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Historical Research – Types, Methods and Examples

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Historical Research

Definition:

Historical research is the process of investigating and studying past events, people, and societies using a variety of sources and methods. This type of research aims to reconstruct and interpret the past based on the available evidence.

Types of Historical Research

There are several types of historical research, including:

Descriptive Research

This type of historical research focuses on describing events, people, or cultures in detail. It can involve examining artifacts, documents, or other sources of information to create a detailed account of what happened or existed.

Analytical Research

This type of historical research aims to explain why events, people, or cultures occurred in a certain way. It involves analyzing data to identify patterns, causes, and effects, and making interpretations based on this analysis.

Comparative Research

This type of historical research involves comparing two or more events, people, or cultures to identify similarities and differences. This can help researchers understand the unique characteristics of each and how they interacted with each other.

Interpretive Research

This type of historical research focuses on interpreting the meaning of past events, people, or cultures. It can involve analyzing cultural symbols, beliefs, and practices to understand their significance in a particular historical context.

Quantitative Research

This type of historical research involves using statistical methods to analyze historical data. It can involve examining demographic information, economic indicators, or other quantitative data to identify patterns and trends.

Qualitative Research

This type of historical research involves examining non-numerical data such as personal accounts, letters, or diaries. It can provide insights into the experiences and perspectives of individuals during a particular historical period.

Data Collection Methods

Data Collection Methods are as follows:

Archival research : This involves analyzing documents and records that have been preserved over time, such as government records, diaries, letters, newspapers, and photographs. Archival research is often conducted in libraries, archives, and museums.
Oral history : This involves conducting interviews with individuals who have lived through a particular historical period or event. Oral history can provide a unique perspective on past events and can help to fill gaps in the historical record.
Artifact analysis: This involves examining physical objects from the past, such as tools, clothing, and artwork, to gain insights into past cultures and practices.
Secondary sources: This involves analyzing published works, such as books, articles, and academic papers, that discuss past events and cultures. Secondary sources can provide context and insights into the historical period being studied.
Statistical analysis : This involves analyzing numerical data from the past, such as census records or economic data, to identify patterns and trends.
Fieldwork : This involves conducting on-site research in a particular location, such as visiting a historical site or conducting ethnographic research in a particular community. Fieldwork can provide a firsthand understanding of the culture and environment being studied.
Content analysis: This involves analyzing the content of media from the past, such as films, television programs, and advertisements, to gain insights into cultural attitudes and beliefs.

Data Analysis Methods

Content analysis : This involves analyzing the content of written or visual material, such as books, newspapers, or photographs, to identify patterns and themes. Content analysis can be used to identify changes in cultural values and beliefs over time.
Textual analysis : This involves analyzing written texts, such as letters or diaries, to understand the experiences and perspectives of individuals during a particular historical period. Textual analysis can provide insights into how people lived and thought in the past.
Discourse analysis : This involves analyzing how language is used to construct meaning and power relations in a particular historical period. Discourse analysis can help to identify how social and political ideologies were constructed and maintained over time.
Statistical analysis: This involves using statistical methods to analyze numerical data, such as census records or economic data, to identify patterns and trends. Statistical analysis can help to identify changes in population demographics, economic conditions, and other factors over time.
Comparative analysis : This involves comparing data from two or more historical periods or events to identify similarities and differences. Comparative analysis can help to identify patterns and trends that may not be apparent from analyzing data from a single historical period.
Qualitative analysis: This involves analyzing non-numerical data, such as oral history interviews or ethnographic field notes, to identify themes and patterns. Qualitative analysis can provide a rich understanding of the experiences and perspectives of individuals in the past.

Historical Research Methodology

Here are the general steps involved in historical research methodology:

Define the research question: Start by identifying a research question that you want to answer through your historical research. This question should be focused, specific, and relevant to your research goals.
Review the literature: Conduct a review of the existing literature on the topic of your research question. This can involve reading books, articles, and academic papers to gain a thorough understanding of the existing research.
Develop a research design : Develop a research design that outlines the methods you will use to collect and analyze data. This design should be based on the research question and should be feasible given the resources and time available.
Collect data: Use the methods outlined in your research design to collect data on past events, people, and cultures. This can involve archival research, oral history interviews, artifact analysis, and other data collection methods.
Analyze data : Analyze the data you have collected using the methods outlined in your research design. This can involve content analysis, textual analysis, statistical analysis, and other data analysis methods.
Interpret findings : Use the results of your data analysis to draw meaningful insights and conclusions related to your research question. These insights should be grounded in the data and should be relevant to the research goals.
Communicate results: Communicate your findings through a research report, academic paper, or other means. This should be done in a clear, concise, and well-organized manner, with appropriate citations and references to the literature.

Applications of Historical Research

Historical research has a wide range of applications in various fields, including:

Education : Historical research can be used to develop curriculum materials that reflect a more accurate and inclusive representation of history. It can also be used to provide students with a deeper understanding of past events and cultures.
Museums : Historical research is used to develop exhibits, programs, and other materials for museums. It can provide a more accurate and engaging presentation of historical events and artifacts.
Public policy : Historical research is used to inform public policy decisions by providing insights into the historical context of current issues. It can also be used to evaluate the effectiveness of past policies and programs.
Business : Historical research can be used by businesses to understand the evolution of their industry and to identify trends that may affect their future success. It can also be used to develop marketing strategies that resonate with customers’ historical interests and values.
Law : Historical research is used in legal proceedings to provide evidence and context for cases involving historical events or practices. It can also be used to inform the development of new laws and policies.
Genealogy : Historical research can be used by individuals to trace their family history and to understand their ancestral roots.
Cultural preservation : Historical research is used to preserve cultural heritage by documenting and interpreting past events, practices, and traditions. It can also be used to identify and preserve historical landmarks and artifacts.

Examples of Historical Research

Examples of Historical Research are as follows:

Examining the history of race relations in the United States: Historical research could be used to explore the historical roots of racial inequality and injustice in the United States. This could help inform current efforts to address systemic racism and promote social justice.
Tracing the evolution of political ideologies: Historical research could be used to study the development of political ideologies over time. This could help to contextualize current political debates and provide insights into the origins and evolution of political beliefs and values.
Analyzing the impact of technology on society : Historical research could be used to explore the impact of technology on society over time. This could include examining the impact of previous technological revolutions (such as the industrial revolution) on society, as well as studying the current impact of emerging technologies on society and the environment.
Documenting the history of marginalized communities : Historical research could be used to document the history of marginalized communities (such as LGBTQ+ communities or indigenous communities). This could help to preserve cultural heritage, promote social justice, and promote a more inclusive understanding of history.

Purpose of Historical Research

The purpose of historical research is to study the past in order to gain a better understanding of the present and to inform future decision-making. Some specific purposes of historical research include:

To understand the origins of current events, practices, and institutions : Historical research can be used to explore the historical roots of current events, practices, and institutions. By understanding how things developed over time, we can gain a better understanding of the present.
To develop a more accurate and inclusive understanding of history : Historical research can be used to correct inaccuracies and biases in historical narratives. By exploring different perspectives and sources of information, we can develop a more complete and nuanced understanding of history.
To inform decision-making: Historical research can be used to inform decision-making in various fields, including education, public policy, business, and law. By understanding the historical context of current issues, we can make more informed decisions about how to address them.
To preserve cultural heritage : Historical research can be used to document and preserve cultural heritage, including traditions, practices, and artifacts. By understanding the historical significance of these cultural elements, we can work to preserve them for future generations.
To stimulate curiosity and critical thinking: Historical research can be used to stimulate curiosity and critical thinking about the past. By exploring different historical perspectives and interpretations, we can develop a more critical and reflective approach to understanding history and its relevance to the present.

When to use Historical Research

Historical research can be useful in a variety of contexts. Here are some examples of when historical research might be particularly appropriate:

When examining the historical roots of current events: Historical research can be used to explore the historical roots of current events, practices, and institutions. By understanding how things developed over time, we can gain a better understanding of the present.
When examining the historical context of a particular topic : Historical research can be used to explore the historical context of a particular topic, such as a social issue, political debate, or scientific development. By understanding the historical context, we can gain a more nuanced understanding of the topic and its significance.
When exploring the evolution of a particular field or discipline : Historical research can be used to explore the evolution of a particular field or discipline, such as medicine, law, or art. By understanding the historical development of the field, we can gain a better understanding of its current state and future directions.
When examining the impact of past events on current society : Historical research can be used to examine the impact of past events (such as wars, revolutions, or social movements) on current society. By understanding the historical context and impact of these events, we can gain insights into current social and political issues.
When studying the cultural heritage of a particular community or group : Historical research can be used to document and preserve the cultural heritage of a particular community or group. By understanding the historical significance of cultural practices, traditions, and artifacts, we can work to preserve them for future generations.

Characteristics of Historical Research

The following are some characteristics of historical research:

Focus on the past : Historical research focuses on events, people, and phenomena of the past. It seeks to understand how things developed over time and how they relate to current events.
Reliance on primary sources: Historical research relies on primary sources such as letters, diaries, newspapers, government documents, and other artifacts from the period being studied. These sources provide firsthand accounts of events and can help researchers gain a more accurate understanding of the past.
Interpretation of data : Historical research involves interpretation of data from primary sources. Researchers analyze and interpret data to draw conclusions about the past.
Use of multiple sources: Historical research often involves using multiple sources of data to gain a more complete understanding of the past. By examining a range of sources, researchers can cross-reference information and validate their findings.
Importance of context: Historical research emphasizes the importance of context. Researchers analyze the historical context in which events occurred and consider how that context influenced people’s actions and decisions.
Subjectivity : Historical research is inherently subjective, as researchers interpret data and draw conclusions based on their own perspectives and biases. Researchers must be aware of their own biases and strive for objectivity in their analysis.
Importance of historical significance: Historical research emphasizes the importance of historical significance. Researchers consider the historical significance of events, people, and phenomena and their impact on the present and future.
Use of qualitative methods : Historical research often uses qualitative methods such as content analysis, discourse analysis, and narrative analysis to analyze data and draw conclusions about the past.

Advantages of Historical Research

There are several advantages to historical research:

Provides a deeper understanding of the past : Historical research can provide a more comprehensive understanding of past events and how they have shaped current social, political, and economic conditions. This can help individuals and organizations make informed decisions about the future.
Helps preserve cultural heritage: Historical research can be used to document and preserve cultural heritage. By studying the history of a particular culture, researchers can gain insights into the cultural practices and beliefs that have shaped that culture over time.
Provides insights into long-term trends : Historical research can provide insights into long-term trends and patterns. By studying historical data over time, researchers can identify patterns and trends that may be difficult to discern from short-term data.
Facilitates the development of hypotheses: Historical research can facilitate the development of hypotheses about how past events have influenced current conditions. These hypotheses can be tested using other research methods, such as experiments or surveys.
Helps identify root causes of social problems : Historical research can help identify the root causes of social problems. By studying the historical context in which these problems developed, researchers can gain a better understanding of how they emerged and what factors may have contributed to their development.
Provides a source of inspiration: Historical research can provide a source of inspiration for individuals and organizations seeking to address current social, political, and economic challenges. By studying the accomplishments and struggles of past generations, researchers can gain insights into how to address current challenges.

Limitations of Historical Research

Some Limitations of Historical Research are as follows:

Reliance on incomplete or biased data: Historical research is often limited by the availability and quality of data. Many primary sources have been lost, destroyed, or are inaccessible, making it difficult to get a complete picture of historical events. Additionally, some primary sources may be biased or represent only one perspective on an event.
Difficulty in generalizing findings: Historical research is often specific to a particular time and place and may not be easily generalized to other contexts. This makes it difficult to draw broad conclusions about human behavior or social phenomena.
Lack of control over variables : Historical research often lacks control over variables. Researchers cannot manipulate or control historical events, making it difficult to establish cause-and-effect relationships.
Subjectivity of interpretation : Historical research is often subjective because researchers must interpret data and draw conclusions based on their own biases and perspectives. Different researchers may interpret the same data differently, leading to different conclusions.
Limited ability to test hypotheses: Historical research is often limited in its ability to test hypotheses. Because the events being studied have already occurred, researchers cannot manipulate variables or conduct experiments to test their hypotheses.
Lack of objectivity: Historical research is often subjective, and researchers must be aware of their own biases and strive for objectivity in their analysis. However, it can be difficult to maintain objectivity when studying events that are emotionally charged or controversial.
Limited generalizability: Historical research is often limited in its generalizability, as the events and conditions being studied may be specific to a particular time and place. This makes it difficult to draw broad conclusions that apply to other contexts or time periods.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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University of Wisconsin–Madison
University of Wisconsin-Madison
Research Guides
Introduction to Historical Research

Introduction to Historical Research : Home

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This guide is an introduction to selected resources available for historical research. It covers both primary sources (such as diaries, letters, newspaper articles, photographs, government documents and first-hand accounts) and secondary materials (such as books and articles written by historians and devoted to the analysis and interpretation of historical events and evidence).

"Research in history involves developing an understanding of the past through the examination and interpretation of evidence. Evidence may exist in the form of texts, physical remains of historic sites, recorded data, pictures, maps, artifacts, and so on. The historian’s job is to find evidence, analyze its content and biases, corroborate it with further evidence, and use that evidence to develop an interpretation of past events that holds some significance for the present.

Historians use libraries to

locate primary sources (first-hand information such as diaries, letters, and original documents) for evidence
find secondary sources (historians’ interpretations and analyses of historical evidence)
verify factual material as inconsistencies arise"

( Research and Documentation in the Electronic Age, Fifth Edition, by Diana Hacker and Barbara Fister, Bedford/St. Martin, 2010)

This guide is meant to help you work through these steps.

Other helpful guides

This is a list of other historical research guides you may find helpful:

Learning Historical Research Learning to Do Historical Research: A Primer for Environmental Historians and Others by William Cronon and his students, University of Wisconsin A website designed as a basic introduction to historical research for anyone and everyone who is interested in exploring the past.
Reading, Writing, and Researching for History: A Guide for College Students by Patrick Rael, Bowdoin College Guide to all aspects of historical scholarship—from reading a history book to doing primary source research to writing a history paper.
Writing Historical Essays: A Guide for Undergraduates Rutgers History Department guide to writing historical essays
History Study Guides History study guides created by the Carleton College History Department

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Last Updated: Mar 4, 2024 12:48 PM
URL: https://researchguides.library.wisc.edu/introhist

The Princeton Guide to Historical Research

Zachary Schrag

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The essential handbook for doing historical research in the twenty-first century

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The Princeton Guide to Historical Research provides students, scholars, and professionals with the skills they need to practice the historian’s craft in the digital age, while never losing sight of the fundamental values and techniques that have defined historical scholarship for centuries. Zachary Schrag begins by explaining how to ask good questions and then guides readers step-by-step through all phases of historical research, from narrowing a topic and locating sources to taking notes, crafting a narrative, and connecting one’s work to existing scholarship. He shows how researchers extract knowledge from the widest range of sources, such as government documents, newspapers, unpublished manuscripts, images, interviews, and datasets. He demonstrates how to use archives and libraries, read sources critically, present claims supported by evidence, tell compelling stories, and much more. Featuring a wealth of examples that illustrate the methods used by seasoned experts, The Princeton Guide to Historical Research reveals that, however varied the subject matter and sources, historians share basic tools in the quest to understand people and the choices they made.

Offers practical step-by-step guidance on how to do historical research, taking readers from initial questions to final publication
Connects new digital technologies to the traditional skills of the historian
Draws on hundreds of examples from a broad range of historical topics and approaches
Shares tips for researchers at every skill level

Skills for Scholars: The new tools of the trade

Awards and recognition.

Winner of the James Harvey Robinson Prize, American Historical Association
A Choice Outstanding Academic Title of the Year

Introduction: History Is for Everyone
History Is the Study of People and the Choices They Made
History Is a Means to Understand Today’s World
History Combines Storytelling and Analysis
History Is an Ongoing Debate
Autobiography
Everything Has a History
Narrative Expansion
From the Source
Public History
Research Agenda
Factual Questions
Interpretive Questions
Opposing Forces
Internal Contradictions
Competing Priorities
Determining Factors
Hidden or Contested Meanings
Before and After
Dialectics Create Questions, Not Answers
Copy Other Works
History Big and Small
Pick Your People
Add and Subtract
Narrative versus Thematic Schemes
The Balky Time Machine
Local and Regional
Transnational and Global
Comparative
What Is New about Your Approach?
Are You Working in a Specific Theoretical Tradition?
What Have Others Written?
Are Others Working on It?
What Might Your Critics Say?
Primary versus Secondary Sources
Balancing Your Use of Secondary Sources
Sets of Sources
Sources as Records of the Powerful
No Source Speaks for Itself
Languages and Specialized Reading
Choose Sources That You Love
Workaday Documents
Specialized Periodicals
Criminal Investigations and Trials
Official Reports
Letters and Petitions
Institutional Records
Scholarship
Motion Pictures and Recordings
Buildings and Plans
The Working Bibliography
The Open Web
Limits of the Open Web
Bibliographic Databases
Full-Text Databases
Oral History
What Is an Archive?
Archives and Access
Read the Finding Aid
Follow the Rules
Work with Archivists
Types of Cameras
How Much to Shoot?
Managing Expectations
Duck, Duck, Goose
Credibility
Avoid Catastrophe
Complete Tasks—Ideally Just Once, and in the Right Order
Maintain Momentum
Kinds of Software
Word Processors
Means of Entry
A Good Day’s Work
Word Count Is Your Friend
Managing Research Assistants
Research Diary
When to Stop
Note-Taking as Mining
Note-Taking as Assembly
Identify the Source, So You Can Go Back and Consult if Needed
Distinguish Others’ Words and Ideas from Your Own
Allow Sorting and Retrieval of Related Pieces of Information
Provide the Right Level of Detail
Notebooks and Index Cards
Word Processors for Note-Taking
Plain Text and Markdown
Reference Managers
Note-Taking Apps
Relational Databases
Spreadsheets
Glossaries and Alphabetical Lists
Image Catalogs
Other Specialized Formats
The Working Draft
Variants: The Ten- and Thirty-Page Papers
Thesis Statement
Historiography
Sections as Independent Essays
Topic Sentences
Answering Questions
Invisible Bullet Points
The Perils of Policy Prescriptions
A Model (T) Outline
Flexibility
Protagonists
Antagonists
Bit Players
The Shape of the Story
The Controlling Idea
Alchemy: Turning Sources to Stories
Turning Points
Counterfactuals
Point of View
Symbolic Details
Combinations
Speculation
Is Your Jargon Really Necessary?
Defining Terms
Word Choice as Analysis
Period Vocabulary or Anachronism?
Integrate Images into Your Story
Put Numbers in Context
Summarize Data in Tables and Graphs
Why We Cite
Citation Styles
Active Verbs
People as Subjects
Signposting
First Person
Putting It Aside
Reverse Outlining
Auditing Your Word Budget
Writing for the Ear
Conferences
Social Media
Coauthorship
Tough, Fair, and Encouraging
Manuscript and Book Reviews
Journal Articles
Book chapters
Websites and Social Media
Museums and Historic Sites
Press Appearances and Op-Eds
Law and Policy
Graphic History, Movies, and Broadway Musicals
Acknowledgments

"This volume is a complete and sophisticated addition to any scholar’s library and a boon to the curious layperson. . . . [A] major achievement."— Choice Reviews

"This book is quite simply a gem. . . . Schrag’s accessible style and comprehensive treatment of the field make this book a valuable resource."—Alan Sears, Canadian Journal of History

"A tour de force that will help all of us be more capable historians. This wholly readable, delightful book is packed with good advice that will benefit seasoned scholars and novice researchers alike."—Nancy Weiss Malkiel, author of "Keep the Damned Women Out": The Struggle for Coeducation

"An essential and overdue contribution. Schrag's guide offers a lucid breakdown of what historians do and provides plenty of examples."—Jessica Mack, Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media, George Mason University

"Extraordinarily useful. If there is another book that takes apart as many elements of the historian's craft the way that Schrag does and provides so many examples, I am not aware of it."—James Goodman, author of But Where Is the Lamb?

