purpose of phd degree

What is a PhD?

• Types of Doctorates
• A Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) is the highest globally recognized postgraduate degree that higher education institutions can award.
• PhDs are awarded to candidates who undertake original and extensive research in a particular field of study.
• Full time PhD programmes typically last three to four years, whilst part time PhD programmes typically last six to seven years.
• A PhD can lead to an academia teaching role or a career in research. A PhD can also equip you with skills suitable for a wide range of jobs unrelated to your research topic or academia.

Definition of a PhD – A Doctor of Philosophy (commonly abbreviated to PhD , Ph.D or a DPhil ) is a university research degree awarded from across a broad range of academic disciplines; in most countries, it is a terminal degree, i.e. the highest academic degree possible.

PhDs differ from undergraduate and master’s degrees in that PhDs are entirely research-based rather than involving taught modules (although doctoral training centres (DTCs) offer programmes that start with a year of lecture-based teaching to help develop your research skills prior to starting your project).

In most English-speaking countries, those that complete a PhD use the title “Doctor” (typically abbreviated to Dr) in front of their names and are referred to as such within academic and/or research settings. Those that work in fields outside of academia may decide not to use the formal doctor title but use post-nominal letters (e.g. John Smith PhD); it’s unusual though for someone to use both the Doctor title and post-nominal letters in their name.

PhD vs Doctorate

A PhD and a professional doctorate are both research-based terminal degrees.

However, where a PhD focuses on original research mostly around theoretical concepts, a professional doctorate focuses on examining existing knowledge to solve real-life, practical problems.

While there is much crossover between the two, a PhD is generally better suited for an individual to wants to advance the knowledge and understanding in their field, and a professional doctorate degree is better suited to a working professional who wants to better be able to apply knowledge and understanding to their field.

What Are the Entry Requirements for a PhD?

To be accepted on to a PhD programme, students usually need to hold at least a high ( 2:1 and above ) undergraduate degree that is related to the field of research that they want to pursue. A PhD candidate may also be expected to hold a Master’s degree , however, this does not mean you must have one, as it is still possible to enrol into a PhD without a Master’s .

Self-funded courses may sometimes be more relaxed in relation to entry requirements. It may be possible to be accepted onto a self-funded PhD programme with lower grades, though these students typically demonstrate their suitability for the role through professional work experience.

Whilst a distance learning project is possible , most PhD candidates will carry out their research over at least three years based at their university, with regular contact with two academic supervisors (primary and secondary). This is particularly the case for lab-based projects, however, some PhD projects require spending time on-site away from university (e.g. at a specialist research lab or at a collaborating institution abroad).

How Long Does a PhD Take?

Typically, full-time PhDs last 3-4 years and part-time PhDs last 6-7 years. However, at the discretion of the university, the thesis writing-up period can be extended by up to four years.

Although most doctoral programmes start in September or October, they are generally much more flexible than taught-courses and can start at any time of the year.

How Much Does a PhD Cost?

Tuition fees for UK and EU students vary between £3,000 and £6,000 per year, with the average tuition fee of £4,712 per year for 2023/24 programmes.

Tuition fees increase considerably for international students, varying between £16,000 to £25,000 per year, with an average tuition fee of £19,600 per year .

Nonetheless, most students will secure PhD funding in the form of studentships, scholarships and bursaries to help pay for these fees. These funding opportunities can either be partial, which cover tuition fees only, or full, which cover both tuition fees and living expenses.

UK national students can also apply for Doctoral Loans from Student Finance England if they are unable to secure funding.

Finding a PhD has never been this easy – search for a PhD by keyword, location or academic area of interest.

What Does a PhD Involve?

To be awarded a PhD, a doctoral student is required to produce a substantial body of work that adds new knowledge to their chosen field.

A PhD programme will typically involve four key stages:

Stage 1: Literature Review

The first year of a PhD involves attending regular meetings with your supervisors and carrying out a search on previously published work in your subject area. This search will be used to produce a literature review which should set the context of the project by explaining the foundation of what is currently known within the field of research, what recent developments have occurred, and where the gaps in knowledge are. In most cases, this will be an extension of your research proposal should you have produced one as part of your application. The literature review should conclude by outlining the overarching aims and objectives of the research project. This stage of setting achievable goals which are original and contribute to the field of research is an essential first step in a successful PhD.

The supervisor is the main point of contact through the duration of a PhD – but remember: they are there to mentor, not to teach, or do it for you . It will be your responsibility to plan, execute and monitor your own work as well as to identify gaps in your own knowledge and address them.

Stage 2: Research

The second year (and prehapse some of your third year) is when you work on your research. Having identified novel research questions from your review of the literature, this is where you collect your data to help answer these questions. How you do this will depend on the nature of your doctoral research: for example, you may design and run experiments in a lab alongside other PhD students or visit excavation sites in remote regions of the world. You should check in regularly with your supervisors to update them and run any ideas or issues past them.

Have the structure and chapters of your thesis in mind as you develop and tackle your research questions. Working with a view of publishing your work will be very valuable later on.

Stage 3: Write up of Thesis

The next key stage of a PhD is writing a doctoral thesis , which typically takes from anywhere between three months to one year. A thesis is a substantial body of work that describes the work and outcomes of the research over the previous two to three years. It should tell a detailed story of the PhD project – focusing on:

• The motivations for the research questions identified from the literature review.
• The methodologies used, results obtained, and a comprehensive analysis and discussion of the findings.
• A detailed discussion of the key findings with an emphasis on the original contributions made to your field of research and how this has been impactful.

There is no universal rule for the length of a PhD thesis, but general guidelines set the word count between 80,000 to 100,000 words.

For your thesis to be successful, it needs to adequately defend your argument and provide a unique or increased insight into your field that was not previously available.

Stage 4: Attending the Viva

A viva voce , most commonly referred to as just a ‘ viva ‘, is an interview-style examination where the PhD student is required to engage in a critical appraisal of their work and defend their thesis against at least two examiners. The examiners will ask questions to check the PhD student has an in-depth understanding of the ideas and theories proposed in their thesis, and whether they have developed the research skills that would be expected of them.

The viva is one of the final steps in achieving a PhD, and typically lasts at least two hours, but this duration can vary depending on the examiners, the university and the PhD project itself.

Once you have done the viva – you’re on the home stretch. You will typically be asked to make some amendments to your thesis based on the examiner’s feedback. You are then ready to submit your final thesis for either:

• PhD – If you pass the requirements you will be awarded a PhD degree (most common outcome),
• MPhil – If you failed to meet requirements for a PhD, you may be downgraded to an MPhil degree (uncommon outcome),
• Fail – No award is given, typically for cases of plagiarism (extremely uncommon outcome).

What Is It Like to Undertake a PhD?

We’re often asked what it is like to undertake a PhD study. Unfortunately, this isn’t a simple answer to this question as every research project is different.

To help give insight into the life of a PhD student, we’ve interviewed PhD students at various stages of their programmes and put together a series of PhD Student Interviews . Check out the link to find out what a PhD is like and what advice they have to offer you.

What Are the Benefits of A PhD?

A PhD is the highest globally recognised postgraduate degree that higher education institutions can award. The degree, which is awarded to candidates who demonstrate original and independent research in a particular field of study, is not only invaluable in itself, but sets you up with invaluable skills and traits.

Career Opportunities

First, a PhD prepares you for a career in academia if you wish to continue in this area. This takes form as a career in the Higher Education sector, typically as a lecturer working their way to becoming a professor leading research on the subject you’ve studied and trained in.

Second, a PhD also enables the opportunity for landing a job in a research & development role outside of the academic environment. Examples of this include laboratory work for a private or third sector company, a governmental role and research for commercial and industrial applications.

Transferable Skills

Finally, in possessing a PhD degree, you can show to employers that you have vital skills that make you an asset to any company. Three examples of the transferable skills that you gain through a PhD are effective communication, time management, and report writing.

• Communication – presenting your work in written and oral forms using journal papers and podium presentations, shows your ability to share complex ideas effectively and to those with less background knowledge than you. Communication is key in the professional environment, regardless of the job.
• Time management – The ability to prioritise and organise tasks is a tremendous asset in the professional industry. A PhD holder can use their qualification to demonstrate that they are able to manage their time, arrange and follow a plan, and stick to deadlines.
• Report writing – Condensing three years of work into a thesis demonstrates your ability to filter through massive amounts of information, identify the key points, and get these points across to the reader. The ability to ‘cut out the waffle’ or ‘get to the point’ is a huge asset in the professional industry.

Aside from the above, you also get to refer to yourself as a Doctor and add fancy initials after your name!

What Can I Do After a PhD?

One of the most desirable postdoctoral fields is working within independent Research and Development (R&D) labs and new emerging companies. Both industries, especially R&D labs, have dedicated groups of PhD graduates who lead research activities, design new products and take part in crucial strategic meetings. Not only is this a stimulating line of work, but the average salaries in R&D labs and emerging start-ups are lucrative. In comparison, an undergraduate with five years of experience within their given field will, on average, likely earn less than a new PhD graduate taking on a R&D position.

It’s a common misunderstanding that PhDs only opens the door for an academic career such as university lecturers and training providers. Although obtaining a PhD opens these doors, the opportunities extend far beyond educational roles. In fact, recent data from the UK’s Higher Education Statistics Agency (HESA) indicates only 23% of PhD graduates take a position in educational roles . This low percentage is primarily because PhD graduates have a wide range of skills that make them suitable for a broad spectrum of roles. This is being seen first hand by the increasing number of PhD graduates who are entering alternative roles such as research, writing, law and investment banking.

How Do I Find a PhD?

We appreciate that finding a PhD programme to undertake can be a relatively daunting process. According to Higher Education Student Statistics , over 22,000 PhDs were awarded in 2016/17 within the United Kingdom alone. Clearly there are a huge number of PhD programmes available. This can sometimes be confusing for prospective doctorates, particularly when different programmes are advertised in different places. Often, it is difficult to know where to look or where to even start. We’ve put together a list of useful sources to find the latest PhD programmes:

• A great place to start is with our comprehensive and up-to-date database of available PhD positions .
• Assuming you are still at university, speak to an existing PhD supervisor within your department.
• Attend as many postgraduate open days as you can. Whilst there, speak to current PhD students and career advisors to get an awareness of what PhDs are on offer.
• Visit the postgraduate section of university websites and the PhD Research Council section of the UKRI website.

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What Does 'PhD' Stand For?

A PhD is a terminal academic degree students typically pursue when they're interested in an academic or research career.

A PhD is the highest possible academic degree a student can obtain. PhD stands for “Doctor of Philosophy,” which refers to the immense knowledge a student gains when earning the degree. While you can actually get a PhD in philosophy, "Doctor of Philosophy" doesn't always refer to someone who has a terminal degree in that discipline. You can get a PhD in a number of fields, such as science or economics, and the word "Philosophy," translated from original Greek to mean "lover of wisdom," can refer to the degree holder's dedication to understanding a subject.

Students typically pursue a PhD when they're interested in an academic or research career—or if they want to take their education as far as it can go.

This article goes beyond the definition of a PhD, and touches on important information you’ll need to know about the degree, so you can decide whether pursuing one is the best choice for you. 

What is a PhD? 

A PhD is an academic degree that combines general knowledge of a field with specific mastery of an area of subtopic within that field. For example, earning your PhD in political science means you have a general foundation of the field, but likely also specialize in a more focused area, such as American or comparative politics, or political economy. 

PhDs—also known as doctorates—are terminal degrees , meaning they are the highest level of degree that you can achieve in certain fields, such as cognitive psychology, mathematics, English, economics, evolutionary biology, and public health. 

Read more: What Is a PhD?

What does it take to earn a PHD? 

PhD programs typically require you to complete advanced coursework, comprehensive exams that test your knowledge of your particular field of study, and a dissertation (or original body of research). The specific requirements will differ by program or university.  

How long does a PhD take?

Your PhD studies can take between four and seven years to complete, though it often depends on your field and other commitments. For example, it typically takes less than seven years to earn an engineering PhD, while it can take up to 12 years to earn an education PhD. Writing a dissertation is often credited with adding to the length of time it takes to complete a PhD program. In addition, some doctoral students may be working full-time or raising families while completing degree requirements, and thus may need additional time in their programs.

Learn more: How Long Does It Take to Get a PhD?

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Getting a PhD: what to know

If you're considering getting a PhD, there are some important aspects of doctoral degrees you'll need to know. 

To apply for PhD programs, you'll need to provide academic transcripts from your prior education, samples of your academic writing and research, and letters of recommendation from former professors. You will likely also need to write a personal statement that details your academic and professional goals, research interests, why you are applying to a particular program, relevant skills and experience, and strengths.  

Before applying, it's a good idea to research different education institutions to get an idea of their reputation, faculty achievements, mission statements, and the kinds of jobs former graduate students have gotten upon completing. 

Once enrolled in a doctoral program, expect to complete advanced study in your field. This will likely entail two years of coursework, conducting original research into a specific topic, navigating the world of academic publishing, and working closely with faculty to prepare for an academic or research-based career. 

Successful completion of a PhD program typically requires that you write a dissertation or conduct a significant research project on a specific topic related to your field. Most programs have students go through an oral defense to demonstrate mastery of the dissertation topic and describe its contribution to the field. 

PhDs vs. other terminal degrees

A PhD is not the only kind of terminal degree you can earn. In fact, there are two other types of terminal degrees that tend to be more career focused.

Professional doctorates

PhDs and professional doctorates are similar in that they are both the most advanced academic degrees you can earn, but a PhD requires a dissertation and a professional doctorate requires a doctoral study. 

PhDs are focused on producing original research, whereas professional doctorates typically have some professional experience they apply toward researching a solution to a practical problem. If you have significant experience in a professional field, such as business administration or public health, you might choose to pursue a professional doctorate because you can use your knowledge and expertise in more concrete ways. 

Professional degrees

A professional degree is the PhD equivalent for certain professions, like for a medical doctor, dentist, or lawyer. Whereas a PhD tends to promote a historical and theoretical education, a professional degree emphasizes a practical education because it’s designed for you to begin working in medicine or law after you graduate and pass additional licensing requirements. 

Did you know?

Honorary degrees at the PhD level are conferred upon people who've made significant contributions to a field or society at large. An "honorary" degree refers to an academic award that distinguished individuals can receive from an academic institution without having to complete the usual requirements of the degree. Here are some celebrity examples:

Meryl Streep has received honorary PhDs from Harvard, Yale, Princeton, and the University of Indiana at Bloomington for her cinematic achievements.

Oprah Winfrey has received honorary PhDs from Princeton, Howard University, Duke University, and Harvard for her philanthropic and business achievements.

John Legend has received honorary Doctorate of Music from the University of Pennsylvania and an honorary doctorate from Howard University.

Education requirements for a PhD 

Obtaining your PhD requires earning your bachelor’s degree and likely your master’s degree before you can begin applying to doctorate programs. However, there are some programs that combine the master’s degree with the PhD so that you spend less time earning both and can begin once you finish your bachelor’s degree. 

Let's look at the two most important degrees you’ll need to complete before you can begin pursuing your PhD.

Bachelor’s degree

You will need to earn a bachelor’s degree before pursuing more advanced degrees, like a master’s or PhD. You don’t have to choose a major related to your eventual doctorate, though it can help to pick a complementary subject so you have a strong foundation before taking higher-level coursework. For example, if you want to obtain a PhD in economics, then it might help to major in economics, finance, business, or even political science as an undergraduate. 

While graduate programs don’t always expect applicants to have studied the same field as the one they’re applying to, you will need to explain your interest in the field of your potential graduate work and have some knowledge about what you want to study within it. Aligning your undergraduate and graduate focuses may also help you move through your graduate coursework faster.  

Learn more: How to Get a Bachelor’s Degree

Master’s degree

A master’s degree is an advanced degree you can pursue after earning your undergraduate degree. PhD programs typically require a master’s before admitting you, though as we noted above, some programs may combine degree tracks to decrease the amount of time to completion.

Master’s degrees take between one and three years to finish , depending on whether you’re able to attend part-time or full-time. Master’s degrees enhance your level of expertise in your field, and you can pursue many higher-level careers with the credential—or continue with your education and apply to PhD programs. 

