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Empirical Research: Definition, Methods, Types and Examples

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Empirical research: Definition

Empirical research: origin, quantitative research methods, qualitative research methods, steps for conducting empirical research, empirical research methodology cycle, advantages of empirical research, disadvantages of empirical research, why is there a need for empirical research.

Empirical research is defined as any research where conclusions of the study is strictly drawn from concretely empirical evidence, and therefore “verifiable” evidence.

This empirical evidence can be gathered using quantitative market research and qualitative market research methods.

For example: A research is being conducted to find out if listening to happy music in the workplace while working may promote creativity? An experiment is conducted by using a music website survey on a set of audience who are exposed to happy music and another set who are not listening to music at all, and the subjects are then observed. The results derived from such a research will give empirical evidence if it does promote creativity or not.

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You must have heard the quote” I will not believe it unless I see it”. This came from the ancient empiricists, a fundamental understanding that powered the emergence of medieval science during the renaissance period and laid the foundation of modern science, as we know it today. The word itself has its roots in greek. It is derived from the greek word empeirikos which means “experienced”.

In today’s world, the word empirical refers to collection of data using evidence that is collected through observation or experience or by using calibrated scientific instruments. All of the above origins have one thing in common which is dependence of observation and experiments to collect data and test them to come up with conclusions.

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Types and methodologies of empirical research

Empirical research can be conducted and analysed using qualitative or quantitative methods.

Quantitative research : Quantitative research methods are used to gather information through numerical data. It is used to quantify opinions, behaviors or other defined variables . These are predetermined and are in a more structured format. Some of the commonly used methods are survey, longitudinal studies, polls, etc
Qualitative research: Qualitative research methods are used to gather non numerical data. It is used to find meanings, opinions, or the underlying reasons from its subjects. These methods are unstructured or semi structured. The sample size for such a research is usually small and it is a conversational type of method to provide more insight or in-depth information about the problem Some of the most popular forms of methods are focus groups, experiments, interviews, etc.

Data collected from these will need to be analysed. Empirical evidence can also be analysed either quantitatively and qualitatively. Using this, the researcher can answer empirical questions which have to be clearly defined and answerable with the findings he has got. The type of research design used will vary depending on the field in which it is going to be used. Many of them might choose to do a collective research involving quantitative and qualitative method to better answer questions which cannot be studied in a laboratory setting.

LEARN ABOUT: Qualitative Research Questions and Questionnaires

Quantitative research methods aid in analyzing the empirical evidence gathered. By using these a researcher can find out if his hypothesis is supported or not.

Survey research: Survey research generally involves a large audience to collect a large amount of data. This is a quantitative method having a predetermined set of closed questions which are pretty easy to answer. Because of the simplicity of such a method, high responses are achieved. It is one of the most commonly used methods for all kinds of research in today’s world.

Previously, surveys were taken face to face only with maybe a recorder. However, with advancement in technology and for ease, new mediums such as emails , or social media have emerged.

For example: Depletion of energy resources is a growing concern and hence there is a need for awareness about renewable energy. According to recent studies, fossil fuels still account for around 80% of energy consumption in the United States. Even though there is a rise in the use of green energy every year, there are certain parameters because of which the general population is still not opting for green energy. In order to understand why, a survey can be conducted to gather opinions of the general population about green energy and the factors that influence their choice of switching to renewable energy. Such a survey can help institutions or governing bodies to promote appropriate awareness and incentive schemes to push the use of greener energy.

Learn more: Renewable Energy Survey Template Descriptive Research vs Correlational Research

Experimental research: In experimental research , an experiment is set up and a hypothesis is tested by creating a situation in which one of the variable is manipulated. This is also used to check cause and effect. It is tested to see what happens to the independent variable if the other one is removed or altered. The process for such a method is usually proposing a hypothesis, experimenting on it, analyzing the findings and reporting the findings to understand if it supports the theory or not.

For example: A particular product company is trying to find what is the reason for them to not be able to capture the market. So the organisation makes changes in each one of the processes like manufacturing, marketing, sales and operations. Through the experiment they understand that sales training directly impacts the market coverage for their product. If the person is trained well, then the product will have better coverage.

Correlational research: Correlational research is used to find relation between two set of variables . Regression analysis is generally used to predict outcomes of such a method. It can be positive, negative or neutral correlation.

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For example: Higher educated individuals will get higher paying jobs. This means higher education enables the individual to high paying job and less education will lead to lower paying jobs.

Longitudinal study: Longitudinal study is used to understand the traits or behavior of a subject under observation after repeatedly testing the subject over a period of time. Data collected from such a method can be qualitative or quantitative in nature.

For example: A research to find out benefits of exercise. The target is asked to exercise everyday for a particular period of time and the results show higher endurance, stamina, and muscle growth. This supports the fact that exercise benefits an individual body.

Cross sectional: Cross sectional study is an observational type of method, in which a set of audience is observed at a given point in time. In this type, the set of people are chosen in a fashion which depicts similarity in all the variables except the one which is being researched. This type does not enable the researcher to establish a cause and effect relationship as it is not observed for a continuous time period. It is majorly used by healthcare sector or the retail industry.

For example: A medical study to find the prevalence of under-nutrition disorders in kids of a given population. This will involve looking at a wide range of parameters like age, ethnicity, location, incomes and social backgrounds. If a significant number of kids coming from poor families show under-nutrition disorders, the researcher can further investigate into it. Usually a cross sectional study is followed by a longitudinal study to find out the exact reason.

Causal-Comparative research : This method is based on comparison. It is mainly used to find out cause-effect relationship between two variables or even multiple variables.

For example: A researcher measured the productivity of employees in a company which gave breaks to the employees during work and compared that to the employees of the company which did not give breaks at all.

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Some research questions need to be analysed qualitatively, as quantitative methods are not applicable there. In many cases, in-depth information is needed or a researcher may need to observe a target audience behavior, hence the results needed are in a descriptive analysis form. Qualitative research results will be descriptive rather than predictive. It enables the researcher to build or support theories for future potential quantitative research. In such a situation qualitative research methods are used to derive a conclusion to support the theory or hypothesis being studied.

LEARN ABOUT: Qualitative Interview

Case study: Case study method is used to find more information through carefully analyzing existing cases. It is very often used for business research or to gather empirical evidence for investigation purpose. It is a method to investigate a problem within its real life context through existing cases. The researcher has to carefully analyse making sure the parameter and variables in the existing case are the same as to the case that is being investigated. Using the findings from the case study, conclusions can be drawn regarding the topic that is being studied.

For example: A report mentioning the solution provided by a company to its client. The challenges they faced during initiation and deployment, the findings of the case and solutions they offered for the problems. Such case studies are used by most companies as it forms an empirical evidence for the company to promote in order to get more business.

Observational method: Observational method is a process to observe and gather data from its target. Since it is a qualitative method it is time consuming and very personal. It can be said that observational research method is a part of ethnographic research which is also used to gather empirical evidence. This is usually a qualitative form of research, however in some cases it can be quantitative as well depending on what is being studied.

For example: setting up a research to observe a particular animal in the rain-forests of amazon. Such a research usually take a lot of time as observation has to be done for a set amount of time to study patterns or behavior of the subject. Another example used widely nowadays is to observe people shopping in a mall to figure out buying behavior of consumers.

One-on-one interview: Such a method is purely qualitative and one of the most widely used. The reason being it enables a researcher get precise meaningful data if the right questions are asked. It is a conversational method where in-depth data can be gathered depending on where the conversation leads.

For example: A one-on-one interview with the finance minister to gather data on financial policies of the country and its implications on the public.

Focus groups: Focus groups are used when a researcher wants to find answers to why, what and how questions. A small group is generally chosen for such a method and it is not necessary to interact with the group in person. A moderator is generally needed in case the group is being addressed in person. This is widely used by product companies to collect data about their brands and the product.

For example: A mobile phone manufacturer wanting to have a feedback on the dimensions of one of their models which is yet to be launched. Such studies help the company meet the demand of the customer and position their model appropriately in the market.

Text analysis: Text analysis method is a little new compared to the other types. Such a method is used to analyse social life by going through images or words used by the individual. In today’s world, with social media playing a major part of everyone’s life, such a method enables the research to follow the pattern that relates to his study.

For example: A lot of companies ask for feedback from the customer in detail mentioning how satisfied are they with their customer support team. Such data enables the researcher to take appropriate decisions to make their support team better.

Sometimes a combination of the methods is also needed for some questions that cannot be answered using only one type of method especially when a researcher needs to gain a complete understanding of complex subject matter.

We recently published a blog that talks about examples of qualitative data in education ; why don’t you check it out for more ideas?

Since empirical research is based on observation and capturing experiences, it is important to plan the steps to conduct the experiment and how to analyse it. This will enable the researcher to resolve problems or obstacles which can occur during the experiment.

Step #1: Define the purpose of the research

This is the step where the researcher has to answer questions like what exactly do I want to find out? What is the problem statement? Are there any issues in terms of the availability of knowledge, data, time or resources. Will this research be more beneficial than what it will cost.

Before going ahead, a researcher has to clearly define his purpose for the research and set up a plan to carry out further tasks.

Step #2 : Supporting theories and relevant literature

The researcher needs to find out if there are theories which can be linked to his research problem . He has to figure out if any theory can help him support his findings. All kind of relevant literature will help the researcher to find if there are others who have researched this before, or what are the problems faced during this research. The researcher will also have to set up assumptions and also find out if there is any history regarding his research problem

Step #3: Creation of Hypothesis and measurement

Before beginning the actual research he needs to provide himself a working hypothesis or guess what will be the probable result. Researcher has to set up variables, decide the environment for the research and find out how can he relate between the variables.

Researcher will also need to define the units of measurements, tolerable degree for errors, and find out if the measurement chosen will be acceptable by others.

Step #4: Methodology, research design and data collection

In this step, the researcher has to define a strategy for conducting his research. He has to set up experiments to collect data which will enable him to propose the hypothesis. The researcher will decide whether he will need experimental or non experimental method for conducting the research. The type of research design will vary depending on the field in which the research is being conducted. Last but not the least, the researcher will have to find out parameters that will affect the validity of the research design. Data collection will need to be done by choosing appropriate samples depending on the research question. To carry out the research, he can use one of the many sampling techniques. Once data collection is complete, researcher will have empirical data which needs to be analysed.

LEARN ABOUT: Best Data Collection Tools

Step #5: Data Analysis and result

Data analysis can be done in two ways, qualitatively and quantitatively. Researcher will need to find out what qualitative method or quantitative method will be needed or will he need a combination of both. Depending on the unit of analysis of his data, he will know if his hypothesis is supported or rejected. Analyzing this data is the most important part to support his hypothesis.

Step #6: Conclusion

A report will need to be made with the findings of the research. The researcher can give the theories and literature that support his research. He can make suggestions or recommendations for further research on his topic.

A.D. de Groot, a famous dutch psychologist and a chess expert conducted some of the most notable experiments using chess in the 1940’s. During his study, he came up with a cycle which is consistent and now widely used to conduct empirical research. It consists of 5 phases with each phase being as important as the next one. The empirical cycle captures the process of coming up with hypothesis about how certain subjects work or behave and then testing these hypothesis against empirical data in a systematic and rigorous approach. It can be said that it characterizes the deductive approach to science. Following is the empirical cycle.

Observation: At this phase an idea is sparked for proposing a hypothesis. During this phase empirical data is gathered using observation. For example: a particular species of flower bloom in a different color only during a specific season.
Induction: Inductive reasoning is then carried out to form a general conclusion from the data gathered through observation. For example: As stated above it is observed that the species of flower blooms in a different color during a specific season. A researcher may ask a question “does the temperature in the season cause the color change in the flower?” He can assume that is the case, however it is a mere conjecture and hence an experiment needs to be set up to support this hypothesis. So he tags a few set of flowers kept at a different temperature and observes if they still change the color?
Deduction: This phase helps the researcher to deduce a conclusion out of his experiment. This has to be based on logic and rationality to come up with specific unbiased results.For example: In the experiment, if the tagged flowers in a different temperature environment do not change the color then it can be concluded that temperature plays a role in changing the color of the bloom.
Testing: This phase involves the researcher to return to empirical methods to put his hypothesis to the test. The researcher now needs to make sense of his data and hence needs to use statistical analysis plans to determine the temperature and bloom color relationship. If the researcher finds out that most flowers bloom a different color when exposed to the certain temperature and the others do not when the temperature is different, he has found support to his hypothesis. Please note this not proof but just a support to his hypothesis.
Evaluation: This phase is generally forgotten by most but is an important one to keep gaining knowledge. During this phase the researcher puts forth the data he has collected, the support argument and his conclusion. The researcher also states the limitations for the experiment and his hypothesis and suggests tips for others to pick it up and continue a more in-depth research for others in the future. LEARN MORE: Population vs Sample

LEARN MORE: Population vs Sample

There is a reason why empirical research is one of the most widely used method. There are a few advantages associated with it. Following are a few of them.