"This is an engaging guide to being a good historian and all that entails."—Diana Seave Greenwald, Assistant Curator of the Collection, Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum

"Impressive and engaging. Schrag gracefully incorporates the voices of dozens, if not hundreds, of fellow historians. This gives the book a welcome conversational feeling, as if the reader were overhearing a lively discussion among friendly historians."—Sarah Dry, author of Waters of the World: The Story of the Scientists Who Unraveled the Mysteries of Our Oceans, Atmosphere, and Ice Sheets and Made the Planet Whole

"This is a breathtaking book—wide-ranging, wonderfully written, and extremely useful. Every page brims with fascinating, well-chosen illustrations of creative research, writing, and reasoning that teach and inspire."—Amy C. Offner, author of Sorting Out the Mixed Economy

historyprofessor.org website, maintained by Zachary M. Schrag, Professor of History at George Mason University

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An Introduction to Historical Research Design

Historical research design is a methodological approach that investigates and interprets past events, cultures, and phenomena through the analysis of historical sources. Researchers employing this design delve into primary and secondary sources, such as documents, artifacts, and testimonies, to construct a comprehensive understanding of the past.

This method involves critical analysis, contextualization, and the establishment of chronological frameworks to discern patterns, causes, and effects in historical developments. The goal is not only to narrate events but to interpret their significance within the broader historical context. Ethical considerations, including respect for privacy and sensitivity to diverse perspectives, are integral to the practice of historical research design. Overall, this approach contributes to our comprehension of the complexities and dynamics of human history across different periods and cultures.

This blog post aims to discuss the basics of Historical Research Design and advance your understanding concerning different aspects of this research design. This post is your gateway into the methodologies and intricacies of historical research design. From delving into ancient manuscripts to deciphering the narratives of bygone eras, historical research design is the key that unlocks the stories of our ancestors.

This write-up explores the fundamentals of Historical Research Design that shape the journey of researchers as they piece together the puzzle of history or archival documents at a time and will cover mainly the following areas.

What is Historical Research Design?

Why is it called Historical Research Design?

Definitions of Historical Research Design

Understanding of Historical Research Design from different perspectives
A brief history of Historical Research Design

What are the major fields of study in which Historical Research Design is used?

Can historical research design be used in health care?
What are the key characteristics/features of a Historical Research Design?

What are the types of Historical Research Design?

What is the main aim/purpose of a Historical Research Design?

These important topics are discussed here in detail:

Historical research design refers to the methodology and approach used by researchers to investigate and understand past events, phenomena, patterns and oral histories. It is a type of research design that focuses on studying historical data, documents, artifacts, and other sources to reconstruct and interpret events and their contexts.

It is a systematic approach to investigating past events using various sources of evidence, It involves identifying research questions, gathering data, analyzing evidence, and interpreting findings to gain a deeper understanding of the past.

Historical research design can be applied in various academic disciplines, including history, anthropology, sociology, and cultural studies. Researchers use a variety of methods, such as archival research, oral history interviews, and content analysis, to uncover and analyze historical data.

The term “Historical Research Design” encompasses the systematic approach that researchers employ to study and understand historical events and phenomena. Let’s break down the components of the name:

Historical: This term signifies the focus on the past. Historical research is concerned with events, cultures, and occurrences that have taken place in earlier times. It involves the examination of historical records, artifacts, and other sources to reconstruct and interpret the past.
Research: The term “research” emphasizes the systematic and investigative nature of the process. Researchers actively seek out and analyze information to answer specific questions or gain insights into historical issues. This involves a rigorous exploration of primary and secondary sources to gather evidence and construct a narrative.
Design: The inclusion of “design” highlights the structured and intentional nature of the methodology. In the context of historical research, design refers to the plan or framework that guides the research process. This plan involves considerations such as the selection of sources, methods of analysis, and the overall strategy for approaching historical questions.

In essence, “Historical Research Design” reflects the intentional and structured approach historians take when conducting research on the past events or happenings. It acknowledges that historical inquiry involves more than a casual exploration of the past; it requires a thoughtful and systematic design to uncover, interpret, and communicate the stories embedded in historical records.

Various authors have defined Historical Research Design differently. These minor differences can be attributed to several factors, including disciplinary backgrounds, theoretical perspectives, methodological preferences, and the evolving nature of historical scholarship. Here are some definitions of historical research design from different authors:

Robert V. Krueger and Mary A. Casey (2009) argued that historical research is a systematic study of the past, relying on primary and secondary sources to understand human events, trends, and processes over time. It involves a rigorous process of investigation, evaluation, and interpretation of evidence to reconstruct past events and develop meaningful historical narratives.

Similarly, Thomas J. Ricks (2009) believed that historical research is the use of historical sources, such as documents, artifacts, and oral histories, to investigate past events and develop an understanding of human behavior over time. It is a process of inquiry that involves identifying research questions, gathering and evaluating evidence, and constructing plausible explanations for past events.

According to William H. Sewell Jr. (2005) historical research is a systematic process of inquiry into the past that aims to reconstruct past events, identify causal relationships, and explain historical change. It involves the careful collection, evaluation, and interpretation of evidence to develop a nuanced understanding of the past. To Gabrielle M. Spiegel (2011) historical research is a mode of inquiry that employs a variety of methods and sources to investigate the past. It involves a process of critical analysis, interpretation, and synthesis to reconstruct past events and develop meaningful historical narratives.

Christine Lee (2014) elucidated that historical research is a systematic and rigorous approach to understanding the past through the examination of primary and secondary sources. It involves a process of identifying research questions, locating and evaluating evidence, constructing arguments, and communicating findings.

These definitions highlight the key aspects of historical research design, emphasizing its systematic approach, reliance on evidence, and focus on understanding the past. Historical research is a complex and multifaceted endeavor that requires careful consideration of sources, methods, and interpretations.

Understanding of Historical Research Design from different perspectives?

The general perspectives on historical research design have been expressed by scholars in their respective fields. These perspectives often converge on the systematic and methodological nature of historical research. However, it’s important to consult specific works by authors for their nuanced definitions. Here are some general perspectives:

Systematic investigation of the past: Historical research design refers to a systematic and intentional investigation of past events, cultures, and phenomena through the critical analysis of historical sources, artifacts, and records.
Methodological framework for understanding history: It is a methodological framework employed by researchers to explore and interpret the complexities of history, utilizing primary and secondary sources to construct a coherent narrative of the past.
Structured approach to uncover historical realities: Historical research design represents a structured approach to uncovering historical realities, involving the careful selection and analysis of diverse sources to reveal the multifaceted dimensions of historical events.
Organized exploration of primary and secondary sources: It involves the organized exploration of primary sources (contemporary documents, artifacts) and secondary sources (interpretations, analyses) to reconstruct historical events, understand causation, and appreciate the context in which they unfolded.
Chronological analysis and interpretation: Historical research design includes chronological analysis and interpretation, allowing researchers to establish timelines, identify patterns, and provide nuanced interpretations of historical developments.
Ethically grounded study of the past: It is an ethically grounded study of the past, requiring researchers to navigate issues of privacy, cultural sensitivity, and respect for diverse perspectives when engaging with historical sources and narratives.
Causal exploration and contextual understanding: Historical research design involves causal exploration, seeking to understand the factors and conditions that contributed to historical events. It emphasizes contextual understanding to provide a more comprehensive view of the past.
Triangulation of historical evidence: Researchers employ triangulation by cross-referencing multiple sources of historical evidence to enhance the reliability and validity of their findings, ensuring a more robust and well-supported historical narrative.
Interpretive analysis of significance: It goes beyond mere documentation by incorporating interpretive analysis, wherein researchers seek to understand and communicate the significance of historical events within the broader historical context.
Structured plan for historical inquiry: Historical research design is a structured plan guiding the entire process of historical inquiry, from the formulation of research questions to the synthesis of findings into a cohesive and meaningful historical narrative.

A brief history of Historical Research Design.

The development of historical research design is deeply intertwined with the evolution of historical methodology and the broader field of history. There are several key figures who have significantly contributed to shaping the methodologies and approaches used in historical research over time. It’s important to note that historical research design, as a formalized concept, has evolved gradually and does not have a single origin.

Here are some key milestones and contributors in the development of historical research design:

Leopold von Ranke (1795–1886): Often regarded as one of the founding figures of modern historical scholarship, Ranke emphasized the importance of using primary sources and adopting a critical, source-based approach. His influence contributed to the development of a more systematic and rigorous approach to historical research.
Charles Beard (1874–1948): Charles Beard, an American historian, advocated for an economic interpretation of history. His work, including “An Economic Interpretation of the Constitution of the United States,” influenced the study of history by highlighting the role of economic factors in shaping historical events.
Marc Bloch (1886–1944): A co-founder of the Annales School of history, Bloch emphasized the importance of interdisciplinary approaches and the study of long-term historical structures. His work encouraged a more comprehensive and contextual understanding of historical phenomena.
Fernand Braudel (1902–1985): Building on the Annales School tradition, Braudel introduced the concept of the “longue durée” (long term) in historical research. He encouraged historians to study the deep structures of history, including geography, climate, and social structures, over extended periods.
H. Carr (1892–1982): In his influential work “What Is History?” Carr discussed the role of the historian as an interpreter and emphasized the subjective nature of historical interpretation. He encouraged historians to be conscious of their biases and perspectives.
Natalie Zemon Davis (1928): Davis, a contemporary historian, has contributed to social history and emphasized the importance of including diverse voices and perspectives in historical research. Her work has influenced the study of history from the bottom up, focusing on the experiences of ordinary people.

While these scholars played crucial roles in shaping historical research methodologies, the concept of Historical Research Design emerged more formally in the 20th century as historians increasingly recognized the need for systematic approaches to guide their inquiries. Today, historical research design continues to evolve as scholars incorporate new methods, technologies, and interdisciplinary approaches into their studies.

Historical qualitative research design is employed across various fields where a nuanced understanding of the past is essential. This design can be applied in various academic disciplines, including history, anthropology, sociology, and cultural studies. Researchers use a variety of methods, such as archival research, oral history interviews, and content analysis, to uncover and analyze historical data.

In history itself, historians use qualitative methods to delve into primary sources, interpret narratives, and uncover the complexities of past events. Anthropologists apply historical qualitative research design to explore the cultural dynamics of past societies, while sociologists use it to investigate the historical context of social phenomena and societal structures. Archaeologists utilize qualitative methods to analyze artifacts within their historical context. Cultural studies scholars examine the historical development of cultural practices, identities, and representations. In literary studies, researchers employ historical qualitative research design to analyze texts in their historical and cultural contexts, unveiling the literary, social, and cultural dynamics of different periods. Education researchers explore the historical evolution of educational systems and practices. Political scientists investigate the historical development of political institutions, ideologies, and movements. In religious studies, scholars use historical qualitative research design to understand the development of religious beliefs and practices over time.

The interdisciplinary nature of historical qualitative research design makes it a versatile tool across numerous fields, enabling researchers to uncover the multifaceted dimensions of the past.

Can Historical Research Design be used in health care?

While historical qualitative research design is not as commonly associated with healthcare research as it is with disciplines like history or anthropology, it can indeed be applied in healthcare contexts. Historical qualitative research design in healthcare involves using qualitative methods to explore and understand the historical dimensions of healthcare practices, policies, and patient experiences. Here are a few ways in which historical qualitative research design can be applied in healthcare:

Evolution of healthcare practices: Researchers can use historical qualitative research design to investigate the historical development of healthcare practices, including medical treatments, diagnostic methods, and patient care. This can provide insights into the evolution of medical knowledge and the factors that have influenced healthcare delivery over time.
Health policy and institutions: Historical qualitative research can be employed to study the development of health policies, healthcare institutions, and the role of government in shaping healthcare systems. Understanding the historical context of healthcare policy can inform current debates and decision-making processes.
Patient experiences over time: Qualitative methods can be used to explore the historical experiences of patients in healthcare settings. This may involve examining historical documents, oral histories, or personal narratives to understand how individuals perceived and interacted with healthcare services in different eras.
Socio-cultural perspectives on health: Researchers can use historical qualitative research design to explore the socio-cultural dimensions of health and illness over time. This may include studying cultural beliefs, social attitudes toward health, and historical changes in the perception of diseases.
Ethical considerations in healthcare: Historical qualitative research can shed light on the ethical considerations in healthcare practices and research over different periods. This includes examining how ethical standards and practices have evolved and been influenced by societal values.
Development of healthcare technologies: Researchers can investigate the historical development of healthcare technologies and their impact on medical practices. This may include but limited to the adoption of new medical devices, diagnostic tools, and technological innovations in healthcare delivery.

While historical qualitative research design is not the primary methodology in healthcare research, its application can offer a richer understanding of the historical context in which healthcare systems and practices have evolved. It allows researchers to uncover the socio-cultural, ethical, and institutional factors that have shaped the healthcare landscape over time.

What are the key characteristics/features of Historical Research Design?

A well-crafted historical research design possesses several key characteristics and features that guide the systematic investigation and interpretation of past events. The key features of historical research design include:

Clear research questions: Historical research design begins with well-defined and focused research questions that set the direction for the investigation. These questions should be specific, relevant, and framed to address aspects of the past that the researcher aims to explore.
Use of primary and secondary sources: The design incorporates a strategy for gathering and analyzing both primary and secondary sources. Primary sources are firsthand accounts or artifacts from the time being studied, while secondary sources include interpretations and analyses by later scholars.
Critical analysis: Historians engage in critical analysis of sources, evaluating their reliability, authenticity, and bias. This involves considering the context in which the sources were created and assessing the perspectives and motivations of the individuals involved.
Contextualization: Historical research design emphasizes placing events, individuals, and phenomena within their historical context. This involves understanding the social, cultural, economic, and political conditions that influenced and shaped the historical developments under investigation.
Chronological framework: Establishing a chronological framework is crucial in historical research. Researchers organize events and developments in a timeline, facilitating the understanding of the sequence of occurrences and their temporal relationships.
Interpretation: Historical research design includes an interpretative dimension. Researchers move beyond the mere narration of events to provide thoughtful interpretations of their meaning and significance. This involves analyzing patterns, causes, and consequences.
Causal analysis: Investigating causation is a common feature. Historical research design often explores the factors and conditions that led to specific events or changes over time. Researchers seek to identify and understand the causal relationships at play.
Triangulation: Researchers use triangulation by cross-referencing information from multiple sources to enhance the reliability and validity of their findings. This methodological approach strengthens the overall robustness of the historical narrative.
Ethical considerations: Ethical considerations are integral to historical research design. Researchers must respect the rights and privacy of individuals and communities represented in historical records. This involves sensitivity to cultural perspectives and responsible handling of historical data.
Reflective awareness of bias: Historians acknowledge the potential biases in historical sources and maintain a reflective awareness of their own biases. This self-awareness helps researchers approach the past with a critical yet open-minded perspective.
Clarity in methodology: The research design includes a clear and transparent methodology outlining how data will be collected, analyzed, and interpreted. This clarity ensures that the research process is systematic and replicable.

These key characteristics collectively contribute to a well-designed and rigorous historical research study, enabling researchers to uncover and communicate a nuanced understanding of the past.