Learn more: Is a Master’s Degree Worth It?

4 benefits of a PhD 

There are a number of reasons why you might want to pursue your PhD. Let’s hone in on four of them: 

1. Become an expert.

People who obtain PhDs have the highest possible education in their field. As such, they're often considered to be genuine experts in that subject matter. You may feel a tremendous amount of personal satisfaction from having achieved this level of mastery.

2. Contribute original research. 

Adding to the knowledge of a particular field is no small feat. When you write your dissertation, you will have the opportunity to make a valuable original contribution that either expands people’s understanding of a subject or brings an entirely new perspective to it.

3. Broaden your job opportunities.

Earning a PhD could qualify you to work in academia or research, but it may also increase your qualifications—or help you stand out—for jobs that do not necessarily require a PhD. Holding a PhD may convey to employers that you’re knowledgeable, hardworking, and disciplined because of what it takes to earn the degree. 

4. Increase your salary potential.

On average, people with PhDs can potentially make more than those with undergraduate degrees, depending on your profession. The median weekly earnings of a person with a PhD in the United States is $1,885 compared to $1,305 for bachelor's degree holders [ 1 ]. A doctorate can also lead to higher lifetime earnings. A bachelor’s degree graduate will earn an average of $2.2 million over their lifetime, but PhD graduates earn an average of $4 million over their lifetimes [ 2 ].

Careers that typically require a PhD

A PhD is an academic credential necessary to teach at the university level or conduct high-level research in a number of fields, such as the life and social sciences. The following careers typically require a doctorate:

Research associate

Research scientist 

Assistant professor 

Dean of students

Careers where a PhD may help you advance  

While the careers listed below generally require a master’s degree, earning your PhD may help you qualify for more advanced roles within the profession—or help you develop more specialized knowledge to succeed in your career.  

Anthropologist 

Statistician 

Political scientist 

Psychologist 

Explore further

If you're contemplating getting your PhD and have not yet earned your master’s, explore a number of master’s degree options from prestigious universities in high-growth fields, such as computer science , business , management , or public health. Work toward your degree at your own pace from anywhere with an internet connection.

Article sources

US Bureau of Labor Statistics.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. “ Education Pays, 2020 : Career Outlook , https://www.bls.gov/careeroutlook/2021/data-on-display/education-pays.htm." Accessed August 4, 2023.

Site Selection Magazine. " Education Level Is Only One Part of the Lifetime Earnings Picture , https://siteselection.com/cc/workforce/2022/education-level-is-only-one-part-of-the-lifetime-earnings-picture.cfm." Accessed August 4, 2023.

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Doctorate Degree: What Is It And Where To Study

Updated: August 7, 2023

Published: July 7, 2020

Thinking of going the next step and getting a doctorate degree? Find out just what a doctorate degree is, how to get one, what to expect during your studies, how much it will cost, how long it will take you, and what to do once you graduate. Read on to get the full picture on what a doctorate degree is all about.

What Is A Doctorate Degree?

A doctorate degree is the highest academic degree you can earn. Many refer to this degree as a ‘terminal’ degree, as it’s the last in a sequence of studying. However, you can of course continue to study after a doctorate degree.

Those who are pursuing a doctorate degree are usually looking to develop academic expertise in a specific area. There are also practical doctorate degrees as well. The most common types of doctorate degrees are PhD (Doctor of Philosophy), EdD (Doctor of Education), MD (Doctor of Medicine), and JD (Juris Doctor).

Doctoral Basics

Choosing to get a doctorate degree is quite the commitment — in both time and energy. Doctorate programs usually require 60-120 credits for graduation, but the entire doctorate degree program will take most students between five to eight years to complete.

The higher the academic degree, the more narrow your focus is, and that is very true of doctorate degrees. These programs can be highly specific, and you will likely spend the entire program studying only your area of concentration.

A doctorate degree program also requires research and a dissertation with an academic professor. During the degree program, you may also be required to complete work hours as well.

Photo by Pang Yuhao on Unsplash

Types of doctorate degrees.

Generally speaking, doctorate degrees can be split into two types: research degrees, or PhDs, and applied, professional, or clinical degrees.

The first is all about research and becoming an expert in a field of study. The latter is meant to give students the practical knowledge and experience for a career path.

What Can You Do With A Doctorate Degree?

Graduates of doctorate degree programs are essentially qualified to work in any level of their chosen field.

In almost all fields, you can become a professor and conduct research and give lectures at universities.

In more specific fields and with applied doctorate degrees, you can work in positions that others are not eligible for. These include careers such as anthropologist, archaeologist, psychologist, psychiatrist, positions in government, certain positions in science and in university executive boards, and finally, of course, a medical doctor.

With a doctorate degree, you can go far in business leadership, political science, engineering, and other high-earning fields. Within these fields, you will also have a high earning potential, being a doctorate graduate.

Photo by Michał Parzuchowski on Unsplash

Why earn a doctorate degree.

For some, their desired career path requires a doctorate degree. For others, it’s about earning potential.

The average working doctorate graduate makes $98,000 per year , which is higher than the average master’s grad salary at $75,000 per year .

Many also choose to earn a doctorate degree simply because they absolutely love the subject they work in or study and want to pursue further research in that area.

Is It Worth It?

It all depends on what you will use a doctorate degree for, and how much time, energy, and money you want to invest in your field. If you are passionate about your field and want to commit your working career to learning, gathering information, and sharing that information, then getting a doctorate degree will be worthwhile for you.

In addition, many of the top professions in each industry require a doctorate degree. You may be able to rise to the top with only a master’s degree , though, so check your intended career path well before you invest in a doctorate degree. That being said, University of the People offers master’s and other degrees online and tuition-free !

How Much Does A Doctorate Degree Cost?

The price tag for a doctorate degree varies greatly — from around $6,000 per year, to $90,000 per year. Almost all doctorate degree students will receive financial assistance in the way of grants for their research. They may also have discounted tuition, or be compensated for working or teaching with the university during their degree.

Generally, tuition rates for doctorate programs at private, non-profit universities are much higher than public schools. Tuition rates are also higher for law and medical doctorate degrees. Average PhD programs have a net cost of $8,480 , while average LLB law degrees have a net cost of $20,360, and for MDs, $19,230.

How Long Does It Take To Get A Doctorate Degree?

Usually, a doctorate degree takes three to six years, with the average being four years to complete. If you already have a master’s degree, it may take less time than if you are pursuing both at the same time. Some students may take up to eight years total to complete a doctorate degree program.

Photo by Caleb Minear on Unsplash

What to expect during a doctorate degree.

Unlike undergraduate and potentially graduate degrees, expect to only focus on a narrow field of study for the entirety of your doctorate degree.

During your degree program you will refine your skills, and become an expert in your given field, writing scholarly articles, research design, and implementation.

The ultimate goal of your doctorate degree will be your dissertation or thesis, and much of your time will be spent there. These projects usually focus on a theory or practical application of your research. At the end of your program you will be expected to present and defend your dissertation or thesis in front of a committee. After you complete this task, you will get your doctorate degree.

Online Doctorate Programs

Many students are looking to the internet to complete their degree studies — and doctorate degree programs are no exception. With the busy lives of professionals, and the high demands of doctorate degrees, it’s easy to see why that may be the case. Online doctorate degrees may be more flexible than in-person programs.

You can find online degrees in almost any field, and in any program these days. To start your search, check our list of accredited online colleges , and see what doctorate programs are offered in your area of interest.

Overall, it’s up to you if you want to pursue a prestigious doctorate degree. It is an investment of time, money, and a commitment to one field, but if you are truly committed, it will certainly be a worthwhile endeavor.

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What is a PhD?

As the highest degree level achievable at university, completing a PhD shows that you've made a meaningful new contribution to your chosen research field

PhDs at a glance

• Involves three or four years of full-time study, or up to seven part time.
• Typically undertaken after achieving a Masters degree.
• Can either be funded or self-funded.
• Assessed through a written thesis and oral exam.
• Many Doctoral graduates choose to pursue an academic or research career.

What is the meaning of PhD?

The term PhD or Doctorate of Philosophy is an abbreviation of the Latin phrase 'philosophiae doctor'.

A PhD degree typically involves students independently conducting original and significant research in a specific field or subject, before producing a publication-worthy thesis.

While some Doctorates include taught components, PhD students are almost always assessed on the quality and originality of the argument presented in their independent research project.

How long is a PhD in the UK?

Full-time PhDs usually last for three or four years, while part-time PhDs can take up to six or seven. However, the thesis deadline can be extended by up to four years at the institution's discretion. Indeed, many students who enrol on three-year PhDs only finish their thesis in their fourth year.

While most PhD studentships begin in September or October, both funded and self-funded PhDs can be undertaken at any point during the year.

If you're planning on studying for a PhD abroad, take a look at our individual country profiles .

Do I need a Masters to do a PhD?

The majority of institutions require PhD candidates to possess a Masters degree , plus a Bachelors degree at 2:1 or above. However, some universities demand only the latter, while self-funded PhD students or those with significant professional experience may also be accepted with lower grades.

You may need to initially register for a one or two-year Master of Philosophy (MPhil) or Master of Research (MRes) degree rather than a PhD. If you make sufficient progress, you and your work will then be 'upgraded' to a PhD programme. If not, you may be able to graduate with a Masters degree.

If you need an MPhil or MRes before enrolling on your PhD, search Masters degrees .

What does a PhD involve?

A standard PhD degree is typically split into three stages. A three-year PhD may follow this pattern:

• First year - You'll meet with your supervisor to discuss your research proposal and agree an action plan with deadlines. You'll then complete your literature review, in which you'll evaluate and critique existing works to inform the direction of your project and ensure that your research will be original.
• Second year - Your focus will shift to gathering results and developing your thesis, and potentially begin writing chapters of your thesis. You may also present your results and ideas at academic conferences, gain teaching experience, collaborate with other students on similar projects, communicate the benefits of your research to the general public through workshops, lectures and presentations, or submit work for publication in an academic journal or book.
• Third year - Primarily involves writing your thesis, though your research may still be in progress. After your supervisor gives their approval, you'll submit your thesis before undertaking a one to three-hour oral exam ( viva voce ) in which you'll discuss and defend your thesis in the presence of at least one internal and external examiner.

How do I find a PhD?

As a PhD is different to other degrees, you're committing to more than simply an advanced qualification. You've chosen to engage in a large-scale independent research project and so you'll need to take into account a range of factors that will drive your search.

A methodical approach to the process is required and you'll need to consider the subject you're interested in carrying out research in and the type of Doctorate you're looking for, making sure this is the right project for you. Only when you're fully prepared and have a good idea of your research proposal should you search for PhD opportunities .

What other types of Doctorate are there?

Alternative types of PhD include:

• Higher Doctorate - These are usually granted on the recommendation of a committee of internal and external examiners, which assesses a portfolio of published, peer-reviewed research you've undertaken over the course of many years. This type of Doctorate is usually for those with several years of academic experience. Common award titles include the Doctor of Civil Law (DCL), Doctor of Divinity (DD), Doctor of Literature/Letters (DLit/DLitt/LitD/LittD), Doctor of Music (DMus/MusD), Doctor of Science (DS/SD/DSc/ScD) and Doctor of Law (LLD).
• Integrated/New Route PhD - This four-year PhD course is offered by over 30 universities and involves taking a one-year MRes before studying a three-year PhD. It combines taught elements with independent research, allowing students to learn different methodologies while building their transferable skills.
• Professional Doctorate - Geared towards students of vocational subjects such as medicine, education and engineering, professional Doctorates are focused on teaching and so normally involve smaller research projects and thesis component. They're often favoured by those aiming for a career outside of academia and are usually supported by employers.

How much does a PhD cost?

Tuition fees vary, but usually fall between £3,000 and £6,000 per year for UK students and those from the European Union (EU) with settled status. UK Research Councils pay universities £4,596 per year (from 2022/23) on behalf of each funded PhD student, so this gives a good indication of the average figure.

For EU students looking to pursue a Doctorate in 2022/23, you'll need to have gained settled or pre-settled status to be eligible for student finance - see PhD loans .

Non-EU students may pay considerably more for their tuition fees.

Despite this, many PhD students are now part or fully funded - scholarships and bursaries are widely available, and particular attention should be paid to Research Council grants .

PhD studentships and assistantships involving a mixture of research and teaching are also common, with scientific studentships usually paid at a higher rate.

How do I apply for a PhD?

Some students propose their own research area and apply for funding, while in some cases a supervisor may already have funding for a project and advertise it like a job. When making a PhD application, you'll typically be asked to submit:

• an academic CV
• your academic transcripts
• two or three academic references
• a personal statement
• a research proposal.

International students without settled UK status looking to study certain courses in medicine, mathematics, engineering and material sciences are required to comply with the Academic Technology Approval Scheme (ATAS) . This involves undergoing a security clearance process with the Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office. International students may also have to prove their English proficiency.

What can I do next?

Your ability to critically analyse, display intellectual maturity, and research independently and honestly is highly valued within academia and the workplace.

Many students who undertake a PhD get an academic job or become an industry researcher, possibly following the PhD with postdoctoral study, then a fellowship or lectureship.

Other career options will depend on your study area.

Discover what a PhD degree can lead to at your PhD, what next?

Find out more

• Consider your PhD options at 5 routes to getting a Doctorate .
• Get help with choosing your PhD supervisor .
• Explore funding postgraduate study .

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What Is Graduate School and Should You Apply?

The purpose of graduate school is to develop expertise in a specific academic subject.

What Grad School Is and Why You Might Go

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College alumni who excelled throughout their undergraduate experience often possess a love of learning that can make them a good fit for a graduate program, higher education experts say.

Graduate school students need to meet a higher academic standard than undergraduates, experts say. To thrive in a graduate program, they also need purpose, focus and passion.

"Grad school is a lot more focused and specialized than college," Michelle Vakman, director of admissions at the Columbia University School of Professional Studies in New York, wrote in an email. "Students don't often change majors, and classes are targeted toward a specific field or area of study."

Grad programs appeal to students who are fascinated by a specific academic subject and committed to working in a field where a graduate degree is valuable, experts explain.

"The main difference between undergrad and grad school is that the student has an opportunity to focus on the subjects he (or) she enjoys the most," Helen Godfrey, a senior career development specialist at the University of Houston's Bauer College of Business who has a master's degree in counseling, wrote in an email. "The coursework is more intense but the student will find that he (or) she really enjoys the topics so it can be an invigorating challenge."

Graduate students are expected to not only absorb information and gain knowledge, but also to conduct their own research, make unique discoveries and produce compelling scholarship, says Tamara Underiner, an associate dean for professional development and engagement at the Arizona State University Graduate College.

"In college you acquire knowledge," Underiner wrote in an email. "As you progress through the levels of higher education, you master and then become the producer of knowledge. It's this growing sense of agency, accompanied by experience, that allows wisdom to grow."

Should You Go to Grad School? How to Decide

Although this type of advanced education can be fulfilling and valuable, it is not appropriate for everyone.

"If a student is not sure what they want to do, graduate school is probably not a wise idea, because it does not provide opportunities for career exploration like the bachelor’s degree does," Jillene Seiver, a senior lecturer in psychology and an associate chair in the school of psychology at Eastern Washington University , wrote in an email.

What a Fellowship Is and Why It Matters

Ilana Kowarski Nov. 18, 2022

People who found the academic workload of bachelor's degree courses to be extremely challenging may not be prepared to handle the rigors of grad school. But college alumni who excelled throughout their undergraduate experience often possess a love of learning that can make them a good fit for a graduate program, higher education experts say.

However, even individuals who thrived in college ought to reflect on whether a graduate credential will help them in their career before applying to graduate school, according to experts.

What's key for success in grad school is a sense of purpose, says Jody Britten, a co-founder at SheLeadsEdu, an organization that provides career advice and training to women working in the education sector.

Grad school students are most successful "when they know what they are very passionate about ... . If they're going to grad school because they feel like they need to go to grad school or they don't know what they're going to do or they just want a pay raise, that's when it doesn't pay off," says Britten, who has a Ph.D. in education. "That's when we don't see them completing their degree."

