climate-change.

Lomborg, B. (2020, July 17). The alarm about climate change is blinding us to sensible solutions. The Globe and Mail. https://www.theglobeandmail.com/opinion/article-the-alarm-about-climate-change-is-blinding-us-to-sensible-solutions/

Mulvaney, K. (2019, September 19). Climate change report card: These countries are reaching targets. National Geographic . https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/2019/09/climate-change-report-card-co2-emissions/

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (2020, November 24). Record-breaking Atlantic hurricane season draws to an end. https://www.noaa.gov/media-release/record-breaking-atlantic-hurricane-season-draws-to-end

Union of Concerned Scientists (2020). Climate solutions. https://www.ucsusa.org/climate/solutions

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2020). Sources of greenhouse gas emissions. Greenhouse Gas Emissions. https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/sources-greenhouse-gas-emissions

U.S. Global Change Research Program (2014a). Melting ice. National Climate Assessment. https://nca2014.globalchange.gov/report/our-changing-climate/melting-ice

U.S. Global Change Research Program (2014b). Our changing climate. National Climate Assessment. https://nca2014.globalchange.gov/highlights/report-findings/our-changing-climate#tab1-images

annotated text References Page in APA Style. All sources cited in the text of the report—and only those sources—are listed in alphabetical order with full publication information. See the Handbook for more on APA documentation style. end annotated text

The following link takes you to another model of an annotated sample paper on solutions to animal testing posted by the University of Arizona’s Global Campus Writing Center.

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Published: 08 May 2024

The differential impact of climate interventions along the political divide in 60 countries

Michael Berkebile-Weinberg ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8935-5737 1 na1 ,
Danielle Goldwert ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3179-9276 1 na1 ,
Kimberly C. Doell ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0043-9609 2 ,
Jay J. Van Bavel ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2520-0442 1 , 3 &
Madalina Vlasceanu 1

Nature Communications volume 15 , Article number: 3885 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Climate-change policy
Human behaviour
Psychology and behaviour

A major barrier to climate change mitigation is the political polarization of climate change beliefs. In a global experiment conducted in 60 countries (N = 51,224), we assess the differential impact of eleven climate interventions across the ideological divide. At baseline, we find political polarization of climate change beliefs and policy support globally, with people who reported being liberal believing and supporting climate policy more than those who reported being conservative (Cohen’s d = 0.35 and 0.27, respectively). However, we find no evidence for a statistically significant difference between these groups in their engagement in a behavioral tree planting task. This conceptual-behavioral polarization incongruence results from self-identified conservatives acting despite not believing, rather than self-identified liberals not acting on their beliefs. We also find three interventions (emphasizing effective collective actions, writing a letter to a future generation member, and writing a letter from the future self) boost climate beliefs and policy support across the ideological spectrum, and one intervention (emphasizing scientific consensus) stimulates the climate action of people identifying as liberal. None of the interventions tested show evidence for a statistically significant boost in climate action for self-identified conservatives. We discuss implications for practitioners deploying targeted climate interventions.

The carbon dioxide removal gap

Determinants of behaviour and their efficacy as targets of behavioural change interventions

Frequent disturbances enhanced the resilience of past human populations

Introduction.

Climate change is one of the most critical issues facing society, with the United Nations’ Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change urging rapid global decarbonization 1 as a necessary action to avoid irreversible ecological and societal loss 2 . Despite the broad scientific consensus identifying human activity as a significant contributor to this global crisis 3 , 4 , beliefs about the reality of anthropogenic climate change and the extent to which climate change is a global emergency that warrants action have become increasingly politically polarized 5 , 6 , 7 . The political polarization of climate change is problematic given its detrimental impact on climate action and support for mitigation policies 8 , 9 . The current paper examines the political polarization of climate change at the level of beliefs and behaviors, and the causal impact of several behavioral climate interventions on beliefs, policy support, and individual-level action across the ideological divide between people around the world identifying as liberal versus conservative.

A large body of literature has documented the robust link between political ideology and belief in climate change around the world 10 . For instance, a meta-analysis of 171 studies across 56 nations revealed that the strongest demographic correlate of climate change belief was political ideology, such that people who are liberal (or those who align with the political left) were more likely to believe in climate change compared to people who are conservative (or those who align to the political right 11 ). For example, centrist and left-wing party supporters and politicians in Australia had greater belief in anthropogenic climate change than right-wing supporters and politicians 12 , 13 . In the UK, greater levels of political conservatism predicted higher levels of climate change skepticism 14 , 15 . This pattern has also been documented in the US 16 , where liberal-leaning individuals were more likely to accept the scientific consensus about anthropogenic climate change and express personal concern about global warming compared to conservative-leaning individuals 8 . Experiments have found that when their political identity was made salient, self-identified conservatives in Australia reported lower belief in anthropogenic climate change and were less likely to support climate change policies than self-identified conservatives whose identity was not made salient 17 , suggesting that political identity has a causal influence on differences in climate change beliefs and policy support.

But is the political polarization of climate change belief around the world accompanied by a corresponding polarization of climate action? Previous literature supports two competing hypotheses. On the one hand, the political polarization observed at the level of belief in climate change could translate into behavioral polarization, by which climate change believers act to protect the environment while climate skeptics do not take such action (i.e., a belief-behavior polarization congruence). In support of such a green act hypothesis, a vast body of work has consistently found that beliefs are reliable predictors of behavior 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 , even when it comes to ideological topics 23 . As such, there is good reason to believe that polarized beliefs will be mirrored in polarized action that can mitigate climate change (e.g., planting trees).

On the other hand, polarized beliefs about climate change might not correspond to an equivalent polarization of climate action (i.e., belief-behavior polarization incongruence). In support of such a green gap hypothesis, the predictive power of beliefs on behavior is moderated by a number of factors, including cognitive biases 24 , perceptions of control 25 (for review, see ref. 18 ), personal costs 26 , social norms 27 , 28 , 29 , and efficacy beliefs 30 . For example, despite self-identified liberals’ stronger beliefs in social equality compared to self-identified conservatives, the two ideological groups exhibited no differences in relevant behaviors (e.g., reducing inequalities around education, employment, housing) when these behaviors came at a personal cost 26 . In the climate change domain, work on consumer behavior has introduced the notion of a green gap to refer to the mismatch between consumers’ pro-climate beliefs and their lack of sustainable behaviors in energy consumption, eating, and travel behaviors 31 . Such a gap between conceptual and behavioral signatures has been suggested to apply more strongly to those who report more pro-climate beliefs and values (i.e., liberal-leaning individuals); However, the mismatch between climate skeptics’ beliefs and behaviors has also been documented, with farmers adopting pro-environmental practices despite lacking belief in anthropogenic climate change 32 .

In addition to investigating the polarization in climate beliefs and behaviors, we sought to assess the differential impact of climate interventions across the ideological divide. Determining how different strategies impact partisans along the ideological spectrum is critical to create effective field interventions targeting different groups 33 , 34 , 35 . For example, political partisans tend to reject information that counters their preexisting beliefs 36 . Given pre-existing differences between the climate beliefs of people who are liberal and conservative 11 , it could be that some climate interventions might be more effective on the former group. Indeed, climate skeptics–compared to climate believers–have been found to respond differently to climate interventions 37 , 38 . For example, scientific consensus messaging (i.e., informing the public that most scientists are in agreement about the climate crisis 39 , 40 ) has had limited effects on climate skeptics’ support for climate action 41 , 42 , 43 , or has even sparked reactance and decreased support for climate policy 37 , 44 . Similarly, framing climate change in terms of moral foundations has had differential impacts on partisans–while those identifying as liberal were not affected by such messaging, self-identified conservatives’ pro-environmental attitudes and behaviors increased when climate change was framed in terms of binding moral foundations (e.g., loyalty to authority, purity 38 ). Given these partisan differences in the responses to interventions, we assessed whether people who are liberal and conservative are differentially affected by a wide range of climate interventions.

In this work, we find political polarization of climate change beliefs and policy support around the globe, with people who reported being liberal believing and supporting climate policy more than those who reported being conservative. However, we find no evidence for a statistically significant difference between these groups in the degree to which they engaged in a behavioral tree planting task. We find that climate action on this task results from self-identified conservatives acting despite not believing in climate change rather than self-identified liberals failing to act on their beliefs. When assessing the effects of the interventions, we find that three boost climate beliefs and policy support across the ideological spectrum (emphasizing effective collective action, writing a letter to a future generation member, and writing a letter from the future self), and one intervention stimulates the climate action for those that identify as liberal (emphasizing scientific consensus).

We investigated whether engaging in climate action is ideologically polarized and whether partisans respond differently to climate interventions in a large sample spanning 60 countries ( N = 51,224). We used a dataset collected as part of an international collaboration that empirically tested the efficacy of eleven climate action interventions (Table 1 ) compared to a no-intervention control condition at increasing climate change beliefs and behaviors 45 . The interventions tested were crowdsourced from behavioral scientists from around the world who answered a call for collaboration posted on professional societies listservs, forums, and on social media. The submitted interventions were screened for feasibility in an international context, relevance for the dependent variables, theoretical support from prior work, and other study-specific constraints (e.g., not involving deception, being administrable within 5 min, etc.). Subsequently, a sample of 188 behavioral science experts rated them on theoretical relevance and practical potential to climate mitigation. To implement the top interventions identified using this process, the researchers who proposed each intervention worked closely with researchers who had published theoretical work relevant to each intervention while seeking input from all 250 coauthors on the original study 45 .

Importantly, several interventions were directly relevant to the issue of political polarization, given prior work suggesting they might differentially affect liberals and conservatives (e.g., scientific consensus 41 ), and some were specifically developed based on theoretical work in political psychology (e.g., system justification 46 , or binding moral foundations 38 ).

Participants ( N = 51,224, from 60 countries) were mostly recruited online or via convenience/snowball sampling. No statistical method was used to predetermine the sample size. Sample information by country can be found linked in the Supplemental Materials . After joining the study, participants were randomly assigned to one of the 11 interventions or a no-intervention control in which they read a passage from a literary text. Then, participants indicated their climate change beliefs, operationalized as their agreement (measured on a scale from 0 = Not at all to 100 = Extremely) with the following four statements (presented in a randomized order, α = 0.93): Taking action to fight climate change is necessary to avoid a global catastrophe; Human activities are causing climate change; Climate change poses a serious threat to humanity; and Climate change is a global emergency. Participants also indicated their support for a set of nine climate mitigation policies (e.g., I support raising carbon taxes on gas/ fossil fuels/coal; see Supplement for the full list of policies; α = 0.88). Finally, participants’ climate action was assessed as their choice to opt into completing an optional, cognitively demanding tree-planting task (i.e., a modified version of the Work for Environmental Protection Task or WEPT 47 ). The WEPT is a multi-trial, web-based procedure in which participants can choose to exert voluntary effort screening stimuli for specific numerical combinations (i.e., an even first digit and an odd second digit). Each completed page resulted in the actual planting of a tree through a donation to The Eden Reforestation Project. Therefore, participants had the opportunity to produce actual environmental benefits at actual behavioral costs, mimicking classic sustainable behavior tradeoffs 48 , 49 . Of note, given this incentivized behavioral task, this project funded the planting of 333,333 real trees. Importantly, the WEPT has been validated and has been found to correlate with well-established scales for assessing pro-environmental behavior (e.g., General Ecological Behavior scale, GEB 50 ) and with direct donation behaviors (e.g., the donation of a part of their payment to an environmental organization 47 ). Participants then completed demographic variables scales (including their ideological leaning on social and economic issues), were debriefed, and compensated for their participation.

Climate belief

To replicate prior patterns of political polarization of climate change beliefs in this large global sample, we first analyzed the participants in the control condition. For all analyses, the reported statistics follow from two-tailed tests. Political ideology was measured in a self-report fashion on a scale (ranging from 0 = liberal/left wing to 100 = conservative/right wing).