Historical research design encompasses various approaches and methods tailored to the specific goals of a study. Here are several types of historical research design:

Descriptive research design: This type involves a detailed and comprehensive exploration of historical events, providing a thorough account without necessarily delving into causation or interpretation. It is often the starting point for historical inquiries.
Explanatory research design: Explanatory designs aim to uncover the reasons or causes behind historical events or phenomena. Researchers using this design seek to understand the factors that contributed to specific outcomes in the past.
Comparative research design: Comparative historical research involves analyzing similarities and differences between different historical contexts or events. By examining multiple cases, researchers can identify patterns, variations, and underlying factors.
Longitudinal research design: Longitudinal designs track the development of a specific subject or phenomenon over an extended period. This approach is valuable for studying changes and continuities across different historical epochs.
Retrospective research design: Researchers employing a retrospective design study historical events or phenomena that have already occurred. This design is common in medical and epidemiological research, where investigators examine past events to identify potential causes.
Oral history research design: Oral history designs involve collecting and analyzing firsthand accounts of individuals who have lived through specific historical events. This approach is particularly valuable for preserving and understanding personal experiences.
Biographical research design: Biographical research designs focus on the life and experiences of a particular individual in history. By examining an individual’s biography, researchers can gain insights into broader historical contexts.
Content analysis research design: Content analysis involves systematically analyzing and interpreting the content of historical documents, texts, or artifacts. Researchers use this design to identify patterns, themes, and trends within the historical record.
Archival research design: Archival research designs center on the systematic examination of historical documents, records, and materials housed in archives. This approach is fundamental for uncovering primary sources and constructing historical narratives.
Narrative research design: Narrative research designs focus on the storytelling aspect of historical research. Researchers construct narratives to convey the sequence of events and interpret the meaning and significance of historical occurrences.

These types of historical research designs are not mutually exclusive, and researchers often employ a combination of approaches to address their research questions comprehensively. The choice of design depends on the nature of the historical inquiry and the specific goals of the study.

The aim or purpose of a historical research design is to systematically investigate and interpret past events, cultures, and phenomena. The design provides a structured framework for conducting historical research, guiding researchers in their exploration of the past. The key purposes of a historical research design include:

Understanding the past: The primary aim of historical research design is to deepen our understanding of the past. Researchers seek to uncover and analyze historical events, cultures, and developments, aiming to provide insights into the complexities of human history.
Reconstructing historical narratives: Historical research design facilitates the reconstruction of historical narratives. Researchers use a combination of primary and secondary sources to piece together a coherent and accurate account of what happened in the past.
Interpreting significance: Historical research design aims to interpret the significance of historical events and phenomena. It goes beyond mere documentation, offering insights into the meaning and implications of past occurrences within their historical context.
Identifying patterns and trends: Researchers use historical research design to identify patterns, trends, and recurring themes in historical data. This helps in recognizing broader historical forces, social changes, and cultural shifts over time.
Exploring causation: Historical research design allows researchers to explore causation in historical events. By analyzing the factors and conditions that led to specific outcomes, researchers seek to understand the cause-and-effect relationships shaping the past.
Contextualizing historical developments: Contextualization is a key purpose of historical research design. Researchers aim to place historical events within their broader social, cultural, economic, and political context, providing a more comprehensive understanding.
Contributing to historical knowledge: Historical research design contributes to the body of historical knowledge. By conducting rigorous and systematic research, scholars add new insights, perspectives, and interpretations to our collective understanding of the past.
Preserving cultural heritage: Historical research design plays a role in preserving cultural heritage. By documenting and interpreting historical events, researchers contribute to the preservation of cultural and historical artifacts, traditions, and memories.
Informing contemporary understanding: Historical research design has the purpose of informing contemporary understanding. By studying the past, researchers and society at large can gain insights into the origins of current issues, institutions, and cultural practices.
Enhancing critical thinking: Engaging in historical research design cultivates critical thinking skills. Researchers must critically analyze sources, question assumptions, and navigate complexities, fostering a disciplined and rigorous approach to understanding the past.

In summary, the aim of historical research design is multifaceted, encompassing the exploration, interpretation, and contextualization of the past to contribute to our broader understanding of human history. The choice of research design depends on the specific research questions being investigated and the availability of relevant sources. Historians often employ a combination of methods to gain a comprehensive understanding of the past.

These types of historical research design represent the diverse approaches that historians employ to investigate the past. Each approach has its strengths and limitations, and the choice of method depends on the specific research objectives and the nature of the available evidence.

The next blog post provides you with a step-by-step guide for developing a historical research design and will cover the following important topics:

Importance of Historical Research Design
Strengths and limitations of Historical Research Design
What research philosophy suits Historical Research Design?
Why do researchers select a Historical research design?
Is the Historical research design qualitative or quantitative in nature?
What are the most commonly used data collection methods in Historical Research Design?
How to develop a Historical Research Design?
What are the procedures involved in Historical Design?
How many participants used to be engaged in Historical Research?
What is the common format or structure of a Historical Research Study?
How long should be a Historical Research study?
Who utilizes the Historical Research?
How is Historical Research Design used?

Dr Syed Hafeez Ahmad

An Introduction to Historical Research Design

How to select a fascinating research topic?

What is a Case Study research design and how the doctoral candidates should develop it?

Why the majority of PhD students suffer from depression?

The 10 important lessons novice researchers must learn before initiating their research work

Understanding the Fundamentals of Ethnographic Research Design: With Focus on Key Principles and Best Practices

Understanding the difference between theoretical and conceptual frameworks

About Author

Hi, my name is Dr. Hafeez

I am a research blogger, YouTuber and content writer. This blog is aimed at sharing my knowledge, experience and insight with the academics, research scholars and policy makers about universities' governance and changing dynamics of higher education landscape in Pakistan.

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Educational Research Basics by Del Siegle

Historical research.

Del Siegle, Ph.D. University of Connecticut [email protected] www.delsiegle.info

updated 2/01/2024

A Step-by-Step Guide to Doing Historical Research [without getting hysterical!] In addition to being a scholarly investigation, research is a social activity intended to create new knowledge. Historical research is your informed response to the questions that you ask while examining the record of human experience. These questions may concern such elements as looking at an event or topic, examining events that lead to the event in question, social influences, key players, and other contextual information. This step-by-step guide progresses from an introduction to historical resources to information about how to identify a topic, craft a thesis and develop a research paper. Table of contents: The Range and Richness of Historical Sources Secondary Sources Primary Sources Historical Analysis What is it? Who, When, Where, What and Why: The Five "W"s Topic, Thesis, Sources Definition of Terms Choose a Topic Craft a Thesis Evaluate Thesis and Sources A Variety of Information Sources Take Efficient Notes Note Cards Thinking, Organizing, Researching Parenthetical Documentation Prepare a Works Cited Page Drafting, Revising, Rewriting, Rethinking For Further Reading: Works Cited Additional Links So you want to study history?! Tons of help and links Slatta Home Page Use the Writing and other links on the lefhand menu I. The Range and Richness of Historical Sources Back to Top Every period leaves traces, what historians call "sources" or evidence. Some are more credible or carry more weight than others; judging the differences is a vital skill developed by good historians. Sources vary in perspective, so knowing who created the information you are examining is vital. Anonymous doesn't make for a very compelling source. For example, an FBI report on the antiwar movement, prepared for U.S. President Richard Nixon, probably contained secrets that at the time were thought to have affected national security. It would not be usual, however, for a journalist's article about a campus riot, featured in a local newspaper, to leak top secret information. Which source would you read? It depends on your research topic. If you're studying how government officials portrayed student activists, you'll want to read the FBI report and many more documents from other government agencies such as the CIA and the National Security Council. If you're investigating contemporary opinion of pro-war and anti-war activists, local newspaper accounts provide a rich resource. You'd want to read a variety of newspapers to ensure you're covering a wide range of opinions (rural/urban, left/right, North/South, Soldier/Draft-dodger, etc). Historians classify sources into two major categories: primary and secondary sources. Secondary Sources Back to Top Definition: Secondary sources are created by someone who was either not present when the event occurred or removed from it in time. We use secondary sources for overview information, to familiarize ourselves with a topic, and compare that topic with other events in history. In refining a research topic, we often begin with secondary sources. This helps us identify gaps or conflicts in the existing scholarly literature that might prove promsing topics. Types: History books, encyclopedias, historical dictionaries, and academic (scholarly) articles are secondary sources. To help you determine the status of a given secondary source, see How to identify and nagivate scholarly literature . Examples: Historian Marilyn Young's (NYU) book about the Vietnam War is a secondary source. She did not participate in the war. Her study is not based on her personal experience but on the evidence she culled from a variety of sources she found in the United States and Vietnam. Primary Sources Back to Top Definition: Primary sources emanate from individuals or groups who participated in or witnessed an event and recorded that event during or immediately after the event. They include speeches, memoirs, diaries, letters, telegrams, emails, proclamations, government documents, and much more. Examples: A student activist during the war writing about protest activities has created a memoir. This would be a primary source because the information is based on her own involvement in the events she describes. Similarly, an antiwar speech is a primary source. So is the arrest record of student protesters. A newspaper editorial or article, reporting on a student demonstration is also a primary source. II. Historical Analysis What is it? Back to Top No matter what you read, whether it's a primary source or a secondary source, you want to know who authored the source (a trusted scholar? A controversial historian? A propagandist? A famous person? An ordinary individual?). "Author" refers to anyone who created information in any medium (film, sound, or text). You also need to know when it was written and the kind of audience the author intend to reach. You should also consider what you bring to the evidence that you examine. Are you inductively following a path of evidence, developing your interpretation based on the sources? Do you have an ax to grind? Did you begin your research deductively, with your mind made up before even seeing the evidence. Historians need to avoid the latter and emulate the former. To read more about the distinction, examine the difference between Intellectual Inquirers and Partisan Ideologues . In the study of history, perspective is everything. A letter written by a twenty- year old Vietnam War protestor will differ greatly from a letter written by a scholar of protest movements. Although the sentiment might be the same, the perspective and influences of these two authors will be worlds apart. Practicing the " 5 Ws " will avoid the confusion of the authority trap. Who, When, Where, What and Why: The Five "W"s Back to Top Historians accumulate evidence (information, including facts, stories, interpretations, opinions, statements, reports, etc.) from a variety of sources (primary and secondary). They must also verify that certain key pieces of information are corroborated by a number of people and sources ("the predonderance of evidence"). The historian poses the " 5 Ws " to every piece of information he examines: Who is the historical actor? When did the event take place? Where did it occur? What did it entail and why did it happen the way it did? The " 5 Ws " can also be used to evaluate a primary source. Who authored the work? When was it created? Where was it created, published, and disseminated? Why was it written (the intended audience), and what is the document about (what points is the author making)? If you know the answers to these five questions, you can analyze any document, and any primary source. The historian doesn't look for the truth, since this presumes there is only one true story. The historian tries to understand a number of competing viewpoints to form his or her own interpretation-- what constitutes the best explanation of what happened and why. By using as wide a range of primary source documents and secondary sources as possible, you will add depth and richness to your historical analysis. The more exposure you, the researcher, have to a number of different sources and differing view points, the more you have a balanced and complete view about a topic in history. This view will spark more questions and ultimately lead you into the quest to unravel more clues about your topic. You are ready to start assembling information for your research paper. III. Topic, Thesis, Sources Definition of Terms Back to Top Because your purpose is to create new knowledge while recognizing those scholars whose existing work has helped you in this pursuit, you are honor bound never to commit the following academic sins: Plagiarism: Literally "kidnapping," involving the use of someone else's words as if they were your own (Gibaldi 6). To avoid plagiarism you must document direct quotations, paraphrases, and original ideas not your own. Recycling: Rehashing material you already know thoroughly or, without your professor's permission, submitting a paper that you have completed for another course. Premature cognitive commitment: Academic jargon for deciding on a thesis too soon and then seeking information to serve that thesis rather than embarking on a genuine search for new knowledge. Choose a Topic Back to Top "Do not hunt for subjects, let them choose you, not you them." --Samuel Butler Choosing a topic is the first step in the pursuit of a thesis. Below is a logical progression from topic to thesis: Close reading of the primary text, aided by secondary sources Growing awareness of interesting qualities within the primary text Choosing a topic for research Asking productive questions that help explore and evaluate a topic Creating a research hypothesis Revising and refining a hypothesis to form a working thesis First, and most important, identify what qualities in the primary or secondary source pique your imagination and curiosity and send you on a search for answers. Bloom's taxonomy of cognitive levels provides a description of productive questions asked by critical thinkers. While the lower levels (knowledge, comprehension) are necessary to a good history essay, aspire to the upper three levels (analysis, synthesis, evaluation). Skimming reference works such as encyclopedias, books, critical essays and periodical articles can help you choose a topic that evolves into a hypothesis, which in turn may lead to a thesis. One approach to skimming involves reading the first paragraph of a secondary source to locate and evaluate the author's thesis. Then for a general idea of the work's organization and major ideas read the first and last sentence of each paragraph. Read the conclusion carefully, as it usually presents a summary (Barnet and Bedau 19). Craft a Thesis Back to Top Very often a chosen topic is too broad for focused research. You must revise it until you have a working hypothesis, that is, a statement of an idea or an approach with respect to the source that could form the basis for your thesis. Remember to not commit too soon to any one hypothesis. Use it as a divining rod or a first step that will take you to new information that may inspire you to revise your hypothesis. Be flexible. Give yourself time to explore possibilities. The hypothesis you create will mature and shift as you write and rewrite your paper. New questions will send you back to old and on to new material. Remember, this is the nature of research--it is more a spiraling or iterative activity than a linear one. Test your working hypothesis to be sure it is: broad enough to promise a variety of resources. narrow enough for you to research in depth. original enough to interest you and your readers. worthwhile enough to offer information and insights of substance "do-able"--sources are available to complete the research. Now it is time to craft your thesis, your revised and refined hypothesis. A thesis is a declarative sentence that: focuses on one well-defined idea makes an arguable assertion; it is capable of being supported prepares your readers for the body of your paper and foreshadows the conclusion. Evaluate Thesis and Sources Back to Top Like your hypothesis, your thesis is not carved in stone. You are in charge. If necessary, revise it during the research process. As you research, continue to evaluate both your thesis for practicality, originality, and promise as a search tool, and secondary sources for relevance and scholarliness. The following are questions to ask during the research process: Are there many journal articles and entire books devoted to the thesis, suggesting that the subject has been covered so thoroughly that there may be nothing new to say? Does the thesis lead to stimulating, new insights? Are appropriate sources available? Is there a variety of sources available so that the bibliography or works cited page will reflect different kinds of sources? Which sources are too broad for my thesis? Which resources are too narrow? Who is the author of the secondary source? Does the critic's background suggest that he/she is qualified? After crafting a thesis, consider one of the following two approaches to writing a research paper: Excited about your thesis and eager to begin? Return to the primary or secondary source to find support for your thesis. Organize ideas and begin writing your first draft. After writing the first draft, have it reviewed by your peers and your instructor. Ponder their suggestions and return to the sources to answer still-open questions. Document facts and opinions from secondary sources. Remember, secondary sources can never substitute for primary sources. Confused about where to start? Use your thesis to guide you to primary and secondary sources. Secondary sources can help you clarify your position and find a direction for your paper. Keep a working bibliography. You may not use all the sources you record, but you cannot be sure which ones you will eventually discard. Create a working outline as you research. This outline will, of course, change as you delve more deeply into your subject. A Variety of Information Sources Back to Top "A mind that is stretched to a new idea never returns to its original dimension." --Oliver Wendell Holmes Your thesis and your working outline are the primary compasses that will help you navigate the variety of sources available. In "Introduction to the Library" (5-6) the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers suggests you become familiar with the library you will be using by: taking a tour or enrolling for a brief introductory lecture referring to the library's publications describing its resources introducing yourself and your project to the reference librarian The MLA Handbook also lists guides for the use of libraries (5), including: Jean Key Gates, Guide to the Use of Libraries and Information Sources (7th ed., New York: McGraw, 1994). Thomas Mann, A Guide to Library Research Methods (New York: Oxford UP, 1987). Online Central Catalog Most libraries have their holdings listed on a computer. The online catalog may offer Internet sites, Web pages and databases that relate to the university's curriculum. It may also include academic journals and online reference books. Below are three search techniques commonly used online: Index Search: Although online catalogs may differ slightly from library to library, the most common listings are by: Subject Search: Enter the author's name for books and article written about the author. Author Search: Enter an author's name for works written by the author, including collections of essays the author may have written about his/her own works. Title Search: Enter a title for the screen to list all the books the library carries with that title. Key Word Search/Full-text Search: A one-word search, e.g., 'Kennedy,' will produce an overwhelming number of sources, as it will call up any entry that includes the name 'Kennedy.' To focus more narrowly on your subject, add one or more key words, e.g., "John Kennedy, Peace Corps." Use precise key words. Boolean Search: Boolean Search techniques use words such as "and," "or," and "not," which clarify the relationship between key words, thus narrowing the search. Take Efficient Notes Back to Top Keeping complete and accurate bibliography and note cards during the research process is a time (and sanity) saving practice. If you have ever needed a book or pages within a book, only to discover that an earlier researcher has failed to return it or torn pages from your source, you understand the need to take good notes. Every researcher has a favorite method for taking notes. Here are some suggestions-- customize one of them for your own use. Bibliography cards There may be far more books and articles listed than you have time to read, so be selective when choosing a reference. Take information from works that clearly relate to your thesis, remembering that you may not use them all. Use a smaller or a different color card from the one used for taking notes. Write a bibliography card for every source. Number the bibliography cards. On the note cards, use the number rather than the author's name and the title. It's faster. Another method for recording a working bibliography, of course, is to create your own database. Adding, removing, and alphabetizing titles is a simple process. Be sure to save often and to create a back-up file. A bibliography card should include all the information a reader needs to locate that particular source for further study. Most of the information required for a book entry (Gibaldi 112): Author's name Title of a part of the book [preface, chapter titles, etc.] Title of the book Name of the editor, translator, or compiler Edition used Number(s) of the volume(s) used Name of the series Place of publication, name of the publisher, and date of publication Page numbers Supplementary bibliographic information and annotations Most of the information required for an article in a periodical (Gibaldi 141): Author's name Title of the article Name of the periodical Series number or name (if relevant) Volume number (for a scholarly journal) Issue number (if needed) Date of publication Page numbers Supplementary information For information on how to cite other sources refer to your So you want to study history page . Note Cards Back to Top Take notes in ink on either uniform note cards (3x5, 4x6, etc.) or uniform slips of paper. Devote each note card to a single topic identified at the top. Write only on one side. Later, you may want to use the back to add notes or personal observations. Include a topical heading for each card. Include the number of the page(s) where you found the information. You will want the page number(s) later for documentation, and you may also want page number(s)to verify your notes. Most novice researchers write down too much. Condense. Abbreviate. You are striving for substance, not quantity. Quote directly from primary sources--but the "meat," not everything. Suggestions for condensing information: Summary: A summary is intended to provide the gist of an essay. Do not weave in the author's choice phrases. Read the information first and then condense the main points in your own words. This practice will help you avoid the copying that leads to plagiarism. Summarizing also helps you both analyze the text you are reading and evaluate its strengths and weaknesses (Barnet and Bedau 13). Outline: Use to identify a series of points. Paraphrase, except for key primary source quotations. Never quote directly from a secondary source, unless the precise wording is essential to your argument. Simplify the language and list the ideas in the same order. A paraphrase is as long as the original. Paraphrasing is helpful when you are struggling with a particularly difficult passage. Be sure to jot down your own insights or flashes of brilliance. Ralph Waldo Emerson warns you to "Look sharply after your thoughts. They come unlooked for, like a new bird seen on your trees, and, if you turn to your usual task, disappear...." To differentiate these insights from those of the source you are reading, initial them as your own. (When the following examples of note cards include the researcher's insights, they will be followed by the initials N. R.) When you have finished researching your thesis and you are ready to write your paper, organize your cards according to topic. Notecards make it easy to shuffle and organize your source information on a table-- or across the floor. Maintain your working outline that includes the note card headings and explores a logical order for presenting them in your paper. IV. Begin Thinking, Researching, Organizing Back to Top Don't be too sequential. Researching, writing, revising is a complex interactive process. Start writing as soon as possible! "The best antidote to writer's block is--to write." (Klauser 15). However, you still feel overwhelmed and are staring at a blank page, you are not alone. Many students find writing the first sentence to be the most daunting part of the entire research process. Be creative. Cluster (Rico 28-49). Clustering is a form of brainstorming. Sometimes called a web, the cluster forms a design that may suggest a natural organization for a paper. Here's a graphical depiction of brainstorming . Like a sun, the generating idea or topic lies at the center of the web. From it radiate words, phrases, sentences and images that in turn attract other words, phrases, sentences and images. Put another way--stay focused. Start with your outline. If clustering is not a technique that works for you, turn to the working outline you created during the research process. Use the outline view of your word processor. If you have not already done so, group your note cards according to topic headings. Compare them to your outline's major points. If necessary, change the outline to correspond with the headings on the note cards. If any area seems weak because of a scarcity of facts or opinions, return to your primary and/or secondary sources for more information or consider deleting that heading. Use your outline to provide balance in your essay. Each major topic should have approximately the same amount of information. Once you have written a working outline, consider two different methods for organizing it. Deduction: A process of development that moves from the general to the specific. You may use this approach to present your findings. However, as noted above, your research and interpretive process should be inductive. Deduction is the most commonly used form of organization for a research paper. The thesis statement is the generalization that leads to the specific support provided by primary and secondary sources. The thesis is stated early in the paper. The body of the paper then proceeds to provide the facts, examples, and analogies that flow logically from that thesis. The thesis contains key words that are reflected in the outline. These key words become a unifying element throughout the paper, as they reappear in the detailed paragraphs that support and develop the thesis. The conclusion of the paper circles back to the thesis, which is now far more meaningful because of the deductive development that supports it. Chronological order A process that follows a traditional time line or sequence of events. A chronological organization is useful for a paper that explores cause and effect. Parenthetical Documentation Back to Top The Works Cited page, a list of primary and secondary sources, is not sufficient documentation to acknowledge the ideas, facts, and opinions you have included within your text. The MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers describes an efficient parenthetical style of documentation to be used within the body of your paper. Guidelines for parenthetical documentation: "References to the text must clearly point to specific sources in the list of works cited" (Gibaldi 184). Try to use parenthetical documentation as little as possible. For example, when you cite an entire work, it is preferable to include the author's name in the text. The author's last name followed by the page number is usually enough for an accurate identification of the source in the works cited list. These examples illustrate the most common kinds of documentation. Documenting a quotation: Ex. "The separation from the personal mother is a particularly intense process for a daughter because she has to separate from the one who is the same as herself" (Murdock 17). She may feel abandoned and angry. Note: The author of The Heroine's Journey is listed under Works Cited by the author's name, reversed--Murdock, Maureen. Quoted material is found on page 17 of that book. Parenthetical documentation is after the quotation mark and before the period. Documenting a paraphrase: Ex. In fairy tales a woman who holds the princess captive or who abandons her often needs to be killed (18). Note: The second paraphrase is also from Murdock's book The Heroine's Journey. It is not, however, necessary to repeat the author's name if no other documentation interrupts the two. If the works cited page lists more than one work by the same author, include within the parentheses an abbreviated form of the appropriate title. You may, of course, include the title in your sentence, making it unnecessary to add an abbreviated title in the citation. > Prepare a Works Cited Page Back to Top There are a variety of titles for the page that lists primary and secondary sources (Gibaldi 106-107). A Works Cited page lists those works you have cited within the body of your paper. The reader need only refer to it for the necessary information required for further independent research. Bibliography means literally a description of books. Because your research may involve the use of periodicals, films, art works, photographs, etc. "Works Cited" is a more precise descriptive term than bibliography. An Annotated Bibliography or Annotated Works Cited page offers brief critiques and descriptions of the works listed. A Works Consulted page lists those works you have used but not cited. Avoid using this format. As with other elements of a research paper there are specific guidelines for the placement and the appearance of the Works Cited page. The following guidelines comply with MLA style: The Work Cited page is placed at the end of your paper and numbered consecutively with the body of your paper. Center the title and place it one inch from the top of your page. Do not quote or underline the title. Double space the entire page, both within and between entries. The entries are arranged alphabetically by the author's last name or by the title of the article or book being cited. If the title begins with an article (a, an, the) alphabetize by the next word. If you cite two or more works by the same author, list the titles in alphabetical order. Begin every entry after the first with three hyphens followed by a period. All entries begin at the left margin but subsequent lines are indented five spaces. Be sure that each entry cited on the Works Cited page corresponds to a specific citation within your paper. Refer to the the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers (104- 182) for detailed descriptions of Work Cited entries. Citing sources from online databases is a relatively new phenomenon. Make sure to ask your professor about citing these sources and which style to use. V. Draft, Revise, Rewrite, Rethink Back to Top "There are days when the result is so bad that no fewer than five revisions are required. In contrast, when I'm greatly inspired, only four revisions are needed." --John Kenneth Galbraith Try freewriting your first draft. Freewriting is a discovery process during which the writer freely explores a topic. Let your creative juices flow. In Writing without Teachers , Peter Elbow asserts that "[a]lmost everybody interposes a massive and complicated series of editings between the time words start to be born into consciousness and when they finally come off the end of the pencil or typewriter [or word processor] onto the page" (5). Do not let your internal judge interfere with this first draft. Creating and revising are two very different functions. Don't confuse them! If you stop to check spelling, punctuation, or grammar, you disrupt the flow of creative energy. Create; then fix it later. When material you have researched comes easily to mind, include it. Add a quick citation, one you can come back to later to check for form, and get on with your discovery. In subsequent drafts, focus on creating an essay that flows smoothly, supports fully, and speaks clearly and interestingly. Add style to substance. Create a smooth flow of words, ideas and paragraphs. Rearrange paragraphs for a logical progression of information. Transition is essential if you want your reader to follow you smoothly from introduction to conclusion. Transitional words and phrases stitch your ideas together; they provide coherence within the essay. External transition: Words and phrases that are added to a sentence as overt signs of transition are obvious and effective, but should not be overused, as they may draw attention to themselves and away from ideas. Examples of external transition are "however," "then," "next," "therefore." "first," "moreover," and "on the other hand." Internal transition is more subtle. Key words in the introduction become golden threads when they appear in the paper's body and conclusion. When the writer hears a key word repeated too often, however, she/he replaces it with a synonym or a pronoun. Below are examples of internal transition. Transitional sentences create a logical flow from paragraph to paragraph. Iclude individual words, phrases, or clauses that refer to previous ideas and that point ahead to new ones. They are usually placed at the end or at the beginning of a paragraph. A transitional paragraph conducts your reader from one part of the paper to another. It may be only a few sentences long. Each paragraph of the body of the paper should contain adequate support for its one governing idea. Speak/write clearly, in your own voice. Tone: The paper's tone, whether formal, ironic, or humorous, should be appropriate for the audience and the subject. Voice: Keep you language honest. Your paper should sound like you. Understand, paraphrase, absorb, and express in your own words the information you have researched. Avoid phony language. Sentence formation: When you polish your sentences, read them aloud for word choice and word placement. Be concise. Strunk and White in The Elements of Style advise the writer to "omit needless words" (23). First, however, you must recognize them. Keep yourself and your reader interested. In fact, Strunk's 1918 writing advice is still well worth pondering. First, deliver on your promises. Be sure the body of your paper fulfills the promise of the introduction. Avoid the obvious. Offer new insights. Reveal the unexpected. Have you crafted your conclusion as carefully as you have your introduction? Conclusions are not merely the repetition of your thesis. The conclusion of a research paper is a synthesis of the information presented in the body. Your research has led you to conclusions and opinions that have helped you understand your thesis more deeply and more clearly. Lift your reader to the full level of understanding that you have achieved. Revision means "to look again." Find a peer reader to read your paper with you present. Or, visit your college or university's writing lab. Guide your reader's responses by asking specific questions. Are you unsure of the logical order of your paragraphs? Do you want to know whether you have supported all opinions adequately? Are you concerned about punctuation or grammar? Ask that these issues be addressed. You are in charge. Here are some techniques that may prove helpful when you are revising alone or with a reader. When you edit for spelling errors read the sentences backwards. This procedure will help you look closely at individual words. Always read your paper aloud. Hearing your own words puts them in a new light. Listen to the flow of ideas and of language. Decide whether or not the voice sounds honest and the tone is appropriate to the purpose of the paper and to your audience. Listen for awkward or lumpy wording. Find the one right word, Eliminate needless words. Combine sentences. Kill the passive voice. Eliminate was/were/is/are constructions. They're lame and anti-historical. Be ruthless. If an idea doesn't serve your thesis, banish it, even if it's one of your favorite bits of prose. In the margins, write the major topic of each paragraph. By outlining after you have written the paper, you are once again evaluating your paper's organization. OK, you've got the process down. Now execute! And enjoy! It's not everyday that you get to make history. VI. For Further Reading: Works Cited Back to Top Barnet, Sylvan, and Hugo Bedau. Critical Thinking, Reading, and Writing: A Brief Guide to Argument. Boston: Bedford, 1993. Brent, Doug. Reading as Rhetorical Invention: Knowledge,Persuasion and the Teaching of Research-Based Writing. Urbana: NCTE, 1992. Elbow, Peter. Writing without Teachers. New York: Oxford University Press, 1973. Gibladi, Joseph. MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers. 4th ed. New York: Modern Language Association, 1995. Horvitz, Deborah. "Nameless Ghosts: Possession and Dispossession in Beloved." Studies in American Fiction , Vol. 17, No. 2, Autum, 1989, pp. 157-167. Republished in the Literature Research Center. Gale Group. (1 January 1999). Klauser, Henriette Anne. Writing on Both Sides of the Brain: Breakthrough Techniques for People Who Write. Philadelphia: Harper, 1986. Rico, Gabriele Lusser. Writing the Natural Way: Using Right Brain Techniques to Release Your Expressive Powers. Los Angeles: Houghton, 1983. Sorenson, Sharon. The Research Paper: A Contemporary Approach. New York: AMSCO, 1994. Strunk, William, Jr., and E. B. White. The Elements of Style. 3rd ed. New York: MacMillan, 1979. Back to Top This guide adapted from materials published by Thomson Gale, publishers. For free resources, including a generic guide to writing term papers, see the Gale.com website , which also includes product information for schools.