What Are the Different Types of Graduate Programs?

There are numerous graduate credentials, including some that can be obtained quickly and others that require substantial time.

Universities sometimes offer short, nondegree postbaccalaureate certificates and diplomas that can be completed within a few months. In contrast, master's programs last for at least one academic year while doctoral programs generally require multiple years of study.

A master's education builds on the knowledge gained via a bachelor's. A master's degree typically precedes a doctoral degree, since the latter is ordinarily the most advanced credential available within an academic discipline.

There are two types of doctorates. Applied doctorates focus on using existing knowledge to solve real-world problems and prepare future industry leaders. Research doctorates address open questions within a particular academic discipline and train future scholars.

"Graduate school can mean many things," Pierre Huguet, CEO of the H&C Education admissions consulting firm, wrote in an email. "There's a big difference between starting an M.S. or M.A. program, going to law or business school and embarking on the five- to seven-year journey that is a Ph.D."

Here are a few examples of graduate degrees and how long full-time programs typically last:

• Master of Science, or M.S., degree: one to two years
• Master of Arts, or M.A., degree: one to two years
• Master of Business Administration, or MBA, degree: two years
• Master of Fine Arts, or MFA, degree: two to three years
• Juris Doctor, or J.D., degree: three years
• Doctor of Medicine, or M.D., degree: four years
• Doctor of Philosophy, or Ph.D. degree: six years

The word "terminal" is sometimes used to describe degrees, but the meaning of the term depends on the context. Generally speaking, terminal refers to a degree that indicates mastery of a particular subject, which is typically the most advanced academic qualification available in a field. Although experts sometimes disagree about which degrees fall into this category, there is consensus around the idea that doctorates qualify. Sometimes, though, when a degree is described as "terminal," it is simply because that degree is or could conceivably become the final step in a student's educational journey.

Grad School and the Job Market

A graduate degree is mandatory or highly beneficial for certain careers .

"If you want to be a doctor or a lawyer, for example, you will need to continue your education past college," says Huguet. "Additionally, certain post-graduate programs, such as MBAs , often provide students with important networking opportunities that can be as important professionally as the education students receive at business school. If you want to go into academia or conduct advanced research, you will most likely need a Ph.D."

However, grad school isn't necessarily ideal for "natural entrepreneurs," Huguet says. "I know many students who founded successful businesses while in college, and chose to work for themselves full-time after graduating. For these kinds of individuals, I believe graduate degrees ... are a waste of time and money."

Prospective grad students should think carefully about their career goals before applying to grad schools, Huguet recommends. "Begin by asking yourself what kind of career you’d like to pursue, and then do some research to see what kinds of degrees are necessary for your dream job. In some cases, advanced degrees are not necessary, but can lead to higher salaries and better positions."

Prospective doctoral students should also assess the job market within their potential field of study.

"A Ph.D. in biology may lead to more options down the road than a Ph.D. in German Literature, for example," Huguet says. "If your goal is to teach German at the college level, go for the Ph.D., but understand that your degree may not be particularly useful outside of academia."

How Does Graduate School Compare to College?

A common misconception about graduate school is that it is similar to college. But higher education experts say that graduate courses tend to involve more self-directed learning than undergraduate courses.

"Too often, college students or people who only have had a college experience somehow think that graduate school is going to be more of the same, and it's not," says Thomas Plante, a professor of psychology at Santa Clara University in California and an adjunct faculty member at the California-based Stanford University. "It's going to look very different. So students might be tired of sitting in small plastic seats in large lecture halls and listening to professors drone on and then taking tests and things like that, and they don't realize that often graduate school is not that way at all."

Plante says graduate courses tend to involve small classes as opposed to large lectures, and grad students typically engage in academic research outside of the classroom.

Luz Claudio, a professor in the environmental medicine and public health department of the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai in New York, says graduate school typically requires significant motivation and personal accountability, since students frequently work independently.

"There's generally no 'homework,' quizzes and few exams in most graduate programs," Claudio wrote in an email. "So students need to learn to be motivated to study because they want to learn instead of being motivated by the threat of exams or grades."

Many graduate programs require students to create and submit a faculty-approved dissertation, portfolio or thesis in order to qualify for a degree.

"In the graduate school setting, the teacher becomes more like a mentor and the student is more like an apprentice," Claudio says.

Searching for a grad school? Access our complete rankings of Best Graduate Schools.

10 Steps to Tackle a Low GRE Score

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Reasons to do a PhD or research degree

Is research right for you?

Discover the benefits of getting a PhD or research degree and how it can boost your career.

Do you love learning, want to keep researching or hit the heights of your field of expertise?

PhDs and research degrees help you start or continue your research in a field you're passionate about. You can decide what you work on, how you work on it and how you get there, with support and guidance from a supervisory team.

Make a world-first discovery, create innovation with lasting impact or shine a new light on important topics.

Whether you've just finished your postgraduate degree, in the workforce or returning to uni after a break, a research degree gives you a lot of options.

Jump to section:

Questions to ask yourself.

Don’t just take our word for it – check out some of our Student Stories to see the great experience our students had at uni.

For me Portsmouth bridged the gap between academia and practical work, from leading my own firm (Alexandrite Decisions) to founding a charity organisation for cancer patients support.

Rania Azmi, Goal Programming Research Doctorate

1. Passion for research

If you simply love learning and have a passion for discovering new things then it's a good sign a research degree is for you.

You'll pick a topic you're interested in and have the freedom to dive deep into the heart of a problem.

Draw on the years of research in your field, forge your own findings or perspective and make your contribution to a body of exceptional research.

2. Become an expert in your field

Build on your knowledge from your Master's degree by engaging with complex topics in a more specialised field of your choice.

You'll be able to learn more about what you're passionate about and give you the tools to make meaningful contributions to specific research fields.

You'll dive into key areas and challenges in your field, developing your theoretical approach and applying it through your research.

Or you could look at conducting interdisciplinary research. Blend theories, approaches and expertise across fields and universities to create brand new, world-leading research.

3. Put your studies into practice

If you want to start applying what you learned in your studies then a research degree is a great way to do it.

You'll work independently in gathering resources and research. You'll develop sharp time management skills, share your findings with your peers and develop your work together.

You'll hone your communication skills so you can discuss complex topics both written and verbally to experts and everyday people alike.

You'll develop your interpersonal skills, working with professional staff, peers, academics and others. Become a master of taking on feedback as you refine your research.

Writing an extended report or essay takes time and skill. Identifying an objective, working in the lab or forging an argument and making your case with evidence takes talent. You'll end up a technical expert and writer no matter what field you're in.

4. Learn with engaged peers

During your research degree, you and your peers are all studying to get better at what you do. You'll learn with motivated researchers bringing their own perspectives and experiences to the same problems.

You'll build a solid study group to push and encourage each other to develop. You'll also gain new insights from your classmates that can help shape your learning.

5. Boost your career

A research degree is a great way to become a subject matter expert or researcher.

A research-based degree is the most direct pathway to an academic job at university. You'll get the skills you need to compete in the university sector. After you graduate you can look at becoming a tutor, researcher or lecturer. Most universities offer post-doctoral research fellowships where you can get paid to hone your skills, carry on researching and get your academic career rolling.

Some jobs require a Master's or PhD and generally pay very well in the private and public sector. You could:

• work in the public or private sector in industrial research and development
• advise on government policy to make an impact on your local region or country
• become a communications expert for your field and share complex research in clear, everyday fashion

6. Networking opportunities

PhDs and research degrees are a great chance to expand your network and meet diverse people with similar interests, knowledge and passion.

You'll have the chance to attend conferences, seminars and workshops in different cities or countries. Gain new insights and build connections with other researchers and experts across borders.

Networking with coursemates, colleagues and other academics helps expand your knowledge base and balance the solitude that can often come with a research life. Having a network is also incredibly helpful in finding and applying for funding and looking for work in the future.

7. New city, new experiences

Studying for a PhD or research degree might mean moving cities or even countries. If you've been wanting a change of setting along with your career path it's a great opportunity to give both a try.

If you're an international student, studying in a different country gives you the chance to graduate with both fantastic life experiences and a great qualification.

Portsmouth is a welcoming, student-friendly city – one where you'll meet people from all around the world, and have the chance to make connections with people in a whole new environment.

See why Portsmouth is a great place to live

Since starting my PhD, I have been lucky enough to publish twice and visit three different conferences, one of which was held at Cornell University. These opportunities will prove invaluable in my career going forwards, in academia.

Robert Lawrence, PhD Molecular Microbiology

Just like any course, the benefits you'll get from a research degree depends on what you want to get out of it. When you're weighing up your options there are some important questions you should ask yourself to make sure it's right for you.

1. Is this subject something I'm passionate about?

Studying a research degree is a multi-year time commitment. If you're excited by the idea of spending a significant period of time dedicated to one subject, that's a good sign you're ready.

Research degrees often involve a lot of independent work, so if you're only partly interested in the subject, you might find yourself losing interest. That can make meeting your own expectations more difficult.

Is learning about and working in this field something that you can see yourself in for the next 5-10 years? And where do you want to be in that timeframe? It's important not to study just so you can put off bigger life decisions.

2. Do I need a research degree to follow my passion?

There are many different jobs or careers in every field. Not all of them require you to have a research Master's or PhD.

If you want to contribute to a specific industry or area, do you already have some skills and knowledge you can apply in it? If not, what skills or knowledge will a research degree give you?

3. Am I ready for more uni?

If you've finished your Bachelor's or Master's degree and are looking at your next options, a research degree is an option that keeps things familiar. For some students, if you've spent the last 3-4 years studying you might want to try something different.

It depends on who you are, what you care about and what you want to do with your life. If you finished your degree and you're mostly relieved it's over then jumping right back into study may not be the best fit for you.

Remember that you can always go to uni again later. Plenty of graduates spend a few years working before coming back to upskill, retrain or dive into their passion. In a lot of cases, what you've learned in your work experience will make you a better student when you go back to it.

4. Have I found the right supervisor?

Every research student has at least one supervisor. They're there to support and guide you as you develop your ideas and compile your research

Having the right supervisor can be the difference between making your research good, great or excellent. If they're running or part of a research centre or group you may have greater access to networks and resources

It's best you explore supervisors you can work with , which might mean checking out multiple universities and reaching out to them directly. Usually, their profile will say if they're taking on new students and they're happy to get back to you by email.

As it is a PhD I have formed my course myself, but having a supervisor who is well-versed in my subject area is the most unique part of my work here, as no one else is approaching the subjects we look at in a similar way

Beatrice Ashton-Lelliott, PhD English Literature

5. Can I afford it?

Before you decide on a research degree it's important to think about the costs involved.

If you're a UK national applying for an MPhil or MRes course, you might be eligible for a Government Postgraduate Master's Loan  which you can use to fund your tuition fees, living costs and other costs for a Master's course.

If you're an international student you'll need to plan out how you can cover your costs and fund yourself while you're studying.

When considering a PhD there are funded and non-funded options:

• If you've got an idea that aligns with an academic's field of expertise, you can contact them directly
• Look to external funding from the government or an independent research body
• Universities will offer funded PhD opportunities but these may be limited
• Start a PhD without funding support

If you're currently working you may need to adjust your working hours or potentially look for part-time work. You might have less money to play with if you're studying full-time and working on the side.

If you're moving cities or countries there are other costs you'll need to consider. You'll need to factor in things like the initial cost of moving and your deposit if you're renting a place.

Find out more

Our research degrees subject areas.

Take your expertise further by studying for a PhD or other research degree at the University of Portsmouth. Explore the subject areas you can study & get started on your research journey.

Funding your research degree

Find out how you can fund your postgraduate research project, with options including loans, bursaries, and scholarships.

Doctor of Philosophy in Education

Additional Information

• Download the Doctoral Viewbook
• Admissions & Aid

The Harvard Ph.D. in Education trains cutting-edge researchers who work across disciplines to generate knowledge and translate discoveries into transformative policy and practice.

Offered jointly by the Harvard Graduate School of Education and the Harvard Kenneth C. Griffin Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, the Ph.D. in Education provides you with full access to the extraordinary resources of Harvard University and prepares you to assume meaningful roles as university faculty, researchers, senior-level education leaders, and policymakers.

As a Ph.D. candidate, you will collaborate with scholars across all Harvard graduate schools on original interdisciplinary research. In the process, you will help forge new fields of inquiry that will impact the way we teach and learn. The program’s required coursework will develop your knowledge of education and your expertise in a range of quantitative and qualitative methods needed to conduct high-quality research. Guided by the goal of making a transformative impact on education research, policy, and practice, you will focus on independent research in various domains, including human development, learning and teaching, policy analysis and evaluation, institutions and society, and instructional practice.   

Curriculum Information

The Ph.D. in Education requires five years of full-time study to complete. You will choose your individual coursework and design your original research in close consultation with your HGSE faculty adviser and dissertation committee. The requirements listed below include the three Ph.D. concentrations: Culture, Institutions, and Society; Education Policy and Program Evaluation; and Human Development, Learning and Teaching . 

We invite you to review an example course list, which is provided in two formats — one as the full list by course number and one by broad course category . These lists are subject to modification. 

Ph.D. Concentrations and Examples

Summary of Ph.D. Program

Doctoral Colloquia  In year one and two you are required to attend. The colloquia convenes weekly and features presentations of work-in-progress and completed work by Harvard faculty, faculty and researchers from outside Harvard, and Harvard doctoral students. Ph.D. students present once in the colloquia over the course of their career.

Research Apprenticeship The Research Apprenticeship is designed to provide ongoing training and mentoring to develop your research skills throughout the entire program.

Teaching Fellowships The Teaching Fellowship is an opportunity to enhance students' teaching skills, promote learning consolidation, and provide opportunities to collaborate with faculty on pedagogical development.

Comprehensive Exams  The Written Exam (year 2, spring) tests you on both general and concentration-specific knowledge. The Oral Exam (year 3, fall/winter) tests your command of your chosen field of study and your ability to design, develop, and implement an original research project.

Dissertation  Based on your original research, the dissertation process consists of three parts: the Dissertation Proposal, the writing, and an oral defense before the members of your dissertation committee.

Culture, Institutions, and Society (CIS) Concentration

In CIS, you will examine the broader cultural, institutional, organizational, and social contexts relevant to education across the lifespan. What is the value and purpose of education? How do cultural, institutional, and social factors shape educational processes and outcomes? How effective are social movements and community action in education reform? How do we measure stratification and institutional inequality? In CIS, your work will be informed by theories and methods from sociology, history, political science, organizational behavior and management, philosophy, and anthropology. You can examine contexts as diverse as classrooms, families, neighborhoods, schools, colleges and universities, religious institutions, nonprofits, government agencies, and more.

Education Policy and Program Evaluation (EPPE) Concentration

In EPPE, you will research the design, implementation, and evaluation of education policy affecting early childhood, K–12, and postsecondary education in the U.S. and internationally. You will evaluate and assess individual programs and policies related to critical issues like access to education, teacher effectiveness, school finance, testing and accountability systems, school choice, financial aid, college enrollment and persistence, and more. Your work will be informed by theories and methods from economics, political science, public policy, and sociology, history, philosophy, and statistics. This concentration shares some themes with CIS, but your work with EPPE will focus on public policy and large-scale reforms.

Human Development, Learning and Teaching (HDLT) Concentration

In HDLT, you will work to advance the role of scientific research in education policy, reform, and practice. New discoveries in the science of learning and development — the integration of biological, cognitive, and social processes; the relationships between technology and learning; or the factors that influence individual variations in learning — are transforming the practice of teaching and learning in both formal and informal settings. Whether studying behavioral, cognitive, or social-emotional development in children or the design of learning technologies to maximize understanding, you will gain a strong background in human development, the science of learning, and sociocultural factors that explain variation in learning and developmental pathways. Your research will be informed by theories and methods from psychology, cognitive science, sociology and linguistics, philosophy, the biological sciences and mathematics, and organizational behavior.