We first ran a linear mixed model with belief in climate change as the dependent variable, political ideology as the fixed effect, and by-item (i.e., 4 beliefs), by-participant, and by-country random effects. We found a significant effect of ideology, β = −0.19, SE = 0.02, t (3714) = −11.47, p < 0.001, d = 0.35, 95% CI = [−0.22, −0.16], such that the more liberal participants reported to be, the more they believed in climate change (Fig. 1A ). This pattern held even after statistically adjusting for participants’ age, gender, income, and education level, β = −0.18, SE = 0.02, t (3702) = −10.79, p < 0.001, d = 0.35, 95% CI = [−0.21, −0.15]. The effect also held, β = −6.19, SE = 0.77, t (3714) = −8.04, p < 0.001, d = 0.26, 95% CI = [−7.70, −4.68], when treating ideology as a binary variable (i.e., liberals versus conservatives) by taking a median split of the continuous ideology measure within each country ( M Liberal = 80.7, SD = 22.6; M Conservative = 74.2, SD = 26.1; Fig S 7A ). This finding replicates the literature on the polarization of climate change beliefs (e.g., refs. 5 , 6 , 11 ) in a global sample spanning 60 countries (Figs. 2A ; S 1 ; S 4 ).

Belief in climate change (Panel A ), climate policy support (Panel B ), and climate action (Panel C ), as a function of self-reported political ideology (measured from 0 = liberal to 100 = conservative), in the control condition ( N = 4302). Vertical lines represent 95% bootstrapped confidence intervals of the means at each level of political ideology; Fitted lines represent the best fit linear regression lines.

The degree of polarization (where higher scores reflect greater polarization), operationalized as the absolute value of the difference between self-reported liberals’ and conservatives’ climate beliefs (Panel A ), policy support (Panel B ), and action (Panel C ), in the control condition ( N = 4302). Each country’s means and confidence intervals of these polarization scores for each outcome can be found in Figs. S1–S6.

Climate policy support

We found similar effects of political ideology on support for climate change mitigation policy. We ran a linear mixed model with climate policy support as the dependent variable, political ideology (measured on a scale from 0 = liberal to 100 = conservative) as the fixed effect, and by-item (i.e., 9 policies), by-participant, and by-country random effects. We found a significant effect of ideology, β = −0.11, SE = 0.01, t (3695) = −8.18, p < 0.001, d = 0.27, 95% CI = [−0.14, −0.08], such that the more liberal participants reported to be, the more they supported climate policy (Figs. 1B and 2B ). This effect held, β = −0.10, SE = 0.01, t (3678) = −7.65, p < 0.001, d = 0.25, 95% CI = [−0.13, −0.08], even after statistically adjusting for participants’ age, gender, income, and education level. The effect also held, β = −3.33, SE = 0.63, t (3695) = −5.29, p < 0.001, d = 0.18, 95% CI = [−4.56, −2.09], when treating ideology as a binary variable (i.e., liberals versus conservatives) by taking a median split of the continuous ideology measure within each country ( M Liberal = 70.5, SD = 18.9; M Conservative = 67.1, SD = 20.5; Fig. S 7B ). The similar effects of ideology on beliefs and policy support are consistent with the strong relationship between the two constructs ( r = 0.68, p < 0.001). The effect of ideology on both beliefs and policy support interacted with age, such that conservative ideology was associated with decreased belief and policy support, more so for older participants (Table S12 ).

But does the polarization of climate change at the conceptual level (i.e., beliefs and policy support) translate into polarization at the behavioral level (i.e., engaging in one type of individual-level climate action)?

Climate action

To investigate whether the ideological polarization at the level of beliefs and policy support (i.e., conceptual level) also manifests at the level of individual behavior, we again focused on the data collected in the control condition. Given that the tree planting task (i.e., WEPT) was measured on an ordinal scale (i.e., 0 to 8 trees planted), we ran an ordinal mixed model (i.e., cumulative link mixed model fitted with the Laplace approximation) with the number of trees planted in the behavioral task as the dependent variable, political ideology as the fixed effect, and by-country random effects. We found no statistically significant evidence that participants’ degree of climate action differed along the ideological spectrum, β = −0.001, SE = 0.001, z (4214) = −0.621, p = 0.534, d < 0.001, 95% CI = [−0.003, 0.002], (Figs. 1 C and 2C ). Given this null finding, we calculated a Bayes factor to quantify how likely the null hypothesis was compared to the alternative for this model. The Bayes factor for this model comparison was 0.043, suggesting that the null hypothesis (no effect of political ideology on climate action) was around 23 times more likely than the alternative hypothesis, thus lending strong support in favor of the null. As for climate change beliefs and policy endorsements, we found that the effects from the linear mixed effect analysis effect remained statistically non-significant, β = −0.001, SE = 0.001, z (3798) = −0.574, p = 0.566, d < 0.001, 95% CI = [−0.004, 0.002], when adjusting for participants’ age, gender, income, and education level. The effect also remained statistically non-significant, β = 0.05, SE = 0.06, z (4214) = 0.839, p = 0.402, d < 0.001, 95% CI = [−0.16, 0.07], when treating ideology as a binary variable (i.e., liberals versus conservatives) by taking a median split of the continuous ideology measure within each country ( M Liberal = 5.02, SD = 3.40; M Conservative = 5.09, SD = 3.43; Fig. S 7C ). Therefore, we found no statistical evidence that polarization of climate change beliefs and policy support translated into polarized individual-level behavior (Fig. 1C ).

Furthermore, to quantify the interaction between belief and behavior as a function of political ideology, we transformed the belief ratings and the action ratings into standardized scores of each of the two types of outcome (i.e., belief and action). We then ran a linear mixed model with these standardized scores as the dependent variable, including a type (belief or action) by ideology (measured continuously from 0 = liberal to 100 = conservative) interaction as the fixed effect and by-participant and by-country random effects. We found a significant main effect of outcome type, β = −0.274, SE = 0.05, t (4171) = −5.52, p < 0.001, d = 0.16, 95% CI = [−0.37, −0.18], suggesting climate action was lower than climate beliefs (Fig. 3A ). We also found a significant main effect of ideology, β = −0.008, SE = 0.0007, t (8175) = −12.42, p < 0.001, d = 0.35, 95% CI = [−0.01, −0.01], suggesting that the more liberal participants reported to be, the more they believed in climate change and acted accordingly (Fig. 3A ). Finally, we found a significant outcome type by ideology interaction, β = 0.008, SE = 0.0009, t (4171) = 8.28, p < 0.001, 95% CI = [0.006, 0.009], suggesting that the more conservative participants reported to be, the more their actions were stronger than their beliefs (Fig. 3A ).

Panel A : Standardized scores of climate belief (in pink) and climate action (in gray) as a function of self-reported political ideology. Panel B : Mean climate action of self-reported liberals (in dark blue) and conservatives (in red) as a function of mean climate beliefs. For both panels, fitted lines represent the best-fit linear regression lines; Error bands represent 95% confidence intervals.

Psychological process

This pattern of results poses a critical question regarding the underlying psychological process behind these effects: Is the differential impact of ideology on conceptual processes (i.e., belief and policy support polarization) compared to behaviors (i.e., no behavior polarization) driven by people who are liberal not acting on their beliefs (consistent with a liberal-oriented green gap), or could it be driven by people who are conservative acting despite their beliefs (consistent with a conservative-oriented green gap)? To investigate which of these two competing processes might be at play, we explored the degree to which beliefs predicted behaviors for each ideological group. In an ordinal mixed model with the number of trees planted in the behavioral task as the dependent variable, including political ideology (continuously measured) as it interacts with belief in climate change as the fixed effect, and by-country random effects, we found a significant main effect of ideology, β = 0.011, SE = 0.004, z (4208) = 2.87, p = 0.004, d = 0.01, 95% CI = [0.003, 0.02]. We also found a significant main effect of belief, β = 0.017, SE = 0.003, z (4208) = 5.80, p < 0.001, d = 0.01, 95% CI = [0.01, 0.02]. Finally, we found a significant ideology by belief interaction, β = −0.0001, SE = 0.00005, z (4208) = −2.60, p = 0.009, d = 0.01, 95% CI = [0.000002, 0.0002], such that the more conservative a participant reported to be, the less their beliefs about climate change predicted their climate behaviors (Fig. 3B ; note that in this figure ideology is treated as binary for ease of a visual interpretation of the interaction). Policy support was also more strongly associated with the tree-planting behavior for self-identified liberals compared to self-identified conservatives (i.e., suggested by an ideology by policy interaction when predicting behavior: β = −0.0002, SE = 0.00006, z (4195) = −2.97, p = 0.003, d = 0.01, 95% CI = [−0.0003, 0.00008].

These results suggest that the polarization gap between belief and behavior is more likely explained by a belief-behavior incongruence in people who are conservative rather than people who are liberal. That is, instead of self-identified liberals not acting on their beliefs, the data are more consistent with self-identified conservatives acting despite their beliefs, in line with prior work on the belief-behavior disconnect in Republicans but not Democrats in the United States 23 .

This interpretation is particularly promising for interventions aiming at increasing climate action, a critical component of the climate crisis response. Our data suggest that the political resistance to believing in climate change or supporting climate policy may not translate into a behavioral resistance to engaging in at least one type of individual-level climate action. To test this hypothesis, we investigated the impact of 11 climate interventions on the climate beliefs, climate policy support, and individual-level climate action of self-identified liberals and conservatives.

Interventions’ impact on beliefs

Next, we investigated the impact of the 11 climate interventions (Table 1 ) on self-identified liberals’ and conservatives’ climate beliefs. We ran a linear mixed effects model with belief in climate change as the dependent variable, condition (11 interventions versus control) as it interacts with political ideology (median split within each country) as the fixed effects, including by-participant and by-country random effects. Across our entire sample of participants ( N = 51,224), we found a main effect of political ideology, β = 6.35, SE = 0.71, t (49721) = 8.89, p < 0.001, d = 0.29, 95% CI = [4.95, 7.75] (Fig. 4A ; Table S7 ). We also found the main effects of the condition but no condition-by-ideology interactions. Thus, we found no statistically significant evidence that those who identified as liberals or conservatives were, on average, differentially affected by climate interventions relative to the control condition (Fig. 4A ; Table S7 ).

Interventions’ impacts on climate beliefs (Panel A ), policy support (Panel B ), and action (Panel C ), split by self-reported political ideology (liberals in blue and conservatives in red; N = 51,224). Vertical lines indicate the average in the control condition for each ideological grouping. Error bars represent 95% confidence intervals of the means. Upward triangles indicate significant increases, downward triangles indicate significant decreases, and circles indicate no statistically significant differences, always compared to the control.

To determine the impact of different interventions within each ideological group, we also ran linear mixed models separately for the liberals and conservatives. Each model included belief in climate change as the dependent variable, condition as the fixed effect, including by-participant, by-item (4 beliefs), and by-country random intercepts. For people who are liberal, we found that six interventions significantly increased climate beliefs (decreasing psychological distance, emphasizing effective collective actions, future-self continuity, writing a letter to the future generation, system justifying messaging, and binding moral foundations; Table S1 ; Figs. 4 and 5 ). Five of these interventions also increased the climate beliefs of self-identified conservatives (decreasing psychological distance, emphasizing effective collective actions, future-self continuity, writing a letter to the future generation, and system justifying messaging; Table S2 ; Figs. 4 and 5 ). Thus, five of the eleven interventions we tested were effective at increasing beliefs about climate change across the ideological divide (Figs. 4 and 5 ).

Green check marks indicate significant increases compared to control, red X marks indicate significant decreases compared to control, and empty cells indicate no statistically significant differences compared to control. The coefficients of these analyses can be found in Tables S1 – S6 .

Interventions’ impact on policy support

Next, we investigated the impact of the eleven climate interventions (Table 1 ) on self-identified liberals’ and conservatives’ climate policy support. We ran a linear mixed effects model with climate policy support as the dependent variable, condition (11 interventions versus control) as it interacts with political ideology (median split within each country) as the fixed effects, including by-participant and by-country random effects. We found a main effect of political ideology, β = 3.36, SE = 0.58, t (50280) = 5.80, p < 0.001, d = 0.05, 95% CI = [2.25, 4.50] (Fig. 4B ; Table S8 ). We also found main effects of the condition, and a condition by ideology interaction for the negative emotion intervention, β = 1.74, SE = 0.81, t (50260) = 2.13, p = 0.033, d = 0.02, 95% CI = [0.15, 3.33], suggesting that this intervention decreased the policy support of self-identified conservatives more than liberals (Fig. 4B ; Table S8 ).