Historical Research Method: Home

What is historical research.

Historical research or historiography , "attempts to systematically recapture the complex nuances, the people,meanings,events,and even ideas of the past that have influenced and shaped the present". (Berg & Lure, 2012, p. 305 )

Historical research relies on a wide variety of sources, both primary & secondary including unpublished material.

Primary Sources

Eyewitness accounts of events
Can be oral or written testimony
Found in public records & legal documents, minutes of meetings, corporate records, recordings, letters, diaries, journals, drawings.
Located in university archives, libraries or privately run collections such as local historical society.

Secondary Sources

Can be oral or written
Secondhand accounts of events
Found in textbooks, encyclopedias, journal articles, newspapers, biographies and other media such as films or tape recordings.

Steps in Historical Research

Historical research involves the following steps:

Identify an idea, topic or research question
Conduct a background literature review
Refine the research idea and questions
Determine that historical methods will be the method used
Identify and locate primary and secondary data sources
Evaluate the authenticity and accuracy of source materials
Analyze the date and develop a narrative exposition of the findings.

(Berg & Lune, 2012, p.311)

Locating Information: Libraries

In addition to raw data and unpublished manuscripts, libraries also hold back copies of journals and newspapers.

Western Australia
ECU Library
Curtin University
Murdoch University
Notre Dame University
State Library of W.A.
Trove Books, images, historic newspapers, maps, music, archives and more
WorldCat Can limit to archival and downloadable

Locating information - Archives

National Archives of Australia
UK Government Web Archive
National Archives (U.S.)
Nursing History: Historical Methodology Produced by the AAHN

Key Sources

Pandora PANDORA, Australia's Web Archive was established by the National Library in 1996 and is a collection of historic online publications relating to Australia and Australians. Online publications and web sites are selected for inclusion in the collection with the purpose of providing long-term and persistent access to them.
Directory of Archives in Australia
RSL Living History The Listening Post is the official organ of the RSL in Western Australia and was first published in December 1921. The first two decades of the Listening Post, are now available online for viewing with more scheduled releases throughout the year.
Internet Archive Digital library of Internet sites and other cultural artifacts in digital form. Free access to researchers, historians, scholars, and the general public.
Repositories of primary sources
The national union catalog of manuscript collections (United States)
National Technical Information Service (U.S.) Provides access to a large collection of historical and current government technical reports that exists in many academic, public, government, and corporate libraries.
A history of nursing Four vols available online
British Journal of Nursing The journal contains a wide range of information about hospitals, wards, staff, patients, illness and diseases, medicine and treatments, hospital equipment and events.
Directory of history of medicine colections U.S. National Library of medicine. National Institutes of Health
The Australian Nursing and Midwifery History Project
Nursing Studies Index An annotated guide to reported studies, research methods, and historical and biographical materials in periodicals, books, and pamphlets published in English. Prepared by Yale University.
Early experieneces in Australasia: Primary sources and personal nattatives, 1788-1901 Provides a unique and personal view of events in the region from the arrival of the first settlers through to Australian Federation at the close of the nineteenth century. Includes first-person accounts, including letters and diaries, narratives, and other primary source materials.

Locating Information: Museums

Alfred Archives Alfred Hospital, Melbourne
Florence Nightingale Museum (U.K.) London
London Museums of Health & Medicine
National Museum Australia. Research Centre National Museum Australia
Nursing Museum Royal Brisbane & Women's Hospital
Virtual Museum South Australian Medical Heritage Society
W.A. Medical Museum Harvey House, King Edward Memorial Hospital

Historical Research – A Guide Based on its Uses & Steps

Published by Alvin Nicolas at August 16th, 2021 , Revised On August 29, 2023

History is a study of past incidents, and it’s different from natural science. In natural science, researchers prefer direct observations. Whereas in historical research, a researcher collects, analyses the information to understand, describe, and explain the events that occurred in the past.

They aim to test the truthfulness of the observations made by others. Historical researchers try to find out what happened exactly during a certain period of time as accurately and as closely as possible. It does not allow any manipulation or control of variables .

When to Use the Historical Research Method?

You can use historical research method to:

Uncover the unknown fact.
Answer questions
Identify the association between the past and present.
Understand the culture based on past experiences..
Record and evaluate the contributions of individuals, organisations, and institutes.

How to Conduct Historical Research?

Historical research involves the following steps:

Select the Research Topic
Collect the Data
Analyse the Data
Criticism of Data
Present your Findings

Tips to Collect Data

Step 1 – select the research topic.

If you want to conduct historical research, it’s essential to select a research topic before beginning your research. You can follow these tips while choosing a topic and developing a research question .

Consider your previous study as your previous knowledge and data can make your research enjoyable and comfortable for you.
List your interests and focus on the current events to find a promising question.
Take notes of regular activities and consider your personal experiences on a specific topic.
Develop a question using your research topic.
Explore your research question by asking yourself when? Why? How

Step 2- Collect the Data

It is essential to collect data and facts about the research question to get reliable outcomes. You need to select an appropriate instrument for data collection . Historical research includes two sources of data collection, such as primary and secondary sources.

Primary Sources

Primary sources are the original first-hand resources such as documents, oral or written records, witnesses to a fact, etc. These are of two types, such as:

Conscious Information : It’s a type of information recorded and restored consciously in the form of written, oral documents, or the actual witnesses of the incident that occurred in the past.

It includes the following sources:

Unconscious information : It’s a type of information restored in the form of remains or relics.

It includes information in the following forms:

Secondary Sources

Sometimes it’s impossible to access primary sources, and researchers rely on secondary sources to obtain information for their research.

It includes:

Publications
Periodicals
Encyclopedia

Step 3 – Analyse the Data

After collecting the information, you need to analyse it. You can use data analysis methods like

Thematic analysis
Coding system
Theoretical model ( Researchers use multiple theories to explain a specific phenomenon, situations, and behavior types.)
Quantitative data to validate

Step 4 – Criticism of Data

Data criticism is a process used for identifying the validity and reliability of the collected data. It’s of two types such as:

External Criticism :

It aims at identifying the external features of the data such as signature, handwriting, language, nature, spelling, etc., of the documents. It also involves the physical and chemical tests of paper, paint, ink, metal cloth, or any collected object.