Program Faculty

The most remarkable thing about the Ph.D. in Education is open access to faculty from all Harvard graduate and professional schools, including the Harvard Graduate School of Education, the Faculty of Arts and Sciences, the Harvard Kennedy School, the Harvard Law School, Harvard Medical School, and the Harvard School of Public Health. Learn about the full Ph.D. Faculty.

Jarvis R. Givens

Jarvis Givens studies the history of American education, African American history, and the relationship between race and power in schools.

Paul L. Harris

Paul Harris is interested in the early development of cognition, emotion, and imagination in children.

Meira Levinson

Meira Levinson is a normative political philosopher who works at the intersection of civic education, youth empowerment, racial justice, and educational ethics. 

Luke W. Miratrix

Luke Miratrix is a statistician who explores how to best use modern statistical methods in applied social science contexts.

Eric Taylor

Eric Taylor studies the economics of education, with a particular interest in employer-employee interactions between schools and teachers — hiring and firing decisions, job design, training, and performance evaluation.

Paola Uccelli

Paola Ucelli studies socio-cultural and individual differences in the language development of multilingual and monolingual students.

View Ph.D. Faculty

Dissertations.

The following is a complete listing of successful Ph.D. in Education dissertations to-date. Dissertations from November 2014 onward are publicly available in the Digital Access to Scholarship at Harvard (DASH) , the online repository for Harvard scholarship.

• 2022 Graduate Dissertations (265 KB pdf)
• 2021 Graduate Dissertations (177 KB pdf)
• 2020 Graduate Dissertations (121 KB pdf)
• 2019 Graduate Dissertations (68.3 KB pdf)

Student Directory

An opt-in listing of current Ph.D. students with information about their interests, research, personal web pages, and contact information:

Doctor of Philosophy in Education Student Directory

Introduce Yourself

Tell us about yourself so that we can tailor our communication to best fit your interests and provide you with relevant information about our programs, events, and other opportunities to connect with us.

Program Highlights

Explore examples of the Doctor of Philosophy in Education experience and the impact its community is making on the field:

Reshaping Teacher Licensure: Lessons from the Pandemic

Olivia Chi, Ed.M.'17, Ph.D.'20, discusses the ongoing efforts to ensure the quality and stability of the teaching workforce

Lost in Translation

New comparative study from Ph.D. candidate Maya Alkateb-Chami finds strong correlation between low literacy outcomes for children and schools teaching in different language from home

Testimonials

Free Resources

PrepScholar GRE Prep

Gre prep online guides and tips, what is graduate school why go master’s and phds.

If you’re nearing the end of college or you’ve completed college, you’ve probably heard the term “graduate school” thrown around by your peers and teachers. In fact, you’ve probably heard all kinds of graduate-school related terms, like “graduate degree,” “Masters,” “PhD,” and more.

But what is a graduate degree? What is a PhD? What is a doctoral degree? What’s a doctorate? We’ll demystify it all here. (Hint: those last three are all the same thing.)

In this article, we’ll discuss what graduate school is, what graduate degrees you can get, and the difference between graduate and professional school. Then we’ll move on to discussing the benefits and drawbacks of graduate school, funding graduate programs, and how to apply to grad school.

What Is Graduate School?

What is grad school? Well, it’s not so much a specific “school” as a catchall term for some types of academic programs.  Graduate degree programs offer advanced training (beyond a bachelor’s degree) in a specific academic discipline. They very much focus on advancing your subject-specific academic knowledge as opposed to preparing you for a specific career or job. Graduate degree programs often include opportunities to complete original research in the field.

There are a few different types of graduate degrees. We’ll review them in the next section.

What Is a Graduate Degree? The 3 Main Types

There are, generally speaking, three kinds of graduate degrees offered by graduate schools: the Master of Arts, the Master of Science, and the Doctor of Philosophy (PhD). The MA and MS offer additional schooling in a discipline beyond a bachelor’s degree. A PhD is the most advanced degree in a given academic field. (Note that this is not true of professional fields—we will discuss the difference in the next section.)

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Master of Arts (MA)

What is a Master’s Degree? The Master of Arts is the typical Master’s graduate program for humanities and social science disciplines. They can be fairly general—for example, an MA in Communication or Anthropology, or even Humanities. They can also be highly specialized, like an MA in Folklore or an MA in History of the Book (a real degree!).

Some MA degrees lead specifically to a PhD, while others stand on their own. There are graduate programs designed for those with no prior academic exposure to a field, while others provide further training to those who studied the discipline (or a closely related one) as undergraduates. Some offer original research opportunities, while others focus more on instruction.

Depending on the specific discipline and program, an MA degree generally lasts 1-2 years for a full-time student. Select fields or disciplines may offer a 3-year Master of Arts.

Master of Science (MS)

The Master of Science is the typical Master’s graduate program for scientific and quantitative disciplines. Like the MA, the MS can be fairly general in its focus, like an MS in Biology or Computer Science. They can also be incredibly specialized, like an MS in Predictive Analytics or Agricultural Economics.

Also like the MA, some are designed for those with bachelor’s degrees in the discipline. Others are designed for those trying to get exposure to a new field. Some more closely focus on the student completing original research, while others focus more on delivering in-depth instruction.

An MS degree also generally lasts 1-2 years for a full-time student. In some select fields/programs, it may take 3 years.

Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

What is a PhD? PhD stands for Doctor of Philosophy. The PhD is the most advanced degree in a given academic discipline. It’s also known as a doctorate or a doctoral degree.

As the most advanced degree in an academic field, it’s considered a terminal degree. The Doctor of Philosophy prepares students to do academic work in their discipline —research and teaching—and for positions at universities and research institutions.

PhD programs generally expect students to have some preexisting academic training in the discipline or a related field, usually from the student’s undergraduate degree. Most PhDs will not expect incoming students to have Master’s degrees, although some might. However, students with an MA or MS in the discipline might be able to complete the PhD more quickly because they may not need to complete as much coursework.

Furthermore, most PhD programs do expect applicants to have some form of previous research experience and preferably some academic publishing credits. They may not require the student to have the experience and publishing credits in the same discipline as the PhD, but almost all PhD programs will expect some amount of previous research and academic publication experience.

The structure of a PhD typically involves some amount of preliminary coursework, followed by a written and oral exam in the discipline. Then students will begin research and work on their PhD dissertation, an original research project. Throughout this time, students generally teach and/or work as research assistants to make money.

How many years is a doctorate degree? A PhD can take anywhere from three years (if you have a master’s degree and write extremely fast!) to eight years (if you have a lot of coursework to complete and a particularly obscure dissertation topic). But the time it usually takes to complete a PhD is in the 4-6 year range.

Graduate vs. Professional School

You may notice a huge number of degrees you could pursue after your undergraduate degree missing from the list of degrees above—like the MD, the MBA, the MPH, the MFA, the JD, the MEd, and many others.

This is because those degrees are professional degrees.

So what’s the difference between a graduate degree and a professional degree? A graduate degree provides advanced training in an academic discipline. A professional degree provides advanced training for a specific profession. For example, a JD trains you to become a lawyer. An MD trains you to become a doctor. So while a graduate degree focuses on an academic discipline or area of inquiry, a professional degree focuses on professional training.

We should be clear that these are not hard-and-fast distinctions. The line between what is a graduate program and what is a professional program is not always crystal-clear. Many institutions will refer to some (or all) of their advanced degrees as graduate degrees, without distinguishing between graduate and professional schools.

Additionally, professional degrees can lead to academia, and graduate degrees can lead to professional careers. For example, an MFA can prepare students both for academic teaching and inquiry and for professional careers as artists. While an MPH trains you to work as a public health professional, many MPHs go on to work for research institutions or receive PhDs and go into academia. Many professional schools offer MS or MA degrees (for example, a business school may offer an MS in Business Informatics). Additionally, some graduate schools offer MA or MS degrees that primarily focus on building professional skills and contacts.

Gray areas aside, the general distinction is that professional degrees focus on building career and professional skills, while graduate degrees focus on building your knowledge in a particular discipline and your skill in academic inquiry.

5 Top Benefits of Graduate School

Now that we’ve answered the question, “what is graduate school,” you may find yourself wondering: Is grad school worth it? Should I go to graduate school?

Here are five potential benefits to graduate school:

Preparation to Work in Academia

A major reason to go to graduate school—particularly to earn a PhD—is to position yourself to work in academia. If you want to be a professor at a university, you will need a PhD. For lecturer or researcher positions at small or community colleges, an MA or MS may be sufficient.

But in general, if you want to teach at a college level and work on research in a given discipline, a graduate degree of some kind is pretty much necessary.

Higher Earning Potential and Expanded Job Prospects (Sometimes)

A graduate degree will often increase your earning potential. More relevant training typically means more pay in that field. You’ll also be eligible for more jobs, like more senior research positions.

However, you shouldn’t assume that a graduate degree will always expand your job prospects and increase your pay. An MA in Middle English may not really lead to much of anything except increased debt, simply because there’s just not a high demand for people with MAs in Middle English. So, that training isn’t likely to be considered valuable enough for you to earn more or be a more attractive job applicant.

Be sure to do some research into the discipline you are interested in so that you have a realistic idea of how it will expand your job prospects and pay, if at all.

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Pivoting Your Skills

Say your undergraduate degree was in English Literature, but now you want to be a sociologist. Getting a master’s degree is a great way to get training in a new discipline you haven’t had much exposure to. Armed with your shiny new master’s degree and associated skills, you’ll be able to work in a field that was previously closed to you.

Get Published

If you need to develop research skills and publish some academic papers, getting an MA or MS can be a good move. This is particularly true if you want to pursue a PhD and need to beef up   your research experience and publication credits. Getting a master’s in a discipline related to your prospective PhD can be a huge help here. It will also help you build contacts to serve as recommendations.

Strengthen an Application to Professional School

In a similar vein, you may want to get an MA or MS to strengthen an application to professional school. Any research and publication credits you amass there, as well as a strong GPA or good recommendations, will help you stand out.

For example, maybe your heart is set on being a doctor but your undergraduate grades aren’t quite at the level you’d like, or you simply want to stand out more. Really excelling in an MS program can boost your application.

2 Potential Drawbacks to Graduate School

We’ve listed the benefits—but don’t put in your application yet. There are also some potential drawbacks to graduate school to consider. We’ll list two of the most major drawbacks here.

Considerable Expenses

Graduate degrees are expensive! Tuition and fees can easily run past $20,000 a semester at a private university, not to mention living expenses. You may have to take out pretty massive loans to cover all of this, so it’s important that you carefully consider how graduate school will increase your earning potential or job prospects. In more esoteric fields, the expense may not ever pay off in realized earnings. This shouldn’t necessarily dissuade you from pursuing a graduate degree but it is something to be aware of.

However, some programs will cover all or most of your tuition. You’ll also most likely be able to work part-time while completing graduate work, which will help offset expenses. For most PhD candidates, and some masters students, part-time work as teaching staff or research assistants is built into the program.

If you’re completing a part-time master’s degree, you can also maintain a full-time job while you complete the coursework.

Finally, keep in mind that the expense of tuition isn’t the only cost—while you’re in graduate school, you could be making a full salary employed in the workforce. In some cases, your PhD might lead to a higher salary, but it’ll take multiple years for you to recover the full salaries that you lost out on while you were in school.

Poor Job Prospects

There are some graduate disciplines that simply don’t lead to many job opportunities. For example, there are far more philosophy PhD graduates than tenure-track positions in university philosophy departments. In fact, academia in general is hyper-competitive, so unless you are attending a top program, getting an academic job at the end may be almost ludicrously difficult.

Especially if you are paying for the graduate degree yourself, if there isn’t much in the way of job offers at the end, the degree may be a poor investment. This is something to research before committing to the course.

Funding: How to Pay for Graduate School

Finding graduate school funding can be difficult. There are, in general, a lot more people who want to go to school than there is money available to fund them. Funding in the forms of grants, fellowships, and scholarships for master’s programs in particular tends to be incredibly competitive. There are few fellowships and scholarships available at this level, though there is more funding available for students in high-demand STEM fields like engineering and computer science.

On the flip side, it’s more likely that you’ll receive partial or full funding for PhD work. But PhD programs are far, far more competitive for admission than master’s programs.

Sometimes you can be admitted to a PhD program without any funding. (This is called a self-funded PhD.) This is not likely to pay off in the long run unless you have some fairly sizable independent income or savings, as you will almost certainly rack up debt in the hundreds of thousands of dollars. The return-on-investment in this case may not be very high, especially given how competitive it is to get a tenure-track position.

Funding for a given program is likely to be some combination of loans, grants and fellowships, and research or teaching positions. Even if you are a fully funded PhD student, you won’t receive a whole lot of money—generally just enough to cover expenses.

In general, people don’t go to graduate school to make the big bucks, but because they have a very intense passion for the discipline.

Applying to Graduate School: How to Get Into Grad School

If you’ve decided to apply to graduate school, what do you need to be a successful candidate? This will of course vary from program to program, but you’ll need a few general qualifications.

Good GRE Score

You’ll need a GRE score that’s reasonably competitive for the programs you’re interested in. (See more on what’s a good GRE score here ). This will usually involve a high score in the more relevant section of the GRE. So for a math or science graduate degree, you’ll need a high Quant score. For a humanities or social sciences degree, you’ll need a high Verbal score.

Relevant Experience and/or Publication Credits

You’ll need to have the requisite relevant experience for admission. For master’s programs, this can take the shape of some kind of work experience, undergraduate experience, research experience, and/or publication credits. However, for PhD programs, you’ll almost certainly need research experience and academic publication credits to be a competitive applicant. The experience and publications won’t necessarily have to be directly within the discipline you are applying in, but you will need them to show that you have academic chops.

Strong Undergraduate Record

A strong undergraduate record makes for a stronger application. Barring that, solid work or research experience and/or strong grades in another master’s or professional degree can also help you get admitted to the program(s) of your choice.

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Good Recommendations

Highly positive recommendations, especially from notable people within the field, can provide a real boost to your application. You want recommenders who can speak to your interest in the field as well as your suitability for academic work. If you’re an undergraduate at the time of application, professors you’ve worked with are the best option. If you’re a recent graduate, a combination of professional and academic recommendations will probably best capture your skills. And if you have been out of school for some time, your recommendations may be primarily professional, which is fine.

Clear Articulation of Your Interests and Goals

It’s also important that your application clearly communicates why you’re interested in further training in the discipline and what you plan to do with that training. If you can articulate a real passion for the field and clear goals, and you can connect those things to elements of the specific program you are applying to, your application will be much stronger.

Summary: What Is Graduate School?

“Graduate school” is a catchall term for academic programs that provide training in a specific academic discipline or field beyond the undergraduate level.

There are three primary kinds of graduate degrees:

• Master of arts degrees typically provide further training in the humanities and social sciences.
• Master of science degrees usually provide further training in the sciences and quantitative fields.
• PhDs, or doctorates in philosophy, provide the most advanced training available in a given academic discipline. PhDs prepare you to work in academia.

Graduate school is different from professional school. Professional school describes academic programs beyond an undergraduate degree that train you to work in a specific professional field. For example, lawyers get JDs, and doctors get MDs. There are some gray areas between graduate and professional school, but the general distinction is that graduate school furthers your knowledge of an academic field and professional school trains you for a specific career or class of careers.

Here are some of the main benefits of graduate school:

• Graduate degrees are necessary for work in academia.
• Some fields may give you higher earning potential and expanded job prospects.
• You can gain skills in a new area or discipline than your undergraduate degree.
• Graduate school can help you get research experience and publication credits.
• A graduate degree can help you strengthen your application to professional school.

Here are some of the main drawbacks to graduate school:

• Graduate school is expensive!
• Some graduate degrees won’t give you expanded job prospects or a better salary, making them a poor investment.

It can be difficult to get funding for graduate school. You are more likely to get funding for a PhD than a master’s degree, but PhDs are also more competitive. Overall, most people don’t go to graduate school specifically because they are looking for a very lucrative career.