To determine the impact of different interventions on the climate policy support of each ideological group, we ran linear mixed models separately for people who are liberal and conservative. Climate policy support was included as the dependent variable, condition as the fixed effect, including by-participant, by-item (9 policies), and by-country random intercepts. We found that, compared to the control condition, five interventions significantly increased self-identified liberals’ climate policy support (emphasizing effective collective actions, writing a letter to the future generation, future-self continuity, decreasing psychological distance, and system justifying messaging; Table S3 ). Three of these interventions increased self-identified conservatives’ climate policy support (emphasizing effective collective actions, writing a letter to the future generation, and future-self continuity; Table S4 ), and one intervention backfired (negative emotion messaging; Table S4 ). Thus, three of the eleven interventions (emphasizing effective collective actions, writing a letter to the future generation, and future-self continuity) were effective at increasing support for climate mitigation policy across the ideological divide (Fig. 5 ).

Interventions’ impact on behaviors

To investigate the impact of the 11 climate interventions on self-identified liberals’ and conservatives’ climate action (engagement in the tree planting task), we ran an ordinal mixed model (i.e., cumulative link mixed model fitted with the Laplace approximation) with the number of trees planted in the behavioral task as the dependent variable, condition (11 interventions versus control) as it interacts with political ideology (median split within each country) as the fixed effects, including by-country random effects. We found no statistically significant main effect of political ideology, β = −0.04, SE = 0.06, z (51186) = −0.70, p = 0.480, d < 0.001, 95% CI = [−0.16, 0.07], several significant effects of condition (Table S9 ), and a significant condition by ideology interaction for six out of the 11 interventions (Table S9 ), in each case suggesting that the intervention decreased the tree planting efforts of people who are conservative to a higher extent (Fig. 4C , Table S9 ). These effects held when statistically adjusting for time participants spent on the intervention phase (Table S10 ).

To determine the interplay between the interventions’ impact and their length on the tree planting outcome, we also ran an ordinal mixed model with the number of trees planted as the dependent variable, condition as it interacts with intervention time as the fixed effects, including by-country random effects (Table S11 ). On average, spending more time on the intervention phase predicted more trees being planted. However, this average effect manifested differently across interventions. Specifically, spending more time on the intervention phase increased the number of trees planted in the scientific consensus and binding moral foundations interventions, did not have a statistically significant impact on tree planting in the dynamic norms intervention, and decreased the number of trees planted in all the other 8 interventions (Table S11 ). These results suggest that a reason for the negative effects observed in some of the interventions might have been due to the limited time budget participants had for the study, such that less time was allocated to planting trees in the conditions with longer interventions. The results may also suggest that in the absence of time constraints, some interventions (e.g., scientific consensus and binding moral foundations) might even increase individual-level pro-environmental behavior. However, the degree to which these findings generalize to behaviors that do not hinge on time (e.g., direct donations) should still be empirically assessed in future studies.

To further investigate the impact each intervention had on self-identified liberals’ climate behavior, we ran an ordinal mixed model with climate action as the dependent variable and condition as the fixed effect, including by-country random intercepts. Compared to the control condition, one intervention significantly increased the climate action of people who identified as liberal (scientific consensus; Table S5 ), and four interventions significantly backfired (letter to the future generation, negative emotions, decreasing psychological distance, and working-together norms; Fig. 5 ; Table S5 ). For people who identified as conservative, eight of the eleven interventions significantly backfired (emphasizing effective collective actions, future-self continuity, writing a letter to the future generation, negative emotions, pluralistic ignorance, decreasing psychological distance, system justifying messaging, and working-together norms; Fig. 5 ; Table S6 ). Thus, while self-identified liberals’ climate action was stimulated by one of the eleven interventions (scientific consensus), four interventions significantly decreased the tree-planting efforts of people across the ideological divide (letter to the future generation, negative emotions, decreasing psychological distance, and working-together norms; Fig. 5 ).

In a global study spanning 60 countries, we assessed the political polarization of climate change beliefs, climate policy support, and individual-level climate action, as well as the effectiveness of eleven climate interventions at increasing these three climate mitigation outcomes across the ideological divide. Replicating prior work 5 , 6 , 11 , 51 , we found a consistent relationship between political ideology and climate beliefs and policy support, whereby people who identify as liberal believe in the threatening nature of anthropogenic climate change more than people who identify as conservatives. However, we found no evidence for statistically significant differences in the number of trees planted by people along the ideological spectrum. When assessing whether the conceptual-behavioral disconnect observed was triggered by people who are liberal not acting on their beliefs (e.g., a liberal-oriented green gap) or people who are conservative acting despite their beliefs (e.g., a conservative-oriented green gap), we found that self-identified conservatives’ beliefs predicted their behaviors less than self-identified liberals’ beliefs predicted their behaviors. This suggests that the disconnect between beliefs and behaviors in these results could be more strongly driven by participants who identify as conservative acting in a more pro-environmental manner than their beliefs would predict. This result aligns with recent findings in the United States 23 , and is more consistent with a process by which participants who are conservative contributing to tree planting efforts despite not believing in the urgency of climate change as much as participants who are liberal 52 , 53 , 54 . Instead, they may have acted in this pro-climate way for reasons other than climate concern, such as to preserve and protect traditional values of nature and purity 55 . Alternatively, participants who identified as conservative may have conceptualized tree planting as an alternative to system-level action on climate. Future research should disentangle these processes, which could help assess the generalizability of these findings to other behaviors, both at the individual as well as at the collective or systemic levels.

We also found ideological differences in the impact of climate change interventions on climate beliefs, policy support, and individual-level action. Critically, these ideological effects differed across the three dependent variables, consistent with prior work pointing to the importance of the outcome when assessing the effectiveness of climate interventions 56 . Six of the eleven tested interventions increased the climate beliefs of participants who identified as liberal (decreasing psychological distance, writing a letter to a future generation, emphasizing effective collective actions, future-self continuity, system justifying messaging, and binding moral foundations); five interventions increased their policy support (emphasizing effective collective actions, writing a letter to the future generation, future-self continuity, decreasing psychological distance, and system justifying messaging); and one intervention increased their climate action (scientific consensus).

For participants who identified as conservative, five interventions increased their climate beliefs (decreasing psychological distance, emphasizing effective collective actions, future-self continuity, writing a letter to the future generation, and system justifying messaging), three interventions increased their policy support (writing a letter to the future generation, emphasizing effective collective actions, and future-self continuity), but no intervention increased their climate action. Instead, eight interventions significantly decreased their tree planting efforts (emphasizing effective collective actions, future-self continuity, writing a letter to the future generation, negative emotions, pluralistic ignorance, decreasing psychological distance, system justifying messaging, and working-together norms).

These findings paint an optimistic picture for practitioners such as policymakers and climate communicators interested in increasing global beliefs in the severe threat posed by anthropogenic climate change and support for mitigative policies. Several interventions (e.g., writing a letter to the future generation or emphasizing effective collective action) were effective at boosting these conceptual processes across the ideological divide. However, when it comes to stimulating individual-level climate action, our findings suggest that practitioners around the world could successfully deploy scientific consensus messaging, but only when targeting people who are liberal. This finding aligns with prior work suggesting that scientific consensus messaging has limited effects on climate skeptics’ support for climate action 41 , 42 , 43 . When targeting the climate action of people who are conservative, the behavioral toolbox for interventions in this space is sparser. Accordingly, the behavioral science field would benefit from future research investigating intervention strategies aimed at stimulating climate action across ideological divides.

Given the importance of political polarization in addressing climate change, these findings also advance theorizing. First, we provide additional explanations for the green gap phenomenon, previously discussed as liberals’ failure to act on their pro-environmental beliefs. Here, we find the green gap can also arise through the converse process—climate actions (e.g., planting trees) can be elicited in people who are conservative in spite of their climate change skepticism. Additional evidence for eliciting climate action without attempting to change beliefs comes from the interventions’ effects on the actions of participants who identified as conservative. That is, most interventions decreased the number of trees they planted, suggesting that when framed as climate change solutions, people who are conservative engage in pro-environmental behaviors to a lesser extent. Thus, in future work, we are interested in exploring alternative processes for eliciting pro-environmental behaviors that don’t involve changing climate beliefs.

Second, our study establishes important boundaries on several prominent psychological theories. For instance, norm-based theories (e.g., dynamic norms, pluralistic ignorance, work-together norm), previously considered state-of-the-art in designing climate interventions 57 , did not significantly increase climate beliefs, policy support, or individual action in this global sample. This is likely due to the diversity of our sample and the large heterogeneity of effects between countries. For example, correcting pluralistic ignorance increased climate beliefs by 5% in the US and Denmark but decreased beliefs by 7% in Romania and by 5% in India. Since many theories are established in WEIRD countries 58 , 59 , our research suggests that these theories might not apply outside these contexts. As such, these findings suggest there is a serious need to develop and test theories of climate belief and action across cultures. For a rapid assessment of these interventions’ effects across each of the four outcomes and across a range of variables (i.e., including country, political ideology, gender, age, socioeconomic status, income, and education), we created a web tool https://climate-interventions.shinyapps.io/climate-interventions/ . We hope this data exploration resource can facilitate the advancement of science by offering researchers the ability to test additional hypotheses, which should then be empirically verified in follow-up experiments. We also urge scholars to incorporate these findings into their theories.

A critical component of our design that must be considered when interpreting these findings is the operationalization of climate action as the number of pages completed in the tree planting task. While this assessment of pro-climate behavior allowed a standardized measure of action across the 60 nations in which the experiment was deployed, it is limited to a single type of private mitigation behavior that offers a highly individual-focused solution to combating climate change. Therefore, these findings might not generalize to collective or systemic climate actions, also critical to climate mitigation 60 . In future research, scholars should study additional pro-climate behaviors, especially ones that build towards collective solutions to this fundamentally collective problem 61 , such as advocacy 62 or voting 63 .

Another limitation of the current study is the attrition rate observed (36.4%) between the number of participants who completed the study and the participants whose data ended up in the final analysis. Although within the expected range of attrition for online studies (30–50% 64 ), this feature of our data should be considered when interpreting the results. Future research should thus replicate the current findings in more controlled environments that may benefit from lower attrition rates.

Notably, the interventions tested here were homogeneously administered and not ideologically tailored. Given recent work showing that targeted interventions can be up to 200% more effective 65 , we hope our results can inform and increase the potential of future targeted interventions in this space. Moreover, given the heterogeneity of the effects observed across ideologies and outcomes, we also recommend future research targeting mechanisms to consider these dimensions for optimal impact.

Overall, the present work provides global evidence of the complex relationship between political ideology and climate change beliefs, policy support, and individual climate action, providing evidence for a conservative-oriented green gap. Our analyses also have critical implications for the design and deployment of theoretically derived targeted interventions aimed at boosting climate awareness and action around the world. Scholars and policymakers in this space can leverage our findings to implement interventions selected to optimize outcomes, given the ideological composition of a target community, for a more effective, empirically informed response to the climate crisis.

Ethics approval

Ethics approval was obtained independently by each research team from the respective Institutional Review Board (IRB) associated with their institution. Analyses only included datasets submitted along with IRB approval.

Participants

Participants’ data came from a previously collected dataset 45 . A total of 83,927 completed the study between July 2022 and July 2023. Of them, 59,440 participants from 63 countries passed the two attention checks (i.e., Please select the color purple from the list below; To indicate you are reading this paragraph, please type the word 60 in the text box below.) and correctly complete the WEPT demo. Of this sample, ideological information was only available for 51,224 participants ( M age = 39.62, SD age = 15.82; 29,410 women, 27,232 men, 400 non-binary or other gender, 2398 declined to state gender) from 60 countries. The control condition contained a sample of 4,302 participants ( M age = 39.52, SD age = 15.64; 2207 women, 2041 men, 35 non-binary/other gender, 19 declined to state gender). Gender was collected via self-report and was included (along with age, education, and income) as a covariate in the primary analyses reported here to assess for potential effects on the measured outcomes. Given the differences in data collection timelines in each country, the initial version of this manuscript did not include this full sample; upon data collection completion in July 2023, we added data from additional countries, resulting in this final dataset. The results between the initial partial sample and the final sample did not differ.