Internal Criticism :

It aims at identifying the meaning and reliability of the data. It focuses on the errors, printing, translation, omission, additions in the documents. The researchers should use both external and internal criticism to ensure the validity of the data.

Step 5 – Present your Findings

While presenting the findings of your research , you need to ensure that you have met the objectives of your research or not. Historical material can be organised based on the theme and topic, and it’s known as thematic and topical arrangement. You can follow these tips while writing your research paper :

Build Arguments and Narrative

Your research aims not just to collect information as these are the raw materials of research. You need to build a strong argument and narrate the details of past events or incidents based on your findings.

Organise your Argument

You can review the literature and other researchers’ contributions to the topic you’ve chosen to enhance your thinking and argument.

Proofread, Revise and Edit

After putting your findings on a paper, you need to proofread it to weed out the errors, rewrite it to improve, and edit it thoroughly before submitting it.

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In this world of technology, many people rely on Google to find out any information. All you have to do is enter a few keywords and sit back. You’ll find several relevant results onscreen.

It’s an effective and quick way of gathering information. Sometimes historical documents are not accessible to everyone online, and you need to visit traditional libraries to find out historical treasures. It will help you explore your knowledge along with data collection.

You can visit historical places, conduct interviews, review literature, and access primary and secondary data sources such as books, newspapers, publications, documents, etc. You can take notes while collecting the information as it helps to organise the data accurately.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Historical Research

Frequently asked questions, what are the initial steps to perform historical research.

Initial steps for historical research:

Define research scope and period.
Gather background knowledge.
Identify primary and secondary sources.
Develop research questions.
Plan research approach.
Begin data collection and analysis.

What is History For?

What is historical research, purpose of historical research, steps in historical research.

Books & E-books
Related Guides

The systematic collection and evaluation of data to describe, explain, and understand actions or events that occurred sometime in the past.
There is no manipulation or control of variables as in experimental research.
An attempt is made to reconstruct what happened during a certain period of time as completely and accurately as possible.
To learn from past successes and failures.
Learn how things were done in the past and apply them to current or future events.
To assist in prediction.
Lead to the confirmation or rejection of relational hypotheses.
Understand the present practices and policies by understanding the history surrounding them.

Historical research involves the following steps:

Defining the Problem
Numerical records
Oral statements
Summarizing information obtained from historical sources
What was meant by the author?
How much credibility can be given to the author?
What was the author trying to say?
How could the authors word be interpreted?
Does the document contain bias of any sort?
Who wrote the document?
For what purpose was the document written?
When was the document written?
Where was the document written?
Under what conditions was the document written?
Do different forms or versions of the document exist?
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How Institutions Use Historical Research Methods to Provide Historical Perspectives

An Overview of Historical Research Methods

Historical research methods enable institutions to collect facts, chronological data, and other information relevant to their interests. But historical research is more than compiling a record of past events; it provides institutions with valuable insights about the past to inform current cultural, political, and social dynamics.

Historical research methods primarily involve collecting information from primary and secondary sources. While differences exist between these sources, organizations and institutions can use both types of sources to assess historical events and provide proper context comprehensively.

Using historical research methods, historians provide institutions with historical insights that can give perspectives on the future.

Individuals interested in advancing their careers as historians can pursue an advanced degree, such as a Master of Arts in History , to help them develop a systematic understanding of historical research and learn about the use of digital tools for acquiring, accessing, and managing historical information.

Historians use historical research methods to obtain data from primary and secondary sources and, then, assess how the information contributes to understanding a historical period or event. Historical research methods are used with primary and secondary sources. Below is a description of each type of source.

What Is a Primary Source?

Primary sources—raw data containing first-person accounts and documents—are foundational to historical and academic research. Examples of primary sources include eyewitness accounts of historical events, written testimonies, public records, oral representations, legal documents, artifacts, photographs, art, newspaper articles, diaries, and letters. Individuals often can find primary sources in archives and collections in universities, libraries, and historical societies.

A primary source, also known as primary data, is often characterized by the time of its creation. For example, individuals studying the U.S. Constitution’s beginnings can use The Federalist Papers, a collection of essays by Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison, written from October 1787 to May 1788, as a primary source for their research. In this example, the information was witnessed firsthand and created at the time of the event.

What Is a Secondary Source?

Primary sources are not always easy to find. In the absence of primary sources, secondary sources can play a vital role in describing historical events. A historian can create a secondary source by analyzing, synthesizing, and interpreting information or data provided in primary sources. For example, a modern-day historian may use The Federalist Papers and other primary sources to reveal historical insights about the series of events that led to the creation of the U.S. Constitution. As a result, the secondary source, based on historical facts, becomes a reliable source of historical data for others to use to create a comprehensive picture of an event and its significance.

The Value of Historical Research for Providing Historical Perspectives

Current global politics has its roots in the past. Historical research offers an essential context for understanding our modern society. It can inform global concepts, such as foreign policy development or international relations. The study of historical events can help leaders make informed decisions that impact society, culture, and the economy.

Take, for example, the Industrial Revolution. Studying the history of the rise of industry in the West helps to put the current world order in perspective. The recorded events of that age reveal that the first designers of the systems of industry, including the United States, dominated the global landscape in the following decades and centuries. Similarly, the digital revolution is creating massive shifts in international politics and society. Historians play a pivotal role in using historical research methods to record and analyze information about these trends to provide future generations with insightful historical perspectives.

In addition to creating meaningful knowledge of global and economic affairs, studying history highlights the perspectives of people and groups who triumphed over adversity. For example, the historical fights for freedom and equality, such as the struggle for women’s voting rights or ending the Jim Crow era in the South, offer relevant context for current events, such as efforts at criminal justice reform.

History also is the story of the collective identity of people and regions. Historical research can help promote a sense of community and highlight the vibrancy of different cultures, creating opportunities for people to become more culturally aware and empowered.

The Tools and Techniques of Historical Research Methods

A primary source is not necessarily an original source. For example, not everyone can access the original essays written by Hamilton because they are precious and must be preserved and protected. However, thanks to digitization, institutions can access, manage, and interpret essential information, artifacts, and images from the essays without fear of degradation.

Using technology to digitize historical information creates what is known as digital history. It offers opportunities to advance scholarly research and expand knowledge to new audiences. For example, individuals can access a digital copy of The Federalist Papers from the Library of Congress’s website anytime, from anywhere. This digital copy can still serve as a primary source because it contains the same content as the original paper version created hundreds of years ago.

As more primary and secondary sources are digitized, researchers are increasingly using artificial intelligence (AI) to search, gather, and analyze these sources. An AI method known as optical character recognition can help historians with digital research. Historians also can use AI techniques to close gaps in historical information. For example, an AI system developed by DeepMind uses deep neural networks to help historians recreate missing pieces and restore ancient Greek texts on stone tablets that are thousands of years old.

As digital tools associated with historical research proliferate, individuals seeking to advance in a history career need to develop technical skills to use advanced technology in their research. Norwich University’s online Master of Arts in History program prepares students with knowledge of historical research methods and critical technology skills to advance in the field of history.

Prepare to Make an Impact

Through effective historical research methods, institutions, organizations, and individuals can learn the significance of past events and communicate important insights for a better future. In museums, government agencies, universities and colleges, nonprofits, and historical associations, the combination of technology and historical research plays a central role in extending the reach of historical information to new audiences. It can also guide leaders charged with making important decisions that can impact geopolitics, society, economic development, community building, and more.

Norwich University’s online Master of Arts in History prepares students with knowledge of historical research methods and skills to use technology to advance their careers across many industries and fields of study. The program’s curriculum offers students the flexibility to choose from four concentrations—Public History, American History, World History, or Legal and Constitutional History—to customize their studies based on their career goals and personal interests.

Learn how Norwich University’s online Master of Arts in History degree can prepare individuals for career success in the field of history.

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Latest posts on x, on history blog, the victoria county history at 125: now and the future, decolonizing the bibliography: the bibliography of british and irish history (bbih) as a decolonising tool , the victoria county history at 125: now and the future , a fanfare for garden history, invitation: bibliography of british and irish history (bbih) editorial board membership, the annual pollard prize, about the prize.

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Congratulations to Merve Fejzula for winning the Annual Pollard Prize for 2021 with their paper 'Toward a History of Intellectual Labor: Gender, Negritude, and the Black Public Sphere.' Congratulations also to runner up Lucy Clarke for their paper '"I say I must for I am the King’s shrieve": magistrates invoking the monarch’s name in 1 Henry VI (1592) and The Downfall of Robert Earl of Huntingdon (1598)'.

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Qualitative study design: Historical

Qualitative study design
Phenomenology
Grounded theory
Ethnography
Narrative inquiry
Action research
Case Studies
Field research
Focus groups
Observation
Surveys & questionnaires
Study Designs Home

Looking at the past to inform the future.

Describing and examining past events to better understand the present and to anticipate potential effects on the future. To identify a need for knowledge that requires a historical investigation. Piecing together a history, particularly when there are no people living to tell their story.

Oral recordings

Can provide a fuller picture of the scope of the research as it covers a wider range of sources. As an example, documents such as diaries, oral histories and official records and newspaper reports were used to identify a scurvy and smallpox epidemic among Klondike gold rushers (Highet p3).

Unobtrusiveness of this research method.

Limitations

Issues with validity – can only use the historical information that is available today.

Primary sources are hard to locate.

Hard to triangulate findings (find other resources to back up the information provided in the original resource).

Example questions

What caused an outbreak of polio in the past that may contribute to the outbreaks of today?
How has the attitude to LGBTQIA+ changed over the past 50 years?

Example studies

Hallett, C. E., Madsen, W., Pateman, B., & Bradshaw, J. (2012). " Time enough! Or not enough time!" An oral history investigation of some British and Australian community nurses' responses to demands for "efficiency" in health care, 1960-2000 . Nursing History Review, 20, 136-161.
Navarro, J. A., Kohl, K. S., Cetron, M. S., & Markel, H. (2016). A tale of many cities: a contemporary historical study of the implementation of school closures during the 2009 pA(H1N1) influenza pandemic. Journal of Health Politics, Policy and Law, 41(3), 393-422. Retrieved from http://ezproxy.deakin.edu.au/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip,sso&db=lhh&AN=20163261834&site=ehost-live&scope=site

Edith Cowan University Library. (2019). Historical Research Method. Retrieved from https://ecu.au.libguides.com/historical-research-method

Godshall, M. (2016). Fast facts for evidence-based practice in nursing: Implementing EBP in a nutshell (2nd ed.). New York: Springer Publishing Company.

Highet, M. J. (2010). "It Depends on Where You Look": The Unusual Presentation of Scurvy and Smallpox Among Klondike Gold Rushers as Revealed Through Qualitative Data Sources. Past Imperfect, 16, 3-34. doi:10.21971/P7J59D

Saks, M., & Allsop, J. (2012). Researching health: qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods (2nd ed.). London: SAGE.

Taylor, B. J., & Francis, K. (2013). Qualitative research in the health sciences: methodologies, methods and processes. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge.

University of Missouri-St. Louis. Qualitative Research Designs. Retrieved from http://www.umsl.edu/~lindquists/qualdsgn.html

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Last Updated: Apr 8, 2024 11:12 AM
URL: https://deakin.libguides.com/qualitative-study-designs

Harvard Library
Research Guides
Faculty of Arts & Sciences Libraries

Library Research Guide for the History of Science: Introduction

What is a Primary Source?
Senior Theses 2023
Background and Context/Biography
Exploring Your Topic
Using HOLLIS
What is a Secondary Source?

Page Contents

Knowing a primary source when you see one, kinds of primary sources, find primary sources in hollis, using digital libraries and collections online, using bibliographies.

Exploring the Special Collections at Harvard
Citing Sources & Organizing Research

Primary sources provide first-hand testimony or direct evidence concerning a topic under investigation. They are created by witnesses or recorders who experienced the events or conditions being documented.

Often these sources are created at the time when the events or conditions are occurring, but primary sources can also include autobiographies, memoirs, and oral histories recorded later.

Primary sources are characterized by their content, regardless of the format available. (Handwritten notes could be published; the published book might be digitized or put on microfilm, but those notes are still primary sources in any format).

Some types of primary sources:

Original documents (excerpts or translations acceptable): Diaries, speeches, manuscripts, letters, interviews, news film footage, contemporary newspaper articles, autobiographies, official records, pamphlets, meeting notes, photographs, contemporary sketches
Creative works : Poetry, drama, novels, music, art
Relics or artifacts : Furniture, clothing, buildings

Examples of primary sources include:

A poster from the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters' 1962 strike
The papers of William James
A 1970 U.S. State Dept document updating Nixon on U.S.-Soviet space cooperation activities (Harvard login)
A British pamphlet: "Electric Lighting for Country Houses," 1898
Phineas Gage's skull
The text of J. Robert Oppenheimer's "Atomic Weapons" presentation to the American Philosophical Society

Outline of Primary Sources for History

Archives and Manuscripts

Archives and manuscripts are the unpublished records of persons (letters, notes, diaries, etc.) and organizations. What are Archives? Usually each archival collection has a (short) catalog record and a detailed finding aid (which is often available online).

"Catalog record” refers to the kind of record found in library online catalogs, similar to those for books, although often a bit longer. Example of an Archive record .
“Finding aid” (sometimes called an inventory) generally refers to a list of the folder labels for the collection, accompanied by a brief collection overview (scope and contents note) and a biographical (or institutional) note on the creator of the collection. Finding aids may be as long as needed given the size of the collection. They vary considerably according to the practices of individual repositories. Example of a Finding aid .

To find Archives and manuscripts at Harvard, go to HOLLIS Advanced search . Search your keywords or Subject terms (see the HOLLIS page of this guide ) in the Library Catalog, limiting to Resource Type: Archives/Manuscripts. You can choose the library at the right (Search Scope). Countway Medicine has abundant medical archives, and Schlesinger has many archives of women activists, many in health and reproductive rights fields. Sample search on Subject: Women health .

Library Research Guide for Finding Manuscripts and Archival Collections explains

How to find archives and manuscripts at Harvard
How to find archives and manuscripts elsewhere in US via search tools and via subject guides .
How to find archives and manuscripts in Europe and elsewhere.
Requesting digitization of archival material from Harvard and from other repositories .

For digitized archival material together with other kinds of primary sources:

Finding Primary Sources Online offers general instructions for finding primary sources online and a list of resources by region and country
Online Primary Source Collections for the History of Science lists digital collections at Harvard and beyond by topic.
Online Primary Source Collections for History lists digital collections at Harvard and beyond by topic.

Methods for finding books are described under the HOLLIS page of this guide and in the Finding Primary Sources in HOLLIS box on this page.

Book Reviews may give an indication as to how a scientific work was received. See: Finding Book Reviews .
Numerous, especially pre-1923 books (as well as periodicals and other sources) can be found and full text searched in several digital libraries (see box on this page).

Periodicals

Scientific articles :

Web of Science Citation Indexes (Harvard Login) (1900- ) articles in all areas of science. Includes medical articles not in PubMed. You can use the Cited Reference search in the Web of Science to find primary source articles that cite a specified article, thus getting an idea of its reception. More information on the Web of Science .

PubMed (1946- ) covers, usually with abstracts, periodical articles on all areas of medicine. - --Be sure to look at the MeSH (Medical Subject Headings) at the bottom of pertinent records. Very recent articles may not as yet received their MeSH terms. So look at older records to find the MeSH terms, and use a variety of keywords as well as MeSH terms to find the new records. --The MeSH terms are the same as the Medical Subject terms found in HOLLIS. --Hit Free article or Try Harvard Library, not the publisher's name to see full text

JSTOR (Harvard Login) offers full-text of complete runs (up to about 5 years ago) of over 400 journals. JSTOR allows simultaneous or individual searching, full-text searching optional, numerous journals in a variety of fields of science and medicine. See the list at the bottom of the Advanced search screen. JSTOR searches the "Notes and News" sections of journals ( Science is especially rich in this material). In Advanced Search choose Item Type: Miscellaneous to limit largely to "Notes and News".

PsycINFO) (Harvard Login) (1872- ) indexes the professional and academic literature in psychology and related disciplines

Many more scientific periodical indexes are listed in the Library Research Guide for the History of Science .

General interest magazines and periodicals see:

American Periodicals Series Online (Harvard Login) (1740-1900) offers full text of about 1100 American periodicals. Includes several scientific and medical journals including the American Journal of Science and the Medical Repository. In cases where a periodical started before 1900, coverage is included until 1940.

British Periodicals (Harvard Login) (1681-1920) offers full text for several hundred British periodicals.

Ethnic NewsWatch (Harvard Login) (1959- ) is a full text database of the newspapers, magazines, and journals of the ethnic, minority and native press.

Periodicals Index Online (Harvard Login) indexes contents of thousands of US and European journals in the humanities and social sciences, from their first issues to 1995.

Reader's Guide Retrospective (WilsonWeb) (Harvard Login) (1890-1982) indexes many American popular periodicals.

Many more general periodical indexes are listed in Finding Articles in General and Popular Periodicals (North America and Western Europe) .

Articles in non-science fields (religion, public policy): see the list in the Library Research Guide for History .

Professional/Trade : Aimed at particular trades or professions. See the Library Research Guide for History

Newspaper articles : see the Guide to Newspapers and Newspaper Indexes .

Personal accounts . These are first person narratives recalling or describing a person’s life and opinions. These include Diaries, memoirs, autobiographies, and when delivered orally and recorded: Oral histories and Interviews.

National Library of Medicine Oral Histories

Regulatory Oral History Hub (Kenan Institute for Ethics, Duke University) offers links to digital collections containing interviews with regulators, lawyers, and judges. Mainly U.S.