 If you want to go to graduate school, here’s how to make yourself a strong applicant:

• Get a good GRE score
• Have relevant experience and/or publication credits
• Have a strong undergraduate record
• Secure glowing recommendations
• Clearly articulate your interests and goals in the discipline

That’s our overview of graduate school, folks!

What’s Next?

What GRE score do you need for graduate school? Check out our expert analysis of average GRE scores by school and average GRE scores by major . Or maybe you don’t need to take the GRE to get into grad school at all!

If you are taking the GRE, you want to maximize your chances of success. So consider when to take the GRE  and how to make a GRE study plan .

Think you may need to retake the GRE ? Here’s a surefire way improve your GRE scores .

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Author: Ellen McCammon

Ellen is a public health graduate student and education expert. She has extensive experience mentoring students of all ages to reach their goals and in-depth knowledge on a variety of health topics. View all posts by Ellen McCammon

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The expansion of doctoral education and the changing nature and purpose of the doctorate

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• Published: 14 October 2022
• Volume 84 , pages 1299–1315, ( 2022 )

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• Cláudia S. Sarrico 1 , 2  

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Doctorate level attainment has increased significantly in developed economies. In 2019, the average share of 25–64-year-olds with a doctorate across the OECD was around 1%. However, if current trends continue, 2.3% of today’s young adults will enter doctoral studies at some point in their life. This essay starts by describing the expansion of doctoral education. It then reflects on the causes of this growth and the consequences for the nature and purpose of the doctorate. This reflection is mostly based on published research in Higher Education in the last 50 years and the author’s work on policy analysis for the OECD on this topic. The paper finishes with a research agenda on doctoral education and the career of doctorate holders.

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Introduction

Doctorate level attainment has increased significantly in developed economies. In 2019, the average share of 25–64-year-olds with a doctorate across the OECD was around 1%. However, if current trends continue, it is estimated that 2.3% of today’s young adults will enter doctoral studies at some point in their life (OECD, 2019b ). This growth in doctoral level attainment has been poorly recorded and the careers of doctorate holders are not systematically tracked in most countries (graduate tracking, where it exists tends to relate to bachelor and sometimes master’s graduates, where numbers are much higher). This essay seeks to open the doorway on research into why this expansion is taking place, and what it means for all involved.

Talk about a “PhD glut” is not new. The topic was already featured in Higher Education four decades ago, in a 1982 article discussing labour market outcomes, the quality of doctoral candidates and the cost–benefit analysis of the production of more doctorate holders (Zumeta, 1982 ). Since then, concerns of an expansion in doctorate holders have not dampened growth. Demands of the knowledge economy, economic growth and innovation are frequently cited as encouraging expansion, which are bolstered by government financial incentives for universities to award doctorates and produce publications. The continued trend of expansion has fed discussion on the benefits and effects of the doctorate for the individual, organisations and society (Halse and Mowbray, 2011 ) .

The status of the doctorate today is the motivation for this reflective essay, which is grounded in the literature published in Higher Education in the last 50 years (approximately 60 articles were read on the topic in the journal for the present paper). This historical perspective is complemented by other relevant literature in the field of higher education studies (circa other 60 references were read), and the author’s participation in policy analysis regarding doctoral education, postdoctoral training and the career of doctorate holders. It analyses the reasons for the growth in doctoral level attainment and the implications of this growth. It discusses the drivers of the growth, at individual, institutional and system level. It focuses on high-level and general trends, even though we are aware of national specificities and contexts, heterogeneity in academic systems and labour markets for doctorate holders, which often mean that individual jurisdictions, and indeed some disciplines, may somewhat diverge from what is being described. The article follows from the examples of contributions to understanding the expansion of higher education from Martin Trow’s ( 1973 ) discussion of the transition from elite to mass higher education, to Simon Marginson’s ( 2016 ) reflection on high-participation systems of higher education (Cantwell et al., 2018 ).

This work focuses on the developed economies of the OECD, where doctoral education is more established. Higher education has expanded massively, but research activity (as measured by publications in indexed peer-review journals) has been, for a long time, very much concentrated in the developed economies. Of the more than 18,500 higher education institutions listed by the International Association of Universities, less than 10% of institutions had at least 50 publications indexed in Scopus, the largest bibliometric database, in the period 2007–2010. Of this small group, 82% were based in European and North-American universities, and 18% in Asia–Pacific (Sarrico & Godonoga, 2021 ), almost all based in OECD countries. The situation has changed significantly in more recent years, with de-diversification of research capacity to more countries and a growing multi-polarity of that capacity, with the notable rise of China (Marginson, 2022 ). The CWTS Leiden University Ranking 2022 includes 1318 universities from 69 countries with at least 800 Web of Science indexed publications in the period 2017–2020. Footnote 1 Nonetheless, this reflection focuses on the systems with longer established doctoral education and higher doctoral level attainment among the population.

In the conclusions, this paper offers a research agenda regarding doctoral education, postdoctoral training and the career of doctorate holders.

The expansion of doctoral education

Doctoral graduates have the highest educational attainment and are primarily trained to conduct research. Doctoral education in the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) is defined as an advanced research qualification, resulting from advanced study and original research typically offered by research-oriented universities, in both academic and professional fields, requiring the submission of work of publishable quality that is the product of original research and represents a significant contribution to knowledge in a field of study (OECD/Eurostat/UNESCO, 2015 ). Footnote 2

Statistics on doctoral level attainment presented by the World Bank data bank Footnote 3 start only in 2010. No information is available for many countries (e.g. China) and for other countries many years of data are missing (e.g. UK, Germany, France, Japan). Looking at this data set shows that in 2020 there were only 36 countries with doctoral level attainment above 0.6%, including only a few non-OECD countries (United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Malta, South Africa).

There is also no good international comparable data on the number of new doctorates being awarded in different countries. Only 5 years’ information is available for OECD countries, showing that the number of new doctorates has almost doubled in the two decades to 2017 (Fig.  1 ). Recent work underlines this growth, finding that doctoral level attainment in the OECD has increased by 25% over the 5-year period 2014–2019 (OECD, 2021a ). By comparison, research activity, a traditional occupation for doctorate holders, has grown much more slowly. Gross domestic spending on R&D, carried out by companies, research institutes, university and government laboratories grew by 18% in the last two decades (2000–2020) (OECD, 2022b ). This probably means there is not enough research activity in the economy to provide research occupations for many of the doctorate graduates being produced.

New doctorates awarded, OECD countries. Source: Auriol ( 2010 ), Auriol et al. ( 2013 ), OECD ( 2014 ), OECD ( 2019b )

The recent growth in doctorate level attainment in the OECD is well above that of tertiary education attainment: between 2014 and 2019, doctoral education grew 25% (0.93–1.16%), while tertiary education grew 12.7% (33.65–37.90%) (OECD, 2022a ). Data for countries outside the OECD is difficult to obtain, and even for the OECD there are many gaps (e.g. Japan). For instance, World Bank statistics on doctorates start in 2010 and omit many countries and many years (Fig.  2 ).

Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics (uis.unesco.org). Data as of June 2022. The percentage of population ages 25 and over that attained or completed doctoral or equivalent education. https://databank.worldbank.org/ (accessed 6 July 2022). Note: AUS, Australia; CAN, Canada; CHE, Switzerland; DEU, Germany; DNK, Denmark; FRA, France; GBR, United Kingdom; IRL, Ireland; KOR, Korea; NLD, Netherlands; PRT, Portugal; SWE, Sweden; USA, United States; ZAF, South Africa

Doctoral level attainment, selected countries.

According to the US National Science Foundation, between 2000 and 2018, the number of science and engineering doctoral degrees awarded grew on average by 9.9% per year in China, 2.0% in France, 1.4% in Germany, 5.2% in Korea, 7.1% in Spain, 5.0% in the UK and 2.8% in the USA (NSB-NSF 2022, Fig. 5, p. 8).

The doctorate is no longer an entry ticket to academia

The expansion of doctoral education seems likely to continue as governments increase funding for doctoral education in an attempt to boost competitiveness and talent pools in an internationally competitive environment. However, there are attempts to diversify away from traditional “academic doctorates” with “collaborative PhDs”, “professional doctorates”, “industrial doctorates”, or simply introducing professional development and career development opportunities. In addition, the scope of doctoral education is widening, seeking to prepare people for diverse careers and include doctorates that cross disciplinary boundaries (Powell and Green, 2007 , p. 238).

Academia can no longer employ increasing numbers of doctorate holders (OECD, 2021b ). It is unclear to what extent the labour market, especially beyond academia, is absorbing recent doctoral graduates, and how well doctoral education and postdoctoral training adequately prepare people for jobs outside academia. The debate about an “oversupply of PhDs” has reached mainstream media (The Economist, 2010 ).

New graduates surpass demand for academics at universities. A grim picture emerges of early-career academics as “cheap labour” in a “feudal system”, resting on the principles of “up or out” and “survival of the fittest” (OECD, 2021b ). Using doctoral and postdoctoral researchers to teach undergraduates also reduces the number of full-time permanent positions. Even countries with less developed higher education systems seem to have plateaued in their capacity to absorb new doctorates into permanent positions (e.g. South Africa in Mouton et al., 2021 , pp. xxiv-xxvi).

The postdoc, here defined as a fixed-term position in academia after the doctorate with no guarantee of continuation, has been the norm in many systems where permanent positions have been extremely limited (e.g. Germany and Switzerland). In other systems, entering a tenure-track with some prospect of continuation was the initial step in the academic ladder, but this has been changing over time (e.g. USA). Nonetheless, postdocs now perform a large part of university research work in many OECD academic systems, and, in some areas, the postdoc has become a de facto prerequisite to be considered for a permanent full-time job. Doctoral and postdoctoral researchers boost the research capacity of their universities and countries, but when they cannot find a job in academia, they may have difficulty transitioning to jobs outside the academic career. In some areas, the financial return on a PhD is now negative or not much different from a master’s degree, which can be attained in a fraction of the time. When controlling for self-selection into doctoral education and labour market choices after graduation, the wage premium reduces (Pedersen, 2016 ). Master’s holders accrue work experience while the doctoral researchers are pursuing their studies, increasing their relative value in the labour market. Doctorate holders may then occupy positions that only require a master’s, due to oversupply relative to the needs of the labour market, resulting in over skilling. Questions are then raised about the continuing investment in more doctoral education.

However, we know little of the career paths of doctorate holders, when and how they transition from academia to employment, and how useful their doctoral education is to their career and their life. Some may find their training so specialised that they find it difficult to find suitable work outside academia and linger there on fixed-term contracts. Some may pursue a doctorate simply for education’s sake, and enjoy the lifestyle, but in the long run they may become less satisfied, less productive and more likely to have to move to jobs beyond academia for which they had not planned.

There is a belief that there are spill over effects from knowledge being produced in universities. Nonetheless, for the individual it may not work well. People embarking on PhDs are likely to have been the best in their class, raising the question of whether a PhD is always the best use their talent. It may also be the case that the best are no longer attracted by the idea of doing a PhD, as they realise the precarity involved.

The incentives for universities and principal investigators (PIs) are not aligned with the interests of doctoral and postdoctoral researchers, who support the research endeavour and are key to keeping it going. And many governments offer funding incentives and rewards linked to performance, where the number of PhD graduates is part of the formula.

In most OECD countries, the majority of doctorate holders already work outside academia (OECD, 2015 ), and many countries have moved to a more structured environment of doctoral programmes and doctoral schools where they can offer training in skills that can be transferred to the labour market beyond academia, smoothing the transition.

The expansion of doctoral education was accompanied by changes in its nature, from an apprenticeship-type period under the supervision of a “master” to a highly structured education programme in most countries, with doctoral schools, formal processes, and a defined duration and expectations. Paradoxically, it has been accompanied by an increasingly unstructured phase of postdoctoral studies in the academic professional ladder—postdoctoral researchers are in a limbo: neither staff nor students (OECD, 2021b ), and in some fields preceded by a pre-doctoral programme of 1 to 2 years prior to entry into the doctoral programme itself. The postdoctorate position now seems to be the “apprenticeship” stage under the supervision of a senior academic, and sits between completion of the doctorate and a permanent position. A postdoctoral position was meant to be transitional and a “defined period of advanced training and mentoring in research” (National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and Institute of Medicine, 2014 ); instead, it became a safety net for those waiting for an academic position that is more likely than not to fail to materialise (Larson et al. ( 2013 ), Milojević et al. ( 2018 )). Institutions tend to rest their research prowess on a few tenured star researchers that head teams populated by postdoctoral and doctoral researchers (and predoctoral researchers) that feed the research endeavour. They now depend on the “permadocs” and the labour of an academic precariat to sustain it (Teixeira, 2017 ). Although many are on fixed-term contracts, they are a significant share of the research labour force, their papers obtain more citations, and they tend to publish in more prestigious journals than those on indefinite contracts (OECD, 2021b ).

This means that doctoral education and postdoctoral training is no longer necessarily a path to the professoriate. Most doctorate holders will end up working beyond academia, in business, government or the social sector—some in research occupations, although many will not. The vast majority of researchers with a doctorate in the OECD work in the higher education and the government sectors. Since in many countries, most doctorate holders work outside the academic sector, this indicates that many employed doctorate holders are not doing research. Footnote 4

The lack of positions in the academic career proper has not stopped the expansion, and many countries continue to provide incentives to universities to produce doctoral graduates and individuals to pursue doctoral studies. Under the EC-OECD STIP Compass, Footnote 5 countries mostly cite funding levers as the mechanism to increase doctoral and postdoctoral participation.

This is accompanied by a discourse that society and the economy need the advanced skills of these individuals to sustain a knowledge economy and spur innovation, and that the doctorate ought to prepare individuals for diverse careers. Employment rates of doctorate holders are systematically higher than among other tertiary level graduates in the working age population (OECD, 2015 ), but for young doctorate holders, those aged 25–34, their comparative advantage over their peers with a master’s degree tends to be more variable (OECD, 2019b ).

In addition, many doctorate graduates are not particularly young—the median age at entry is 29 on average across OECD countries (OECD, 2019b ). After a prolonged postdoctoral period in academia, many transition to employment beyond academia well into their forties, which has implications for how easy the transition will be.

The supply side strategies from governments to promote the production of doctorate holders are often not in line with demand from employment sectors beyond academia, and with the experiences of doctorate holders. Many doctorate holders that transition to employment beyond academia will not work as researchers. From a macro level, this raises the issue of inefficiency: the advanced skills of doctorate holders are not necessarily used, notably in non-research occupations (Stephan, 2012 ). It compounds the inefficiency already observed in many countries during doctoral studies, where entry rates are well above graduation rates.

For the individual, while many doctorate holders will find successful and satisfying alternative careers, they often report challenges in making the transition associated with giving up long-held ambitions of an academic career and a loss of social identity (Vitae, 2016 ). Career choices beyond academic research are mostly seen as second options, or as a signal of failure by postdoctoral researchers and their PIs and are often made quite late into the professional career of doctorate holders. Those that do transition may experience organisational culture shock, especially those who enter jobs beyond academia directly after the PhD with little or no prior work experience (Skakni et al., 2022 ).

Reasons for the growth of doctoral education

There are several explanations for the growth in doctoral education. Supply side factors relate to factors that encourage the supply of more doctorate graduates, such as policies to fund doctoral education, and reward institutions for increased production of doctorates and publications. Demand side factors increase the demand for doctorates and represent the attractiveness of doctoral education to the individual, such as the perceived career prospects, social gain or self-realisation, and to the organisations employing doctorate holders because they value their expertise and skills. Another driver is the international import of talent in a global race for competitiveness among economies.

Government policy

Governments, especially in developed economies, have embraced economic theories of the knowledge economy, targeting knowledge as fundamental to economic growth and prosperity. They have promoted postgraduate study, doctoral education and postdoctoral training to foment the development of advanced skills, knowledge generation, complex problem solving and, more generally, innovation. Research funders increasingly try to assess and incentivise the research impact of the research they fund, in terms of scientific impact, but also economic, social, cultural and environmental impact.