Experimental design and measures

Participants recruited for the study were asked to first read and sign informed consent. They were then exposed to the first attention check (Please select the color purple from the list below. We would like to make sure that you are reading these questions carefully.). Following this, participants were given a definition of climate change: Climate change is the phenomenon describing the fact that the world’s average temperature has been increasing over the past 150 years and will likely be increasing more in the future. After reading this definition, participants were randomly assigned to one of 12 conditions: 11 experimental interventions (Table 1 ) or a no-intervention control condition in a between-subjects design. Participants in the control condition were asked to read a short, thematically unrelated text from the novel Great Expectations by Charles Dickens, while participants in the experimental conditions were exposed to an intervention. Subsequently, participants in all conditions were asked to rate (in random order) their (1) climate beliefs, (2) climate policy support, and (3) willingness to share climate information on social media. Finally, participants were given the chance to contribute to tree-planting efforts by completing the WEPT. Then, participants in the control condition were asked to complete an additional set of variables. Finally, all participants were asked to fill out a series of demographics, which included another attention check (In the previous section, you viewed some information about climate change. To indicate you are reading this paragraph, please type the word sixty in the text box below.). We administered the entire survey in the participants’ primary language of their country of residence.

Outcome variables

Climate beliefs.

Climate beliefs were operationalized as participants’ responses to the question: How accurate do you think these statements are? (from 0 = Not at all accurate to 100 = Extremely accurate). The four statements were: Taking action to fight climate change is necessary to avoid a global catastrophe; Human activities are causing climate change; Climate change poses a serious threat to humanity; and Climate change is a global emergency. Cronbach’s alpha of this scale in this dataset was 0.866.

Climate policy support was measured as participants’ level of agreement (from 0 = Not at all to 100 = Very much so), with the following nine statements: I support raising carbon taxes on gas/fossil fuels/coal; I support significantly expanding infrastructure for public transportation; I support increasing the number of charging stations for electric vehicles; I support increasing the use of sustainable energy such as wind and solar energy; I support increasing taxes on airline companies to offset carbon emissions; I support protecting forested and land areas; I support investing more in green jobs and businesses; I support introducing laws to keep waterways and oceans clean; I support increasing taxes on carbon intense foods (for example meat and dairy). Cronbach’s alpha of this scale in this dataset was 0.844.

WEPT Tree planting efforts

To measure action with real-world impact performed at a cost to participants, we used a modified version of the work for environmental protection task (WEPT). This task is a multi-trial online procedure that detects consequential pro-environmental behavior by allowing participants the opportunity of engaging in voluntary cognitive effort (i.e., screen numerical stimuli) in exchange for donations to an environmental organization. This measure has been validated and has been found to correlate to self-reports and objective observations of other pro-environmental behaviors and conceptually related measures. Participants were first exposed to a demonstration of the WEPT, in which they were instructed to identify all target numbers for which the first digit is even and the second digit is odd (4 out of 18 numbers for the demonstration). Participants could only advance to the next page upon correctly completing the demonstration. There, they were told that planting trees is one of the best ways to combat climate change and that they would have the opportunity to plant up to 8 trees if they chose to engage in additional pages of the task (one tree per page completed). These pages contained 60 numbers per page, which participants had to screen for target numbers. Alongside these instructions, participants were shown a pictogram of 8 trees, one of which was colored green to mark their progress in the task. Participants could exit the task at any point without penalty.

Social media sharing intention

Participants were first presented with the text: Did you know that removing meat and dairy for only two out of three meals per day could decrease food-related carbon emissions by 60%? It is an easy way to fight #ClimateChange #ManyLabsClimate${e://Field/cond} source: https://econ.st/3qjvOnn (where {e://Field/cond} was replaced with the condition code for each group). Participants were then asked: Are you willing to share this information on your social media? The answer options were: Yes, I am willing to share this information; I am not willing to share this information; I do not use social media. The present investigation does not focus on this intention measure; however, the results are reported in the supplement for completion (Tables S13 – S15 ).

Demographic variables

Participants were asked to indicate their gender (male, female, nonbinary/other, prefer not to say), age (in years), education level (in years of formal education completed), household income, and political orientation for economic and social issues (on two scales ranging from 0 = Extremely liberal/Left-wing to 100 = Extremely conservative/Right wing). To create an aggregated ideological leaning measure, we took the average of participants’ answers on the two political orientation questions and treated that as the continuous measure of ideology (from liberal to conservative). We aggregated these two political ideology measures given a robust positive correlation between the two items ( r = 0.71, p < 0.001), a prevalent procedure in this literature 66 , 67 . For a binary version of this continuous measure, we computed a median split of the continuous ideology measure within each country and labeled participants who scored above their country’s ideology average as conservatives and participants who scored below their country’s ideology average as liberals.

Ethics and inclusion statement

This research utilized data collected by the International Collaboration to Understand Climate Action. Local researchers from across the world (60 countries in total represented in the data in this research) were invited to collaborate on the design, distribution, and analysis of the study, as well as lead individual research projects stemming from the collected data. Collaborator roles and responsibilities were agreed to before data collection began. For each research team in each country, individual IRB approval by local ethics review committees was required before data collection began. For the full list of IRB review committees, refer to the Supplement.

Statistical methods

Throughout the “Results” section, we reported hierarchical mixed effects models to assess the effects of interest. Of note, these multilevel models were used to account for the data being non-independent within countries, participants and items (for beliefs and policy support) and have the benefit of alleviating multiple comparison concerns by performing partial polling in generating estimates 68 . All linear mixed models were run in R 69 with the lme4 package 70 . Cumulative link mixed models were run with the ordinal R package 71 . Bayes Factors were calculated using the BayesFactor R package 72 . Although the mixed effects models used here are largely robust to distributional assumption violations (see ref. 73 ), we conducted robust mixed effect models and weighted least squares mixed models to complement our primary analyses and formally account for any potential violations of residual normality and homoscedasticity, respectively. For each set of analyses, we found identical results to those reported in the main text. Therefore, we are highly confident in the robustness of our models and results.

Reporting summary

Further information on research design is available in the Nature Portfolio Reporting Summary linked to this article.

Data availability

The dataset can be openly accessed on OSF: 10.17605/OSF.IO/YTF89 74 .

Code availability

The analysis scripts can be accessed on Zenodo: 10.5281/zenodo.10815267 75 .

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Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the following grant funding: Google Jigsaw grant (M.V., K.D., J.J.V.B.); Swiss National Science Foundation, P400PS_190997 (K.D.); Templeton World Charity Foundation, TWCF-2022-30561 (J.J.V.B.; doi.org/10.54224/30561); NYU Climate Change Initiative Seed Grants (J.J.V.B., M.V., K.D.). The authors thank the International Collaboration to Understand Climate Action for the data collection efforts: https://manylabsclimate.wordpress.com/ .

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These authors contributed equally: Michael Berkebile-Weinberg, Danielle Goldwert.

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Department of Psychology, New York University, New York, NY, USA

Michael Berkebile-Weinberg, Danielle Goldwert, Jay J. Van Bavel & Madalina Vlasceanu

Department of Cognition, Emotion, and Methods in Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria

Kimberly C. Doell

Norwegian School of Economics, Bergen, Norway

Jay J. Van Bavel

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M.B., D.G., J.J.V.B., and M.V. contributed to the conception or design of the work. Data acquisition was completed by K.C.D., J.J.V.B., and M.V. M.B. and M.V. analyzed and interpreted the data. The original draft was written by M.B., D.G., and M.V. Revisions were completed by M.B., D.G., K.C.D., J.J.V.B., and M.V.

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Correspondence to Madalina Vlasceanu .

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Berkebile-Weinberg, M., Goldwert, D., Doell, K.C. et al. The differential impact of climate interventions along the political divide in 60 countries. Nat Commun 15 , 3885 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-48112-8

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4 Department of Journalism, Media and Communications, Daffodil International University, Dhaka, Bangladesh

Haider Mahmood

5 Department of Finance, College of Business Administration, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, 173, Alkharj, 11942 Saudi Arabia

Ijaz Younis

Associated data.

Data sources and relevant links are provided in the paper to access data.

Climate change is a long-lasting change in the weather arrays across tropics to polls. It is a global threat that has embarked on to put stress on various sectors. This study is aimed to conceptually engineer how climate variability is deteriorating the sustainability of diverse sectors worldwide. Specifically, the agricultural sector’s vulnerability is a globally concerning scenario, as sufficient production and food supplies are threatened due to irreversible weather fluctuations. In turn, it is challenging the global feeding patterns, particularly in countries with agriculture as an integral part of their economy and total productivity. Climate change has also put the integrity and survival of many species at stake due to shifts in optimum temperature ranges, thereby accelerating biodiversity loss by progressively changing the ecosystem structures. Climate variations increase the likelihood of particular food and waterborne and vector-borne diseases, and a recent example is a coronavirus pandemic. Climate change also accelerates the enigma of antimicrobial resistance, another threat to human health due to the increasing incidence of resistant pathogenic infections. Besides, the global tourism industry is devastated as climate change impacts unfavorable tourism spots. The methodology investigates hypothetical scenarios of climate variability and attempts to describe the quality of evidence to facilitate readers’ careful, critical engagement. Secondary data is used to identify sustainability issues such as environmental, social, and economic viability. To better understand the problem, gathered the information in this report from various media outlets, research agencies, policy papers, newspapers, and other sources. This review is a sectorial assessment of climate change mitigation and adaptation approaches worldwide in the aforementioned sectors and the associated economic costs. According to the findings, government involvement is necessary for the country’s long-term development through strict accountability of resources and regulations implemented in the past to generate cutting-edge climate policy. Therefore, mitigating the impacts of climate change must be of the utmost importance, and hence, this global threat requires global commitment to address its dreadful implications to ensure global sustenance.

Introduction

Worldwide observed and anticipated climatic changes for the twenty-first century and global warming are significant global changes that have been encountered during the past 65 years. Climate change (CC) is an inter-governmental complex challenge globally with its influence over various components of the ecological, environmental, socio-political, and socio-economic disciplines (Adger et al. 2005 ; Leal Filho et al. 2021 ; Feliciano et al. 2022 ). Climate change involves heightened temperatures across numerous worlds (Battisti and Naylor 2009 ; Schuurmans 2021 ; Weisheimer and Palmer 2005 ; Yadav et al. 2015 ). With the onset of the industrial revolution, the problem of earth climate was amplified manifold (Leppänen et al. 2014 ). It is reported that the immediate attention and due steps might increase the probability of overcoming its devastating impacts. It is not plausible to interpret the exact consequences of climate change (CC) on a sectoral basis (Izaguirre et al. 2021 ; Jurgilevich et al. 2017 ), which is evident by the emerging level of recognition plus the inclusion of climatic uncertainties at both local and national level of policymaking (Ayers et al. 2014 ).

Climate change is characterized based on the comprehensive long-haul temperature and precipitation trends and other components such as pressure and humidity level in the surrounding environment. Besides, the irregular weather patterns, retreating of global ice sheets, and the corresponding elevated sea level rise are among the most renowned international and domestic effects of climate change (Lipczynska-Kochany 2018 ; Michel et al. 2021 ; Murshed and Dao 2020 ). Before the industrial revolution, natural sources, including volcanoes, forest fires, and seismic activities, were regarded as the distinct sources of greenhouse gases (GHGs) such as CO 2 , CH 4 , N 2 O, and H 2 O into the atmosphere (Murshed et al. 2020 ; Hussain et al. 2020 ; Sovacool et al. 2021 ; Usman and Balsalobre-Lorente 2022 ; Murshed 2022 ). United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) struck a major agreement to tackle climate change and accelerate and intensify the actions and investments required for a sustainable low-carbon future at Conference of the Parties (COP-21) in Paris on December 12, 2015. The Paris Agreement expands on the Convention by bringing all nations together for the first time in a single cause to undertake ambitious measures to prevent climate change and adapt to its impacts, with increased funding to assist developing countries in doing so. As so, it marks a turning point in the global climate fight. The core goal of the Paris Agreement is to improve the global response to the threat of climate change by keeping the global temperature rise this century well below 2 °C over pre-industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5° C (Sharma et al. 2020 ; Sharif et al. 2020 ; Chien et al. 2021 .