Visual sources :

Records for many, but by no means all, individual Harvard University Library images are available in HOLLIS Images , an online catalog of images. Records include subjects and a thumbnail image. HOLLIS Images is included in HOLLIS searches.

Science & Society Picture Library offers over 50,000 images from the Science Museum (London), the National Museum of Photography, Film & Television and the National Railway Museum.

Database of Scientific Illustrators (DSI) includes over 12500 illustrators in natural history, medicine, technology and various sciences worldwide, c.1450-1950. Living illustrators excluded.

NYPL Digital Gallery Pictures of Science: 700 Years of Scientific and Medical Illustration

Images from the History of Medicine (IHM) includes prints and photographs from the U.S. National Library of Medicine. (The IHM is contained within a larger NLM image database, so this link goes to a specialized search).

Images From the History of the Public Health Service: a Photographic Exhibit .

Wellcome Images

Films/Videos

To find films in HOLLIS , search your topic keywords, then on the right side of the results screen, look at Resource Type and choose video/film.

To find books about films about your topic, search your topic keywords AND "in motion pictures" (in "")

Film Platform offers numerous documentary films on a wide variety of subjects. There are collections on several topics. Searches can be filtered by topic, country of production, and language.

A list of general sources for images and film is available in the Library Research Guide for History and additional sources for the history of science in Library Research Guide for the History of Science .

Government documents often concern matters of science and health policy. For Congressional documents, especially committee reports, see ProQuest Congressional (Harvard Login ).

HathiTrust Digital Library . Each full text item is linked to a standard library catalog record, thus providing good metadata and subject terms. The catalog can be searched separately. Many government documents are full text viewable. Search US government department as Author.

More sources are listed in the Library Research Guide for History

For artifacts and other objects , the Historic Scientific Instruments Collection in the Science Center includes over 15,000 instruments, often with contemporary documentation, from 1450 through the 20th century worldwide.

Waywiser, online database of the Collection of Historical Scientific Instruments .

Warren Anatomical Museum of the Center for the History of Medicine in the Countway Library of Medicine has a rich collection of medical artifacts and specimens.

Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology

Fall 2020: these collections are closed during the pandemic. Check out their links above to see what they have available online.

Primary Source Terms :

You can limit HOLLIS searches to your time period, but sources may be published later, such as a person's diary published posthumously. Find these with these special Subject terms.

You can use the following terms to search HOLLIS for primary sources:

Correspondence
Description and travel
Manuscripts
Notebooks, sketchbooks, etc.
Personal narratives (refers to accounts of wars and diseases only)
Pictorial works
Sources (usually refers to collections of published primary sources)

Include these terms with your topical words in HOLLIS searches. For example: tuberculosis personal narratives

Online Primary Source Collections for the History of Science lists digital collections at Harvard and beyond by topic

Google Book Search, HathiTrust Digital Library and Internet Archives offer books and periodicals digitized from numerous libraries. Only out-of-copyright, generally post-1923, books are fully viewable. Each of these three digital libraries allows searching full text over their entire collections.

Google Book Search

HathiTrust Digital Library . Each full text item is linked to a standard library catalog record, thus providing good metadata and subject terms. The catalog can be searched separately. Many post-1923 out-of-copyright books, especially government documents, are full text viewable. You can search within copyright books to see what page your search term is on.

Internet Archive now offers a beta full text search. Put your terms (phrases or personal names, in quotation marks (""), work best) in the search box.

The Online Books Page arranges electronic texts by Library of Congress call numbers and is searchable (but not full text searchable). Includes books not in Google Books, HathiTrust, or Internet Archive. Has many other useful features.

Medical Heritage Library . Information about the Medical Heritage Library. Now searchable full text.

UK Medical Heritage Library

Biodiversity Heritage Library

Contagion: Historical Views of Diseases and Epidemics (1493-1922) provides digitized historical, manuscript, and image resources selected from Harvard University libraries and archives.

Expeditions and Discoveries (1626-1953) features nine expeditions in anthropology and archaeology, astronomy, botany, and oceanography in which Harvard University played a significant role. Includes manuscripts and records, published materials, visual works, and maps from 14 Harvard repositories.

Defining Gender Online: Five Centuries of Advice Literature for Men and Women (1450-1910).

Twentieth Century Advice Literature: North American Guides on Race, Sex, Gender, and the Family.

Many more general History digital libraries and collections: Library Research Guide for History

More History of Science digital libraries: Library Research Guide for the History of Science .

There may already be a detailed list of sources (a bibliography) for your topic.

For instance:

A bibliography of eugenics , by Samuel J. Holmes ... Berkeley, Calif., University of California press, 1924, 514 p. ( University of California publications in zoology . vol. XXV) Full text online .

Look for specialized subject bibliographies in HOLLIS Catalog . Example . WorldCat can do similar searches in the Subject Keyword field for non-Harvard holdings.

<< Previous: What is a Secondary Source?
Next: Exploring the Special Collections at Harvard >>
Last Updated: Apr 14, 2024 9:25 PM
URL: https://guides.library.harvard.edu/HistSciInfo

Harvard University Digital Accessibility Policy

Historical research

Historical research is a qualitative technique. Historical research studies the meaning of past events in an attempt to interpret the facts and explain the cause of events, and their effect in the present events. In doing so, researchers rely heavily on primary historical data (direct accounts of events, archival data - official documents, personal records, and records of eyewitnesses) and less frequently on secondary historical data (information from persons who didn’t witness the event; e.g. textbooks, newspapers, encyclopedias).

1 Description
3.1 Advantages
3.2 Shortcomings
4 Examples in Informatics
5 References

Description

Historical research data is subject to external criticism (verification of genuineness or validity of the source) and internal criticism (exploring the meaning of the source). Historical research has time and place dimensions. Simple chronology is not considered historical research because it does not interpret the meaning of events.

There was skepticism towards historical inquiry in post-war sociology. History and sociology became more linked in the 1950’s, and historical sociology was accepted during the 1970’s. Some of the leading historical sociologists from the 1960's into the 1980s were Barrington Moore, Jr., Charles Tilly and Theda Skocpol. They based their work on Karl Marx, Max Weber and Durkheim. Weber developed early historical research with his comparisons of religious and economic systems around the world, e.g. he studied the cultural differences between China and Western Europe, compared religions such as Hinduism and Ancient Judaism.

Principal Use

Historical research is used to compare records of historical events and the activities surrounding them. This type of research also helps to organize historical events sequentially, and to preserve historical data so it doesn’t get lost.

The research is not involved in the situation that is studied
The researchers do not interact with the subjects of study
Analysis of historical data may help explain current and future events

Shortcomings

Historical data is incomplete and vulnerable to time (documents can be destroyed by wars or over time)
It can also be biased and corrupt (e.g. diaries, letters, etc. are influenced by the person writing them)
Historical research is a complex and broad category because the topics of research (e.g. the study of a society) are affected by numerous factors that need to be considered and analyzed

Examples in Informatics

One example from the textbook is the documented expedition of Spanish explorer Hernando DeSoto who discovered the Mississippi river. Historical research uncovered this story based on primary historical data – in this case, records from the members of the expedition, as well as documents and letters from the Spanish archives.

Others have studied the historical progression of societies, e.g. Karl Marx observed the historical progression of economic systems from primitive to feudal, and then to capitalism. Other examples would include the study of historical events like wars, revolutions, etc.

Deflem, M. (2007). Comparative and historical sociology: lecture notes. http://www.cas.sc.edu/socy/faculty/deflem/zcomphistnotes.html
Ferrarotti, F. (1997). The relation between history and sociology: synthesis or conflict? International Journal of Contemporary Sociology, 34(1):1-16.
Gay, L., Mills, G., and Airasian, P. (2006). Educational research: competencies for analysis and application, 398-411.
Leedy, P. D., & Ormrod, J. E. (2005). Practical research: planning and design (8th Edition.).
Mouzelis, N. (1994). In defense of 'grand' historical sociology. British Journal of Sociology, 45(1):31-36.
Skocpol, Th., and Somers, M. (1980). The uses of comparative history in macrosocial inquiry. Comparative Studies in Society and History, 22(2):174-197.
Historical comparative research. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_comparative_research

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Global history is not just significant events on a timeline, it is also the ordinary, mundane moments that people experience in between. Graphic novels can capture this multidimensionality in ways that are difficult, and sometimes impossible, in more traditional media formats, says Stanford history professor Tom Mullaney .

Tom Mullaney, a professor of history in the School of Humanities and Sciences, uses graphic novels in his teachings to help students appreciate different experiences and perspectives throughout history. (Image credit: Ilmiyah Achmad)

Mullaney has incorporated graphic novels in some of his Stanford courses since 2017; in 2020, he taught a course dedicated to the study of world history through comic strip formats.

While graphic novels are not a substitute for academic literature, he said he finds them a useful teaching and research tool. They not only portray the impact of historic events on everyday lives, but because they can be read in one or two sittings, they get to it at a much faster rate than say a 10,000 word essay or autobiography could.

“It accelerates the process of getting to subtlety,” said Mullaney, a professor of history at Stanford’s School of Humanities and Sciences . “There’s just so much you can do, and so many questions you can ask, and so many perspective shifts you can carry out – like that! You can just do it – you show them something, they read it and BOOM! It’s like an accelerant. It’s awesome.”

For example, in Thi Bui’s graphic novel The Best We Could Do , themes of displacement and diaspora emerge as she talks about her family’s escape from war-torn Vietnam to the United States. The illustrated memoir shows Bui’s upbringing in suburban California and the complicated memories her parents carry with them as they move about their new life in America. In other chapters, she depicts her mother and father back in Vietnam and what their own childhood was like amidst the country’s upheaval.

Graphic novels like The Best We Could Do and also Maus , Art Spiegelman’s seminal portrayal of his Jewish family’s experience during the Holocaust, illustrate the challenges and subtleties of memory – particularly family memory – and the entanglements that arise when narrating history, Mullaney said.

Graphic novels prime readers for the complexity of doing and reading historical research and how there is no simplistic, narrative arc of history. “When I read a graphic novel, I feel prepared to ask questions that allow me to go into the harder core, peer-reviewed material,” Mullaney said.

The everyday moments that graphic novels are exceptionally good at capturing also raise questions in the reader’s mind, Mullaney said. Readers sit in the family living room and at the kitchen table with Spiegelman and Bui and follow along as their characters try to understand what their parent’s generation went through and discover it’s not always easy to grasp. “Not everything mom and dad say makes sense,” said Mullaney.

These seemingly mundane moments also present powerful opportunities for inquiry. “The ordinary is where the explanation lives and where you can start asking questions,” Mullaney added.

Graphic novels can also depict how in periods of war and conflict, violence can become part of everyday existence and survival. The simplicity of the format allows heavy, painful experiences to emerge from a panel untethered and unweighted from lengthy descriptions or dramatizations.

“They’re banal. They’re not dramatic. There are no strings attached. In a work of nonfiction, in an article or book, it would be almost impossible to do that. There would have to be so much expository writing and so much description that you would lose the horror of it,” Mullaney said.

A ‘fundamental misunderstanding’

Graphic novels like Maus and The Best We Could Do were included in Mullaney’s 2020 Stanford class, Global History Through Graphic Novels .

In 2020, Tom Mullaney, a professor of history, taught Global History Through Graphic Novels , a course that paired graphic novels such as Art Spiegelman’s Maus with archival materials and historical essays to examine modern world history from the 18th to the 21st century. He created a poster for the class, as shown here. (Image credit: Tom Mullaney)

In the course, Mullaney paired graphic novels with archival materials and historical essays to examine modern world history from the 18th to the 21st century.

The course syllabus also included the graphic novels Showa , Shigeru Mizuki ’s manga series about growing up in Japan before World War II, and Such a Lovely Little War , about Marcelino Truong’s experience as a child in Saigon during the Vietnam War.

Most recently, Mullaney has offered to teach a variation of the Stanford course to the public, free for high school and college students , this summer.

Registration for the online course opened shortly after news emerged and made international headlines that Maus was banned by a Tennessee school board for its depiction of nudity and use of swear words.

Within two days of Mullaney’s course registration opening, over 200 students from across the world signed up.

Mullaney believes that there is a “fundamental misunderstanding” about what young people can process when it comes to negotiating complex themes and topics – whether it is structural racism or the Holocaust. They just need some guidance, which he hopes as a teacher, he can provide.

“I think students of high school age or even younger, if they have the scaffolding they need – which is the job of educators to give them – they can handle the structural inequalities, darknesses and horrors of life,” he said.

Mullaney noted that many teenagers are already exposed to many of these difficult issues through popular media. “But they’re just doing it on their own and figuring it out for themselves – that’s not a good idea,” he said.

Mullaney said he hopes he can teach Global History Through Graphic Novels to Stanford students again this fall.

For Stanford scholars interested in learning more about the intersection of graphic novels and scholarship, there is a newly established working group through the Division of Literatures, Cultures and Languages, Comics, More than Words .

Media Contacts

Melissa De Witte, Stanford News Service: [email protected]

Case Study Research Method in Psychology

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

On This Page:

Case studies are in-depth investigations of a person, group, event, or community. Typically, data is gathered from various sources using several methods (e.g., observations & interviews).

The case study research method originated in clinical medicine (the case history, i.e., the patient’s personal history). In psychology, case studies are often confined to the study of a particular individual.

The information is mainly biographical and relates to events in the individual’s past (i.e., retrospective), as well as to significant events that are currently occurring in his or her everyday life.

The case study is not a research method, but researchers select methods of data collection and analysis that will generate material suitable for case studies.

Freud (1909a, 1909b) conducted very detailed investigations into the private lives of his patients in an attempt to both understand and help them overcome their illnesses.

This makes it clear that the case study is a method that should only be used by a psychologist, therapist, or psychiatrist, i.e., someone with a professional qualification.

There is an ethical issue of competence. Only someone qualified to diagnose and treat a person can conduct a formal case study relating to atypical (i.e., abnormal) behavior or atypical development.

Famous Case Studies

Anna O – One of the most famous case studies, documenting psychoanalyst Josef Breuer’s treatment of “Anna O” (real name Bertha Pappenheim) for hysteria in the late 1800s using early psychoanalytic theory.
Little Hans – A child psychoanalysis case study published by Sigmund Freud in 1909 analyzing his five-year-old patient Herbert Graf’s house phobia as related to the Oedipus complex.
Bruce/Brenda – Gender identity case of the boy (Bruce) whose botched circumcision led psychologist John Money to advise gender reassignment and raise him as a girl (Brenda) in the 1960s.
Genie Wiley – Linguistics/psychological development case of the victim of extreme isolation abuse who was studied in 1970s California for effects of early language deprivation on acquiring speech later in life.
Phineas Gage – One of the most famous neuropsychology case studies analyzes personality changes in railroad worker Phineas Gage after an 1848 brain injury involving a tamping iron piercing his skull.

Clinical Case Studies

Studying the effectiveness of psychotherapy approaches with an individual patient
Assessing and treating mental illnesses like depression, anxiety disorders, PTSD
Neuropsychological cases investigating brain injuries or disorders

Child Psychology Case Studies

Studying psychological development from birth through adolescence
Cases of learning disabilities, autism spectrum disorders, ADHD
Effects of trauma, abuse, deprivation on development

Types of Case Studies

Explanatory case studies : Used to explore causation in order to find underlying principles. Helpful for doing qualitative analysis to explain presumed causal links.
Exploratory case studies : Used to explore situations where an intervention being evaluated has no clear set of outcomes. It helps define questions and hypotheses for future research.
Descriptive case studies : Describe an intervention or phenomenon and the real-life context in which it occurred. It is helpful for illustrating certain topics within an evaluation.
Multiple-case studies : Used to explore differences between cases and replicate findings across cases. Helpful for comparing and contrasting specific cases.
Intrinsic : Used to gain a better understanding of a particular case. Helpful for capturing the complexity of a single case.
Collective : Used to explore a general phenomenon using multiple case studies. Helpful for jointly studying a group of cases in order to inquire into the phenomenon.

Where Do You Find Data for a Case Study?

There are several places to find data for a case study. The key is to gather data from multiple sources to get a complete picture of the case and corroborate facts or findings through triangulation of evidence. Most of this information is likely qualitative (i.e., verbal description rather than measurement), but the psychologist might also collect numerical data.

1. Primary sources

Interviews – Interviewing key people related to the case to get their perspectives and insights. The interview is an extremely effective procedure for obtaining information about an individual, and it may be used to collect comments from the person’s friends, parents, employer, workmates, and others who have a good knowledge of the person, as well as to obtain facts from the person him or herself.
Observations – Observing behaviors, interactions, processes, etc., related to the case as they unfold in real-time.
Documents & Records – Reviewing private documents, diaries, public records, correspondence, meeting minutes, etc., relevant to the case.

2. Secondary sources

News/Media – News coverage of events related to the case study.
Academic articles – Journal articles, dissertations etc. that discuss the case.
Government reports – Official data and records related to the case context.
Books/films – Books, documentaries or films discussing the case.

3. Archival records

Searching historical archives, museum collections and databases to find relevant documents, visual/audio records related to the case history and context.

Public archives like newspapers, organizational records, photographic collections could all include potentially relevant pieces of information to shed light on attitudes, cultural perspectives, common practices and historical contexts related to psychology.

4. Organizational records

Organizational records offer the advantage of often having large datasets collected over time that can reveal or confirm psychological insights.

Of course, privacy and ethical concerns regarding confidential data must be navigated carefully.

However, with proper protocols, organizational records can provide invaluable context and empirical depth to qualitative case studies exploring the intersection of psychology and organizations.

Organizational/industrial psychology research : Organizational records like employee surveys, turnover/retention data, policies, incident reports etc. may provide insight into topics like job satisfaction, workplace culture and dynamics, leadership issues, employee behaviors etc.
Clinical psychology : Therapists/hospitals may grant access to anonymized medical records to study aspects like assessments, diagnoses, treatment plans etc. This could shed light on clinical practices.
School psychology : Studies could utilize anonymized student records like test scores, grades, disciplinary issues, and counseling referrals to study child development, learning barriers, effectiveness of support programs, and more.