Funders have realised that the increased number of doctorates means they no longer will find a position in academia. Hence, policies now encourage doctoral and postdoctoral researchers to engage in some form with organisations beyond academia to encourage the next generation of researchers to explore diverse careers in other sectors (OECD, 2021b ). There is evidence, however that most continue to prefer an academic career, an attraction that often increases as students advance in their programme, even when it involves industrial contacts (Gemme & Gingras, 2012 ).

An unintended consequence of increasing the supply of research funding may be to support the aspiration to an academic career, albeit a precarious one, given the fixed-term, project-based nature of most research funding, including for those with less scientific capital and less job prospects elsewhere.

Changes in academic work

In addition to an increase supply of research funding, the nature of that funding has also changed. There is an increasing share of project-based funding relative to core basic funding, and the development of earned income streams, in addition to public appropriations and student fees, from continuing education, service provision, contract research, philanthropy and endowments. This changed academic work (Cantwell, 2011 ; Cantwell & Taylor, 2015 ), with increasing use of non-standard employment contracts and specialisation of work in both teaching and research. It gave rise to contingent instructors and postdoctoral researchers mostly dependent on fixed-term funding, to the detriment of combined teaching and research positions in the academic career proper. The expansion of doctoral education ensures a constant supply for these positions.

Demand for doctoral researchers

Even if an academic career has not become more attractive per se, given the general expansion of higher education at bachelor and master’s levels, the number of potential doctoral candidates has substantially increased. Most students pursuing a doctoral degree have a “taste for science” and are strongly attracted to an academic career, but not all (Roach & Sauermann, 2010 ). Curiously even those that had considered an alternative career often change their minds as their studies progress (Gemme and Gingras, 2012 ).

In some cases, doctoral education is also valued beyond academia. Employers of doctorate holders seem to value the technical competence of those from the hard sciences and the transferable competences from the soft sciences (Passaretta et al., 2019 ). Unemployment is generally lower for doctorate holders compared with other higher education graduates (Auriol et al., 2013 ). However, we do not know how much of this is the consequence of their doctoral education, and how much is related to their intrinsic ability to learn and work.

We know little about the companies that employ doctorate holders, but some evidence suggests that cooperation between universities and the world of business fosters the recruitment of doctorate holders, and that the effect is cumulative (Garcia-Quevedo et al., 2012 ). This suggests that fostering mobility of people and cooperation in research activities between universities and business will increase the demand for doctorate holders. However, the willingness to recruit PhDs is related to the degree of development of the economy, and especially to the R&D and technology intensity of businesses. This also explains the brain drain from less to more developed countries, as people move from less to more knowledge intensive economies.

Credentialism

Arguably, some individuals may be also searching for differentiation in a crowded graduate market in high-participation systems of higher education (Zusman, 2017 ). This form of credentialism is probably at play is some professional disciplines, such as business, public administration and health, where mid-career professionals may be using the doctorate to improve their professional status, autonomy and income rather than to respond to labour market needs or increased complexity of their jobs. Indeed, it may be also occurring in the higher education sector among other professional staff supporting students or involved in the management and administration of institutions, and operating in hybrid roles between academia and other professions. Some of these new doctorates are not compliant with existing definitions, such as the ISCED classification mentioned above, and may not be recognised as such by some organisations (see footnote 2 of this article and footnote 3 of Zusman, 2017 , regarding recognition by the National Science Foundation in the USA).

Import of international talent

On average across OECD countries, 22% of enrolled doctoral students are international or foreign students, compared to 13% at master’s level and 4% at bachelor’s (OECD, 2019b ). Doctorate holders are highly mobile and the labour market for them is globalised (Auriol, 2010 ), although mobility varies by discipline. Many countries deliver their doctorates (and increasingly their master’s) in English, although concerns about the role of minority languages are being raised in some countries, such as the Netherlands, Finland and Denmark (Powell and Green, 2007 , p. 240).

There are also issues of brain drain from poorer to richer countries, and many early-career researchers must be prepared to move to enter the academic profession. Some countries, such as the USA, rely on importing talent to feed their academic system. Migrating academics seek out better conditions in terms of salaries, quality of life, career perspectives, research organisation, balance between teaching and research, funding, and being among high-quality peers (Janger et al., 2019 ). The best, “star performers” seek the most reputable and prestigious institutions, others move to simply look for an occupation they cannot find in their home countries (Cattaneo et al., 2019 ).

Some early career researchers are indeed encouraged to have international mobility as a requisite or to improve their chances for a job in their home country (Musselin, 2004 ), although if the return is not timely reintegration can be difficult because of a loss of social capital in their home country (Cañibano et al., 2020 ).

Less developed countries like India and especially China are transitioning from being exporters of students to becoming competitors of European, North American and Australian higher education systems. It is also important to note that new doctorate holders are needed to improve the qualifications of academic staff in many systems in the developing world, where the production of doctorates has not been able to keep pace with the enrolment expansion of recent decades (Altbach et al, 2012 , p. 18).

Consequences of the growth of doctoral education

The permadoc phenomenon.

Postdoctoral training has benefits: it fosters research productivity and integration in the international scholarly community (Horta, 2009 ), while positively contributing to the possibility of working in a higher education institution and securing a tenure-track appointment. However, while taking one postdoctoral position does increase research productivity, there is little or no advantage from taking two or more (Yang and Webber, 2015 ).

Slower progression within academic careers has become more common in younger cohorts of academics, characterised by a long pre-tenure phase, with many still occupying postdoctoral positions in their forties. In some cases, this long path is even experienced by those that are recruited as assistant professors, where they may remain for most of their careers (Benz et al., 2021 ). Paradoxically, in many countries mobility from the business sector to the higher education sector is higher than the other way around (Auriol et al., 2013 ).

The emergence of the academic precariat

The early stages of the academic career are characterised by insecurity and have been so for some time now (Rosenblum & Rosenblum, 1996 ). Those outside of the career proper, on fixed-term contracts, have provided most of the instruction, and most of the research, in many systems, with no guarantee of continuing employment. The difference is that younger cohorts of academics are now faring less well in transitioning from the external to the internal labour market. Those that manage to make the transition need to be geographically mobile, self-confident and devote a high proportion of their time and effort to research and networking (Ortlieb & Weiss, 2018 ). However, not all institutions assist early-career academics with contacting colleagues abroad, provide financial support for conferences and stays abroad, and provide support with family commitments for them to be able to succeed.

Precarity also raises issues of equity, diversity and inclusion. It has been found that academics who come from the upper social class have access to higher-quality undergraduate education, subsequently progress to more prestigious research universities for doctoral education, and later report higher earnings (Chiappa & Perez Mejias, 2019 ). In addition, they can better afford the precarity associated with academia, especially in its early stages (OECD, 2021b ).

In doctoral education, as in academic employment, women are now on a parity in most fields. At the same time, women are less represented in fields that may offer more opportunities outside academia, such as engineering, manufacturing and construction, are less internationally mobile, and more often work part-time, which may hinder their prospects for advancement in the academic career. Women are also under-represented in tenure track positions, particularly when recruitment is based on invitation. All these factors may explain why women and minority groups tend to be more vulnerable to precarity (OECD, 2021b ).

To find a position, postdoctoral researchers often need to be prepared to move within and increasingly beyond their countries. This may be beneficial for the scientific endeavour, as less mobile academics have more inward oriented information exchange dynamics and lower scientific productivity (Horta, 2013 ), but it often signifies a personal toll. It often means losing the social networks necessary to access positions back home, and conditions for international researchers are often worse, in relation to access to employment contracts, right to stay and welfare benefits. It may also mean having to postpone family formation.

Academia may no longer be attractive to the most talented

The poor career prospects of academia do not cause a shortage of academic researchers, but may push the most talented to jobs beyond academia (Waaijer, 2017 ). Doctorate holders working in research are particularly satisfied with the intellectual challenges of the job (Auriol et al., 2013 ). However, younger doctorate holders in higher education are about 2.5 times less likely to be employed on a permanent basis than those working in other sectors (OECD, 2019a , p. 186). While temporary positions are increasingly common in academia, coinciding with the rise of postdoctoral positions, they are less so in business. Earnings also tend to be higher in the business sector, although there are exceptions in some disciplines (Auriol et al., 2013 ). Natural scientists and engineers are more likely to find employment in research outside academia, while social scientists find more opportunities in non-research occupations. Still, even when not in research, jobs are in most cases related to the subject of doctoral degrees and doctoral graduates tend to be satisfied with their employment situation (Auriol et al., 2013 ).

If academia is to attract and retain the best talent, funding agencies need to have dedicated provision for early career researchers, who otherwise leave for more stable and promising careers beyond academia (Bazeley, 2003 ). And should countries continue to produce more doctorate holders than academia can possibly absorb, then it is important to broaden the job skills that doctoral students acquire during their training to better prepare them for the needs of a wider job market (Cattaneo et al., 2019 ).

Questions about the quality of doctoral education

Despite the growth in doctoral level attainment, the truth is that many doctoral candidates do not complete their degrees: looking at the OECD entry rate for those under 30 and the graduation rates for those under 35, an estimated 1 in 3 drop out. Footnote 6 There are many reasons for withdrawal, including the personal situation of the candidate, but institutional factors are paramount. Institutional issues revolve around the difficulty in achieving work-life balance, and problems with socialisation, often due to a “culture of institutional neglect” (Castelló et al., 2017 ; McAlpine et al., 2012 ), as well as contact with the supervisor and exchange with other PhDs (Jaksztat et al., 2021 ). In addition, admission standards of doctoral programmes may not necessarily pursue high-quality doctoral students (Cattaneo et al., 2019 ) .

The increase in doctorate level attainment does not necessarily mean that all attain what is planned in the definition of International Standard Classification of Education for doctoral level attainment (OECD/Eurostat/UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2015 ) or the Dublin Descriptors (EHEA, 2005 ). The current level of doctoral education attainment in the population, at 1.0%, may not be matched by the level of advanced skills in the population. Less than 0.5% of the adult population in the OECD reaches the highest levels of literacy, i.e. 5 in a scale of 1 to 5, where 3 is considered the necessary level to operate in today’s society and assumed to be provided by upper secondary education (OECD, 2019c ). Level 5 description of proficiency Footnote 7 is arguably the closest to the description of outcomes achieved in doctoral level education in the Dublin Descriptors. Footnote 8

Often, doctorate holders that find themselves in employment outside academia experience an over-development of research skills relative to what is required of the job, but an under-development in personal effectiveness, management and communication skills (Waaijer et al., 2017 ), which means they may be both over- and under-qualified. These findings call for doctoral education to include not only the development of research skills but also skills in other areas relevant to the labour market. However, the premise that education should provide all the skills that the labour market requires is not universally supported. Employers are also responsible for training and developing the employees they recruit, and that responsibility should not be fully transferred from employers to the employee or education institutions (Cappelli, 2015 ).

The changing nature of doctoral education

As it has grown doctoral education has become more formalised, supervisory practice more regulated and the curriculum more explicitly structured. On the other hand, growth has also brought diversity of approaches to doctoral education, in response to evolving disciplinary practices, interactions with outside organisations and the career expectations of doctoral researchers (Pearson et al., 2008 ).

Following the crisis discourse that universities are producing too many doctorates for the few academic jobs available, the concerns with the efficiency of doctoral programmes have shifted to preoccupation with the lack of skills of doctorate holders for productive jobs beyond academia (Cuthbert & Molla, 2015 ; Kniola et al., 2012 ). This discourse presents the inevitable tension between outcomes of research prowess and the relevance of doctorates to the needs of society.

New cooperative doctoral programmes between academia and industry have emerged, which place new demands for both academia and industry, as it involves necessarily the interaction between different cultures, that need to be addressed, and that are different from other more traditional forms of knowledge transfer between academia and industry (Salminen-Karlsson & Wallgren, 2008 ). Preoccupation with the value of the doctorate to industry became common in all disciplines. In addition, doctoral researchers have also become more diverse. Many doctoral candidates are not in their twenties and have pre-existing professional experience, particularly in occupation-oriented disciplines, including in the Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences (HASS) (Bazeley, 2003 ). They see value in engaging with industry, within and beyond the private commercial sector (Barnacle et al., 2020 ). And in some systems, especially in applied disciplines, doctorate holders leave academia, gain professional experience, and convert that practical capital into a tenured position, or maintain parallel careers in both the corporate and academic worlds (Benz et al., 2021 ).

The calls to change doctoral education are not new (Pearson, 1996 ), and the professionalisation of doctoral education both for jobs in academia and beyond is now a perennial discussion. Enders ( 2005 ) describes the shifting paradigms for doctoral training away from the traditional so-called Humboldtian model towards the so-called professional model. On the one hand, some defend that the traditional discipline-based doctoral training is sufficiently comprehensive to accommodate the new needs of knowledge production, others that new modes of doctoral training are needed that cross discipline and organisational borders. Enders ( 2005 ) makes a compelling case that diversity of organisational and structural forms as well as different validation criteria and procedures will probably determine the future face of research training. Instead of a single role model, it would be more appropriate to recognise and value a multi-functional role of the PhD by a diversity of training approaches, i.e. one size fits all approach is not adequate.

Along the same lines Mills and James ( 2020 ) argue that doctoral collaborations with non-academic organisations (such as placements and internships, partnerships and knowledge exchange) have expanded from the hard sciences to become a feature in the social sciences as well. It does, however, raise important challenges regarding how the questioning and critique characteristic of doctoral education is met through the learning opportunities of collaborative arrangements. How these challenges are addressed and made integral to doctoral education in the social sciences is not clear.

It is not just preparation for a career outside academia that is at stake. Even preparation for an academic career needs to be wider. Coates and Goedegebuure ( 2012 ) call for “apprentice academics” to have some training and experience in several functional areas, such as research, education, integration, application, and leadership and management to prepare them for academic work. Coates et al. ( 2020 ) even question the binary categorisation of research and professional doctorates, calling for a re-design of doctoral education to accommodate the growth and diversity of this offer that is preparing people for different career trajectories.

Gu et al. ( 2018 ) have also found that the career expectations of doctoral researchers change over time, are influenced by doctoral training in their university environment, their relationships with supervisors, and their experiences of collaboration with organisations outside academia. Doctoral researchers show dissatisfaction with doctoral training that does not encourage and prepare them for diverse career paths. As such, they also conclude that the goal of doctoral training should not only be the reproduction of “academic successors” but also the cultivation of “versatile experts”.

Conclusion and a research agenda on doctoral education

Enders ( 2005 ) points out that since we must train people for the world of research, we need to ask for what “research”, and since we must train people for the world of work outside academia and science as well, then for which job roles and career trajectories should we prepare them. To answer these questions, we need to study the career paths of doctorate holders.

There is a dearth of cross-country comparative data on doctorate holders and their career paths, even though some countries already have very good longitudinal data (e.g. Survey of Earned Doctorates in the USA). Some international comparable data has been produced by the OECD-Eurostat project on the career of doctorate holders. However, that project has been discontinued, and a specific module whose purpose was to gather data on the working conditions of those who are on temporary or short-term contracts, i.e. “post-doctorates” was never implemented (Auriol, 2012 ).

Universities ought to be more transparent from the beginning of doctoral education about the diverse career paths of their doctoral graduates, and that most will not secure an academic position. The integration of research-related work experience and placements outside academia, professional development, and training of supervisors, may reduce the stigma and difficulty of transitioning to diverse careers within and beyond academia (Hancock, 2019 ). However, it is also difficult to conceive that higher education ought to take full responsibility for developing the skills that employers of doctorate holders may want, instead of the latter contributing to the professional development of the employees they recruit (Cappelli, 2015 ).

From the reflections contained in this essay, several issues emerge that merit additional further research:

What is the role of doctorate holders in the economy and society? Do they follow research careers, in what sectors of employment, in what fields of research?

How many doctorates are needed? Do we have too many or too few doctorate holders?

Why do people pursue doctoral education and postdoctoral training? What information do they possess about their job prospects, and how does that influence their career preferences?

How to better support success in doctoral education? In what ways different academic career frameworks support the careers of doctorate holders within and beyond academia?

What are the barriers and promoters of intersectoral mobility of doctorate holders? Why do doctorate holders chose a career in the higher education, government, business enterprise or private non-profit sectors? Why do they stay or leave research? When do doctorate holders transition to employment beyond academia? How does the job relate to their doctoral degree?