It is used to authenticate traditional research through various experiments and observations.
This research methodology makes the research being conducted more competent and authentic.
It enables a researcher understand the dynamic changes that can happen and change his strategy accordingly.
The level of control in such a research is high so the researcher can control multiple variables.
It plays a vital role in increasing internal validity .

Even though empirical research makes the research more competent and authentic, it does have a few disadvantages. Following are a few of them.

Such a research needs patience as it can be very time consuming. The researcher has to collect data from multiple sources and the parameters involved are quite a few, which will lead to a time consuming research.
Most of the time, a researcher will need to conduct research at different locations or in different environments, this can lead to an expensive affair.
There are a few rules in which experiments can be performed and hence permissions are needed. Many a times, it is very difficult to get certain permissions to carry out different methods of this research.
Collection of data can be a problem sometimes, as it has to be collected from a variety of sources through different methods.

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Empirical research is important in today’s world because most people believe in something only that they can see, hear or experience. It is used to validate multiple hypothesis and increase human knowledge and continue doing it to keep advancing in various fields.

For example: Pharmaceutical companies use empirical research to try out a specific drug on controlled groups or random groups to study the effect and cause. This way, they prove certain theories they had proposed for the specific drug. Such research is very important as sometimes it can lead to finding a cure for a disease that has existed for many years. It is useful in science and many other fields like history, social sciences, business, etc.

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With the advancement in today’s world, empirical research has become critical and a norm in many fields to support their hypothesis and gain more knowledge. The methods mentioned above are very useful for carrying out such research. However, a number of new methods will keep coming up as the nature of new investigative questions keeps getting unique or changing.

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Penn State University Libraries

Empirical research in the social sciences and education.

What is Empirical Research and How to Read It
Finding Empirical Research in Library Databases
Designing Empirical Research
Ethics, Cultural Responsiveness, and Anti-Racism in Research
Citing, Writing, and Presenting Your Work

Contact the Librarian at your campus for more help!

Introduction: What is Empirical Research?

Empirical research is based on observed and measured phenomena and derives knowledge from actual experience rather than from theory or belief.

How do you know if a study is empirical? Read the subheadings within the article, book, or report and look for a description of the research "methodology." Ask yourself: Could I recreate this study and test these results?

Key characteristics to look for:

Specific research questions to be answered
Definition of the population, behavior, or phenomena being studied
Description of the process used to study this population or phenomena, including selection criteria, controls, and testing instruments (such as surveys)

Another hint: some scholarly journals use a specific layout, called the "IMRaD" format, to communicate empirical research findings. Such articles typically have 4 components:

Introduction : sometimes called "literature review" -- what is currently known about the topic -- usually includes a theoretical framework and/or discussion of previous studies
Methodology: sometimes called "research design" -- how to recreate the study -- usually describes the population, research process, and analytical tools used in the present study
Results : sometimes called "findings" -- what was learned through the study -- usually appears as statistical data or as substantial quotations from research participants
Discussion : sometimes called "conclusion" or "implications" -- why the study is important -- usually describes how the research results influence professional practices or future studies

Reading and Evaluating Scholarly Materials

Reading research can be a challenge. However, the tutorials and videos below can help. They explain what scholarly articles look like, how to read them, and how to evaluate them:

CRAAP Checklist A frequently-used checklist that helps you examine the currency, relevance, authority, accuracy, and purpose of an information source.
IF I APPLY A newer model of evaluating sources which encourages you to think about your own biases as a reader, as well as concerns about the item you are reading.
Credo Video: How to Read Scholarly Materials (4 min.)
Credo Tutorial: How to Read Scholarly Materials
Credo Tutorial: Evaluating Information
Credo Video: Evaluating Statistics (4 min.)
Next: Finding Empirical Research in Library Databases >>
Last Updated: Feb 18, 2024 8:33 PM
URL: https://guides.libraries.psu.edu/emp

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Research: Overview & Approaches

Getting Started with Undergraduate Research
Planning & Getting Started
Building Your Knowledge Base
Locating Sources
Reading Scholarly Articles
Creating a Literature Review
Productivity & Organizing Research
Scholarly and Professional Relationships

Introduction to Empirical Research

Databases for finding empirical research, guided search, google scholar, examples of empirical research, sources and further reading.

Interpretive Research
Action-Based Research
Creative & Experimental Approaches

Your Librarian

Introductory Video This video covers what empirical research is, what kinds of questions and methods empirical researchers use, and some tips for finding empirical research articles in your discipline.

Guided Search: Finding Empirical Research Articles This is a hands-on tutorial that will allow you to use your own search terms to find resources.

Study on radiation transfer in human skin for cosmetics
Long-Term Mobile Phone Use and the Risk of Vestibular Schwannoma: A Danish Nationwide Cohort Study
Emissions Impacts and Benefits of Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles and Vehicle-to-Grid Services
Review of design considerations and technological challenges for successful development and deployment of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles
Endocrine disrupters and human health: could oestrogenic chemicals in body care cosmetics adversely affect breast cancer incidence in women?

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Last Updated: Apr 25, 2024 4:11 PM
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Empirical Research

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First Online: 22 May 2017
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Emeka Thaddues Njoku 2

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The term “empirical” entails gathered data based on experience, observations, or experimentation. In empirical research, knowledge is developed from factual experience as opposed to theoretical assumption and usually involved the use of data sources like datasets or fieldwork, but can also be based on observations within a laboratory setting. Testing hypothesis or answering definite questions is a primary feature of empirical research. Empirical research, in other words, involves the process of employing working hypothesis that are tested through experimentation or observation. Hence, empirical research is a method of uncovering empirical evidence.

Through the process of gathering valid empirical data, scientists from a variety of fields, ranging from the social to the natural sciences, have to carefully design their methods. This helps to ensure quality and accuracy of data collection and treatment. However, any error in empirical data collection process could inevitably render such...

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Bhattacherjee, A. (2012). Social science research: Principles, methods, and practices. Textbooks Collection . Book 3.

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Dilworth, C. B. (1982). Empirical research in the literature class. English Journal, 71 (3), 95–97.

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Hossain, F. M. A. (2014). A critical analysis of empiricism. Open Journal of Philosophy, 2014 (4), 225–230.

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Koch, S. (1992). Psychology’s Bridgman vs. Bridgman’s Bridgman: An essay in reconstruction. Theory and Psychology, 2 (3), 261–290.

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Popper, K. (1963). Conjectures and refutations: The growth of scientific knowledge . London: Routledge.

Simmel, G. (1908). The problem areas of sociology in Kurt H. Wolf: The sociology of Georg Simmel . London: The Free Press.

Weber, M. (1991). The nature of social action. In W. G. Runciman (Ed.), Weber: Selections in translation . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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Department of Political Science, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Oyo, 200284, Nigeria

Emeka Thaddues Njoku

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Njoku, E.T. (2017). Empirical Research. In: Leeming, D. (eds) Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-27771-9_200051-1

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2.2 Generating Good Research Questions

Learning objectives.

Describe some common sources of research ideas and generate research ideas using those sources.
Describe some techniques for turning research ideas into empirical research questions and use those techniques to generate questions.
Explain what makes a research question interesting and evaluate research questions in terms of their interestingness.

Good research must begin with a good research question. Yet coming up with good research questions is something that novice researchers often find difficult and stressful. One reason is that this is a creative process that can appear mysterious—even magical—with experienced researchers seeming to pull interesting research questions out of thin air. However, psychological research on creativity has shown that it is neither as mysterious nor as magical as it appears. It is largely the product of ordinary thinking strategies and persistence (Weisberg, 1993). This section covers some fairly simple strategies for finding general research ideas, turning those ideas into empirically testable research questions, and finally evaluating those questions in terms of how interesting they are and how feasible they would be to answer.

Finding Inspiration

Research questions often begin as more general research ideas—usually focusing on some behavior or psychological characteristic: talkativeness, memory for touches, depression, bungee jumping, and so on. Before looking at how to turn such ideas into empirically testable research questions, it is worth looking at where such ideas come from in the first place. Three of the most common sources of inspiration are informal observations, practical problems, and previous research.

Informal observations include direct observations of our own and others’ behavior as well as secondhand observations from nonscientific sources such as newspapers, books, and so on. For example, you might notice that you always seem to be in the slowest moving line at the grocery store. Could it be that most people think the same thing? Or you might read in the local newspaper about people donating money and food to a local family whose house has burned down and begin to wonder about who makes such donations and why. Some of the most famous research in psychology has been inspired by informal observations. Stanley Milgram’s famous research on obedience, for example, was inspired in part by journalistic reports of the trials of accused Nazi war criminals—many of whom claimed that they were only obeying orders. This led him to wonder about the extent to which ordinary people will commit immoral acts simply because they are ordered to do so by an authority figure (Milgram, 1963).

Practical problems can also inspire research ideas, leading directly to applied research in such domains as law, health, education, and sports. Can human figure drawings help children remember details about being physically or sexually abused? How effective is psychotherapy for depression compared to drug therapy? To what extent do cell phones impair people’s driving ability? How can we teach children to read more efficiently? What is the best mental preparation for running a marathon?

Probably the most common inspiration for new research ideas, however, is previous research. Recall that science is a kind of large-scale collaboration in which many different researchers read and evaluate each other’s work and conduct new studies to build on it. Of course, experienced researchers are familiar with previous research in their area of expertise and probably have a long list of ideas. This suggests that novice researchers can find inspiration by consulting with a more experienced researcher (e.g., students can consult a faculty member). But they can also find inspiration by picking up a copy of almost any professional journal and reading the titles and abstracts. In one typical issue of Psychological Science , for example, you can find articles on the perception of shapes, anti-Semitism, police lineups, the meaning of death, second-language learning, people who seek negative emotional experiences, and many other topics. If you can narrow your interests down to a particular topic (e.g., memory) or domain (e.g., health care), you can also look through more specific journals, such as Memory & Cognition or Health Psychology .

Generating Empirically Testable Research Questions

Once you have a research idea, you need to use it to generate one or more empirically testable research questions, that is, questions expressed in terms of a single variable or relationship between variables. One way to do this is to look closely at the discussion section in a recent research article on the topic. This is the last major section of the article, in which the researchers summarize their results, interpret them in the context of past research, and suggest directions for future research. These suggestions often take the form of specific research questions, which you can then try to answer with additional research. This can be a good strategy because it is likely that the suggested questions have already been identified as interesting and important by experienced researchers.

But you may also want to generate your own research questions. How can you do this? First, if you have a particular behavior or psychological characteristic in mind, you can simply conceptualize it as a variable and ask how frequent or intense it is. How many words on average do people speak per day? How accurate are children’s memories of being touched? What percentage of people have sought professional help for depression? If the question has never been studied scientifically—which is something that you will learn in your literature review—then it might be interesting and worth pursuing.

If scientific research has already answered the question of how frequent or intense the behavior or characteristic is, then you should consider turning it into a question about a statistical relationship between that behavior or characteristic and some other variable. One way to do this is to ask yourself the following series of more general questions and write down all the answers you can think of.

What are some possible causes of the behavior or characteristic?
What are some possible effects of the behavior or characteristic?
What types of people might exhibit more or less of the behavior or characteristic?
What types of situations might elicit more or less of the behavior or characteristic?