How do I Write a Case Study in Psychology?

Follow specified case study guidelines provided by a journal or your psychology tutor. General components of clinical case studies include: background, symptoms, assessments, diagnosis, treatment, and outcomes. Interpreting the information means the researcher decides what to include or leave out. A good case study should always clarify which information is the factual description and which is an inference or the researcher’s opinion.

1. Introduction

Provide background on the case context and why it is of interest, presenting background information like demographics, relevant history, and presenting problem.
Compare briefly to similar published cases if applicable. Clearly state the focus/importance of the case.

2. Case Presentation

Describe the presenting problem in detail, including symptoms, duration,and impact on daily life.
Include client demographics like age and gender, information about social relationships, and mental health history.
Describe all physical, emotional, and/or sensory symptoms reported by the client.
Use patient quotes to describe the initial complaint verbatim. Follow with full-sentence summaries of relevant history details gathered, including key components that led to a working diagnosis.
Summarize clinical exam results, namely orthopedic/neurological tests, imaging, lab tests, etc. Note actual results rather than subjective conclusions. Provide images if clearly reproducible/anonymized.
Clearly state the working diagnosis or clinical impression before transitioning to management.

3. Management and Outcome

Indicate the total duration of care and number of treatments given over what timeframe. Use specific names/descriptions for any therapies/interventions applied.
Present the results of the intervention,including any quantitative or qualitative data collected.
For outcomes, utilize visual analog scales for pain, medication usage logs, etc., if possible. Include patient self-reports of improvement/worsening of symptoms. Note the reason for discharge/end of care.

4. Discussion

Analyze the case, exploring contributing factors, limitations of the study, and connections to existing research.
Analyze the effectiveness of the intervention,considering factors like participant adherence, limitations of the study, and potential alternative explanations for the results.
Identify any questions raised in the case analysis and relate insights to established theories and current research if applicable. Avoid definitive claims about physiological explanations.
Offer clinical implications, and suggest future research directions.

5. Additional Items

Thank specific assistants for writing support only. No patient acknowledgments.
References should directly support any key claims or quotes included.
Use tables/figures/images only if substantially informative. Include permissions and legends/explanatory notes.
Provides detailed (rich qualitative) information.
Provides insight for further research.
Permitting investigation of otherwise impractical (or unethical) situations.

Case studies allow a researcher to investigate a topic in far more detail than might be possible if they were trying to deal with a large number of research participants (nomothetic approach) with the aim of ‘averaging’.

Because of their in-depth, multi-sided approach, case studies often shed light on aspects of human thinking and behavior that would be unethical or impractical to study in other ways.

Research that only looks into the measurable aspects of human behavior is not likely to give us insights into the subjective dimension of experience, which is important to psychoanalytic and humanistic psychologists.

Case studies are often used in exploratory research. They can help us generate new ideas (that might be tested by other methods). They are an important way of illustrating theories and can help show how different aspects of a person’s life are related to each other.

The method is, therefore, important for psychologists who adopt a holistic point of view (i.e., humanistic psychologists ).

Limitations

Lacking scientific rigor and providing little basis for generalization of results to the wider population.
Researchers’ own subjective feelings may influence the case study (researcher bias).
Difficult to replicate.
Time-consuming and expensive.
The volume of data, together with the time restrictions in place, impacted the depth of analysis that was possible within the available resources.

Because a case study deals with only one person/event/group, we can never be sure if the case study investigated is representative of the wider body of “similar” instances. This means the conclusions drawn from a particular case may not be transferable to other settings.

Because case studies are based on the analysis of qualitative (i.e., descriptive) data , a lot depends on the psychologist’s interpretation of the information she has acquired.

This means that there is a lot of scope for Anna O , and it could be that the subjective opinions of the psychologist intrude in the assessment of what the data means.

For example, Freud has been criticized for producing case studies in which the information was sometimes distorted to fit particular behavioral theories (e.g., Little Hans ).

This is also true of Money’s interpretation of the Bruce/Brenda case study (Diamond, 1997) when he ignored evidence that went against his theory.

Breuer, J., & Freud, S. (1895). Studies on hysteria . Standard Edition 2: London.

Curtiss, S. (1981). Genie: The case of a modern wild child .

Diamond, M., & Sigmundson, K. (1997). Sex Reassignment at Birth: Long-term Review and Clinical Implications. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine , 151(3), 298-304

Freud, S. (1909a). Analysis of a phobia of a five year old boy. In The Pelican Freud Library (1977), Vol 8, Case Histories 1, pages 169-306

Freud, S. (1909b). Bemerkungen über einen Fall von Zwangsneurose (Der “Rattenmann”). Jb. psychoanal. psychopathol. Forsch ., I, p. 357-421; GW, VII, p. 379-463; Notes upon a case of obsessional neurosis, SE , 10: 151-318.

Harlow J. M. (1848). Passage of an iron rod through the head. Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, 39 , 389–393.

Harlow, J. M. (1868). Recovery from the Passage of an Iron Bar through the Head . Publications of the Massachusetts Medical Society. 2 (3), 327-347.

Money, J., & Ehrhardt, A. A. (1972). Man & Woman, Boy & Girl : The Differentiation and Dimorphism of Gender Identity from Conception to Maturity. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Money, J., & Tucker, P. (1975). Sexual signatures: On being a man or a woman.

Further Information

Case Study Approach
Case Study Method
Enhancing the Quality of Case Studies in Health Services Research
“We do things together” A case study of “couplehood” in dementia
Using mixed methods for evaluating an integrative approach to cancer care: a case study

Research Methodology

Qualitative Data Coding

What Is a Focus Group?

Cross-Cultural Research Methodology In Psychology

What Is Internal Validity In Research?

Research Methodology , Statistics

What Is Face Validity In Research? Importance & How To Measure

Criterion Validity: Definition & Examples

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CRO Guide > Chapter 3.1

Qualitative Research: Definition, Methodology, Limitation & Examples

Qualitative research is a method focused on understanding human behavior and experiences through non-numerical data. Examples of qualitative research include:

One-on-one interviews,
Focus groups, Ethnographic research,
Case studies,
Record keeping,
Qualitative observations

In this article, we’ll provide tips and tricks on how to use qualitative research to better understand your audience through real world examples and improve your ROI. We’ll also learn the difference between qualitative and quantitative data.

Marketers often seek to understand their customers deeply. Qualitative research methods such as face-to-face interviews, focus groups, and qualitative observations can provide valuable insights into your products, your market, and your customers’ opinions and motivations. Understanding these nuances can significantly enhance marketing strategies and overall customer satisfaction.

What is Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is a market research method that focuses on obtaining data through open-ended and conversational communication. This method focuses on the “why” rather than the “what” people think about you. Thus, qualitative research seeks to uncover the underlying motivations, attitudes, and beliefs that drive people’s actions.

Let’s say you have an online shop catering to a general audience. You do a demographic analysis and you find out that most of your customers are male. Naturally, you will want to find out why women are not buying from you. And that’s what qualitative research will help you find out.

In the case of your online shop, qualitative research would involve reaching out to female non-customers through methods such as in-depth interviews or focus groups. These interactions provide a platform for women to express their thoughts, feelings, and concerns regarding your products or brand. Through qualitative analysis, you can uncover valuable insights into factors such as product preferences, user experience, brand perception, and barriers to purchase.

Types of Qualitative Research Methods

Qualitative research methods are designed in a manner that helps reveal the behavior and perception of a target audience regarding a particular topic.

The most frequently used qualitative analysis methods are one-on-one interviews, focus groups, ethnographic research, case study research, record keeping, and qualitative observation.

1. One-on-one interviews

Conducting one-on-one interviews is one of the most common qualitative research methods. One of the advantages of this method is that it provides a great opportunity to gather precise data about what people think and their motivations.

Spending time talking to customers not only helps marketers understand who their clients are, but also helps with customer care: clients love hearing from brands. This strengthens the relationship between a brand and its clients and paves the way for customer testimonials.

A company might conduct interviews to understand why a product failed to meet sales expectations.
A researcher might use interviews to gather personal stories about experiences with healthcare.

These interviews can be performed face-to-face or on the phone and usually last between half an hour to over two hours.

When a one-on-one interview is conducted face-to-face, it also gives the marketer the opportunity to read the body language of the respondent and match the responses.

2. Focus groups

Focus groups gather a small number of people to discuss and provide feedback on a particular subject. The ideal size of a focus group is usually between five and eight participants. The size of focus groups should reflect the participants’ familiarity with the topic. For less important topics or when participants have little experience, a group of 10 can be effective. For more critical topics or when participants are more knowledgeable, a smaller group of five to six is preferable for deeper discussions.

The main goal of a focus group is to find answers to the “why”, “what”, and “how” questions. This method is highly effective in exploring people’s feelings and ideas in a social setting, where group dynamics can bring out insights that might not emerge in one-on-one situations.

A focus group could be used to test reactions to a new product concept.
Marketers might use focus groups to see how different demographic groups react to an advertising campaign.

One advantage that focus groups have is that the marketer doesn’t necessarily have to interact with the group in person. Nowadays focus groups can be sent as online qualitative surveys on various devices.

Focus groups are an expensive option compared to the other qualitative research methods, which is why they are typically used to explain complex processes.

3. Ethnographic research

Ethnographic research is the most in-depth observational method that studies individuals in their naturally occurring environment.

This method aims at understanding the cultures, challenges, motivations, and settings that occur.

A study of workplace culture within a tech startup.
Observational research in a remote village to understand local traditions.

Ethnographic research requires the marketer to adapt to the target audiences’ environments (a different organization, a different city, or even a remote location), which is why geographical constraints can be an issue while collecting data.

This type of research can last from a few days to a few years. It’s challenging and time-consuming and solely depends on the expertise of the marketer to be able to analyze, observe, and infer the data.

4. Case study research

The case study method has grown into a valuable qualitative research method. This type of research method is usually used in education or social sciences. It involves a comprehensive examination of a single instance or event, providing detailed insights into complex issues in real-life contexts.

Analyzing a single school’s innovative teaching method.
A detailed study of a patient’s medical treatment over several years.

Case study research may seem difficult to operate, but it’s actually one of the simplest ways of conducting research as it involves a deep dive and thorough understanding of the data collection methods and inferring the data.

5. Record keeping

Record keeping is similar to going to the library: you go over books or any other reference material to collect relevant data. This method uses already existing reliable documents and similar sources of information as a data source.

Historical research using old newspapers and letters.
A study on policy changes over the years by examining government records.

This method is useful for constructing a historical context around a research topic or verifying other findings with documented evidence.

6. Qualitative observation

Qualitative observation is a method that uses subjective methodologies to gather systematic information or data. This method deals with the five major sensory organs and their functioning, sight, smell, touch, taste, and hearing.

Sight : Observing the way customers visually interact with product displays in a store to understand their browsing behaviors and preferences.
Smell : Noting reactions of consumers to different scents in a fragrance shop to study the impact of olfactory elements on product preference.
Touch : Watching how individuals interact with different materials in a clothing store to assess the importance of texture in fabric selection.
Taste : Evaluating reactions of participants in a taste test to identify flavor profiles that appeal to different demographic groups.
Hearing : Documenting responses to changes in background music within a retail environment to determine its effect on shopping behavior and mood.

Below we are also providing real-life examples of qualitative research that demonstrate practical applications across various contexts:

Qualitative Research Real World Examples

Let’s explore some examples of how qualitative research can be applied in different contexts.

1. Online grocery shop with a predominantly male audience

Method used: one-on-one interviews.

Let’s go back to one of the previous examples. You have an online grocery shop. By nature, it addresses a general audience, but after you do a demographic analysis you find out that most of your customers are male.

One good method to determine why women are not buying from you is to hold one-on-one interviews with potential customers in the category.

Interviewing a sample of potential female customers should reveal why they don’t find your store appealing. The reasons could range from not stocking enough products for women to perhaps the store’s emphasis on heavy-duty tools and automotive products, for example. These insights can guide adjustments in inventory and marketing strategies.

2. Software company launching a new product

Method used: focus groups.

Focus groups are great for establishing product-market fit.

Let’s assume you are a software company that wants to launch a new product and you hold a focus group with 12 people. Although getting their feedback regarding users’ experience with the product is a good thing, this sample is too small to define how the entire market will react to your product.

So what you can do instead is holding multiple focus groups in 20 different geographic regions. Each region should be hosting a group of 12 for each market segment; you can even segment your audience based on age. This would be a better way to establish credibility in the feedback you receive.

3. Alan Pushkin’s “God’s Choice: The Total World of a Fundamentalist Christian School”

Method used: ethnographic research.

Moving from a fictional example to a real-life one, let’s analyze Alan Peshkin’s 1986 book “God’s Choice: The Total World of a Fundamentalist Christian School”.

Peshkin studied the culture of Bethany Baptist Academy by interviewing the students, parents, teachers, and members of the community alike, and spending eighteen months observing them to provide a comprehensive and in-depth analysis of Christian schooling as an alternative to public education.

The study highlights the school’s unified purpose, rigorous academic environment, and strong community support while also pointing out its lack of cultural diversity and openness to differing viewpoints. These insights are crucial for understanding how such educational settings operate and what they offer to students.

Even after discovering all this, Peshkin still presented the school in a positive light and stated that public schools have much to learn from such schools.

Peshkin’s in-depth research represents a qualitative study that uses observations and unstructured interviews, without any assumptions or hypotheses. He utilizes descriptive or non-quantifiable data on Bethany Baptist Academy specifically, without attempting to generalize the findings to other Christian schools.

4. Understanding buyers’ trends

Method used: record keeping.

Another way marketers can use quality research is to understand buyers’ trends. To do this, marketers need to look at historical data for both their company and their industry and identify where buyers are purchasing items in higher volumes.

For example, electronics distributors know that the holiday season is a peak market for sales while life insurance agents find that spring and summer wedding months are good seasons for targeting new clients.

5. Determining products/services missing from the market

Conducting your own research isn’t always necessary. If there are significant breakthroughs in your industry, you can use industry data and adapt it to your marketing needs.

The influx of hacking and hijacking of cloud-based information has made Internet security a topic of many industry reports lately. A software company could use these reports to better understand the problems its clients are facing.

As a result, the company can provide solutions prospects already know they need.

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Qualitative Research Approaches

Once the marketer has decided that their research questions will provide data that is qualitative in nature, the next step is to choose the appropriate qualitative approach.

The approach chosen will take into account the purpose of the research, the role of the researcher, the data collected, the method of data analysis , and how the results will be presented. The most common approaches include:

Narrative : This method focuses on individual life stories to understand personal experiences and journeys. It examines how people structure their stories and the themes within them to explore human existence. For example, a narrative study might look at cancer survivors to understand their resilience and coping strategies.
Phenomenology : attempts to understand or explain life experiences or phenomena; It aims to reveal the depth of human consciousness and perception, such as by studying the daily lives of those with chronic illnesses.
Grounded theory : investigates the process, action, or interaction with the goal of developing a theory “grounded” in observations and empirical data.
Ethnography : describes and interprets an ethnic, cultural, or social group;
Case study : examines episodic events in a definable framework, develops in-depth analyses of single or multiple cases, and generally explains “how”. An example might be studying a community health program to evaluate its success and impact.

How to Analyze Qualitative Data

Analyzing qualitative data involves interpreting non-numerical data to uncover patterns, themes, and deeper insights. This process is typically more subjective and requires a systematic approach to ensure reliability and validity.

1. Data Collection

Ensure that your data collection methods (e.g., interviews, focus groups, observations) are well-documented and comprehensive. This step is crucial because the quality and depth of the data collected will significantly influence the analysis.

2. Data Preparation

Once collected, the data needs to be organized. Transcribe audio and video recordings, and gather all notes and documents. Ensure that all data is anonymized to protect participant confidentiality where necessary.

3. Familiarization

Immerse yourself in the data by reading through the materials multiple times. This helps you get a general sense of the information and begin identifying patterns or recurring themes.

Develop a coding system to tag data with labels that summarize and account for each piece of information. Codes can be words, phrases, or acronyms that represent how these segments relate to your research questions.

Descriptive Coding : Summarize the primary topic of the data.
In Vivo Coding : Use language and terms used by the participants themselves.
Process Coding : Use gerunds (“-ing” words) to label the processes at play.
Emotion Coding : Identify and record the emotions conveyed or experienced.

5. Thematic Development

Group codes into themes that represent larger patterns in the data. These themes should relate directly to the research questions and form a coherent narrative about the findings.

6. Interpreting the Data

Interpret the data by constructing a logical narrative. This involves piecing together the themes to explain larger insights about the data. Link the results back to your research objectives and existing literature to bolster your interpretations.

7. Validation

Check the reliability and validity of your findings by reviewing if the interpretations are supported by the data. This may involve revisiting the data multiple times or discussing the findings with colleagues or participants for validation.

8. Reporting

Finally, present the findings in a clear and organized manner. Use direct quotes and detailed descriptions to illustrate the themes and insights. The report should communicate the narrative you’ve built from your data, clearly linking your findings to your research questions.

Limitations of qualitative research

The disadvantages of qualitative research are quite unique. The techniques of the data collector and their own unique observations can alter the information in subtle ways. That being said, these are the qualitative research’s limitations:

1. It’s a time-consuming process

The main drawback of qualitative study is that the process is time-consuming. Another problem is that the interpretations are limited. Personal experience and knowledge influence observations and conclusions.

Thus, qualitative research might take several weeks or months. Also, since this process delves into personal interaction for data collection, discussions often tend to deviate from the main issue to be studied.