How to promote diversity, equity and inclusion in doctoral education and postdoctoral training?

Data availability

Not applicable.

Code availability

CWTS Leiden Ranking provides bibliometric indicators on over 1,300 universities worldwide, https://www.leidenranking.com/ (accessed 22 August 2022).

This definition includes doctorates referred by different terms, such as PhD, DPhil, D.Lit, D.Sc and LL.D, with a significant component of original research work, but it excludes professional practice qualifications which include the word “doctor”, such a M.D. (medical doctor) and J.D. (juris doctor), which are graduate-entry professional degrees with no substantive original research work.

The World Bank’s DataBank is an analysis and visualisation tool that contains collections of time series data on a variety of topics, including higher education, https://databank.worldbank.org (accessed 7 July 2022).

See R&D personnel by sector of employment and qualification in the OECD Research and Development Statistics ( http://oe.cd/rds ), and distribution of doctorate holders by economic activity in the OECD work on careers of doctorate holders ( http://oe.cd/cdh ).

STIP Compass is a joint initiative of the European Commission (EC) and the OECD that aims to collect in one place qualitative and quantitative data on national trends in science, technology and innovation (STI) policy, https://stip.oecd.org/stip/ (accessed 7 July 2022) The statement here refers to the answer to the question on policies supporting doctoral education.

Entry and graduation rates represent an estimated percentage of an age group expected to enter or graduate, respectively, a certain level of education at least once in their lifetime. The OECD entry rate for those under 30 was 1.407% whereas graduation rate for those under 35 was only 1.074% for doctoral education in 2019. Data extracted on 25 Jul 2022 08:27 UTC (GMT) from OECD.Stat.

At this level, tasks may require the respondent to search for and integrate information across multiple, dense texts; construct syntheses of similar and contrasting ideas or points of view; or evaluate evidence-based arguments. Application and evaluation of logical and conceptual models of ideas may be required to accomplish tasks. Evaluating the reliability of evidentiary sources and selecting key information is frequently a requirement. Tasks often require respondents to be aware of subtle, rhetorical cues and to make high-level inferences or use specialised background knowledge.

Qualifications that signify completion of the third cycle are awarded to students who: have demonstrated a systematic understanding of a field of study and mastery of the skills and methods of research associated with that field; have demonstrated the ability to conceive, design, implement and adapt a substantial process of research with scholarly integrity; have made a contribution through original research that extends the frontier of knowledge by developing a substantial body of work, some of which merits national or international refereed publication; are capable of critical analysis, evaluation and synthesis of new and complex ideas; can communicate with their peers, the larger scholarly community and with society in general about their areas of expertise; can be expected to be able to promote, within academic and professional contexts, technological, social or cultural advancement in a knowledge-based society.

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Acknowledgements

The author was involved in the OECD Global Science Forum’s projects Reducing the Precarity of Academic Research Careers and Career Options for Doctoral and Postdoctoral Scientists referenced in the text. However, the opinions expressed in this chapter are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the OECD or its members. The author would like to thank the editors-in-chief and a coordinating editor of Higher Education for useful constructive feedback on a previous version of this article.

The author would like to acknowledge the support given by the Portuguese National Funding Agency for Science, Research and Technology (FCT), within the Centre for Research in Higher Education Policies (CIPES), project UIDB/00757/2020.

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How to Write a Statement of Purpose for PhD Admission

The dreaded doctoral statement of purpose — every PhD program asks for it, but why is it so difficult to write? Writing a strong statement of purpose is essential to getting into your top PhD programs. A PhD statement of purpose gives admissions committees an introduction to your research interests and why their specific program is of interest to you.

Like a cover letter for a job application, a great statement of purpose allows you to highlight your strengths, interests and experience. If you need statement of purpose advice, keep reading for guidance on how to write a successful statement of purpose that will make your PhD application stand out.

Statement of purpose vs. personal statement

Though the two may sound similar, they’re not necessarily interchangeable. A personal statement gives insight into who you are, while a statement of purpose is meant to showcase what you want to do. Rarely will you be asked to write a personal statement for a PhD program.

As you go through the PhD application process, you will likely see schools requesting either a statement of purpose or a research statement. In most cases, they're both looking for the same thing. Admissions committees want to know about your academic background, your research goals and what you hope to accomplish as a candidate in a PhD program.

Your research goals should align with faculty research

Being admitted to a PhD program is a great feeling, but if you enroll in a program that doesn’t match your research interests or help support your career goals, you may be setting yourself up for disappointment later down the road.

Applying for admission to a program is all about fit. Faculty reviewers are looking for students who best represent the department’s mission and will help them obtain their research objectives.

By the time you apply, you should have a solid understanding of what the department’s primary research and content areas are, as well as which faculty members you’d like to work with more closely. This might mean finding information about what their labs do and reading published articles related to their work.

Be sure to include how your interests and past experiences align with the work that they do and how you would be an active contributor to those endeavors. This approach shows that you took the time to look into their program, so the committee will be more willing to invest theirs in reviewing your application.

Don’t be afraid to address your weaknesses

Many people assume they should avoid listing their shortcomings in their essays. The whole point of applying to a program is to impress the reviewers, right? But constructively addressing your weaknesses can be a great way to demonstrate how this program can help you achieve your academic goals.

Look at the catalog and read through the courses that are part of the program. If there is a particular class that fascinates you, talk about how it could help you obtain a new skill or a better understanding of a concept that you’ve struggled with before.

This demonstrates that you are actively seeking programs to help you better your education. It also exhibits that you’re mindful of what areas of your knowledge need some improvement, which shows maturity and the ability to self-assess.

Keep it succinct

If your program of interest does not specify a page word or word limit, it’s best to assume that your statement should not exceed two pages total. It should be enough to give them a glimpse of who you are and what you have to offer but not share your life story.

The aim is to communicate how and why this particular program will help you meet your academic and career goals. Limited space means you must prioritize what you include in your statement.

Create an outline before you start writing to ensure you are including points that are relevant to your application and the program to which you are applying. Your statement is also an example of how well you can write. By framing your essay before you write it, you can avoid stream-of-consciousness writing that can often come across as undefined and incoherent.

Proofread! And read it over and over

When you think you have a finished product, read your essay out loud. This makes it easier to catch typos, poor grammar, and oddly worded sentences. If you have a friend who is also applying to grad school, help each other out by editing each other’s essays.

Having someone else read your statement and ask questions can help you clarify your points and make it more compelling. Your statement is your one chance to present yourself professionally in your own words. The occasional mistake is excusable, but messy writing will make them think you lack attention to detail.

Before you hit submit on that application, be sure that you have attached the correct document for the right institution. It can be very embarrassing if your statement mentions the wrong faculty member’s name or refers to another school’s library! It could also cause the reviewers to think you are not as serious about their program.

You’ve spent a good amount of time perfecting your application, so take your time to review everything before you submit it so you can rest easy knowing you’ve presented your best.

Get tips and learn more

about how to apply to a PhD by reading our guide on Choosing, Applying for, and Thriving in a PhD Program!

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Discussing a student's reasons for pursuing a graduate degree can help set meaningful goals

The motivation to do a graduate degree often includes both personal and professional goals. While the outcomes of the degree are not entirely controllable, a graduate degree will lead to qualifications for further study or employment. Discussions between student and supervisor about the student’s motivations can help shape the training environment.

Share your long-term goals 

Students often look to their supervisors as mentors and role models in teaching and research. Talking with each other about motivations and goals can help both parties to understand and appreciate why they do what they do.

Through these discussions, you can each  clarify expectations  on topics such as the skills supervisees hope to develop, and the training and types of support required.

As a supervisee, the purpose of your degree might be: 

to get a particular job, whether academic or not (see the Careers page for more information);

to master the skills and knowledge in a particular field; or

to pursue a change of career or a pause in employment.

Those in research-based programs, like a PhD, may also consider purposes such as:

advancing scholarship with contributions that are judged significant by the academic community;

preparing future researchers whose publications, teaching, and methodologies can benefit them individually and in academic, industrial, governmental, or other contexts; and

• creating and applying knowledge for the sake of the public good and other societal concerns (such as the natural environment, judicial justice, health care etc.).

Unclear on what the purpose of your graduate degree might be? 

It is common to lose touch with the initial reasons you decided to pursue a graduate degree. This is especially common in programs that span multiple years, like a PhD. As time passes, your goals and motivations will often change.  

You can reconnect with what motivates you, identify skills you wish to develop, and set long term goals by exploring an Individual Development Plan (IDP).   

What are the outcomes of pursuing a grad degree?

The Master's degree is often a step toward a qualification, employment, or further research in a PhD program. Doctoral degrees also serve as a step towards employment and/or further research, and prepare independent researchers to make an original contribution to knowledge. For supervisors and supervisees, it is important to consider whether the desired outcome is to produce something (i.e., a thesis) or to produce someone (i.e., a person defined in part by having acquired the skills to complete the degree). Is the purpose of graduate education to produce research, or is it to produce qualified researchers?  

Focus on the product or focus on the person?

Is the primary purpose of a PhD to make an original contribution to knowledge (i.e., focus on the product)? Or, is the primary purpose to prepare independent researchers (i.e., focus on the person)?  

The TRaCE McGill project interviewed PhD graduates about their experiences in graduate school. One PhD graduate shared this advice on how much weight to place on producing the thesis: 

One of the most important things is that the thesis doesn’t have to be the be all end all of everything you do. It is going to be imperfect, and that’s okay. Your research project is just that. It’s a project, right? I’m not suggesting that you shouldn’t work hard or try your best, but I’ve seen far too many people try to make it perfect, because they think that will get them the job. And to me, it’s a side project. Learn how to do it, but also have fun with it, because if you don’t enjoy it while you’re in grad school, there’s no way you’re going to enjoy it afterwards.

Another PhD Graduate shared this advice on choosing a thesis topic strategically so that the investment of time and energy feels meaningful:

Try to balance knowing who you are and being strategic with how you’re spending your time. The work gets really hard if you’re trying to do something that you’re not interested in. On the other hand, if you don’t have some awareness of what is required or needed in your field that can cause anxiety and make it more difficult to find a job after you’re done. Find that balance by pursuing a project that you care about and that you can undertake in a way that is positive for you as a whole. Frame it in a strategic way so that people in your wider field can easily recognize its merits.

Graduate students develop transferable skills 

See the TRaCE McGill project and the  Career planning  page of this website for more information on career paths after graduate school.

Many academics still place an emphasis on the doctorate as preparation for academia, however it is important for supervisors to ensure training prepares students for non-academic and non-research careers given the great proportion of graduates who go on to make important contributions outside academia. 

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial 4.0 International License . Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies, McGill University .

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Graduate and postdoctoral studies.

RIT graduate pursues Ph.D. across time zones

Nastaran Nagshineh, center, defended her Ph.D. thesis at RIT in April. Faculty from RIT’s Rochester and Dubai campuses served on her thesis committee and include, from left to right, Kathleen Lamkin-Kennard, Steven Weinstein, Nathaniel Barlow, and David Kofke (a professor at the University at Buffalo). Mohamed Samaha participated remotely and appears on the video screen behind the group and alongside Nagshineh’s picture.

Nastaran Nagshineh is one of the first Ph.D. candidates to bridge RIT’s Rochester and Dubai campuses. Her accomplishment creates a path for future students at the university’s international campuses.

Nagshineh completed her Ph.D. in mathematical modeling while working full time as a mathematics lecturer at RIT Dubai in the United Arab Emirates, teaching as many as five classes a semester. She described her Ph.D. journey as “an exercise in perseverance” due to competing demands and long days. Rochester is eight hours behind Dubai, and the time difference meant many late-night classes and meetings.

“I saw this collaboration as an opportunity, rather than as a challenge, because my primary adviser, Dr. Steven Weinstein (RIT professor of chemical engineering), and my co-adviser, Dr. Mohamed Samaha (RIT Dubai associate professor of mechanical engineering), both have the same area of research interest,” she said. “They both worked toward my success.”

Nagshineh is one of 67 RIT Ph.D. students who defended their thesis this academic year and who will earn their doctorate. RIT awarded 63 Ph.D. degrees in 2023.

In 2020-2021, RIT’s Graduate School met and surpassed the university’s goal of conferring 50 Ph.D. degrees during an academic year. That number will continue to grow as students cycle through the seven new Ph.D. programs that RIT has added since 2017, said Diane Slusarski , dean of RIT’s Graduate School.

Meeting these goals puts RIT on a path toward achieving an “R1,” or research-intensive designation, from the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Learning. RIT is currently ranked as an R2 institution . Many factors go into changing a university’s status, including research investment and maintaining a three-year average of 70 Ph.D. degrees awarded per year, according to Slusarski.

“We have met the goals of the strategic plan, and now we look forward to contributing to the research innovation in the future,” Slusarski said. “We want to help the new programs thrive and win national research awards.”

RIT’s emphasis on high-level research is seen in Nagshineh’s Ph.D. work. She applies mathematical modeling to the field of fluid dynamics. Her research has been published in top-tier journals and has gained notice, said Weinstein, her thesis adviser.

Weinstein describes Nagshineh’s accomplishments as “a testament to a fantastic work ethic and commitment” and is inspirational to younger students at Rochester and Dubai.

“The collaboration between RIT Dubai/Rochester has continued,” he said. “Another paper was submitted a few weeks ago with Mohamed Samaha and Nate Barlow (RIT associate professor in the School of Mathematics and Statistics) as co-authors, as well as Cade Reinberger, a younger Ph.D. student in my research group.”

Mathematical modeling is one of RIT’s newer Ph.D. degree programs, and Nagshineh is among its earliest graduates. The program has doubled in size since it began accepting students in 2017, Slusarski said. This past fall, the mathematical modeling program had 35 students, with two graduating this year.

Altogether, RIT has 13 Ph.D. degree programs currently enrolling 438 students, with computing and information sciences accounting for the largest with 117 students. RIT’s other Ph.D. programs include astrophysical sciences and technology , biomedical and chemical engineering , business administration , color science , electrical and computer engineering, imaging science , mechanical and industrial engineering , microsystems engineering , and sustainability .

New programs in cognitive science and physics will launch in the fall.

The growth in RIT graduate education—with more than 3,000 master’s and doctoral students—reflects a demographic change in the student population, Slusarski said. “We have a higher percentage of women in the graduate programs than we have for RIT undergraduate programs.”

RIT’s graduate programs enroll 42 percent women, according to Christie Leone , assistant dean for the Graduate School.

Nagshineh, who also holds an MS in electrical engineering from RIT Dubai, welcomes her role as a mentor to other women students on both campuses.

“As a young woman in an Arabic country, the power of women is often underestimated and undervalued, and I hope to serve as a role model to female students, especially those that question their path,” Nagshineh said.

She plans to continue in her career as a professor and a researcher. “I would like to pursue a research program where I can advise my own students and teach them more deeply.”

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Guidelines for a PhD with Practice Research

The University of Otago PhD Regulations recognise that PhD research may be undertaken primarily through a practice and that the practice (process and product) may be submitted as substantial evidence.

These guidelines cover matters that need to be considered for admission, confirmation, submission and examination of candidates producing a PhD with Practice Research.

Organisational scope

These guidelines apply to PhD candidates intending to submit a PhD with Practice Research.

Definitions

Expression of intent

Prior training and experience

Supervisor selection

Quality of Practice

• Since the primary criterion, as for any PhD, is a significant contribution to new knowledge or epistemic innovation in the area of practice, the quality of the practice, and its documentation, must be sufficient to the purpose. Any claim to the originality of the practice per se must be demonstrable either, in itself, or through explication of process and location in a lineage in the complementary writings.