In general, each answer you write down can be conceptualized as a second variable, suggesting a question about a statistical relationship. If you were interested in talkativeness, for example, it might occur to you that a possible cause of this psychological characteristic is family size. Is there a statistical relationship between family size and talkativeness? Or it might occur to you that people seem to be more talkative in same-sex groups than mixed-sex groups. Is there a difference in the average level of talkativeness of people in same-sex groups and people in mixed-sex groups? This approach should allow you to generate many different empirically testable questions about almost any behavior or psychological characteristic.

If through this process you generate a question that has never been studied scientifically—which again is something that you will learn in your literature review—then it might be interesting and worth pursuing. But what if you find that it has been studied scientifically? Although novice researchers often want to give up and move on to a new question at this point, this is not necessarily a good strategy. For one thing, the fact that the question has been studied scientifically and the research published suggests that it is of interest to the scientific community. For another, the question can almost certainly be refined so that its answer will still contribute something new to the research literature. Again, asking yourself a series of more general questions about the statistical relationship is a good strategy.

Are there other ways to operationally define the variables?
Are there types of people for whom the statistical relationship might be stronger or weaker?
Are there situations in which the statistical relationship might be stronger or weaker—including situations with practical importance?

For example, research has shown that women and men speak about the same number of words per day—but this was when talkativeness was measured in terms of the number of words spoken per day among college students in the United States and Mexico. We can still ask whether other ways of measuring talkativeness—perhaps the number of different people spoken to each day—produce the same result. Or we can ask whether studying elderly people or people from other cultures produces the same result. Again, this approach should help you generate many different research questions about almost any statistical relationship.

Evaluating Research Questions

Researchers usually generate many more research questions than they ever attempt to answer. This means they must have some way of evaluating the research questions they generate so that they can choose which ones to pursue. In this section, we consider two criteria for evaluating research questions: the interestingness of the question and the feasibility of answering it.

Interestingness

How often do people tie their shoes? Do people feel pain when you punch them in the jaw? Are women more likely to wear makeup than men? Do people prefer vanilla or chocolate ice cream? Although it would be a fairly simple matter to design a study and collect data to answer these questions, you probably would not want to because they are not interesting. We are not talking here about whether a research question is interesting to us personally but whether it is interesting to people more generally and, especially, to the scientific community. But what makes a research question interesting in this sense? Here we look at three factors that affect the interestingness of a research question: the answer is in doubt, the answer fills a gap in the research literature, and the answer has important practical implications.

First, a research question is interesting to the extent that its answer is in doubt. Obviously, questions that have been answered by scientific research are no longer interesting as the subject of new empirical research. But the fact that a question has not been answered by scientific research does not necessarily make it interesting. There has to be some reasonable chance that the answer to the question will be something that we did not already know. But how can you assess this before actually collecting data? One approach is to try to think of reasons to expect different answers to the question—especially ones that seem to conflict with common sense. If you can think of reasons to expect at least two different answers, then the question might be interesting. If you can think of reasons to expect only one answer, then it probably is not. The question of whether women are more talkative than men is interesting because there are reasons to expect both answers. The existence of the stereotype itself suggests the answer could be yes, but the fact that women’s and men’s verbal abilities are fairly similar suggests the answer could be no. The question of whether people feel pain when you punch them in the jaw is not interesting because there is absolutely no reason to think that the answer could be anything other than a resounding yes.

A second important factor to consider when deciding if a research question is interesting is whether answering it will fill a gap in the research literature. Again, this means in part that the question has not already been answered by scientific research. But it also means that the question is in some sense a natural one for people who are familiar with the research literature. For example, the question of whether human figure drawings can help children recall touch information would be likely to occur to anyone who was familiar with research on the unreliability of eyewitness memory (especially in children) and the ineffectiveness of some alternative interviewing techniques.

A final factor to consider when deciding whether a research question is interesting is whether its answer has important practical implications. Again, the question of whether human figure drawings help children recall information about being touched has important implications for how children are interviewed in physical and sexual abuse cases. The question of whether cell phone use impairs driving is interesting because it is relevant to the personal safety of everyone who travels by car and to the debate over whether cell phone use should be restricted by law.

Feasibility

A second important criterion for evaluating research questions is the feasibility of successfully answering them. There are many factors that affect feasibility, including time, money, equipment and materials, technical knowledge and skill, and access to research participants. Clearly, researchers need to take these factors into account so that they do not waste time and effort pursuing research that they cannot complete successfully.

Looking through a sample of professional journals in psychology will reveal many studies that are complicated and difficult to carry out. These include longitudinal designs in which participants are tracked over many years, neuroimaging studies in which participants’ brain activity is measured while they carry out various mental tasks, and complex nonexperimental studies involving several variables and complicated statistical analyses. Keep in mind, though, that such research tends to be carried out by teams of highly trained researchers whose work is often supported in part by government and private grants. Keep in mind also that research does not have to be complicated or difficult to produce interesting and important results. Looking through a sample of professional journals will also reveal studies that are relatively simple and easy to carry out—perhaps involving a convenience sample of college students and a paper-and-pencil task.

A final point here is that it is generally good practice to use methods that have already been used successfully by other researchers. For example, if you want to manipulate people’s moods to make some of them happy, it would be a good idea to use one of the many approaches that have been used successfully by other researchers (e.g., paying them a compliment). This is good not only for the sake of feasibility—the approach is “tried and true”—but also because it provides greater continuity with previous research. This makes it easier to compare your results with those of other researchers and to understand the implications of their research for yours, and vice versa.

Key Takeaways

Research ideas can come from a variety of sources, including informal observations, practical problems, and previous research.
Research questions expressed in terms of variables and relationships between variables can be suggested by other researchers or generated by asking a series of more general questions about the behavior or psychological characteristic of interest.
It is important to evaluate how interesting a research question is before designing a study and collecting data to answer it. Factors that affect interestingness are the extent to which the answer is in doubt, whether it fills a gap in the research literature, and whether it has important practical implications.
It is also important to evaluate how feasible a research question will be to answer. Factors that affect feasibility include time, money, technical knowledge and skill, and access to special equipment and research participants.
Practice: Generate five research ideas based on each of the following: informal observations, practical problems, and topics discussed in recent issues of professional journals.
Practice: Generate five empirical research questions about each of the following behaviors or psychological characteristics: long-distance running, getting tattooed, social anxiety, bullying, and memory for early childhood events.
Practice: Evaluate each of the research questions you generated in Exercise 2 in terms of its interestingness based on the criteria discussed in this section.
Practice: Find an issue of a journal that publishes short empirical research reports (e.g., Psychological Science , Psychonomic Bulletin and Review , Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin ). Pick three studies, and rate each one in terms of how feasible it would be for you to replicate it with the resources available to you right now. Use the following rating scale: (1) You could replicate it essentially as reported. (2) You could replicate it with some simplifications. (3) You could not replicate it. Explain each rating.

Milgram, S. (1963). Behavioral study of obedience. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67 , 371–378.

Weisberg, R. W. (1993). Creativity: Beyond the myth of genius . New York, NY: Freeman.

Research Methods in Psychology Copyright © 2016 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

What is Empirical Research? Definition, Methods, Examples

Appinio Research · 09.02.2024 · 36min read

Ever wondered how we gather the facts, unveil hidden truths, and make informed decisions in a world filled with questions? Empirical research holds the key.

In this guide, we'll delve deep into the art and science of empirical research, unraveling its methods, mysteries, and manifold applications. From defining the core principles to mastering data analysis and reporting findings, we're here to equip you with the knowledge and tools to navigate the empirical landscape.

What is Empirical Research?

Empirical research is the cornerstone of scientific inquiry, providing a systematic and structured approach to investigating the world around us. It is the process of gathering and analyzing empirical or observable data to test hypotheses, answer research questions, or gain insights into various phenomena. This form of research relies on evidence derived from direct observation or experimentation, allowing researchers to draw conclusions based on real-world data rather than purely theoretical or speculative reasoning.

Characteristics of Empirical Research

Empirical research is characterized by several key features:

Observation and Measurement : It involves the systematic observation or measurement of variables, events, or behaviors.
Data Collection : Researchers collect data through various methods, such as surveys, experiments, observations, or interviews.
Testable Hypotheses : Empirical research often starts with testable hypotheses that are evaluated using collected data.
Quantitative or Qualitative Data : Data can be quantitative (numerical) or qualitative (non-numerical), depending on the research design.
Statistical Analysis : Quantitative data often undergo statistical analysis to determine patterns , relationships, or significance.
Objectivity and Replicability : Empirical research strives for objectivity, minimizing researcher bias . It should be replicable, allowing other researchers to conduct the same study to verify results.
Conclusions and Generalizations : Empirical research generates findings based on data and aims to make generalizations about larger populations or phenomena.

Importance of Empirical Research

Empirical research plays a pivotal role in advancing knowledge across various disciplines. Its importance extends to academia, industry, and society as a whole. Here are several reasons why empirical research is essential:

Evidence-Based Knowledge : Empirical research provides a solid foundation of evidence-based knowledge. It enables us to test hypotheses, confirm or refute theories, and build a robust understanding of the world.
Scientific Progress : In the scientific community, empirical research fuels progress by expanding the boundaries of existing knowledge. It contributes to the development of theories and the formulation of new research questions.
Problem Solving : Empirical research is instrumental in addressing real-world problems and challenges. It offers insights and data-driven solutions to complex issues in fields like healthcare, economics, and environmental science.
Informed Decision-Making : In policymaking, business, and healthcare, empirical research informs decision-makers by providing data-driven insights. It guides strategies, investments, and policies for optimal outcomes.
Quality Assurance : Empirical research is essential for quality assurance and validation in various industries, including pharmaceuticals, manufacturing, and technology. It ensures that products and processes meet established standards.
Continuous Improvement : Businesses and organizations use empirical research to evaluate performance, customer satisfaction, and product effectiveness. This data-driven approach fosters continuous improvement and innovation.
Human Advancement : Empirical research in fields like medicine and psychology contributes to the betterment of human health and well-being. It leads to medical breakthroughs, improved therapies, and enhanced psychological interventions.
Critical Thinking and Problem Solving : Engaging in empirical research fosters critical thinking skills, problem-solving abilities, and a deep appreciation for evidence-based decision-making.

Empirical research empowers us to explore, understand, and improve the world around us. It forms the bedrock of scientific inquiry and drives progress in countless domains, shaping our understanding of both the natural and social sciences.

How to Conduct Empirical Research?

So, you've decided to dive into the world of empirical research. Let's begin by exploring the crucial steps involved in getting started with your research project.

1. Select a Research Topic

Selecting the right research topic is the cornerstone of a successful empirical study. It's essential to choose a topic that not only piques your interest but also aligns with your research goals and objectives. Here's how to go about it:

Identify Your Interests : Start by reflecting on your passions and interests. What topics fascinate you the most? Your enthusiasm will be your driving force throughout the research process.
Brainstorm Ideas : Engage in brainstorming sessions to generate potential research topics. Consider the questions you've always wanted to answer or the issues that intrigue you.
Relevance and Significance : Assess the relevance and significance of your chosen topic. Does it contribute to existing knowledge? Is it a pressing issue in your field of study or the broader community?
Feasibility : Evaluate the feasibility of your research topic. Do you have access to the necessary resources, data, and participants (if applicable)?

2. Formulate Research Questions

Once you've narrowed down your research topic, the next step is to formulate clear and precise research questions . These questions will guide your entire research process and shape your study's direction. To create effective research questions:

Specificity : Ensure that your research questions are specific and focused. Vague or overly broad questions can lead to inconclusive results.
Relevance : Your research questions should directly relate to your chosen topic. They should address gaps in knowledge or contribute to solving a particular problem.
Testability : Ensure that your questions are testable through empirical methods. You should be able to gather data and analyze it to answer these questions.
Avoid Bias : Craft your questions in a way that avoids leading or biased language. Maintain neutrality to uphold the integrity of your research.

3. Review Existing Literature

Before you embark on your empirical research journey, it's essential to immerse yourself in the existing body of literature related to your chosen topic. This step, often referred to as a literature review, serves several purposes:

Contextualization : Understand the historical context and current state of research in your field. What have previous studies found, and what questions remain unanswered?
Identifying Gaps : Identify gaps or areas where existing research falls short. These gaps will help you formulate meaningful research questions and hypotheses.
Theory Development : If your study is theoretical, consider how existing theories apply to your topic. If it's empirical, understand how previous studies have approached data collection and analysis.
Methodological Insights : Learn from the methodologies employed in previous research. What methods were successful, and what challenges did researchers face?