Furthermore, the agreement aspires to strengthen nations’ ability to deal with the effects of climate change and align financing flows with low GHG emissions and climate-resilient paths (Shahbaz et al. 2019 ; Anwar et al. 2021 ; Usman et al. 2022a ). To achieve these lofty goals, adequate financial resources must be mobilized and provided, as well as a new technology framework and expanded capacity building, allowing developing countries and the most vulnerable countries to act under their respective national objectives. The agreement also establishes a more transparent action and support mechanism. All Parties are required by the Paris Agreement to do their best through “nationally determined contributions” (NDCs) and to strengthen these efforts in the coming years (Balsalobre-Lorente et al. 2020 ). It includes obligations that all Parties regularly report on their emissions and implementation activities. A global stock-take will be conducted every five years to review collective progress toward the agreement’s goal and inform the Parties’ future individual actions. The Paris Agreement became available for signature on April 22, 2016, Earth Day, at the United Nations Headquarters in New York. On November 4, 2016, it went into effect 30 days after the so-called double threshold was met (ratification by 55 nations accounting for at least 55% of world emissions). More countries have ratified and continue to ratify the agreement since then, bringing 125 Parties in early 2017. To fully operationalize the Paris Agreement, a work program was initiated in Paris to define mechanisms, processes, and recommendations on a wide range of concerns (Murshed et al. 2021 ). Since 2016, Parties have collaborated in subsidiary bodies (APA, SBSTA, and SBI) and numerous formed entities. The Conference of the Parties functioning as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement (CMA) convened for the first time in November 2016 in Marrakesh in conjunction with COP22 and made its first two resolutions. The work plan is scheduled to be finished by 2018. Some mitigation and adaptation strategies to reduce the emission in the prospective of Paris agreement are following firstly, a long-term goal of keeping the increase in global average temperature to well below 2 °C above pre-industrial levels, secondly, to aim to limit the rise to 1.5 °C, since this would significantly reduce risks and the impacts of climate change, thirdly, on the need for global emissions to peak as soon as possible, recognizing that this will take longer for developing countries, lastly, to undertake rapid reductions after that under the best available science, to achieve a balance between emissions and removals in the second half of the century. On the other side, some adaptation strategies are; strengthening societies’ ability to deal with the effects of climate change and to continue & expand international assistance for developing nations’ adaptation.

However, anthropogenic activities are currently regarded as most accountable for CC (Murshed et al. 2022 ). Apart from the industrial revolution, other anthropogenic activities include excessive agricultural operations, which further involve the high use of fuel-based mechanization, burning of agricultural residues, burning fossil fuels, deforestation, national and domestic transportation sectors, etc. (Huang et al. 2016 ). Consequently, these anthropogenic activities lead to climatic catastrophes, damaging local and global infrastructure, human health, and total productivity. Energy consumption has mounted GHGs levels concerning warming temperatures as most of the energy production in developing countries comes from fossil fuels (Balsalobre-Lorente et al. 2022 ; Usman et al. 2022b ; Abbass et al. 2021a ; Ishikawa-Ishiwata and Furuya 2022 ).

This review aims to highlight the effects of climate change in a socio-scientific aspect by analyzing the existing literature on various sectorial pieces of evidence globally that influence the environment. Although this review provides a thorough examination of climate change and its severe affected sectors that pose a grave danger for global agriculture, biodiversity, health, economy, forestry, and tourism, and to purpose some practical prophylactic measures and mitigation strategies to be adapted as sound substitutes to survive from climate change (CC) impacts. The societal implications of irregular weather patterns and other effects of climate changes are discussed in detail. Some numerous sustainable mitigation measures and adaptation practices and techniques at the global level are discussed in this review with an in-depth focus on its economic, social, and environmental aspects. Methods of data collection section are included in the supplementary information.

Review methodology

Related study and its objectives.

Today, we live an ordinary life in the beautiful digital, globalized world where climate change has a decisive role. What happens in one country has a massive influence on geographically far apart countries, which points to the current crisis known as COVID-19 (Sarkar et al. 2021 ). The most dangerous disease like COVID-19 has affected the world’s climate changes and economic conditions (Abbass et al. 2022 ; Pirasteh-Anosheh et al. 2021 ). The purpose of the present study is to review the status of research on the subject, which is based on “Global Climate Change Impacts, adaptation, and sustainable mitigation measures” by systematically reviewing past published and unpublished research work. Furthermore, the current study seeks to comment on research on the same topic and suggest future research on the same topic. Specifically, the present study aims: The first one is, organize publications to make them easy and quick to find. Secondly, to explore issues in this area, propose an outline of research for future work. The third aim of the study is to synthesize the previous literature on climate change, various sectors, and their mitigation measurement. Lastly , classify the articles according to the different methods and procedures that have been adopted.

Review methodology for reviewers

This review-based article followed systematic literature review techniques that have proved the literature review as a rigorous framework (Benita 2021 ; Tranfield et al. 2003 ). Moreover, we illustrate in Fig. 1 the search method that we have started for this research. First, finalized the research theme to search literature (Cooper et al. 2018 ). Second, used numerous research databases to search related articles and download from the database (Web of Science, Google Scholar, Scopus Index Journals, Emerald, Elsevier Science Direct, Springer, and Sciverse). We focused on various articles, with research articles, feedback pieces, short notes, debates, and review articles published in scholarly journals. Reports used to search for multiple keywords such as “Climate Change,” “Mitigation and Adaptation,” “Department of Agriculture and Human Health,” “Department of Biodiversity and Forestry,” etc.; in summary, keyword list and full text have been made. Initially, the search for keywords yielded a large amount of literature.

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Methodology search for finalized articles for investigations.

Source : constructed by authors

Since 2020, it has been impossible to review all the articles found; some restrictions have been set for the literature exhibition. The study searched 95 articles on a different database mentioned above based on the nature of the study. It excluded 40 irrelevant papers due to copied from a previous search after readings tiles, abstract and full pieces. The criteria for inclusion were: (i) articles focused on “Global Climate Change Impacts, adaptation, and sustainable mitigation measures,” and (ii) the search key terms related to study requirements. The complete procedure yielded 55 articles for our study. We repeat our search on the “Web of Science and Google Scholars” database to enhance the search results and check the referenced articles.

In this study, 55 articles are reviewed systematically and analyzed for research topics and other aspects, such as the methods, contexts, and theories used in these studies. Furthermore, this study analyzes closely related areas to provide unique research opportunities in the future. The study also discussed future direction opportunities and research questions by understanding the research findings climate changes and other affected sectors. The reviewed paper framework analysis process is outlined in Fig. 2 .

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Framework of the analysis Process.

Natural disasters and climate change’s socio-economic consequences

Natural and environmental disasters can be highly variable from year to year; some years pass with very few deaths before a significant disaster event claims many lives (Symanski et al. 2021 ). Approximately 60,000 people globally died from natural disasters each year on average over the past decade (Ritchie and Roser 2014 ; Wiranata and Simbolon 2021 ). So, according to the report, around 0.1% of global deaths. Annual variability in the number and share of deaths from natural disasters in recent decades are shown in Fig. 3 . The number of fatalities can be meager—sometimes less than 10,000, and as few as 0.01% of all deaths. But shock events have a devastating impact: the 1983–1985 famine and drought in Ethiopia; the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami; Cyclone Nargis, which struck Myanmar in 2008; and the 2010 Port-au-Prince earthquake in Haiti and now recent example is COVID-19 pandemic (Erman et al. 2021 ). These events pushed global disaster deaths to over 200,000—more than 0.4% of deaths in these years. Low-frequency, high-impact events such as earthquakes and tsunamis are not preventable, but such high losses of human life are. Historical evidence shows that earlier disaster detection, more robust infrastructure, emergency preparedness, and response programmers have substantially reduced disaster deaths worldwide. Low-income is also the most vulnerable to disasters; improving living conditions, facilities, and response services in these areas would be critical in reducing natural disaster deaths in the coming decades.

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Global deaths from natural disasters, 1978 to 2020.

Source EMDAT ( 2020 )

The interior regions of the continent are likely to be impacted by rising temperatures (Dimri et al. 2018 ; Goes et al. 2020 ; Mannig et al. 2018 ; Schuurmans 2021 ). Weather patterns change due to the shortage of natural resources (water), increase in glacier melting, and rising mercury are likely to cause extinction to many planted species (Gampe et al. 2016 ; Mihiretu et al. 2021 ; Shaffril et al. 2018 ).On the other hand, the coastal ecosystem is on the verge of devastation (Perera et al. 2018 ; Phillips 2018 ). The temperature rises, insect disease outbreaks, health-related problems, and seasonal and lifestyle changes are persistent, with a strong probability of these patterns continuing in the future (Abbass et al. 2021c ; Hussain et al. 2018 ). At the global level, a shortage of good infrastructure and insufficient adaptive capacity are hammering the most (IPCC 2013 ). In addition to the above concerns, a lack of environmental education and knowledge, outdated consumer behavior, a scarcity of incentives, a lack of legislation, and the government’s lack of commitment to climate change contribute to the general public’s concerns. By 2050, a 2 to 3% rise in mercury and a drastic shift in rainfall patterns may have serious consequences (Huang et al. 2022 ; Gorst et al. 2018 ). Natural and environmental calamities caused huge losses globally, such as decreased agriculture outputs, rehabilitation of the system, and rebuilding necessary technologies (Ali and Erenstein 2017 ; Ramankutty et al. 2018 ; Yu et al. 2021 ) (Table (Table1). 1 ). Furthermore, in the last 3 or 4 years, the world has been plagued by smog-related eye and skin diseases, as well as a rise in road accidents due to poor visibility.

Main natural danger statistics for 1985–2020 at the global level

Source: EM-DAT ( 2020 )

Climate change and agriculture

Global agriculture is the ultimate sector responsible for 30–40% of all greenhouse emissions, which makes it a leading industry predominantly contributing to climate warming and significantly impacted by it (Grieg; Mishra et al. 2021 ; Ortiz et al. 2021 ; Thornton and Lipper 2014 ). Numerous agro-environmental and climatic factors that have a dominant influence on agriculture productivity (Pautasso et al. 2012 ) are significantly impacted in response to precipitation extremes including floods, forest fires, and droughts (Huang 2004 ). Besides, the immense dependency on exhaustible resources also fuels the fire and leads global agriculture to become prone to devastation. Godfray et al. ( 2010 ) mentioned that decline in agriculture challenges the farmer’s quality of life and thus a significant factor to poverty as the food and water supplies are critically impacted by CC (Ortiz et al. 2021 ; Rosenzweig et al. 2014 ). As an essential part of the economic systems, especially in developing countries, agricultural systems affect the overall economy and potentially the well-being of households (Schlenker and Roberts 2009 ). According to the report published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases, i.e., CH 4, CO 2 , and N 2 O, are increased in the air to extraordinary levels over the last few centuries (Usman and Makhdum 2021 ; Stocker et al. 2013 ). Climate change is the composite outcome of two different factors. The first is the natural causes, and the second is the anthropogenic actions (Karami 2012 ). It is also forecasted that the world may experience a typical rise in temperature stretching from 1 to 3.7 °C at the end of this century (Pachauri et al. 2014 ). The world’s crop production is also highly vulnerable to these global temperature-changing trends as raised temperatures will pose severe negative impacts on crop growth (Reidsma et al. 2009 ). Some of the recent modeling about the fate of global agriculture is briefly described below.