Exegesis (typically 30,000 – 40,000 words, maximum 50,000 words)

• The exegesis is required to do more than merely describe the practice (process/product). Though findings may be manifest in the practice itself, they may not be self-evident to the viewer or the examiner on first view. Hence, it is necessary to accompany submission of a practice with a document that serves additionally to make the insights explicit. This exegesis outlines the methodology (Practice Research; Practice as Research; Artistic Research; Practice-led Research) and documents the process of investigation with critical reflection on it. It presents the conceptual framework and context of the project, including articulating and evidencing a research inquiry.
• Introduction – outlining the project, its origins and questions, contribution to knowledge and significance to the field/s; details of any contributions to the creative work made by collaborators.
• Methodology – articulation of the research methodology and methods and materials being utilised.
• Context/Conceptual Framework – a section on the context of the practice, including such matters as physical, traditional Indigenous, historical, artistic contexts as well as conceptual frameworks for the project.
• Location in a Lineage – a review of similar practices facilitates the identification of what is new about the submitted practice.
• Documentation of Process and Analysis – a detailed discussion of the project, closely analysing and reflecting upon how the project was conducted and how the different elements were drawn together in the project and to what effect, attributing, where required, the contribution of any collaborators.
• Conclusion – elucidating the new insights, recounting the findings and future research directions.
• Bibliography or references.

Confirmation of Candidature

Confirmation of nominated practice research

Content of review

• clarified the intended examinable format of the practice (as discussed in the examination guidelines below) within their completed research proposal;
• completed a draft of the methodology section of the exegesis, outlining how the investigative inquiry will lead to substantial new insights from their process/practice in a PhD research context.

Criteria for progression

• the candidate's demonstrated ability to engage in a PhD with Practice Research;
• the candidate’s progress within their provisional year; and
• the Academic Unit’s capacity to provide resources for the research, supervision and examination processes required by the candidate’s research proposal.

Submission and Examination

Submission formats

• as printed material integrated into the bound exegesis document;
• as a digital recording in a portable format bound into the front of the exegesis document;
• as a live performance or exhibition (to be documented and included in the exegesis document).

Examination

Examination of live performance/exhibition

Attribution

• any subsequent public dissemination of recordings;
• presentation on any publicly-accessible digital archive.

Documentation

Related Policies, Procedures and forms

• PhD Regulations

Contact for further information about this Policy

If you have any queries regarding the content of this policy or need further clarification, contact:

The Dean, Graduate Research School Email [email protected]

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More than 3,000 graduate from WVU

WVU Photos Thousands of WVU graduates celebrated their accomplishments with family and friends during nine Commencement ceremonies over the weekend at the Coliseum.

MORGANTOWN — Instilled with Mountaineer Values and encouraged to continue pursuing their purpose while paving the way for positive change in the world, more than 3,000 West Virginia University graduates walked across the stage during nine Commencement ceremonies this weekend (May 10-12) at the Coliseum.

For many, this graduation celebration marked the first opportunity to commemorate their academic achievements in person.

“Many of you started this journey under uniquely challenging circumstances and I am thrilled to give you the celebration that you deserve,” WVU President Gordon Gee told the graduates.

“Our world is looking for new ideas and creative solutions. As a West Virginia University graduate, put your Mountaineer Values to work solving problems and changing lives, and make service to others not just an obligation but your passion.”

An example of a graduate doing just that is Robin Pradilla of Wood County who said she felt lost and disconnected after being medically discharged from the U.S. Army following 12 years of service. Through perseverance, Pradilla discovered her purpose — helping other veterans navigate the challenges of transitioning to civilian life. Graduating with a master’s degree in clinical rehabilitation and mental health counseling from the College of Applied Human Sciences, she will embark on a new career at the Martinsburg VA Medical Center.

Among the lineup of esteemed Commencement speakers following their own paths of purpose, U.S. Sen. Shelley Moore Capito (R-W.Va.) was awarded an honorary doctoral degree during the School of Medicine ceremony as it celebrated its first class to graduate from the Occupational Therapy Doctoral program.

“The education, research and medical services being done here at WVU Medicine is nothing short of life-changing,” Capito said. “There is no doubt that the work being done is making possible what used to seem impossible, and each and every one of you receiving a diploma has become part of that.”

U.S. Sen. Joe Manchin (D-W.Va.) spoke at the Eberly College of Arts and Sciences ceremony on Mother’s Day.

“Thank you for your guidance,” Manchin told mothers and other family members and friends in attendance. “You have sacrificed so much to get today’s graduates to this moment. You have loved and supported them — their success is your success too.”

Graduate Krista Crabtree of Clarksburg will bridge her compassion for children with her bachelor’s degree in social work to advocate for the improvement of the child welfare system in West Virginia. An aspiring family lawyer, she wants to ensure every child’s best interests are at the forefront.

“Your experiences have strengthened your resolve, but I hope that you’ve also gained empathy — realizing how important it is to be kind to yourself and others who may also be struggling,” Provost and Vice President for Academic Affairs Maryanne Reed told the graduates. “Life can be hard, but it can also be an absolute joy, especially when you make connections, open your heart to others, and find purpose and meaning in your work.”

Leading with heart, honorary degree recipient Cynthia Bissett Germanotta co-founded Born This Way Foundation along with her daughter, Lady Gaga, to inspire millions of young people to build a kinder world that fosters mental wellness.

“As I look into this sea of hopeful faces, I am reminded of how inspired I am by this generation’s resilience. We are all grateful for your unwavering commitment to making a difference in the world in service to others,” Germanotta told the School of Dentistry, School of Pharmacy, School of Nursing and School of Public Health graduates.

One student poised to make a difference is Hunter Wright of Bolt who earned his doctorate in dental surgery. Inspired by his alumnus brother and shadowing experiences, he said he is excited to return to his hometown to serve his rural community and advocate for accessible oral health to not only transform smiles, but also lives.

Fusing his interest in the tech world and passion for the outdoors as the vice president of global marketing and communications for GoPro, alumnus Rick Loughery reiterated the importance of finding purpose as he shared his career journey with the last graduates of the Reed College of Media and College of Creative Arts. The two colleges will merge July 1 to become the College of Creative Arts and Media.

Acclaimed pianist Barbara Nissman and Los Angeles-based screenwriter Dawn DeNoon were awarded honorary degrees during that ceremony as well.

“Like ‘Barbie,’ you may sometimes wonder ‘What was I made for?’ Keep looking for the answer,” Gee advised. “And above all, remember to commit to your purpose and work to fulfill it.”

Other notable moments:

* The remaining attendees receiving honorary degrees were Maggie Hardy, owner and CEO of 84 Lumber and Nemacolin, and Karen S. Evans, managing director of the Cyber Readiness Institute, awarded during the John Chambers College of Business and Economics ceremony; Benjamin Ashby Hardesty, owner and CEO of Alta Energy LLC, awarded during the Benjamin M. Statler College of Engineering and Mineral Resources ceremony; and Thomas Heywood, chair of business development for Bowles Rice, awarded during the College of Law ceremony.

* Chancellor and Executive Dean for Health Sciences Dr. Clay Marsh addressed professional and undergraduate students graduating in medical fields.

* The final graduating class from the Davis College of Agriculture, Natural Resources and Design was celebrated, as future graduations will be under the Davis College of Agriculture and Natural Resources name, part of the University’s Division for Land-Grant Engagement.

* Pharmacy education marked its 110th year.

* Molly McGhin, a member of the WVU Rifle team from Griffin, Georgia, who graduated with bachelor’s degree in psychology, has enlisted as a fire support specialist in the U.S. Army Marksmanship Unit.

* Continuing five generations of family connections to WVU Law, including her father and grandfather, Mary Kathryn Kay from Charleston graduated with a JD degree.

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Lauren Christiansen-Lindquist Receives Provost’s Distinguished Teaching Award for Excellence in Graduate and Professional Education

By Kelly Jordan

An emphasis on excellence in teaching and research is central to the mission of the Rollins School of Public Health. This is exemplified each spring as several students, faculty, and staff are recognized with awards for their leadership , research, and teaching. Among the most prestigious teaching awards offered at Emory University is the Provost’s Distinguished Teaching Award for Excellence in Graduate and Professional Education .

Extended to a faculty member from each of the university’s seven graduate and professional schools who “excel as teachers within formal and informal educational settings,” this year’s recipient from Rollins is Lauren Christiansen-Lindquist , PhD, assistant teaching professor.

“Teaching is at the core of all that I do (in the classroom, mentoring, public health practice, and certainly parenting!), and it is such an honor to be recognized for something that is so close to my heart,” says Christiansen-Lindquist. “It’s a privilege to get to share my love of epidemiology with our students and equip them with the tools they need to address public health problems that are meaningful to them.”

Finding Passion, Purpose Through Teaching

Christiansen-Lindquist developed her love for teaching serendipitously. While she was pursuing her PhD in epidemiology, she dreaded the teaching assistantship required of the program due to her fear of public speaking.

“A few weeks into my first semester as a teaching assistant, I became more comfortable talking in front of the class, and quickly learned that not only did I love epidemiology, but I wanted everyone else to love it as much as I did. Since then, I've devoted much of my career to making complex epidemiologic concepts accessible.”

Among Christiansen-Lindquist’s many accomplishments articulated in her nomination letter by Timothy L. Lash, DSc, O. Wayne Rollins Distinguished Professor of Epidemiology and Chair, include her contributions to the Department of Epidemiology as director of graduate studies. Through this role, which she has held since 2019, Christiansen-Lindquist led the department’s transition to remote learning during the pandemic, switch to hybrid learning in 2020-2021, and return to a primarily in-person model in 2021-2022.

She co-led the development of new diversity, equity, and inclusion competencies that are now being incorporated into the department’s curriculum and has served as a mentor for students in the department. Earlier this spring, Christiansen-Lindquist also added “textbook author” to her resume with the release of Fundamentals of Epidemiology , co-authored with Kristin Wall, PhD (who was selected as one of this year’s Department of Epidemiology Distinguished Teaching Award winners ).

Approaching Learning with Empathy, Care

Lash noted Christiansen-Lindquist has taught 13 graduate or undergraduate courses in epidemiology at a range of levels and calls her ability to teach students with a breadth of foundational knowledge, “remarkable.”

He writes, “For each course, her lectures and graded evaluations are well-calibrated to the audience’s readiness to learn and to the size of the classroom. I have never known anyone else who has attempted to teach across this spectrum, let alone mastered the material and teaching at all levels. It is truly an exceptional skill set. Student evaluations of all these courses uniformly praise their learning experiences.”

Christiansen-Lindquist’s teaching also extends to her role as the mother of three young boys, whose at-home learning she shepherded throughout the pandemic. Lash notes that she also, “helped with education and programming at her sons’ schools throughout the pandemic, and co-developed the plans for pandemic management at their schools for fall 2021.”

Christiansen-Lindquist’s warmth and thoughtfulness in how she approaches her students and delivers course content are among many of her qualities applauded by students in their glowing course evaluations.

“Dr. Christiansen-Lindquist is an excellent instructor, mentor, colleague, and even friend,” writes MPH student Caroline Beasley in their nomination letter. “There are so many faculty at Rollins who stand out to me and are deserving of an award like this one, but I think it speaks volumes that Dr. Christiansen-Lindquist is the one who came first to mind for me.” 

Previous testaments to Christiansen-Lindquist’s teaching excellence include her receipt of the 2023 Tom Koepsell & Noel Weiss Excellence in Education Award , the Department of Epidemiology’s Distinguished Teaching Award (2019), and Rollins Student Government Association Professor of the Year (2016 and 2021). 

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Incentive Promotions (Raffles, Prizes, or Sweepstakes)

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The purpose of this guidance document (“Guide”) is to provide information, best practice tips, and recommendations for Liberty University, Inc. (“Liberty”) student researchers (“Researchers”) considering or currently operating incentives, giveaways, or similar promotions to encourage individuals to participate in research projects.

The information provided in this Guide and Appendix A is not legal advice and should not be relied upon as such. Instead, this Guide offers information and resources to help you prepare for and manage incentive-based promotions as part of your research projects. If you have any questions about this Guide or the Appendix, you may contact the IRB.

Research Payments Generally

Researchers routinely offer direct payments or other forms of consideration to encourage individuals to participate in research. Payments generally take one of three forms: (1) compensation, (2) reimbursement, or (3) promotional incentives/prizes. In each case, amounts must be fair and reasonable to minimize the possibility of coercion or undue influence and comply with all applicable federal and state laws.

This Guide focuses on promotion incentives/prizes. Unlike reimbursement or compensation, which seek to restore subjects to a pre-research financial baseline, promotion incentives are intended to influence subjects to enroll in research, remain enrolled, and complete specific milestones for a chance to win a particular prize or thing of value.

Avoid Operating an Illegal Lottery

Researchers are generally free to offer promotional prizes to encourage research participation. However, Researchers may be surprised to learn that in addition to rules applicable to research compensation generally, they must also comply with state and federal lottery laws.

With limited exceptions (e.g., certain charitable raffles and official state lotteries), the operation of lotteries is prohibited under the gambling laws of every state and the District of Columbia. Lotteries are also proscribed under federal laws that prohibit mailing lottery materials and broadcasting information about illegal lotteries by television and radio station licensees. Violations of state anti-lottery laws can also serve as predicate violations of federal anti-gambling statutes and give rise to public enforcement and private rights of action under state consumer protection laws.

Most states define a lottery as a scheme in which all three elements of prize, chance, and consideration are present. “Prize” means property, money, or anything of value. “Chance” is present if either the selection of winners or the prizes they win is influenced by factors outside the control of the participants. “Consideration” varies by state but can include required payments to participate, required purchases of a product or service, or the expenditure of substantial time or effort to enter the drawing. “Raffles,” by definition, are lotteries that generally involve random drawings of names or prearranged numbers of individuals after purchasing chances or participating in a random contest. In most states, only charitable organizations are authorized to operate raffles.

The above analysis is equally applicable in the context of research-related promotions. Researchers who solicit participation in research projects by offering random chances to win gift cards, cash, electronics, etc., in exchange for completing a survey or other activity are, in effect conducting illegal lotteries. Lottery laws typically carry criminal penalties.  Depending on the state law at issue, lottery violations can trigger sanctions ranging from misdemeanor sentences and fines to serious prison time and significant financial penalties.

Sweepstakes Drawings

To avoid penalties for operating an illegal lottery, Researchers who intend to offer prize incentives should consider structuring their promotions to meet the definition of a “sweepstakes” rather than a raffle/lottery. 

In sweepstakes, the “consideration” element is eliminated from the promotion by allowing invited participants to enter and win the drawing for free using what is commonly referred to as an alternative method of entry (“AMOE”). A typical example of an AMOE is mailing a postcard or sending an email with the individual’s name and contact information before a deadline. For the AMOE to be “free,” all individuals invited to participate in the program must be able to submit the AMOE and enter the drawing regardless of whether they participate in the research project. For example, if you invite 100 individuals to complete a survey, all 100 must be allowed to submit an AMOE for a chance to win, regardless of whether they answer the survey. In addition, the AMOE submissions must be given “equal dignity” in all respects to the other participants, which means that all deadlines, prizes, and odds of winning must be precisely the same for AMOE submissions as they are for all other research participants.

While Sweepstakes are permitted in every state and the District of Columbia, certain jurisdictions limit their operation. For example, Florida and New York require registration and posting a surety bond for certain sweepstakes. Most states include information on their websites about lottery laws. You should confirm that your promotion is compliant in your state and all jurisdictions where you intend to solicit participants.

Advertising Drawings

If you decide to operate a “sweepstakes,” it is recommended to refer to the promotion in your marketing materials as a “drawing” and avoid terms like “raffle,” “sweepstakes,” or “lottery.” Note that many social media platforms, including Facebook and Twitter, have rules for running promotions. In all cases, you must follow the advertising rules outlined in Compensating Research Participants and all applicable state and federal laws.

Promotion Rules Template with Instructions

All promotions should include official rules addressing eligibility, deadlines, odds, sponsor information, and AMOE. Attached below is a model template to guide you in preparing official rules. This template is not necessarily compliant in all jurisdictions. Consult an attorney if you need specific advice or assistance preparing your official rules. Additionally, a model affidavit of eligibility, which can be given to the winner of an incentive drawing is provided.

Drawing Rules Template docx

Model Affidavit of Eligibility docx

IRB Research Incentive Guidance Document (Legal Affairs) 9/27/22

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