2. You can’t verify the results of qualitative research

Because qualitative research is open-ended, participants have more control over the content of the data collected. So the marketer is not able to verify the results objectively against the scenarios stated by the respondents. For example, in a focus group discussing a new product, participants might express their feelings about the design and functionality. However, these opinions are influenced by individual tastes and experiences, making it difficult to ascertain a universally applicable conclusion from these discussions.

3. It’s a labor-intensive approach

Qualitative research requires a labor-intensive analysis process such as categorization, recording, etc. Similarly, qualitative research requires well-experienced marketers to obtain the needed data from a group of respondents.

4. It’s difficult to investigate causality

Qualitative research requires thoughtful planning to ensure the obtained results are accurate. There is no way to analyze qualitative data mathematically. This type of research is based more on opinion and judgment rather than results. Because all qualitative studies are unique they are difficult to replicate.

5. Qualitative research is not statistically representative

Because qualitative research is a perspective-based method of research, the responses given are not measured.

Comparisons can be made and this can lead toward duplication, but for the most part, quantitative data is required for circumstances that need statistical representation and that is not part of the qualitative research process.

While doing a qualitative study, it’s important to cross-reference the data obtained with the quantitative data. By continuously surveying prospects and customers marketers can build a stronger database of useful information.

Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research

Qualitative and quantitative research side by side in a table

Image source

Quantitative and qualitative research are two distinct methodologies used in the field of market research, each offering unique insights and approaches to understanding consumer behavior and preferences.

As we already defined, qualitative analysis seeks to explore the deeper meanings, perceptions, and motivations behind human behavior through non-numerical data. On the other hand, quantitative research focuses on collecting and analyzing numerical data to identify patterns, trends, and statistical relationships.

Let’s explore their key differences:

Nature of Data:

Quantitative research : Involves numerical data that can be measured and analyzed statistically.
Qualitative research : Focuses on non-numerical data, such as words, images, and observations, to capture subjective experiences and meanings.

Research Questions:

Quantitative research : Typically addresses questions related to “how many,” “how much,” or “to what extent,” aiming to quantify relationships and patterns.
Qualitative research: Explores questions related to “why” and “how,” aiming to understand the underlying motivations, beliefs, and perceptions of individuals.

Data Collection Methods:

Quantitative research : Relies on structured surveys, experiments, or observations with predefined variables and measures.
Qualitative research : Utilizes open-ended interviews, focus groups, participant observations, and textual analysis to gather rich, contextually nuanced data.

Analysis Techniques:

Quantitative research: Involves statistical analysis to identify correlations, associations, or differences between variables.
Qualitative research: Employs thematic analysis, coding, and interpretation to uncover patterns, themes, and insights within qualitative data.

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Last modified: January 3, 2023
Conversion Rate Optimization , User Research

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Binge-eating disorder

Binge-eating disorder is a serious condition. It always involves feeling like you're not able to stop eating. It also often involves eating much larger than usual amounts of food.

Almost everyone overeats on occasion, such as having seconds or thirds of a holiday meal. But regularly feeling that eating is out of control and eating an unusually large amount of food may be symptoms of binge-eating disorder.

People who have binge-eating disorder often feel embarrassed or ashamed about eating binges. People with the disorder often go through periods of trying to restrict or severely cut back on their eating as a result. But this instead may increase urges to eat and lead to a cycle of ongoing binge eating. Treatment for binge-eating disorder can help people feel more in control and balanced with their eating.

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If you have binge-eating disorder, you may be overweight or obese, or you may be at a healthy weight. Most people with binge-eating disorder feel upset about their body size or shape no matter what the number on the scale is.

Symptoms of binge-eating disorder vary but can include:

Feeling that you don't have control over your eating behavior, for example, you can't stop once you start.
Often eating much larger than usual amounts of food in a specific amount of time, such as over a two-hour period.
Eating even when you're full or not hungry.
Eating very fast during eating binges.
Eating until you're uncomfortably full.
Often eating alone or in secret.
Feeling depressed, disgusted, ashamed, guilty or upset about your eating.

A person with bulimia nervosa, another eating disorder, may binge and then vomit, use laxatives or exercise excessively to get rid of extra calories. This is not the case with binge-eating disorder. If you have binge-eating disorder, you may try to diet or eat less food at mealtimes to compensate. But restricting your diet may simply lead to more binge eating.

How much eating binges affect your mood and ability to function in daily life gives an idea of how serious the condition is for you. Binge-eating disorder can vary over time. The condition may be short-lived, may go away and come back, or may continue for years if left untreated.

When to see a doctor

If you have any symptoms of binge-eating disorder, get medical help as soon as possible. Talk with your healthcare professional or a mental health professional about your symptoms and feelings.

If you're embarrassed by your eating and are worried about talking to your healthcare professional, start by talking with someone you trust about what you're going through. A friend, family member, teacher or faith leader can encourage and support you in taking the first steps to successful treatment of binge-eating disorder.

Talking with a professional with specialty training in eating disorders or reaching out to an organization specializing in eating disorders might be a good place to find support from someone who understands what you're going through.

Helping a loved one who has symptoms

Someone who has binge-eating disorder may become an expert at hiding behavior. This is usually because of feelings of shame and embarrassment about the symptoms. Hiding symptoms can make it hard for others to notice the problem. If you think a loved one may have symptoms of binge-eating disorder, have an open and honest talk about your concerns, but remember to approach the topic with sensitivity. Eating disorders are mental health conditions, and the behaviors are not the fault or choice of the person with this condition.

Give encouragement and support. Offer to help your loved one find a healthcare professional or mental health professional with experience in treating eating disorders. You may help make an appointment. You might even offer to go along.

The causes of binge-eating disorder are not known. But certain genes, how your body works, long-term dieting and the presence of other mental health conditions increase your risk.

Risk factors

Binge-eating disorder is more common in women than in men. People of any age can have binge-eating disorder, but it often begins in the late teens or early 20s.

Factors that can raise your risk of having binge-eating disorder include:

Family history. You're much more likely to have an eating disorder if your parents or siblings have — or had — an eating disorder. This may point to genes passed down in your family that increase the risk of having an eating disorder.
Dieting. Many people with binge-eating disorder have a history of dieting. Dieting or limiting calories throughout the day may trigger an urge to binge eat.
Mental health conditions. Many people who have binge-eating disorder feel negatively about themselves and their skills and accomplishments. Triggers for bingeing can include stress, poor body self-image and certain foods. Certain situations also can be triggers, for example, being at a party, having downtime or driving in your car.

Complications

Mental health conditions and physical problems can happen from binge eating. Complications from binge-eating disorder may include:

Not feeling comfortable or able to enjoy your life.
Problems functioning at work, in your personal life or in social situations.
Isolating or feeling isolated from others socially.
Weight gain.
Medical conditions related to weight gain. These may include joint problems, heart disease, type 2 diabetes, gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), poor nutrition and some sleep-related breathing disorders.

Mental health conditions that are often linked with binge-eating disorder include:

Depression.
Substance use disorders.
Suicidal thoughts and behavior.

If you have a child with binge-eating behaviors:

Model body acceptance, regardless of body shape or size. Make it clear that dieting or restricting food is not healthy unless there's a diagnosed food allergy.
Talk with your child's healthcare professional about any concerns. The healthcare professional may be in a good position to identify early symptoms of an eating disorder and help get expert treatment right away. The professional also can recommend helpful resources you can use to support your child.
Binge-eating disorder. In: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders DSM-5-TR. 5th ed. American Psychiatric Association; 2022. https://dsm.psychiatryonline.org. Accessed Dec. 8, 2023.
Binge eating disorder. National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/weight-management/binge-eating-disorder. Accessed Dec. 8, 2023.
Binge eating disorder. Office on Women's Health. https://www.womenshealth.gov/mental-health/mental-health-conditions/eating-disorders/binge-eating-disorder. Accessed Dec. 8, 2023.
Giel KE, et al. Binge eating disorder. Nature Reviews. Disease Primers. 2022; doi:10.1038/s41572-022-00344-y.
Guerdjikova AI, et al. Update on binge eating disorder. Medical Clinics of North America. 2019; doi:10.1016/j.mcna.2019.02.003.
Scrandis DA, et al. Binge-eating disorder. Nurse Practitioner. 2023; doi:10.1097/01.NPR.0000000000000125.
Vyvanse (prescribing information). Takeda Pharmaceuticals; 2023. https://www.vyvanse.com. Accessed Dec. 11, 2023.
Dietary supplements for weight loss. National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements. https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/WeightLoss-HealthProfessional/. Accessed Dec. 13, 2023.
Hewlings SJ. Eating disorders and dietary supplements: A review of the science. Nutrients. 2023; doi:10.3390/nu15092076.
Ralph AF, et al. Management of eating disorders for people with higher weight: Clinical practice guideline. Journal of Eating Disorders. 2022; doi:10.1186/s40337-022-00622-w.
Sysko R, et al. Binge eating disorder in adults: Overview of treatment. https://www.uptodate.com/contents/search. Accessed Dec. 14, 2023.
Lebow JR (expert opinion). Mayo Clinic. Dec. 28, 2023.
Atwood ME, et al. A systematic review of enhanced cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT-E) for eating disorders. International Journal of Eating Disorders. 2019; doi:10.1002/eat.23206.
Peterson CB, et al. Comparing integrative cognitive-affective therapy and guided self-help cognitive-behavioral therapy to treat binge-eating disorders using standard and naturalistic momentary outcome measures: A randomized controlled trial. International Journal of Eating Disorders. 2020; doi:10;1002/eat.23324.
Hope starts here. National Eating Disorders Association. https://www.nationaleatingdisorders.org/. Accessed Jan. 9, 2024.
What is F.E.A.S.T? Families Empowered And Supporting Treatment for Eating Disorders (F.E.A.S.T.). https://www.feast-ed.org/what-is-feast/. Accessed Jan. 8, 2024.

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History-as-record consists of the documents and memorials pertaining to history-as-actuality on which written-history is or should be based. (p. 5) All three lend themselves to cliché yet despite this familiarity, or perhaps because of this, non-historians struggle with historical understanding and analysis. History teachers consistently
Introduction to Historical Research : Home
This guide is an introduction to selected resources available for historical research. It covers both primary sources (such as diaries, letters, newspaper articles, photographs, government documents and first-hand accounts) and secondary materials (such as books and articles written by historians and devoted to the analysis and interpretation of historical events and evidence).
The Princeton Guide to Historical Research on JSTOR
Download. XML. The essential handbook for doing historical research inthe twenty-first century The Princeton Guide toHistorical Research provides students, scholars, andprofes...
Historical method
Historical method is the collection of techniques and guidelines that historians use to research and write histories of the past. Secondary sources, primary sources and material evidence such as that derived from archaeology may all be drawn on, and the historian's skill lies in identifying these sources, evaluating their relative authority, and combining their testimony appropriately in order ...
What is Historical Research?
Historical research involves looking at the past and what has been recorded, determining its credibility or accuracy and drawing from it for modern conclusions. Learn more about the definitions ...
The Princeton Guide to Historical Research
Offers practical step-by-step guidance on how to do historical research, taking readers from initial questions to final publication. Connects new digital technologies to the traditional skills of the historian. Draws on hundreds of examples from a broad range of historical topics and approaches. Shares tips for researchers at every skill level.
Comprehensive Guide to Historical Research Methods
Historical research is a meticulous process that involves the exploration and analysis of past events, societies, and cultures. This comprehensive guide aims to assist researchers and historians in navigating the intricate landscape of historical research. From understanding different methodologies to utilizing archival resources effectively ...
An Introduction to Historical Research Design
Historical research design is a methodological approach that investigates and interprets past events, cultures, and phenomena through the analysis of historical sources. Researchers employing this design delve into primary and secondary sources, such as documents, artifacts, and testimonies, to construct a comprehensive understanding of the past.
Historical Research
We conduct historical research for a number of reasons: - to avoid the mistakes of the past. - to apply lessons from the past to current problems. - to use the past to make predictions about the present and future. - to understand present practices and policies in light of the past. - to examine trends across time.
Historical research
Historical Research. Definition: " Historical method refers to the use of primary historical data to answer a question. Because the nature of the data depends on the question being asked, data may include demographic records, such as birth and death certificates; newspapers articles; letters and diaries; government records; or even ...
A Step by Step Guide to Doing Historical Research
Historical research is your informed response to the questions that you ask while examining the record of human experience. ... Definition: Primary sources emanate from individuals or groups who participated in or witnessed an event and recorded that event during or immediately after the event. They include speeches, memoirs, diaries, letters ...
Home
Historical research involves the following steps: Identify an idea, topic or research question. Conduct a background literature review. Refine the research idea and questions. Determine that historical methods will be the method used. Identify and locate primary and secondary data sources. Evaluate the authenticity and accuracy of source materials.
Historical Research: Theory and Methods
Historical method comprises the techniques and guidelines by which historians use primary sources and other evidence, including the evidence of archaeology, to research and then to write histories in the form of accounts of the past. The question of the nature, and even the possibility, of a sound historical method is raised in the philosophy of history as a question of epistemology.
Historical Research
Step 2- Collect the Data. It is essential to collect data and facts about the research question to get reliable outcomes. You need to select an appropriate instrument for data collection. Historical research includes two sources of data collection, such as primary and secondary sources.
UNT Dallas Library: History: History & Historical Research
Purpose of Historical Research. To learn from past successes and failures. Learn how things were done in the past and apply them to current or future events. To assist in prediction. Lead to the confirmation or rejection of relational hypotheses. Understand the present practices and policies by understanding the history surrounding them.
How Institutions Use Historical Research Methods to Provide Historical
Historical research methods enable institutions to collect facts, chronological data, and other information relevant to their interests. But historical research is more than compiling a record of past events; it provides institutions with valuable insights about the past to inform current cultural, political, and social dynamics. ...
Historical Research
Historical Research is a generalist history journal covering a broad geographical and temporal span. It encourages the submission of articles from a broad variety of approaches, including social, political, urban, intellectual and cultural history.
Historical Design in Research
Historical research: This involves an extensive analysis of the past, including historical events, people, and documents. Insights are gained through the analysis of past events and historical data.
Historiography
historiography, the writing of history, especially the writing of history based on the critical examination of sources, the selection of particular details from the authentic materials in those sources, and the synthesis of those details into a narrative that stands the test of critical examination.The term historiography also refers to the theory and history of historical writing.
Historical
Definition. Describing and examining past events to better understand the present and to anticipate potential effects on the future. To identify a need for knowledge that requires a historical investigation. Piecing together a history, particularly when there are no people living to tell their story.
Library Research Guide for the History of Science: Introduction
Articles in non-science fields (religion, public policy): see the list in the Library Research Guide for History. Professional/Trade: Aimed at particular trades or professions. See the Library Research Guide for History. Newspaper articles: see the Guide to Newspapers and Newspaper Indexes. Personal accounts. These are first person narratives ...
Historical research
Historical research is a qualitative technique. Historical research studies the meaning of past events in an attempt to interpret the facts and explain the cause of events, and their effect in the present events. In doing so, researchers rely heavily on primary historical data (direct accounts of events, archival data - official documents ...
How graphic novels can accelerate critical thinking
Historical graphic novels can provide students a nuanced perspective into complex subjects in ways that are difficult, and sometimes impossible, to characterize in conventional writing and media ...
Case Study Research Method in Psychology
It helps define questions and hypotheses for future research. Descriptive case studies: Describe an intervention or phenomenon and the real-life context in which it occurred. It is helpful for illustrating certain topics within an evaluation. Multiple-case studies: Used to explore differences between cases and replicate findings across cases ...
Qualitative Research: Definition, Methodology, Limitation, Examples
Historical research using old newspapers and letters. A study on policy changes over the years by examining government records. This method is useful for constructing a historical context around a research topic or verifying other findings with documented evidence. 6. Qualitative observation
Binge-eating disorder
Family history. You're much more likely to have an eating disorder if your parents or siblings have — or had — an eating disorder. This may point to genes passed down in your family that increase the risk of having an eating disorder. Dieting. Many people with binge-eating disorder have a history of dieting.
What is Natural Language Processing? Definition and Examples
Natural language processing definition. Natural language processing (NLP) is a subset of artificial intelligence, computer science, and linguistics focused on making human communication, such as speech and text, comprehensible to computers. NLP is used in a wide variety of everyday products and services.
Gig Economy: A Research Guide
Gig Search Strategies and Definitions You can begin searching for gig jobs by visiting company websites such as Fiverr, ZipRecruiter, and Indeed. To find relevant jobs on these platforms, use appropriate search terms to filter out the type of work you seek, such as gig, temporary, freelance, part-time, and contract jobs.
Research Guides: Gig Economy: A Research Guide: Introduction
The purpose of this guide is to help researchers understand the gig economy's growth and provide resources for researching on-demand jobs. It covers various topics such as the history of the gig economy, gig types, search strategies, definitions, market strategies, statistical data, industry associations, and industry news.

Historical Research – Types, Methods and Examples

Historical Research

Types of Historical Research

Descriptive Research

Analytical Research

Comparative Research

Interpretive Research

Quantitative Research

Qualitative Research

Data Collection Methods

Data Analysis Methods

Historical Research Methodology

Applications of Historical Research

Examples of Historical Research

Purpose of Historical Research

When to use Historical Research

Characteristics of Historical Research

Advantages of Historical Research

Limitations of Historical Research

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

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Introduction to Historical Research : Home

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Educational Research Basics by Del Siegle

Historical Research Method: Home

Steps in Historical Research

Locating Information: Libraries

Locating information - Archives

Key Sources

Locating Information: Museums

Historical Research – A Guide Based on its Uses & Steps

When to Use the Historical Research Method?

How to Conduct Historical Research?

Tips to Collect Data

Step 2- Collect the Data

Primary Sources

Secondary Sources

Step 3 – Analyse the Data

Step 4 – Criticism of Data

External Criticism :

Internal Criticism :

Step 5 – Present your Findings

Build Arguments and Narrative

Organise your Argument

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Historical Research

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How Institutions Use Historical Research Methods to Provide Historical Perspectives

An Overview of Historical Research Methods

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