4. Define Variables

Variables are fundamental components of empirical research. They are the factors or characteristics that can change or be manipulated during your study. Properly defining and categorizing variables is crucial for the clarity and validity of your research. Here's what you need to know:

Independent Variables : These are the variables that you, as the researcher, manipulate or control. They are the "cause" in cause-and-effect relationships.
Dependent Variables : Dependent variables are the outcomes or responses that you measure or observe. They are the "effect" influenced by changes in independent variables.
Operational Definitions : To ensure consistency and clarity, provide operational definitions for your variables. Specify how you will measure or manipulate each variable.
Control Variables : In some studies, controlling for other variables that may influence your dependent variable is essential. These are known as control variables.

Understanding these foundational aspects of empirical research will set a solid foundation for the rest of your journey. Now that you've grasped the essentials of getting started, let's delve deeper into the intricacies of research design.

Empirical Research Design

Now that you've selected your research topic, formulated research questions, and defined your variables, it's time to delve into the heart of your empirical research journey – research design . This pivotal step determines how you will collect data and what methods you'll employ to answer your research questions. Let's explore the various facets of research design in detail.

Types of Empirical Research

Empirical research can take on several forms, each with its own unique approach and methodologies. Understanding the different types of empirical research will help you choose the most suitable design for your study. Here are some common types:

Experimental Research : In this type, researchers manipulate one or more independent variables to observe their impact on dependent variables. It's highly controlled and often conducted in a laboratory setting.
Observational Research : Observational research involves the systematic observation of subjects or phenomena without intervention. Researchers are passive observers, documenting behaviors, events, or patterns.
Survey Research : Surveys are used to collect data through structured questionnaires or interviews. This method is efficient for gathering information from a large number of participants.
Case Study Research : Case studies focus on in-depth exploration of one or a few cases. Researchers gather detailed information through various sources such as interviews, documents, and observations.
Qualitative Research : Qualitative research aims to understand behaviors, experiences, and opinions in depth. It often involves open-ended questions, interviews, and thematic analysis.
Quantitative Research : Quantitative research collects numerical data and relies on statistical analysis to draw conclusions. It involves structured questionnaires, experiments, and surveys.

Your choice of research type should align with your research questions and objectives. Experimental research, for example, is ideal for testing cause-and-effect relationships, while qualitative research is more suitable for exploring complex phenomena.

Experimental Design

Experimental research is a systematic approach to studying causal relationships. It's characterized by the manipulation of one or more independent variables while controlling for other factors. Here are some key aspects of experimental design:

Control and Experimental Groups : Participants are randomly assigned to either a control group or an experimental group. The independent variable is manipulated for the experimental group but not for the control group.
Randomization : Randomization is crucial to eliminate bias in group assignment. It ensures that each participant has an equal chance of being in either group.
Hypothesis Testing : Experimental research often involves hypothesis testing. Researchers formulate hypotheses about the expected effects of the independent variable and use statistical analysis to test these hypotheses.

Observational Design

Observational research entails careful and systematic observation of subjects or phenomena. It's advantageous when you want to understand natural behaviors or events. Key aspects of observational design include:

Participant Observation : Researchers immerse themselves in the environment they are studying. They become part of the group being observed, allowing for a deep understanding of behaviors.
Non-Participant Observation : In non-participant observation, researchers remain separate from the subjects. They observe and document behaviors without direct involvement.
Data Collection Methods : Observational research can involve various data collection methods, such as field notes, video recordings, photographs, or coding of observed behaviors.

Survey Design

Surveys are a popular choice for collecting data from a large number of participants. Effective survey design is essential to ensure the validity and reliability of your data. Consider the following:

Questionnaire Design : Create clear and concise questions that are easy for participants to understand. Avoid leading or biased questions.
Sampling Methods : Decide on the appropriate sampling method for your study, whether it's random, stratified, or convenience sampling.
Data Collection Tools : Choose the right tools for data collection, whether it's paper surveys, online questionnaires, or face-to-face interviews.

Case Study Design

Case studies are an in-depth exploration of one or a few cases to gain a deep understanding of a particular phenomenon. Key aspects of case study design include:

Single Case vs. Multiple Case Studies : Decide whether you'll focus on a single case or multiple cases. Single case studies are intensive and allow for detailed examination, while multiple case studies provide comparative insights.
Data Collection Methods : Gather data through interviews, observations, document analysis, or a combination of these methods.

Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research

In empirical research, you'll often encounter the distinction between qualitative and quantitative research . Here's a closer look at these two approaches:

Qualitative Research : Qualitative research seeks an in-depth understanding of human behavior, experiences, and perspectives. It involves open-ended questions, interviews, and the analysis of textual or narrative data. Qualitative research is exploratory and often used when the research question is complex and requires a nuanced understanding.
Quantitative Research : Quantitative research collects numerical data and employs statistical analysis to draw conclusions. It involves structured questionnaires, experiments, and surveys. Quantitative research is ideal for testing hypotheses and establishing cause-and-effect relationships.

Understanding the various research design options is crucial in determining the most appropriate approach for your study. Your choice should align with your research questions, objectives, and the nature of the phenomenon you're investigating.

Data Collection for Empirical Research

Now that you've established your research design, it's time to roll up your sleeves and collect the data that will fuel your empirical research. Effective data collection is essential for obtaining accurate and reliable results.

Sampling Methods

Sampling methods are critical in empirical research, as they determine the subset of individuals or elements from your target population that you will study. Here are some standard sampling methods:

Random Sampling : Random sampling ensures that every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. It minimizes bias and is often used in quantitative research.
Stratified Sampling : Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into subgroups or strata based on specific characteristics (e.g., age, gender, location). Samples are then randomly selected from each stratum, ensuring representation of all subgroups.
Convenience Sampling : Convenience sampling involves selecting participants who are readily available or easily accessible. While it's convenient, it may introduce bias and limit the generalizability of results.
Snowball Sampling : Snowball sampling is instrumental when studying hard-to-reach or hidden populations. One participant leads you to another, creating a "snowball" effect. This method is common in qualitative research.
Purposive Sampling : In purposive sampling, researchers deliberately select participants who meet specific criteria relevant to their research questions. It's often used in qualitative studies to gather in-depth information.

The choice of sampling method depends on the nature of your research, available resources, and the degree of precision required. It's crucial to carefully consider your sampling strategy to ensure that your sample accurately represents your target population.

Data Collection Instruments

Data collection instruments are the tools you use to gather information from your participants or sources. These instruments should be designed to capture the data you need accurately. Here are some popular data collection instruments:

Questionnaires : Questionnaires consist of structured questions with predefined response options. When designing questionnaires, consider the clarity of questions, the order of questions, and the response format (e.g., Likert scale , multiple-choice).
Interviews : Interviews involve direct communication between the researcher and participants. They can be structured (with predetermined questions) or unstructured (open-ended). Effective interviews require active listening and probing for deeper insights.
Observations : Observations entail systematically and objectively recording behaviors, events, or phenomena. Researchers must establish clear criteria for what to observe, how to record observations, and when to observe.
Surveys : Surveys are a common data collection instrument for quantitative research. They can be administered through various means, including online surveys, paper surveys, and telephone surveys.
Documents and Archives : In some cases, data may be collected from existing documents, records, or archives. Ensure that the sources are reliable, relevant, and properly documented.

To streamline your process and gather insights with precision and efficiency, consider leveraging innovative tools like Appinio . With Appinio's intuitive platform, you can harness the power of real-time consumer data to inform your research decisions effectively. Whether you're conducting surveys, interviews, or observations, Appinio empowers you to define your target audience, collect data from diverse demographics, and analyze results seamlessly.

By incorporating Appinio into your data collection toolkit, you can unlock a world of possibilities and elevate the impact of your empirical research. Ready to revolutionize your approach to data collection?

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Data Collection Procedures

Data collection procedures outline the step-by-step process for gathering data. These procedures should be meticulously planned and executed to maintain the integrity of your research.

Training : If you have a research team, ensure that they are trained in data collection methods and protocols. Consistency in data collection is crucial.
Pilot Testing : Before launching your data collection, conduct a pilot test with a small group to identify any potential problems with your instruments or procedures. Make necessary adjustments based on feedback.
Data Recording : Establish a systematic method for recording data. This may include timestamps, codes, or identifiers for each data point.
Data Security : Safeguard the confidentiality and security of collected data. Ensure that only authorized individuals have access to the data.
Data Storage : Properly organize and store your data in a secure location, whether in physical or digital form. Back up data to prevent loss.

Ethical Considerations

Ethical considerations are paramount in empirical research, as they ensure the well-being and rights of participants are protected.

Informed Consent : Obtain informed consent from participants, providing clear information about the research purpose, procedures, risks, and their right to withdraw at any time.
Privacy and Confidentiality : Protect the privacy and confidentiality of participants. Ensure that data is anonymized and sensitive information is kept confidential.
Beneficence : Ensure that your research benefits participants and society while minimizing harm. Consider the potential risks and benefits of your study.
Honesty and Integrity : Conduct research with honesty and integrity. Report findings accurately and transparently, even if they are not what you expected.
Respect for Participants : Treat participants with respect, dignity, and sensitivity to cultural differences. Avoid any form of coercion or manipulation.
Institutional Review Board (IRB) : If required, seek approval from an IRB or ethics committee before conducting your research, particularly when working with human participants.

Adhering to ethical guidelines is not only essential for the ethical conduct of research but also crucial for the credibility and validity of your study. Ethical research practices build trust between researchers and participants and contribute to the advancement of knowledge with integrity.

With a solid understanding of data collection, including sampling methods, instruments, procedures, and ethical considerations, you are now well-equipped to gather the data needed to answer your research questions.

Empirical Research Data Analysis

Now comes the exciting phase of data analysis, where the raw data you've diligently collected starts to yield insights and answers to your research questions. We will explore the various aspects of data analysis, from preparing your data to drawing meaningful conclusions through statistics and visualization.

Data Preparation

Data preparation is the crucial first step in data analysis. It involves cleaning, organizing, and transforming your raw data into a format that is ready for analysis. Effective data preparation ensures the accuracy and reliability of your results.

Data Cleaning : Identify and rectify errors, missing values, and inconsistencies in your dataset. This may involve correcting typos, removing outliers, and imputing missing data.
Data Coding : Assign numerical values or codes to categorical variables to make them suitable for statistical analysis. For example, converting "Yes" and "No" to 1 and 0.
Data Transformation : Transform variables as needed to meet the assumptions of the statistical tests you plan to use. Common transformations include logarithmic or square root transformations.
Data Integration : If your data comes from multiple sources, integrate it into a unified dataset, ensuring that variables match and align.
Data Documentation : Maintain clear documentation of all data preparation steps, as well as the rationale behind each decision. This transparency is essential for replicability.

Effective data preparation lays the foundation for accurate and meaningful analysis. It allows you to trust the results that will follow in the subsequent stages.

Descriptive Statistics

Descriptive statistics help you summarize and make sense of your data by providing a clear overview of its key characteristics. These statistics are essential for understanding the central tendencies, variability, and distribution of your variables. Descriptive statistics include:

Measures of Central Tendency : These include the mean (average), median (middle value), and mode (most frequent value). They help you understand the typical or central value of your data.
Measures of Dispersion : Measures like the range, variance, and standard deviation provide insights into the spread or variability of your data points.
Frequency Distributions : Creating frequency distributions or histograms allows you to visualize the distribution of your data across different values or categories.

Descriptive statistics provide the initial insights needed to understand your data's basic characteristics, which can inform further analysis.

Inferential Statistics

Inferential statistics take your analysis to the next level by allowing you to make inferences or predictions about a larger population based on your sample data. These methods help you test hypotheses and draw meaningful conclusions. Key concepts in inferential statistics include:

Hypothesis Testing : Hypothesis tests (e.g., t-tests, chi-squared tests) help you determine whether observed differences or associations in your data are statistically significant or occurred by chance.
Confidence Intervals : Confidence intervals provide a range within which population parameters (e.g., population mean) are likely to fall based on your sample data.
Regression Analysis : Regression models (linear, logistic, etc.) help you explore relationships between variables and make predictions.
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) : ANOVA tests are used to compare means between multiple groups, allowing you to assess whether differences are statistically significant.