Decline in cereal productivity

Crop productivity will also be affected dramatically in the next few decades due to variations in integral abiotic factors such as temperature, solar radiation, precipitation, and CO 2 . These all factors are included in various regulatory instruments like progress and growth, weather-tempted changes, pest invasions (Cammell and Knight 1992 ), accompanying disease snags (Fand et al. 2012 ), water supplies (Panda et al. 2003 ), high prices of agro-products in world’s agriculture industry, and preeminent quantity of fertilizer consumption. Lobell and field ( 2007 ) claimed that from 1962 to 2002, wheat crop output had condensed significantly due to rising temperatures. Therefore, during 1980–2011, the common wheat productivity trends endorsed extreme temperature events confirmed by Gourdji et al. ( 2013 ) around South Asia, South America, and Central Asia. Various other studies (Asseng, Cao, Zhang, and Ludwig 2009 ; Asseng et al. 2013 ; García et al. 2015 ; Ortiz et al. 2021 ) also proved that wheat output is negatively affected by the rising temperatures and also caused adverse effects on biomass productivity (Calderini et al. 1999 ; Sadras and Slafer 2012 ). Hereafter, the rice crop is also influenced by the high temperatures at night. These difficulties will worsen because the temperature will be rising further in the future owing to CC (Tebaldi et al. 2006 ). Another research conducted in China revealed that a 4.6% of rice production per 1 °C has happened connected with the advancement in night temperatures (Tao et al. 2006 ). Moreover, the average night temperature growth also affected rice indicia cultivar’s output pragmatically during 25 years in the Philippines (Peng et al. 2004 ). It is anticipated that the increase in world average temperature will also cause a substantial reduction in yield (Hatfield et al. 2011 ; Lobell and Gourdji 2012 ). In the southern hemisphere, Parry et al. ( 2007 ) noted a rise of 1–4 °C in average daily temperatures at the end of spring season unti the middle of summers, and this raised temperature reduced crop output by cutting down the time length for phenophases eventually reduce the yield (Hatfield and Prueger 2015 ; R. Ortiz 2008 ). Also, world climate models have recommended that humid and subtropical regions expect to be plentiful prey to the upcoming heat strokes (Battisti and Naylor 2009 ). Grain production is the amalgamation of two constituents: the average weight and the grain output/m 2 , however, in crop production. Crop output is mainly accredited to the grain quantity (Araus et al. 2008 ; Gambín and Borrás 2010 ). In the times of grain set, yield resources are mainly strewn between hitherto defined components, i.e., grain usual weight and grain output, which presents a trade-off between them (Gambín and Borrás 2010 ) beside disparities in per grain integration (B. L. Gambín et al. 2006 ). In addition to this, the maize crop is also susceptible to raised temperatures, principally in the flowering stage (Edreira and Otegui 2013 ). In reality, the lower grain number is associated with insufficient acclimatization due to intense photosynthesis and higher respiration and the high-temperature effect on the reproduction phenomena (Edreira and Otegui 2013 ). During the flowering phase, maize visible to heat (30–36 °C) seemed less anthesis-silking intermissions (Edreira et al. 2011 ). Another research by Dupuis and Dumas ( 1990 ) proved that a drop in spikelet when directly visible to high temperatures above 35 °C in vitro pollination. Abnormalities in kernel number claimed by Vega et al. ( 2001 ) is related to conceded plant development during a flowering phase that is linked with the active ear growth phase and categorized as a critical phase for approximation of kernel number during silking (Otegui and Bonhomme 1998 ).

The retort of rice output to high temperature presents disparities in flowering patterns, and seed set lessens and lessens grain weight (Qasim et al. 2020 ; Qasim, Hammad, Maqsood, Tariq, & Chawla). During the daytime, heat directly impacts flowers which lessens the thesis period and quickens the earlier peak flowering (Tao et al. 2006 ). Antagonistic effect of higher daytime temperature d on pollen sprouting proposed seed set decay, whereas, seed set was lengthily reduced than could be explicated by pollen growing at high temperatures 40◦C (Matsui et al. 2001 ).

The decline in wheat output is linked with higher temperatures, confirmed in numerous studies (Semenov 2009 ; Stone and Nicolas 1994 ). High temperatures fast-track the arrangements of plant expansion (Blum et al. 2001 ), diminution photosynthetic process (Salvucci and Crafts‐Brandner 2004 ), and also considerably affect the reproductive operations (Farooq et al. 2011 ).

The destructive impacts of CC induced weather extremes to deteriorate the integrity of crops (Chaudhary et al. 2011 ), e.g., Spartan cold and extreme fog cause falling and discoloration of betel leaves (Rosenzweig et al. 2001 ), giving them a somehow reddish appearance, squeezing of lemon leaves (Pautasso et al. 2012 ), as well as root rot of pineapple, have reported (Vedwan and Rhoades 2001 ). Henceforth, in tackling the disruptive effects of CC, several short-term and long-term management approaches are the crucial need of time (Fig. 4 ). Moreover, various studies (Chaudhary et al. 2011 ; Patz et al. 2005 ; Pautasso et al. 2012 ) have demonstrated adapting trends such as ameliorating crop diversity can yield better adaptability towards CC.

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Schematic description of potential impacts of climate change on the agriculture sector and the appropriate mitigation and adaptation measures to overcome its impact.

Climate change impacts on biodiversity

Global biodiversity is among the severe victims of CC because it is the fastest emerging cause of species loss. Studies demonstrated that the massive scale species dynamics are considerably associated with diverse climatic events (Abraham and Chain 1988 ; Manes et al. 2021 ; A. M. D. Ortiz et al. 2021 ). Both the pace and magnitude of CC are altering the compatible habitat ranges for living entities of marine, freshwater, and terrestrial regions. Alterations in general climate regimes influence the integrity of ecosystems in numerous ways, such as variation in the relative abundance of species, range shifts, changes in activity timing, and microhabitat use (Bates et al. 2014 ). The geographic distribution of any species often depends upon its ability to tolerate environmental stresses, biological interactions, and dispersal constraints. Hence, instead of the CC, the local species must only accept, adapt, move, or face extinction (Berg et al. 2010 ). So, the best performer species have a better survival capacity for adjusting to new ecosystems or a decreased perseverance to survive where they are already situated (Bates et al. 2014 ). An important aspect here is the inadequate habitat connectivity and access to microclimates, also crucial in raising the exposure to climate warming and extreme heatwave episodes. For example, the carbon sequestration rates are undergoing fluctuations due to climate-driven expansion in the range of global mangroves (Cavanaugh et al. 2014 ).

Similarly, the loss of kelp-forest ecosystems in various regions and its occupancy by the seaweed turfs has set the track for elevated herbivory by the high influx of tropical fish populations. Not only this, the increased water temperatures have exacerbated the conditions far away from the physiological tolerance level of the kelp communities (Vergés et al. 2016 ; Wernberg et al. 2016 ). Another pertinent danger is the devastation of keystone species, which even has more pervasive effects on the entire communities in that habitat (Zarnetske et al. 2012 ). It is particularly important as CC does not specify specific populations or communities. Eventually, this CC-induced redistribution of species may deteriorate carbon storage and the net ecosystem productivity (Weed et al. 2013 ). Among the typical disruptions, the prominent ones include impacts on marine and terrestrial productivity, marine community assembly, and the extended invasion of toxic cyanobacteria bloom (Fossheim et al. 2015 ).

The CC-impacted species extinction is widely reported in the literature (Beesley et al. 2019 ; Urban 2015 ), and the predictions of demise until the twenty-first century are dreadful (Abbass et al. 2019 ; Pereira et al. 2013 ). In a few cases, northward shifting of species may not be formidable as it allows mountain-dwelling species to find optimum climates. However, the migrant species may be trapped in isolated and incompatible habitats due to losing topography and range (Dullinger et al. 2012 ). For example, a study indicated that the American pika has been extirpated or intensely diminished in some regions, primarily attributed to the CC-impacted extinction or at least local extirpation (Stewart et al. 2015 ). Besides, the anticipation of persistent responses to the impacts of CC often requires data records of several decades to rigorously analyze the critical pre and post CC patterns at species and ecosystem levels (Manes et al. 2021 ; Testa et al. 2018 ).

Nonetheless, the availability of such long-term data records is rare; hence, attempts are needed to focus on these profound aspects. Biodiversity is also vulnerable to the other associated impacts of CC, such as rising temperatures, droughts, and certain invasive pest species. For instance, a study revealed the changes in the composition of plankton communities attributed to rising temperatures. Henceforth, alterations in such aquatic producer communities, i.e., diatoms and calcareous plants, can ultimately lead to variation in the recycling of biological carbon. Moreover, such changes are characterized as a potential contributor to CO 2 differences between the Pleistocene glacial and interglacial periods (Kohfeld et al. 2005 ).

Climate change implications on human health

It is an understood corporality that human health is a significant victim of CC (Costello et al. 2009 ). According to the WHO, CC might be responsible for 250,000 additional deaths per year during 2030–2050 (Watts et al. 2015 ). These deaths are attributed to extreme weather-induced mortality and morbidity and the global expansion of vector-borne diseases (Lemery et al. 2021; Yang and Usman 2021 ; Meierrieks 2021 ; UNEP 2017 ). Here, some of the emerging health issues pertinent to this global problem are briefly described.

Climate change and antimicrobial resistance with corresponding economic costs

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is an up-surging complex global health challenge (Garner et al. 2019 ; Lemery et al. 2021 ). Health professionals across the globe are extremely worried due to this phenomenon that has critical potential to reverse almost all the progress that has been achieved so far in the health discipline (Gosling and Arnell 2016 ). A massive amount of antibiotics is produced by many pharmaceutical industries worldwide, and the pathogenic microorganisms are gradually developing resistance to them, which can be comprehended how strongly this aspect can shake the foundations of national and global economies (UNEP 2017 ). This statement is supported by the fact that AMR is not developing in a particular region or country. Instead, it is flourishing in every continent of the world (WHO 2018 ). This plague is heavily pushing humanity to the post-antibiotic era, in which currently antibiotic-susceptible pathogens will once again lead to certain endemics and pandemics after being resistant(WHO 2018 ). Undesirably, if this statement would become a factuality, there might emerge certain risks in undertaking sophisticated interventions such as chemotherapy, joint replacement cases, and organ transplantation (Su et al. 2018 ). Presently, the amplification of drug resistance cases has made common illnesses like pneumonia, post-surgical infections, HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria, etc., too difficult and costly to be treated or cure well (WHO 2018 ). From a simple example, it can be assumed how easily antibiotic-resistant strains can be transmitted from one person to another and ultimately travel across the boundaries (Berendonk et al. 2015 ). Talking about the second- and third-generation classes of antibiotics, e.g., most renowned generations of cephalosporin antibiotics that are more expensive, broad-spectrum, more toxic, and usually require more extended periods whenever prescribed to patients (Lemery et al. 2021 ; Pärnänen et al. 2019 ). This scenario has also revealed that the abundance of resistant strains of pathogens was also higher in the Southern part (WHO 2018 ). As southern parts are generally warmer than their counterparts, it is evident from this example how CC-induced global warming can augment the spread of antibiotic-resistant strains within the biosphere, eventually putting additional economic burden in the face of developing new and costlier antibiotics. The ARG exchange to susceptible bacteria through one of the potential mechanisms, transformation, transduction, and conjugation; Selection pressure can be caused by certain antibiotics, metals or pesticides, etc., as shown in Fig. 5 .

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A typical interaction between the susceptible and resistant strains.

Source: Elsayed et al. ( 2021 ); Karkman et al. ( 2018 )

Certain studies highlighted that conventional urban wastewater treatment plants are typical hotspots where most bacterial strains exchange genetic material through horizontal gene transfer (Fig. 5 ). Although at present, the extent of risks associated with the antibiotic resistance found in wastewater is complicated; environmental scientists and engineers have particular concerns about the potential impacts of these antibiotic resistance genes on human health (Ashbolt 2015 ). At most undesirable and worst case, these antibiotic-resistant genes containing bacteria can make their way to enter into the environment (Pruden et al. 2013 ), irrigation water used for crops and public water supplies and ultimately become a part of food chains and food webs (Ma et al. 2019 ; D. Wu et al. 2019 ). This problem has been reported manifold in several countries (Hendriksen et al. 2019 ), where wastewater as a means of irrigated water is quite common.