Inferential statistics are powerful tools for drawing conclusions from your data and assessing the generalizability of your findings to the broader population.

Qualitative Data Analysis

Qualitative data analysis is employed when working with non-numerical data, such as text, interviews, or open-ended survey responses. It focuses on understanding the underlying themes, patterns, and meanings within qualitative data. Qualitative analysis techniques include:

Thematic Analysis : Identifying and analyzing recurring themes or patterns within textual data.
Content Analysis : Categorizing and coding qualitative data to extract meaningful insights.
Grounded Theory : Developing theories or frameworks based on emergent themes from the data.
Narrative Analysis : Examining the structure and content of narratives to uncover meaning.

Qualitative data analysis provides a rich and nuanced understanding of complex phenomena and human experiences.

Data Visualization

Data visualization is the art of representing data graphically to make complex information more understandable and accessible. Effective data visualization can reveal patterns, trends, and outliers in your data. Common types of data visualization include:

Bar Charts and Histograms : Used to display the distribution of categorical data or discrete data .
Line Charts : Ideal for showing trends and changes in data over time.
Scatter Plots : Visualize relationships and correlations between two variables.
Pie Charts : Display the composition of a whole in terms of its parts.
Heatmaps : Depict patterns and relationships in multidimensional data through color-coding.
Box Plots : Provide a summary of the data distribution, including outliers.
Interactive Dashboards : Create dynamic visualizations that allow users to explore data interactively.

Data visualization not only enhances your understanding of the data but also serves as a powerful communication tool to convey your findings to others.

As you embark on the data analysis phase of your empirical research, remember that the specific methods and techniques you choose will depend on your research questions, data type, and objectives. Effective data analysis transforms raw data into valuable insights, bringing you closer to the answers you seek.

How to Report Empirical Research Results?

At this stage, you get to share your empirical research findings with the world. Effective reporting and presentation of your results are crucial for communicating your research's impact and insights.

1. Write the Research Paper

Writing a research paper is the culmination of your empirical research journey. It's where you synthesize your findings, provide context, and contribute to the body of knowledge in your field.

Title and Abstract : Craft a clear and concise title that reflects your research's essence. The abstract should provide a brief summary of your research objectives, methods, findings, and implications.
Introduction : In the introduction, introduce your research topic, state your research questions or hypotheses, and explain the significance of your study. Provide context by discussing relevant literature.
Methods : Describe your research design, data collection methods, and sampling procedures. Be precise and transparent, allowing readers to understand how you conducted your study.
Results : Present your findings in a clear and organized manner. Use tables, graphs, and statistical analyses to support your results. Avoid interpreting your findings in this section; focus on the presentation of raw data.
Discussion : Interpret your findings and discuss their implications. Relate your results to your research questions and the existing literature. Address any limitations of your study and suggest avenues for future research.
Conclusion : Summarize the key points of your research and its significance. Restate your main findings and their implications.
References : Cite all sources used in your research following a specific citation style (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago). Ensure accuracy and consistency in your citations.
Appendices : Include any supplementary material, such as questionnaires, data coding sheets, or additional analyses, in the appendices.

Writing a research paper is a skill that improves with practice. Ensure clarity, coherence, and conciseness in your writing to make your research accessible to a broader audience.

2. Create Visuals and Tables

Visuals and tables are powerful tools for presenting complex data in an accessible and understandable manner.

Clarity : Ensure that your visuals and tables are clear and easy to interpret. Use descriptive titles and labels.
Consistency : Maintain consistency in formatting, such as font size and style, across all visuals and tables.
Appropriateness : Choose the most suitable visual representation for your data. Bar charts, line graphs, and scatter plots work well for different types of data.
Simplicity : Avoid clutter and unnecessary details. Focus on conveying the main points.
Accessibility : Make sure your visuals and tables are accessible to a broad audience, including those with visual impairments.
Captions : Include informative captions that explain the significance of each visual or table.

Compelling visuals and tables enhance the reader's understanding of your research and can be the key to conveying complex information efficiently.

3. Interpret Findings

Interpreting your findings is where you bridge the gap between data and meaning. It's your opportunity to provide context, discuss implications, and offer insights. When interpreting your findings:

Relate to Research Questions : Discuss how your findings directly address your research questions or hypotheses.
Compare with Literature : Analyze how your results align with or deviate from previous research in your field. What insights can you draw from these comparisons?
Discuss Limitations : Be transparent about the limitations of your study. Address any constraints, biases, or potential sources of error.
Practical Implications : Explore the real-world implications of your findings. How can they be applied or inform decision-making?
Future Research Directions : Suggest areas for future research based on the gaps or unanswered questions that emerged from your study.

Interpreting findings goes beyond simply presenting data; it's about weaving a narrative that helps readers grasp the significance of your research in the broader context.

With your research paper written, structured, and enriched with visuals, and your findings expertly interpreted, you are now prepared to communicate your research effectively. Sharing your insights and contributing to the body of knowledge in your field is a significant accomplishment in empirical research.

Examples of Empirical Research

To solidify your understanding of empirical research, let's delve into some real-world examples across different fields. These examples will illustrate how empirical research is applied to gather data, analyze findings, and draw conclusions.

Social Sciences

In the realm of social sciences, consider a sociological study exploring the impact of socioeconomic status on educational attainment. Researchers gather data from a diverse group of individuals, including their family backgrounds, income levels, and academic achievements.

Through statistical analysis, they can identify correlations and trends, revealing whether individuals from lower socioeconomic backgrounds are less likely to attain higher levels of education. This empirical research helps shed light on societal inequalities and informs policymakers on potential interventions to address disparities in educational access.

Environmental Science

Environmental scientists often employ empirical research to assess the effects of environmental changes. For instance, researchers studying the impact of climate change on wildlife might collect data on animal populations, weather patterns, and habitat conditions over an extended period.

By analyzing this empirical data, they can identify correlations between climate fluctuations and changes in wildlife behavior, migration patterns, or population sizes. This empirical research is crucial for understanding the ecological consequences of climate change and informing conservation efforts.

Business and Economics

In the business world, empirical research is essential for making data-driven decisions. Consider a market research study conducted by a business seeking to launch a new product. They collect data through surveys , focus groups , and consumer behavior analysis.

By examining this empirical data, the company can gauge consumer preferences, demand, and potential market size. Empirical research in business helps guide product development, pricing strategies, and marketing campaigns, increasing the likelihood of a successful product launch.

Psychological studies frequently rely on empirical research to understand human behavior and cognition. For instance, a psychologist interested in examining the impact of stress on memory might design an experiment. Participants are exposed to stress-inducing situations, and their memory performance is assessed through various tasks.

By analyzing the data collected, the psychologist can determine whether stress has a significant effect on memory recall. This empirical research contributes to our understanding of the complex interplay between psychological factors and cognitive processes.

These examples highlight the versatility and applicability of empirical research across diverse fields. Whether in medicine, social sciences, environmental science, business, or psychology, empirical research serves as a fundamental tool for gaining insights, testing hypotheses, and driving advancements in knowledge and practice.

Conclusion for Empirical Research

Empirical research is a powerful tool for gaining insights, testing hypotheses, and making informed decisions. By following the steps outlined in this guide, you've learned how to select research topics, collect data, analyze findings, and effectively communicate your research to the world. Remember, empirical research is a journey of discovery, and each step you take brings you closer to a deeper understanding of the world around you. Whether you're a scientist, a student, or someone curious about the process, the principles of empirical research empower you to explore, learn, and contribute to the ever-expanding realm of knowledge.

How to Collect Data for Empirical Research?

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07.05.2024 | 27min read

Interval Scale: Definition, Characteristics, Examples

03.05.2024 | 28min read

What is Qualitative Observation? Definition, Types, Examples

02.05.2024 | 32min read

What is a Perceptual Map and How to Make One? (+ Template)

University of Memphis Libraries
Research Guides

Empirical Research: Defining, Identifying, & Finding

Introduction.

Defining Empirical Research

The Introduction Section

Database Tools
Search Terms
Image Descriptions

The Introduction exists to explain the research project and to justify why this research has been done. The introduction will discuss:

The topic covered by the research,
Previous research done on this topic,
What is still unknown about the topic that this research will answer, and
Why someone would want to know that answer.

What Criteria to Look For

The "Introduction" is where you are most likely to find the research question .

Finding the Criteria

The research question may not be clearly labeled in the Introduction. Often, the author(s) may rephrase their question as a research statement or a hypothesis . Some research may have more than one research question or a research question with multiple parts.

Words That May Signify the Research Question

These are some common word choices authors make when they are describing their research question as a research statement or hypothesis.

Hypothesize, hypothesized, or hypothesis
Investigation, investigate(s), or investigated
Predict(s) or predicted
Evaluate(s) or evaluated
This research, this study, the current study, or this paper
The aim of this study or this research

You might also look for common question words (who, what, when, where, why, how) in a statement to see if it might be a rephrased research question.

What Headings to Look Under

General heading for the section.
Since this is the first heading after the title and abstract, some authors leave it unlabeled.
Likely where the research question is located if there is not a separate heading for it.
Explicit discussion of what is being investigated in the research.
Should have some form of the research question.
Often a separate heading where the authors discuss previous research done on the topic.
May be labeled by the topic being reviewed.
Less likely to find the research question clearly stated. The authors may be talking about their topic more broadly than their current research question.
Single "Introduction" heading.
Includes phrase "this paper."
Includes question word "how."
You could turn the phrase "how people perceive inequality in outcomes and risk at the collective level" into the question "How do people perceive inequality in outcomes and risk at the collective level?"
Labeled "Introduction" heading along with headings for topics of literature review.
Includes phrase "this research investigates."
Includes question word "how."
You could turn the phrase "how LGBTQ college students negotiate the hookup scene on college campuses" into the question "How do LGBTQ college students negotiate the hookup scene on college campuses?"
Beginning of Introduction section is unlabeled. It then includes headings for different parts of the literature review and ends with a heading called "The Current Study" on page 573 for discussing the research questions.
Includes the words and phrases "aim of this study," "hypothesized," and "predicted."
You could turn the phrase "examine the effects of racial discrimination on anxiety symptom distress" into the question "What are the effects of racial discrimination on anxiety symptom distress?"
You could turn the phrase "explore the moderating role of internalized racism in the link between racial discrimination and changes in anxiety symptom distress" into the question "How doe internalized racism moderate the link ink between racial discrimination and changes in anxiety symptom distress?"
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Identifying the research question (and an aside about theory)

The model presents the research process as circular, but identifying the research question is a good starting point. In this step, we specify what it is that we want to learn more about. Usually, but not always, this takes the form of a question. It could also be a statement of research purpose, though. When doing empirical research, it’s important to develop a question that can be answered—or that one can attempt to answer—based on observations. A simple research question would be How many candidates for public office use negative campaign advertisements to detract from their opponents? We could come up with a defensible answer (we rarely come up with absolutely conclusive answers in social research) to this question based on observations.

There are other types of questions that empirical social research cannot answer. Empirical social research methods do not answer normative questions. Normative questions are questions that are answered based on opinions, values, and subjective preferences. Normative questions often have the word should in them: Should candidates for public office use negative campaign advertisements? Should donations to churches be tax deductible? Should corporations be required to disclose lobbying expenses? Should universities consider race in making admissions decisions? In these examples, no amount of systematic observation can provide a defensible answer to the question; ultimately, answering these questions is a matter of subjective values. However—and this is a very important however—empirical research can help us develop better informed opinions about these normative questions. To help develop a better informed opinion about whether or not candidates should use negative campaign ads, a researcher might investigate related empirical questions, such as How do negative campaign ads affect voter behavior? and How do negative campaign ads affect voters’ opinions about the endorsing candidate? Social researchers, then, don’t run away from normative questions—most interesting questions are normative—but, instead, look for opportunities for empirical research to shed light on normative questions.

Even this, though, is oversimplifying a bit too much. It’s naïve to think that doing empirical research is value-free. Our values influence our decisions throughout the entire research process, from what we study, to how we make observations, to how we make sense of what we observe. Objectivity is a worthy goal when doing empirical social research, but it is an elusive goal, and we should always try to be aware of and transparent about how our own biases affect our research.

Still other interesting questions are the domain of legal analysis, philosophy, or history, not empirical social science research. Legal analysis is required to tackle questions like Can state governments constitutionally cede authority to local governments to allow or ban carrying handguns in public parks? Questions about events from the distant past (an admittedly ambiguous standard) are generally left to historians, though some questions reside in a gray area where empirical research methods could be used to learn about historical events.

The distinction between the domains of social research and history raises an important point: When conducting social research, our goal is usually to build knowledge that is generalizable ; that is, we usually want to be able to apply what we learned from our observations to other cases, settings, or times. We may make observations of one local election, but with the goal of generating knowledge that could be applied to local elections in other jurisdictions, to future or past local elections, or to citizen participation in administrative rulemaking at the local level. While historians may be more likely to do research to build in-depth knowledge about a single case, we rarely undertake a social research project with the goal of generating knowledge that would be applied only to understanding what we’ve directly observed. (A partial exception to this would be when we conduct case studies, discussed later—but this is only a partial exception.)

Empirical research questions can have different purposes. Some empirical social science research questions seek to describe social phenomena. Sometimes, you’ll see the phrase mere description used, and some research methods textbook authors will say that description doesn’t even count as research. This is nonsense. Describing social phenomena based on systematic observations is certainly a legitimate purpose of social science research.

When these textbook authors diminish the importance of description, what they have in mind as more suitable research purposes are explanation and prediction . By pursuing these research purposes, we are now exploring questions of causality. If we’re explaining something, we’ve observed something occur, and then we’re looking back in time, in a sense, to figure out what caused it to occur: Why were high- and middle-income independent voters less likely to vote for the Democratic candidate than low-income independent voters in the last gubernatorial election? There, we’ve observed something interesting about the last gubernatorial election, and we want to figure out what happened before to explain it. If we’re predicting something, we observe past trends or the state of things now and use those observations to predict what will happen in the future: How will low-income voters vote in the upcoming state senate election? We’ll come back to the notion of causality shortly.

Research questions with the purposes of description, explanation, and prediction are all pursued using a broad range of social research methods. A fourth research purpose, understanding , though, is more tightly coupled with a narrower range of research methods—those methods that center around collecting and analyzing qualitative data . Qualitative data are usually words, but they can also be pictures or sounds—basically, any data that are not numeric. Transcripts of interviews with campaign managers, the text of administrative agencies’ requests for proposals, the text of Supreme Court opinions, survey respondents’ answers to open-ended questions, and pictures of people in a political protest are all examples of qualitative data. (Quantitative data, on the other hand, are numeric. More on different types of data later.) With the research purpose of understanding , we are not using the term “understanding” in its colloquial sense; instead, we mean “understanding” with the connotation of verstehen , a German word that doesn’t translate into English very well but carries the idea of understanding someone else’s subjective experiences. When conducting research with the goal of verstehen , we want to achieve an in-depth understanding of others’ opinions, attitudes, motivations, beliefs, conceptual maps, and so on. Typically, this would involve talking with them, listening to their words, or reading what they’ve written—thus the association of qualitative data collection with research questions that have the goal of achieving understanding-qua- verstehen .

To be clear: Research projects with the purposes of description, explanation, and prediction use the full range of research methods, including the collection of both quantitative and qualitative data; research projects with the purpose of understanding generally use methods focused on collecting qualitative data.

Research questions, then, can pursue one or more of these four purposes—description, explanation, prediction, and understanding—but where do research questions come from? At some point in their studies, most students will know the fear of the blank page: Where do I start? What is my research question? Research questions might occasionally arrive in a flash of inspiration, but, usually, their origins are more mundane and require more work. I think most social researchers would agree that their research questions come from some combination of four starting points: deduction, induction, previous research, and what I’ll just describe for now as one of the research profession’s dirty little secrets.

The classic “correct” textbook answer to the question of where research questions come from is deduction from theory. By employing deductive thinking, we start with a theory and deduce the research questions that it suggests.

Before going any further into deducing research questions, though, we should pause for a moment on that other term, theory . A theory is simply a set of concepts and relationships among those concepts that helps us understand or explain some phenomenon—for us, a social phenomenon. Sometimes, theories are very formal; they’re written down in a concise statement in a definitive form by a specific author or group of authors, and they include a wholly specified set of concepts; everybody knows what’s in the theory and what’s out. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs—that model of human motivation that crops up in every other undergraduate course— comes to mind as an example of a formal theory. In this theory, a specific set of concepts (the need for socialization, the need for security, and so on) are related in a specific way to explain why people do what they do. Other theories, though, are relatively loose; they’re evolving, they’re gleaned from across a wide range of writings and assembled in different ways by different people, and there might be disagreement over precisely which concepts are included and which are not. I once used something called “crowding out theory” as it applies to charitable giving to nonprofit organizations, and I had to piece together my own version of this theory by reading what a lot of other people had written about it. My version would have looked somewhat like others’, but not identical. My formulation of the theory linked concepts like charitable giving, government funding, donors’ perceptions of government funding, and nonprofit managerial capacity to predict how charitable donors would react to nonprofit organizations receiving different types of government subsidy.

(A quick aside to students interested in studying public policies, programs, and organizations. You are my people. When we conduct research about a particular program, public policy, or organization, a model of the program, policy, or organization often plays the role of theory in the research process. A logic model, for example, depicts a program in terms of its inputs, activities, outputs, and outcomes—not unlike a set of concepts and relationships among those concepts. I’ve provided an example of a logic model and how it can generate a lot of applied research questions in Appendix A.)

… Everyone else—just in case you skipped that last paragraph: You should read Appendix A, too—you’ll find the examples of empirical research questions helpful.

A theory (or program, policy, or organization model), needn’t be such a complicated thing, but I think many students are like I was as an undergraduate student (and even into my graduate student years): intimidated by theory. I didn’t totally understand what theory was, and I thought handling theory was best left to the professionals. Like most students, I thought of theory as an antique car—the kind of antique car that is kept in pristine condition, all shiny and perfect, in its climate-controlled garage, rolled out only to show off, and then rolled back in for safe keeping. It turns out, though, that most researchers don’t view theories this way at all. Instead, they view their theories as beat-up pickup trucks. They’re good insofar as they’re useful for doing their job. It’s OK if they get dinged up in the process. They’re not just rolled out for showing off; they’re used to help understand the world, driven as far as they’ll go. (I stole this analogy from one of my professors, Gordon Kingsley, but, like a good theory, I’ve modified it a bit to suit our purposes here.)

As suggested by our model of the research process, theory is at the center of the entire process (not just at the beginning like in some other models). It’s the touchstone for every step along the way, including the step at hand: identifying a research question. To develop a research question, we can start with a theory and all its concepts and relationships among those concepts to deduce research questions—questions that, essentially, ask whether the theory matches observations in the real world. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, for example, might suggest the question, Are voters whose basic needs are not being met more likely than others to support candidates who promise to alleviate citizens’ security and safety needs? Here, we have developed a question that uses a theory as a starting point for explaining a political phenomenon. How did we deduce this research question from our theory? The theory helped us identify relevant concepts, like voters’ security and safety needs and candidates’ promises to alleviate them, and a potential relationship between these concepts and what we’re interested in explaining, voters’ choice of candidate. (And like most empirical research based on Maslow’s theory, alas, we might have difficulty finding much empirical support for it.)

Research questions may also be developed inductively by observing social phenomena and then developing research questions based on what has been observed. Perhaps you observe more men than women in your political science courses but not in your other courses. You can make this casual observation the basis of a research question: Are men more likely to take political science courses than women? or How does students’ sex relate to their course selection? or How does gender socialization affect students’ selection of majors? Researchers with an application orientation may simply experience a problem and develop a research question to figure out how to overcome it: Why did unemployment benefit claim processing time increase by 50% last year? You may find that your casual observations reflect regularities confirmed through systematic observations, and, ultimately, you may even develop a theory or modify an existing theory based on what you learned. So, whereas a deductive research process begins with theory and generalizations that lead to observation, an inductive research process begins with observations that lead to generalizations and theory.

Our model of the research process points to another source of research questions: previous research. Previous research usually refers to all of the publications that report the results of research that has already been conducted on a given topic. We use previous research to develop research questions in a couple of ways. If there’s a social phenomenon we’d like to learn more about, a good starting point is to read all of the previous research on that topic. Once we have a command of that body of knowledge, we can identify gaps, internal inconsistencies, unresolved questions, and emerging research directions in the literature. It’s one small step further to develop research questions that build on the existing body of research. Sometimes, using previous research is more literal; often, an article, chapter, or book will include a section titled something like “Recommendations for future research,” and, voilà, you have a research question. (As portrayed in the model, generating research questions isn’t the only use of previous research; it’s used throughout the entire research process, as we’ll see.)

And then there’s the dirty little secret of the social research professions. Sometimes we begin, not nobly with a theory, not astutely with our own observations, not studiously with previous research, but shamelessly with available data. An aspiring researcher can simply comb through data in hand in search of a research question that can be asked of it. Have access to data collected through the General Social Survey, a public opinion survey conducted every two years?

Read through the table of contents, find some questions that might go together, and try it out. Let the availability of the data—not theoretic or practical import or even your own casual observations—make you interested in a research question. This approach is roundly criticized because it smacks of data fishing; it’s almost always possible to find some patterns in your data, even if it’s just a fluke. Data fishing is exploiting these fluky patterns by making them seem important even when they’re not. Baseless dataset dredging is not a good starting point for conducting research. It happens, though. Untenured assistant professors and dissertation- writing doctoral students are under tremendous pressure to publish research, and the unfortunate truth is that papers reporting “null findings” don’t get published very often. Safer to start with a pattern you’ve stumbled upon in your data and then figure out how to make it sound important, like something you went looking for, so the thinking goes. This approach isn’t entirely bad; there are legitimate ways to conduct data mining (the more acceptable term). Data are collected because someone thought they were important, so it’s not inconceivable that you could uncover important, unanticipated patterns in your data. Thinly disguised data fishing, though, is quickly identified and disregarded by other scholars.

Before we wrap up our consideration of research questions, we should spend a moment unpacking the notion of causality. Three concepts will help us understand how social research approaches questions of cause-and-effect: probabilistic causality , multiple causation , and underlying causal mechanisms . When we seek causal explanations in social research, we rarely talk in absolutes. The type of causality often studied in the physical sciences is deterministic causality , meaning definite cause-and-effect relationships: Flipping the switch causes the light to come on . In the social sciences (though not exclusively in the social sciences), we are almost always studying questions of probabilistic causality, meaning cause-and-effect relationships that are more or less likely to occur: People are less likely to vote for incumbents when the unemployment rate is high . We are also almost always explaining and predicting phenomena that have multiple, interacting causes—multiple causation. Why do some people have higher incomes than others? This surely has many causes—education, age, ability, parents’ wealth, motivation, discrimination, opportunity, job choice, attitudes toward work and money, and so on. And these causes, themselves, affect each other. Much advanced social research attempts to figure out these complex, interacting cause-and-effect relationships. When we make causal claims like age affects income , we are really masking a more complex web of cause-and-effect relationships. Does our age really, inherently, affect our income? Not really. Age affects income in the sense that this ostensible relationship is the manifestation of a more complex underlying causal mechanism. This underlying causal mechanism explains why age seems to affect income—a cause-and-effect story about biological development, the accumulation of education and experience, and the demands of different stages of life. We’ll revisit underlying causal mechanisms in the next section when we learn about independent and dependent variables.

A quick, somewhat easy-to-read introduction to empirical social science research methods Copyright © 2022 by Christopher S. Horne is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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What is Empirical Research Study? [Examples & Method]

The bulk of human decisions relies on evidence, that is, what can be measured or proven as valid. In choosing between plausible alternatives, individuals are more likely to tilt towards the option that is proven to work, and this is the same approach adopted in empirical research.

In empirical research, the researcher arrives at outcomes by testing his or her empirical evidence using qualitative or quantitative methods of observation, as determined by the nature of the research. An empirical research study is set apart from other research approaches by its methodology and features hence; it is important for every researcher to know what constitutes this investigation method.