Climate change and vector borne-diseases

Temperature is a fundamental factor for the sustenance of living entities regardless of an ecosystem. So, a specific living being, especially a pathogen, requires a sophisticated temperature range to exist on earth. The second essential component of CC is precipitation, which also impacts numerous infectious agents’ transport and dissemination patterns. Global rising temperature is a significant cause of many species extinction. On the one hand, this changing environmental temperature may be causing species extinction, and on the other, this warming temperature might favor the thriving of some new organisms. Here, it was evident that some pathogens may also upraise once non-evident or reported (Patz et al. 2000 ). This concept can be exemplified through certain pathogenic strains of microorganisms that how the likelihood of various diseases increases in response to climate warming-induced environmental changes (Table (Table2 2 ).

Examples of how various environmental changes affect various infectious diseases in humans

Source: Aron and Patz ( 2001 )

A recent example is an outburst of coronavirus (COVID-19) in the Republic of China, causing pneumonia and severe acute respiratory complications (Cui et al. 2021 ; Song et al. 2021 ). The large family of viruses is harbored in numerous animals, bats, and snakes in particular (livescience.com) with the subsequent transfer into human beings. Hence, it is worth noting that the thriving of numerous vectors involved in spreading various diseases is influenced by Climate change (Ogden 2018 ; Santos et al. 2021 ).

Psychological impacts of climate change

Climate change (CC) is responsible for the rapid dissemination and exaggeration of certain epidemics and pandemics. In addition to the vast apparent impacts of climate change on health, forestry, agriculture, etc., it may also have psychological implications on vulnerable societies. It can be exemplified through the recent outburst of (COVID-19) in various countries around the world (Pal 2021 ). Besides, the victims of this viral infection have made healthy beings scarier and terrified. In the wake of such epidemics, people with common colds or fever are also frightened and must pass specific regulatory protocols. Living in such situations continuously terrifies the public and makes the stress familiar, which eventually makes them psychologically weak (npr.org).

CC boosts the extent of anxiety, distress, and other issues in public, pushing them to develop various mental-related problems. Besides, frequent exposure to extreme climatic catastrophes such as geological disasters also imprints post-traumatic disorder, and their ubiquitous occurrence paves the way to developing chronic psychological dysfunction. Moreover, repetitive listening from media also causes an increase in the person’s stress level (Association 2020 ). Similarly, communities living in flood-prone areas constantly live in extreme fear of drowning and die by floods. In addition to human lives, the flood-induced destruction of physical infrastructure is a specific reason for putting pressure on these communities (Ogden 2018 ). For instance, Ogden ( 2018 ) comprehensively denoted that Katrina’s Hurricane augmented the mental health issues in the victim communities.

Climate change impacts on the forestry sector

Forests are the global regulators of the world’s climate (FAO 2018 ) and have an indispensable role in regulating global carbon and nitrogen cycles (Rehman et al. 2021 ; Reichstein and Carvalhais 2019 ). Hence, disturbances in forest ecology affect the micro and macro-climates (Ellison et al. 2017 ). Climate warming, in return, has profound impacts on the growth and productivity of transboundary forests by influencing the temperature and precipitation patterns, etc. As CC induces specific changes in the typical structure and functions of ecosystems (Zhang et al. 2017 ) as well impacts forest health, climate change also has several devastating consequences such as forest fires, droughts, pest outbreaks (EPA 2018 ), and last but not the least is the livelihoods of forest-dependent communities. The rising frequency and intensity of another CC product, i.e., droughts, pose plenty of challenges to the well-being of global forests (Diffenbaugh et al. 2017 ), which is further projected to increase soon (Hartmann et al. 2018 ; Lehner et al. 2017 ; Rehman et al. 2021 ). Hence, CC induces storms, with more significant impacts also put extra pressure on the survival of the global forests (Martínez-Alvarado et al. 2018 ), significantly since their influences are augmented during higher winter precipitations with corresponding wetter soils causing weak root anchorage of trees (Brázdil et al. 2018 ). Surging temperature regimes causes alterations in usual precipitation patterns, which is a significant hurdle for the survival of temperate forests (Allen et al. 2010 ; Flannigan et al. 2013 ), letting them encounter severe stress and disturbances which adversely affects the local tree species (Hubbart et al. 2016 ; Millar and Stephenson 2015 ; Rehman et al. 2021 ).

Climate change impacts on forest-dependent communities

Forests are the fundamental livelihood resource for about 1.6 billion people worldwide; out of them, 350 million are distinguished with relatively higher reliance (Bank 2008 ). Agro-forestry-dependent communities comprise 1.2 billion, and 60 million indigenous people solely rely on forests and their products to sustain their lives (Sunderlin et al. 2005 ). For example, in the entire African continent, more than 2/3rd of inhabitants depend on forest resources and woodlands for their alimonies, e.g., food, fuelwood and grazing (Wasiq and Ahmad 2004 ). The livings of these people are more intensely affected by the climatic disruptions making their lives harder (Brown et al. 2014 ). On the one hand, forest communities are incredibly vulnerable to CC due to their livelihoods, cultural and spiritual ties as well as socio-ecological connections, and on the other, they are not familiar with the term “climate change.” (Rahman and Alam 2016 ). Among the destructive impacts of temperature and rainfall, disruption of the agroforestry crops with resultant downscale growth and yield (Macchi et al. 2008 ). Cruz ( 2015 ) ascribed that forest-dependent smallholder farmers in the Philippines face the enigma of delayed fruiting, more severe damages by insect and pest incidences due to unfavorable temperature regimes, and changed rainfall patterns.

Among these series of challenges to forest communities, their well-being is also distinctly vulnerable to CC. Though the detailed climate change impacts on human health have been comprehensively mentioned in the previous section, some studies have listed a few more devastating effects on the prosperity of forest-dependent communities. For instance, the Himalayan people have been experiencing frequent skin-borne diseases such as malaria and other skin diseases due to increasing mosquitoes, wild boar as well, and new wasps species, particularly in higher altitudes that were almost non-existent before last 5–10 years (Xu et al. 2008 ). Similarly, people living at high altitudes in Bangladesh have experienced frequent mosquito-borne calamities (Fardous; Sharma 2012 ). In addition, the pace of other waterborne diseases such as infectious diarrhea, cholera, pathogenic induced abdominal complications and dengue has also been boosted in other distinguished regions of Bangladesh (Cell 2009 ; Gunter et al. 2008 ).

Pest outbreak

Upscaling hotter climate may positively affect the mobile organisms with shorter generation times because they can scurry from harsh conditions than the immobile species (Fettig et al. 2013 ; Schoene and Bernier 2012 ) and are also relatively more capable of adapting to new environments (Jactel et al. 2019 ). It reveals that insects adapt quickly to global warming due to their mobility advantages. Due to past outbreaks, the trees (forests) are relatively more susceptible victims (Kurz et al. 2008 ). Before CC, the influence of factors mentioned earlier, i.e., droughts and storms, was existent and made the forests susceptible to insect pest interventions; however, the global forests remain steadfast, assiduous, and green (Jactel et al. 2019 ). The typical reasons could be the insect herbivores were regulated by several tree defenses and pressures of predation (Wilkinson and Sherratt 2016 ). As climate greatly influences these phenomena, the global forests cannot be so sedulous against such challenges (Jactel et al. 2019 ). Table Table3 3 demonstrates some of the particular considerations with practical examples that are essential while mitigating the impacts of CC in the forestry sector.

Essential considerations while mitigating the climate change impacts on the forestry sector

Source : Fischer ( 2019 )

Climate change impacts on tourism

Tourism is a commercial activity that has roots in multi-dimensions and an efficient tool with adequate job generation potential, revenue creation, earning of spectacular foreign exchange, enhancement in cross-cultural promulgation and cooperation, a business tool for entrepreneurs and eventually for the country’s national development (Arshad et al. 2018 ; Scott 2021 ). Among a plethora of other disciplines, the tourism industry is also a distinct victim of climate warming (Gössling et al. 2012 ; Hall et al. 2015 ) as the climate is among the essential resources that enable tourism in particular regions as most preferred locations. Different places at different times of the year attract tourists both within and across the countries depending upon the feasibility and compatibility of particular weather patterns. Hence, the massive variations in these weather patterns resulting from CC will eventually lead to monumental challenges to the local economy in that specific area’s particular and national economy (Bujosa et al. 2015 ). For instance, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report demonstrated that the global tourism industry had faced a considerable decline in the duration of ski season, including the loss of some ski areas and the dramatic shifts in tourist destinations’ climate warming.

Furthermore, different studies (Neuvonen et al. 2015 ; Scott et al. 2004 ) indicated that various currently perfect tourist spots, e.g., coastal areas, splendid islands, and ski resorts, will suffer consequences of CC. It is also worth noting that the quality and potential of administrative management potential to cope with the influence of CC on the tourism industry is of crucial significance, which renders specific strengths of resiliency to numerous destinations to withstand against it (Füssel and Hildén 2014 ). Similarly, in the partial or complete absence of adequate socio-economic and socio-political capital, the high-demanding tourist sites scurry towards the verge of vulnerability. The susceptibility of tourism is based on different components such as the extent of exposure, sensitivity, life-supporting sectors, and capacity assessment factors (Füssel and Hildén 2014 ). It is obvious corporality that sectors such as health, food, ecosystems, human habitat, infrastructure, water availability, and the accessibility of a particular region are prone to CC. Henceforth, the sensitivity of these critical sectors to CC and, in return, the adaptive measures are a hallmark in determining the composite vulnerability of climate warming (Ionescu et al. 2009 ).

Moreover, the dependence on imported food items, poor hygienic conditions, and inadequate health professionals are dominant aspects affecting the local terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity. Meanwhile, the greater dependency on ecosystem services and its products also makes a destination more fragile to become a prey of CC (Rizvi et al. 2015 ). Some significant non-climatic factors are important indicators of a particular ecosystem’s typical health and functioning, e.g., resource richness and abundance portray the picture of ecosystem stability. Similarly, the species abundance is also a productive tool that ensures that the ecosystem has a higher buffering capacity, which is terrific in terms of resiliency (Roscher et al. 2013 ).

Climate change impacts on the economic sector

Climate plays a significant role in overall productivity and economic growth. Due to its increasingly global existence and its effect on economic growth, CC has become one of the major concerns of both local and international environmental policymakers (Ferreira et al. 2020 ; Gleditsch 2021 ; Abbass et al. 2021b ; Lamperti et al. 2021 ). The adverse effects of CC on the overall productivity factor of the agricultural sector are therefore significant for understanding the creation of local adaptation policies and the composition of productive climate policy contracts. Previous studies on CC in the world have already forecasted its effects on the agricultural sector. Researchers have found that global CC will impact the agricultural sector in different world regions. The study of the impacts of CC on various agrarian activities in other demographic areas and the development of relative strategies to respond to effects has become a focal point for researchers (Chandioet al. 2020 ; Gleditsch 2021 ; Mosavi et al. 2020 ).

With the rapid growth of global warming since the 1980s, the temperature has started increasing globally, which resulted in the incredible transformation of rain and evaporation in the countries. The agricultural development of many countries has been reliant, delicate, and susceptible to CC for a long time, and it is on the development of agriculture total factor productivity (ATFP) influence different crops and yields of farmers (Alhassan 2021 ; Wu 2020 ).

Food security and natural disasters are increasing rapidly in the world. Several major climatic/natural disasters have impacted local crop production in the countries concerned. The effects of these natural disasters have been poorly controlled by the development of the economies and populations and may affect human life as well. One example is China, which is among the world’s most affected countries, vulnerable to natural disasters due to its large population, harsh environmental conditions, rapid CC, low environmental stability, and disaster power. According to the January 2016 statistical survey, China experienced an economic loss of 298.3 billion Yuan, and about 137 million Chinese people were severely affected by various natural disasters (Xie et al. 2018 ).

Mitigation and adaptation strategies of climate changes

Adaptation and mitigation are the crucial factors to address the response to CC (Jahanzad et al. 2020 ). Researchers define mitigation on climate changes, and on the other hand, adaptation directly impacts climate changes like floods. To some extent, mitigation reduces or moderates greenhouse gas emission, and it becomes a critical issue both economically and environmentally (Botzen et al. 2021 ; Jahanzad et al. 2020 ; Kongsager 2018 ; Smit et al. 2000 ; Vale et al. 2021 ; Usman et al. 2021 ; Verheyen 2005 ).