What is Empirical Research?

Empirical research is a type of research methodology that makes use of verifiable evidence in order to arrive at research outcomes. In other words, this type of research relies solely on evidence obtained through observation or scientific data collection methods.

Empirical research can be carried out using qualitative or quantitative observation methods , depending on the data sample, that is, quantifiable data or non-numerical data . Unlike theoretical research that depends on preconceived notions about the research variables, empirical research carries a scientific investigation to measure the experimental probability of the research variables

Characteristics of Empirical Research

Research Questions

An empirical research begins with a set of research questions that guide the investigation. In many cases, these research questions constitute the research hypothesis which is tested using qualitative and quantitative methods as dictated by the nature of the research.

In an empirical research study, the research questions are built around the core of the research, that is, the central issue which the research seeks to resolve. They also determine the course of the research by highlighting the specific objectives and aims of the systematic investigation.

Definition of the Research Variables

The research variables are clearly defined in terms of their population, types, characteristics, and behaviors. In other words, the data sample is clearly delimited and placed within the context of the research.

Description of the Research Methodology

An empirical research also clearly outlines the methods adopted in the systematic investigation. Here, the research process is described in detail including the selection criteria for the data sample, qualitative or quantitative research methods plus testing instruments.

An empirical research is usually divided into 4 parts which are the introduction, methodology, findings, and discussions. The introduction provides a background of the empirical study while the methodology describes the research design, processes, and tools for the systematic investigation.

The findings refer to the research outcomes and they can be outlined as statistical data or in the form of information obtained through the qualitative observation of research variables. The discussions highlight the significance of the study and its contributions to knowledge.

Uses of Empirical Research

Without any doubt, empirical research is one of the most useful methods of systematic investigation. It can be used for validating multiple research hypotheses in different fields including Law, Medicine, and Anthropology.

Empirical Research in Law : In Law, empirical research is used to study institutions, rules, procedures, and personnel of the law, with a view to understanding how they operate and what effects they have. It makes use of direct methods rather than secondary sources, and this helps you to arrive at more valid conclusions.
Empirical Research in Medicine : In medicine, empirical research is used to test and validate multiple hypotheses and increase human knowledge.
Empirical Research in Anthropology : In anthropology, empirical research is used as an evidence-based systematic method of inquiry into patterns of human behaviors and cultures. This helps to validate and advance human knowledge.

Discover how Extrapolation Powers statistical research: Definition, examples, types, and applications explained.

The Empirical Research Cycle

The empirical research cycle is a 5-phase cycle that outlines the systematic processes for conducting and empirical research. It was developed by Dutch psychologist, A.D. de Groot in the 1940s and it aligns 5 important stages that can be viewed as deductive approaches to empirical research.

In the empirical research methodological cycle, all processes are interconnected and none of the processes is more important than the other. This cycle clearly outlines the different phases involved in generating the research hypotheses and testing these hypotheses systematically using the empirical data.

Observation: This is the process of gathering empirical data for the research. At this stage, the researcher gathers relevant empirical data using qualitative or quantitative observation methods, and this goes ahead to inform the research hypotheses.
Induction: At this stage, the researcher makes use of inductive reasoning in order to arrive at a general probable research conclusion based on his or her observation. The researcher generates a general assumption that attempts to explain the empirical data and s/he goes on to observe the empirical data in line with this assumption.
Deduction: This is the deductive reasoning stage. This is where the researcher generates hypotheses by applying logic and rationality to his or her observation.
Testing: Here, the researcher puts the hypotheses to test using qualitative or quantitative research methods. In the testing stage, the researcher combines relevant instruments of systematic investigation with empirical methods in order to arrive at objective results that support or negate the research hypotheses.
Evaluation: The evaluation research is the final stage in an empirical research study. Here, the research outlines the empirical data, the research findings and the supporting arguments plus any challenges encountered during the research process.

This information is useful for further research.

Learn about qualitative data: uncover its types and examples here.

Examples of Empirical Research

An empirical research study can be carried out to determine if listening to happy music improves the mood of individuals. The researcher may need to conduct an experiment that involves exposing individuals to happy music to see if this improves their moods.

The findings from such an experiment will provide empirical evidence that confirms or refutes the hypotheses.

An empirical research study can also be carried out to determine the effects of a new drug on specific groups of people. The researcher may expose the research subjects to controlled quantities of the drug and observe research subjects to controlled quantities of the drug and observe the effects over a specific period of time to gather empirical data.
Another example of empirical research is measuring the levels of noise pollution found in an urban area to determine the average levels of sound exposure experienced by its inhabitants. Here, the researcher may have to administer questionnaires or carry out a survey in order to gather relevant data based on the experiences of the research subjects.
Empirical research can also be carried out to determine the relationship between seasonal migration and the body mass of flying birds. A researcher may need to observe the birds and carry out necessary observation and experimentation in order to arrive at objective outcomes that answer the research question.

Empirical Research Data Collection Methods

Empirical data can be gathered using qualitative and quantitative data collection methods. Quantitative data collection methods are used for numerical data gathering while qualitative data collection processes are used to gather empirical data that cannot be quantified, that is, non-numerical data.

The following are common methods of gathering data in empirical research

Survey/ Questionnaire

A survey is a method of data gathering that is typically employed by researchers to gather large sets of data from a specific number of respondents with regards to a research subject. This method of data gathering is often used for quantitative data collection , although it can also be deployed during quantitative research.

A survey contains a set of questions that can range from close-ended to open-ended questions together with other question types that revolve around the research subject. A survey can be administered physically or with the use of online data-gathering platforms like Formplus.

Empirical data can also be collected by carrying out an experiment. An experiment is a controlled simulation in which one or more of the research variables is manipulated using a set of interconnected processes in order to confirm or refute the research hypotheses.

An experiment is a useful method of measuring causality; that is cause and effect between dependent and independent variables in a research environment. It is an integral data gathering method in an empirical research study because it involves testing calculated assumptions in order to arrive at the most valid data and research outcomes.

T he case study method is another common data gathering method in an empirical research study. It involves sifting through and analyzing relevant cases and real-life experiences about the research subject or research variables in order to discover in-depth information that can serve as empirical data.

Observation

The observational method is a method of qualitative data gathering that requires the researcher to study the behaviors of research variables in their natural environments in order to gather relevant information that can serve as empirical data.

How to collect Empirical Research Data with Questionnaire

With Formplus, you can create a survey or questionnaire for collecting empirical data from your research subjects. Formplus also offers multiple form sharing options so that you can share your empirical research survey to research subjects via a variety of methods.

Here is a step-by-step guide of how to collect empirical data using Formplus:

Sign in to Formplus

In the Formplus builder, you can easily create your empirical research survey by dragging and dropping preferred fields into your form. To access the Formplus builder, you will need to create an account on Formplus.

Once you do this, sign in to your account and click on “Create Form ” to begin.

Unlock the secrets of Quantitative Data: Click here to explore the types and examples.

Edit Form Title

Click on the field provided to input your form title, for example, “Empirical Research Survey”.

Edit Form

Click on the edit button to edit the form.
Add Fields: Drag and drop preferred form fields into your form in the Formplus builder inputs column. There are several field input options for survey forms in the Formplus builder.
Edit fields
Click on “Save”
Preview form.

Customize Form

Formplus allows you to add unique features to your empirical research survey form. You can personalize your survey using various customization options. Here, you can add background images, your organization’s logo, and use other styling options. You can also change the display theme of your form.

Share your Form Link with Respondents

Formplus offers multiple form sharing options which enables you to easily share your empirical research survey form with respondents. You can use the direct social media sharing buttons to share your form link to your organization’s social media pages.

You can send out your survey form as email invitations to your research subjects too. If you wish, you can share your form’s QR code or embed it on your organization’s website for easy access.

Empirical vs Non-Empirical Research

Empirical and non-empirical research are common methods of systematic investigation employed by researchers. Unlike empirical research that tests hypotheses in order to arrive at valid research outcomes, non-empirical research theorizes the logical assumptions of research variables.

Definition: Empirical research is a research approach that makes use of evidence-based data while non-empirical research is a research approach that makes use of theoretical data.

Method: In empirical research, the researcher arrives at valid outcomes by mainly observing research variables, creating a hypothesis and experimenting on research variables to confirm or refute the hypothesis. In non-empirical research, the researcher relies on inductive and deductive reasoning to theorize logical assumptions about the research subjects.

The major difference between the research methodology of empirical and non-empirical research is while the assumptions are tested in empirical research, they are entirely theorized in non-empirical research.

Data Sample: Empirical research makes use of empirical data while non-empirical research does not make use of empirical data. Empirical data refers to information that is gathered through experience or observation.

Unlike empirical research, theoretical or non-empirical research does not rely on data gathered through evidence. Rather, it works with logical assumptions and beliefs about the research subject.

Data Collection Methods : Empirical research makes use of quantitative and qualitative data gathering methods which may include surveys, experiments, and methods of observation. This helps the researcher to gather empirical data, that is, data backed by evidence.

Non-empirical research, on the other hand, does not make use of qualitative or quantitative methods of data collection . Instead, the researcher gathers relevant data through critical studies, systematic review and meta-analysis.

Advantages of Empirical Research

Empirical research is flexible. In this type of systematic investigation, the researcher can adjust the research methodology including the data sample size, data gathering methods plus the data analysis methods as necessitated by the research process.
It helps the research to understand how the research outcomes can be influenced by different research environments.
Empirical research study helps the researcher to develop relevant analytical and observation skills that can be useful in dynamic research contexts.
This type of research approach allows the researcher to control multiple research variables in order to arrive at the most relevant research outcomes.
Empirical research is widely considered as one of the most authentic and competent research designs.
It improves the internal validity of traditional research using a variety of experiments and research observation methods.

Disadvantages of Empirical Research

An empirical research study is time-consuming because the researcher needs to gather the empirical data from multiple resources which typically takes a lot of time.
It is not a cost-effective research approach. Usually, this method of research incurs a lot of cost because of the monetary demands of the field research.
It may be difficult to gather the needed empirical data sample because of the multiple data gathering methods employed in an empirical research study.
It may be difficult to gain access to some communities and firms during the data gathering process and this can affect the validity of the research.
The report from an empirical research study is intensive and can be very lengthy in nature.

Conclusion

Empirical research is an important method of systematic investigation because it gives the researcher the opportunity to test the validity of different assumptions, in the form of hypotheses, before arriving at any findings. Hence, it is a more research approach.

There are different quantitative and qualitative methods of data gathering employed during an empirical research study based on the purpose of the research which include surveys, experiments, and various observatory methods. Surveys are one of the most common methods or empirical data collection and they can be administered online or physically.

You can use Formplus to create and administer your online empirical research survey. Formplus allows you to create survey forms that you can share with target respondents in order to obtain valuable feedback about your research context, question or subject.

In the form builder, you can add different fields to your survey form and you can also modify these form fields to suit your research process. Sign up to Formplus to access the form builder and start creating powerful online empirical research survey forms.

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Empirical Research: A Comprehensive Guide for Academics

Empirical research relies on gathering and studying real, observable data. The term ’empirical’ comes from the Greek word ’empeirikos,’ meaning ‘experienced’ or ‘based on experience.’ So, what is empirical research? Instead of using theories or opinions, empirical research depends on real data obtained through direct observation or experimentation.

Why Empirical Research?

Empirical research plays a key role in checking or improving current theories, providing a systematic way to grow knowledge across different areas. By focusing on objectivity, it makes research findings more trustworthy, which is critical in research fields like medicine, psychology, economics, and public policy. In the end, the strengths of empirical research lie in deepening our awareness of the world and improving our capacity to tackle problems wisely. 1,2

Qualitative and Quantitative Methods

There are two main types of empirical research methods – qualitative and quantitative. 3,4 Qualitative research delves into intricate phenomena using non-numerical data, such as interviews or observations, to offer in-depth insights into human experiences. In contrast, quantitative research analyzes numerical data to spot patterns and relationships, aiming for objectivity and the ability to apply findings to a wider context.