Researchers have deep concern about the adaptation and mitigation methodologies in sectoral and geographical contexts. Agriculture, industry, forestry, transport, and land use are the main sectors to adapt and mitigate policies(Kärkkäinen et al. 2020 ; Waheed et al. 2021 ). Adaptation and mitigation require particular concern both at the national and international levels. The world has faced a significant problem of climate change in the last decades, and adaptation to these effects is compulsory for economic and social development. To adapt and mitigate against CC, one should develop policies and strategies at the international level (Hussain et al. 2020 ). Figure 6 depicts the list of current studies on sectoral impacts of CC with adaptation and mitigation measures globally.

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Sectoral impacts of climate change with adaptation and mitigation measures.

Conclusion and future perspectives

Specific socio-agricultural, socio-economic, and physical systems are the cornerstone of psychological well-being, and the alteration in these systems by CC will have disastrous impacts. Climate variability, alongside other anthropogenic and natural stressors, influences human and environmental health sustainability. Food security is another concerning scenario that may lead to compromised food quality, higher food prices, and inadequate food distribution systems. Global forests are challenged by different climatic factors such as storms, droughts, flash floods, and intense precipitation. On the other hand, their anthropogenic wiping is aggrandizing their existence. Undoubtedly, the vulnerability scale of the world’s regions differs; however, appropriate mitigation and adaptation measures can aid the decision-making bodies in developing effective policies to tackle its impacts. Presently, modern life on earth has tailored to consistent climatic patterns, and accordingly, adapting to such considerable variations is of paramount importance. Because the faster changes in climate will make it harder to survive and adjust, this globally-raising enigma calls for immediate attention at every scale ranging from elementary community level to international level. Still, much effort, research, and dedication are required, which is the most critical time. Some policy implications can help us to mitigate the consequences of climate change, especially the most affected sectors like the agriculture sector;

Warming might lengthen the season in frost-prone growing regions (temperate and arctic zones), allowing for longer-maturing seasonal cultivars with better yields (Pfadenhauer 2020 ; Bonacci 2019 ). Extending the planting season may allow additional crops each year; when warming leads to frequent warmer months highs over critical thresholds, a split season with a brief summer fallow may be conceivable for short-period crops such as wheat barley, cereals, and many other vegetable crops. The capacity to prolong the planting season in tropical and subtropical places where the harvest season is constrained by precipitation or agriculture farming occurs after the year may be more limited and dependent on how precipitation patterns vary (Wu et al. 2017 ).

The genetic component is comprehensive for many yields, but it is restricted like kiwi fruit for a few. Ali et al. ( 2017 ) investigated how new crops will react to climatic changes (also stated in Mall et al. 2017 ). Hot temperature, drought, insect resistance; salt tolerance; and overall crop production and product quality increases would all be advantageous (Akkari 2016 ). Genetic mapping and engineering can introduce a greater spectrum of features. The adoption of genetically altered cultivars has been slowed, particularly in the early forecasts owing to the complexity in ensuring features are expediently expressed throughout the entire plant, customer concerns, economic profitability, and regulatory impediments (Wirehn 2018 ; Davidson et al. 2016 ).

To get the full benefit of the CO 2 would certainly require additional nitrogen and other fertilizers. Nitrogen not consumed by the plants may be excreted into groundwater, discharged into water surface, or emitted from the land, soil nitrous oxide when large doses of fertilizer are sprayed. Increased nitrogen levels in groundwater sources have been related to human chronic illnesses and impact marine ecosystems. Cultivation, grain drying, and other field activities have all been examined in depth in the studies (Barua et al. 2018 ).

The technological and socio-economic adaptation

The policy consequence of the causative conclusion is that as a source of alternative energy, biofuel production is one of the routes that explain oil price volatility separate from international macroeconomic factors. Even though biofuel production has just begun in a few sample nations, there is still a tremendous worldwide need for feedstock to satisfy industrial expansion in China and the USA, which explains the food price relationship to the global oil price. Essentially, oil-exporting countries may create incentives in their economies to increase food production. It may accomplish by giving farmers financing, seedlings, fertilizers, and farming equipment. Because of the declining global oil price and, as a result, their earnings from oil export, oil-producing nations may be unable to subsidize food imports even in the near term. As a result, these countries can boost the agricultural value chain for export. It may be accomplished through R&D and adding value to their food products to increase income by correcting exchange rate misalignment and adverse trade terms. These nations may also diversify their economies away from oil, as dependence on oil exports alone is no longer economically viable given the extreme volatility of global oil prices. Finally, resource-rich and oil-exporting countries can convert to non-food renewable energy sources such as solar, hydro, coal, wind, wave, and tidal energy. By doing so, both world food and oil supplies would be maintained rather than harmed.

IRENA’s modeling work shows that, if a comprehensive policy framework is in place, efforts toward decarbonizing the energy future will benefit economic activity, jobs (outweighing losses in the fossil fuel industry), and welfare. Countries with weak domestic supply chains and a large reliance on fossil fuel income, in particular, must undertake structural reforms to capitalize on the opportunities inherent in the energy transition. Governments continue to give major policy assistance to extract fossil fuels, including tax incentives, financing, direct infrastructure expenditures, exemptions from environmental regulations, and other measures. The majority of major oil and gas producing countries intend to increase output. Some countries intend to cut coal output, while others plan to maintain or expand it. While some nations are beginning to explore and execute policies aimed at a just and equitable transition away from fossil fuel production, these efforts have yet to impact major producing countries’ plans and goals. Verifiable and comparable data on fossil fuel output and assistance from governments and industries are critical to closing the production gap. Governments could increase openness by declaring their production intentions in their climate obligations under the Paris Agreement.

It is firmly believed that achieving the Paris Agreement commitments is doubtlful without undergoing renewable energy transition across the globe (Murshed 2020 ; Zhao et al. 2022 ). Policy instruments play the most important role in determining the degree of investment in renewable energy technology. This study examines the efficacy of various policy strategies in the renewable energy industry of multiple nations. Although its impact is more visible in established renewable energy markets, a renewable portfolio standard is also a useful policy instrument. The cost of producing renewable energy is still greater than other traditional energy sources. Furthermore, government incentives in the R&D sector can foster innovation in this field, resulting in cost reductions in the renewable energy industry. These nations may export their technologies and share their policy experiences by forming networks among their renewable energy-focused organizations. All policy measures aim to reduce production costs while increasing the proportion of renewables to a country’s energy system. Meanwhile, long-term contracts with renewable energy providers, government commitment and control, and the establishment of long-term goals can assist developing nations in deploying renewable energy technology in their energy sector.

Author contribution

KA: Writing the original manuscript, data collection, data analysis, Study design, Formal analysis, Visualization, Revised draft, Writing-review, and editing. MZQ: Writing the original manuscript, data collection, data analysis, Writing-review, and editing. HS: Contribution to the contextualization of the theme, Conceptualization, Validation, Supervision, literature review, Revised drapt, and writing review and editing. MM: Writing review and editing, compiling the literature review, language editing. HM: Writing review and editing, compiling the literature review, language editing. IY: Contribution to the contextualization of the theme, literature review, and writing review and editing.

Availability of data and material

Declarations.

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The authors declare no competing interests.

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Contributor Information

Kashif Abbass, Email: nc.ude.tsujn@ssabbafihsak .

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Clim. Change MSc
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ESSAYS ON CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION, BUILDING ENERGY EFFICIENCY, AND URBAN FORM

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March 21, 2019
Affiliation: College of Arts and Sciences, Department of City and Regional Planning
This dissertation includes three self-contained and interrelated papers on climate change mitigation, building energy efficiency, and urban form. Paper 1: Urban form and household electricity consumption: a multilevel study While urban form affects building energy consumption, the pathways, direction and magnitude of the effect are disputed in the literature. This paper uses a unique dataset to examine the effect of urban form on residential electricity consumption in Ningbo, China. Using survey and utility bill data of 534 households in 46 neighborhoods in the city, I model the electricity use of households using a multi-level regression model. I find that neighborhood street configuration and tree shade are important in controlling residential electricity consumption and, consequently, greenhouse gas emissions. The results suggest that seasonality and dwelling type condition the effect of neighborhood densities on electricity consumption. Neighborhood density is associated with household electricity consumption in summer months, while there is no such association in the winter months. As neighborhood density increases, households in slab and tower apartments in dense urban neighborhoods consume more electricity in summer months, which can be partly explained by exacerbated heat island effect. Interestingly, the neighborhood density is negatively associated with electricity consumption for single-family houses, suggesting that the effect of neighborhood density is different for different types of dwelling units. Paper 2: Explaining spatial variations in residential energy usage intensity in Chicago: the role of urban form and geomorphometry Understanding the spatial pattern of energy consumption within buildings is essential to urban energy planning and management. In this study, I explore the spatial complexity of residential energy usage intensity, with a focus on urban form and the geomorphometry attributes of urban ventilation, solar insolation, and vegetation. I use building energy use data in Chicago at a Census tract level and merge information from various datasets including parcel attributes, three-dimensional data geometry, aerial imagery, and Census. Using spatial regression models, I find that while vegetation has more local impact on energy intensity, urban porosity and roughness length have consistent spillover effects on building electricity usage intensity in Chicago. Additionally, these relationships are seasonally varied: while vegetation, ventilation, and insolation affect electricity usage in summer, they have no impact on the winter gas consumption. The results highlight the importance of spatially explicit policies and clear urban design and form frameworks for reducing urban energy consumption and mitigating climate change. Paper 3: Government response to climate change in China: a study of first-generation provincial and municipal plans In this paper, I provide an overview of the first-generation local and regional climate change plans in China by scrutinizing planning documents of 16 cities, four autonomous regions, and 22 provinces. I develop and apply an evaluation protocol to understand goals, process, and strategies in these plans. The results indicate that provincial and local plans include numerous policies and strategies, yet some important types of local policies, such as land use and urban form, are not well identified in the plans. The results also indicate that current climate change planning in China is characterized by the “top-down” approach, in which the central governmental incentives play a vital role in shaping provincial and municipal plans. In addition, most plans have the following issues: vague definition of what characterizes a low carbon city/region, deficiency in the quality of GHG inventory and reduction targets, inadequate stakeholder engagement, and weak horizontal coordination. Finally, I offer recommendations to improve climate change planning in China.
Urban planning
Urban sustainability
Low carbon city
Energy use intensity
Plan evaluation
Geomorphometry
https://doi.org/10.17615/7kkx-f797
Dissertation
Doctor of Philosophy
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Graduate School
June 13, 2018

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This dissertation includes three self-contained and interrelated papers on climate change mitigation, building energy efficiency, and urban form. Paper 1: Urban form and household electricity consumption: a multilevel study While urban form affects building energy consumption, the pathways, direction and magnitude of the effect are disputed in ...

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Topic 2: A study on the growing relevance of sustainable transport as a solution for adverse consequences of climate change in the UK.

Topic 3: Examining the initiatives to restrict the impacts of CFC emission on drastic changes in climate - a study on banning CFC in the UK.

Topic 4: Critical analysis of the drastic move by the UK government towards cleaner energy solutions to mitigate climate change – a study on the solar and wind energy generation.

Topic 5: A study on the far-reaching effects of climate change on food production in the UK – a case study of Nestle’s food production.

Topic no.1: Global warming and greenhouse gas emission

Topic no.2: Repercussions of climate change on lives of people

Topic no.3: Climate change and marine life

Topic no.4: Effects of global warming on agriculture

Topic no.5: Global warming and natural disasters:

Topic no.6: Analysis of climate change activism

Topic no.7: Analysing global policies about climate change

Topic no.8: Global warming and Africa

Topic no.9: Impact of climate change on the gulf countries

Topic no.10: Climate change across the world

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Topic no.11: Climate change and the efforts of UN

Topic no.12: The financial cost of climate change

Topic no.13: Efforts to control climate change

Topic no.14: Impact of climate change on Asia

Topic no.15: Media and climate change activism:

Topic no.16: Climate injustice; the theoretical model

Topic no.17: Greenhouse effect and ozone depletion:

Topic no.18: How well-informed people are about climate change

Topic no.19: climate change and the rapid increase in industrialisation

Topic no.20: climate change and global security

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