Steps for Conducting Empirical Research

When it comes to conducting research, there are some simple steps that researchers can follow. 5,6

Create Research Hypothesis: Clearly state the specific question you want to answer or the hypothesis you want to explore in your study.
Examine Existing Research: Read and study existing research on your topic. Understand what’s already known, identify existing gaps in knowledge, and create a framework for your own study based on what you learn.
Plan Your Study: Decide how you’ll conduct your research—whether through qualitative methods, quantitative methods, or a mix of both. Choose suitable techniques like surveys, experiments, interviews, or observations based on your research question.
Develop Research Instruments: Create reliable research collection tools, such as surveys or questionnaires, to help you collate data. Ensure these tools are well-designed and effective.
Collect Data: Systematically gather the information you need for your research according to your study design and protocols using the chosen research methods.
Data Analysis: Analyze the collected data using suitable statistical or qualitative methods that align with your research question and objectives.
Interpret Results: Understand and explain the significance of your analysis results in the context of your research question or hypothesis.
Draw Conclusions: Summarize your findings and draw conclusions based on the evidence. Acknowledge any study limitations and propose areas for future research.

Advantages of Empirical Research

Empirical research is valuable because it stays objective by relying on observable data, lessening the impact of personal biases. This objectivity boosts the trustworthiness of research findings. Also, using precise quantitative methods helps in accurate measurement and statistical analysis. This precision ensures researchers can draw reliable conclusions from numerical data, strengthening our understanding of the studied phenomena. 4

Disadvantages of Empirical Research

While empirical research has notable strengths, researchers must also be aware of its limitations when deciding on the right research method for their study.4 One significant drawback of empirical research is the risk of oversimplifying complex phenomena, especially when relying solely on quantitative methods. These methods may struggle to capture the richness and nuances present in certain social, cultural, or psychological contexts. Another challenge is the potential for confounding variables or biases during data collection, impacting result accuracy.

Tips for Empirical Writing

In empirical research, the writing is usually done in research papers, articles, or reports. The empirical writing follows a set structure, and each section has a specific role. Here are some tips for your empirical writing. 7

Define Your Objectives: When you write about your research, start by making your goals clear. Explain what you want to find out or prove in a simple and direct way. This helps guide your research and lets others know what you have set out to achieve.
Be Specific in Your Literature Review: In the part where you talk about what others have studied before you, focus on research that directly relates to your research question. Keep it short and pick studies that help explain why your research is important. This part sets the stage for your work.
Explain Your Methods Clearly : When you talk about how you did your research (Methods), explain it in detail. Be clear about your research plan, who took part, and what you did; this helps others understand and trust your study. Also, be honest about any rules you follow to make sure your study is ethical and reproducible.
Share Your Results Clearly : After doing your empirical research, share what you found in a simple way. Use tables or graphs to make it easier for your audience to understand your research. Also, talk about any numbers you found and clearly state if they are important or not. Ensure that others can see why your research findings matter.
Talk About What Your Findings Mean: In the part where you discuss your research results, explain what they mean. Discuss why your findings are important and if they connect to what others have found before. Be honest about any problems with your study and suggest ideas for more research in the future.
Wrap It Up Clearly: Finally, end your empirical research paper by summarizing what you found and why it’s important. Remind everyone why your study matters. Keep your writing clear and fix any mistakes before you share it. Ask someone you trust to read it and give you feedback before you finish.

References:

Empirical Research in the Social Sciences and Education, Penn State University Libraries. Available online at https://guides.libraries.psu.edu/emp
How to conduct empirical research, Emerald Publishing. Available online at https://www.emeraldgrouppublishing.com/how-to/research-methods/conduct-empirical-research
Empirical Research: Quantitative & Qualitative, Arrendale Library, Piedmont University. Available online at https://library.piedmont.edu/empirical-research
Bouchrika, I. What Is Empirical Research? Definition, Types & Samples in 2024. Research.com, January 2024. Available online at https://research.com/research/what-is-empirical-research
Quantitative and Empirical Research vs. Other Types of Research. California State University, April 2023. Available online at https://libguides.csusb.edu/quantitative
Empirical Research, Definitions, Methods, Types and Examples, Studocu.com website. Available online at https://www.studocu.com/row/document/uganda-christian-university/it-research-methods/emperical-research-definitions-methods-types-and-examples/55333816
Writing an Empirical Paper in APA Style. Psychology Writing Center, University of Washington. Available online at https://psych.uw.edu/storage/writing_center/APApaper.pdf

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Psychology Research Guide

What is empirical research, finding empirical research, what is peer review.

Research Tips & Tricks
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Empirical research is based on observed and measured phenomena and derives knowledge from actual experience rather than from theory or belief.

Key characteristics to look for:

Specific research questions to be answered
Definition of the population, behavior, or phenomena being studied
Description of the process used to study this population or phenomena, including selection criteria, controls, and testing instruments (such as surveys)

Another hint: some scholarly journals use a specific layout, called the "IMRaD" format, to communicate empirical research findings. Such articles typically have 4 components:

Introduction : sometimes called "literature review" -- what is currently known about the topic -- usually includes a theoretical framework and/or discussion of previous studies
Methodology: sometimes called "research design" -- how to recreate the study -- usually describes the population, research process, and analytical tools
Results : sometimes called "findings" -- what was learned through the study -- usually appears as statistical data or as substantial quotations from research participants
Discussion : sometimes called "conclusion" or "implications" -- why the study is important -- usually describes how the research results influence professional practices or future studies

Adapted from PennState University Libraries, Empirical Research in the Social Sciences and Education

Empirical research is published in books and in scholarly, peer-reviewed journals. Keep in mind that most library databases do not offer straightforward ways to identifying empirical research.

Finding Empirical Research in PsycINFO

PsycInfo Use the "Advanced Search" Type your keywords into the search boxes Scroll down the page to "Methodology," and choose "Empirical Study" Choose other limits, such as publication date, if needed Click on the "Search" button

Finding Empirical Research in PubMed

PubMED One technique is to limit your search results after you perform a search: Type in your keywords and click on the "Search" button To the left of your results, under "Article Types," check off the types of studies that interest you Another alternative is to construct a more sophisticated search: From PubMed's main screen, click on "Advanced" link underneath the search box On the Advanced Search Builder screen type your keywords into the search boxes Change one of the empty boxes from "All Fields" to "Publication Type" To the right of Publication Type, click on "Show Index List" and choose a methodology that interests you. You can choose more than one by holding down the "Ctrl" or "⌘" on your keyboard as you click on each methodology Click on the "Search" button

Finding Empirical Research in Library OneSearch & Google Scholar

These tools do not have a method for locating empirical research. Using "empirical" as a keyword will find some studies, but miss many others. Consider using one of the more specialized databases above.

Library OneSearch
Google Scholar

This refers to the process where authors who are doing research submit a paper they have written to a journal. The journal editor then sends the article to the author's peers (researchers and scholars) who are in the same discipline for review. The reviewers determine if the article should be published based on the quality of the research, including the validity of the data, the conclusions the authors' draw and the originality of the research. This process is important because it validates the research and gives it a sort of "seal of approval" from others in the research community.

Identifying a Journal is Peer-Reviewed

One of the best places to find out if a journal is peer-reviewed is to go to the journal website.

Most publishers have a website for a journal that tells you about the journal, how authors can submit an article, and what the process is for getting published.

If you find the journal website, look for the link that says information for authors, instructions for authors, submitting an article or something similar.

Finding Peer-Reviewed Articles

Start in a library database. Look for a peer-review or scholarly filter.

PsycInfo Most comprehensive database of psychology. Filters allow you to limit by methodology. Articles without full-text can be requested via Interlibrary loan.
Library OneSearch Search almost all the library resources. Look for a peer-review filter on the left.
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Empirical research is based on phenomena that can be observed and measured. Empirical research derives knowledge from actual experience rather than from theory or belief.

Key characteristics of empirical research include:

Specific research questions to be answered;
Definitions of the population, behavior, or phenomena being studied;
Description of the methodology or research design used to study this population or phenomena, including selection criteria, controls, and testing instruments (such as surveys);
Two basic research processes or methods in empirical research: quantitative methods and qualitative methods (see the rest of the guide for more about these methods).

(based on the original from the Connelly LIbrary of LaSalle University)

Empirical Research: Qualitative vs. Quantitative

Learn about common types of journal articles that use APA Style, including empirical studies; meta-analyses; literature reviews; and replication, theoretical, and methodological articles.

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Quantitative Research

A quantitative research project is characterized by having a population about which the researcher wants to draw conclusions, but it is not possible to collect data on the entire population.

For an observational study, it is necessary to select a proper, statistical random sample and to use methods of statistical inference to draw conclusions about the population.
For an experimental study, it is necessary to have a random assignment of subjects to experimental and control groups in order to use methods of statistical inference.

Statistical methods are used in all three stages of a quantitative research project.

For observational studies, the data are collected using statistical sampling theory. Then, the sample data are analyzed using descriptive statistical analysis. Finally, generalizations are made from the sample data to the entire population using statistical inference.

For experimental studies, the subjects are allocated to experimental and control group using randomizing methods. Then, the experimental data are analyzed using descriptive statistical analysis. Finally, just as for observational data, generalizations are made to a larger population.

Iversen, G. (2004). Quantitative research . In M. Lewis-Beck, A. Bryman, & T. Liao (Eds.), Encyclopedia of social science research methods . (pp. 897-898). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc.

Qualitative Research

What makes a work deserving of the label qualitative research is the demonstrable effort to produce richly and relevantly detailed descriptions and particularized interpretations of people and the social, linguistic, material, and other practices and events that shape and are shaped by them.

Qualitative research typically includes, but is not limited to, discerning the perspectives of these people, or what is often referred to as the actor’s point of view. Although both philosophically and methodologically a highly diverse entity, qualitative research is marked by certain defining imperatives that include its case (as opposed to its variable) orientation, sensitivity to cultural and historical context, and reflexivity.

In its many guises, qualitative research is a form of empirical inquiry that typically entails some form of purposive sampling for information-rich cases; in-depth interviews and open-ended interviews, lengthy participant/field observations, and/or document or artifact study; and techniques for analysis and interpretation of data that move beyond the data generated and their surface appearances.

Sandelowski, M. (2004). Qualitative research . In M. Lewis-Beck, A. Bryman, & T. Liao (Eds.), Encyclopedia of social science research methods . (pp. 893-894). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc.

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POSC 325: Political Analysis: Research Question Development

Research question development.

Literature Review Tips
Article Searching
Book Searching
Citation Style

Literature Review Assignment

Formulating a Research Question:

Who: think in terms of demographics (gender, age, ethnicity, religious preference, special interest groups, etc)
What: think about concepts/aspects, sociological and political factors, relevant hot-topic issues, statistics, etc.
Where: compare/contrast a location
Why/How/So What!: consider the topic's significance in relation to the reviewed literature, and weigh advantages vs. disadvantages

Keep in mind that research questions can also evolve and change as you review the literature.

Crafting Good Research Questions

Draw on background knowledge
Begin from empirical questions. Good questions are usually about the outcomes (what explains y?) rather than about the causes (what effects does x have?)
Utilize "reporter questions" to go beyond basic facts (who, what, when, where, why, how)
Do not have a single correct answer

Empirical Research

What Is Empirical Research? Empirical research applies observation and experience as the main modes of gathering data. Characteristics include:

Content being based on actual and objective observation or experimentation
Findings published in scholarly or academic journals
Introduction, including literature review
Methodology
Presentation of the results
Discussion and/or conclusion

Quantitative Research

What Is Quantitative Research? This type of research emphasize objective measurements and the statistical, mathematical, or numerical analysis of data collected through polls, questionnaires, and surveys, or by manipulating pre-existing statistical data using computational techniques. The ultimate goal is to determine the relationship between one thing [an independent variable] and another [a dependent variable] within a population. Characteristics include:

Data usually gathered using structured research instruments
Results based on larger sample sizes that are representative of the population
Research study can usually be replicated or repeated, given its high reliability
Researcher has a clearly defined research question to which objective answers are sought
Data are in the form of numbers and statistics
Project can be used to generalize concepts more widely, predict future results, or investigate causal relationships
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Empirical Research: Introduction

Depending on your project, you may need to find qualitative (text-based) or quantitative (numerical) data. You may help analyze data, or you may be involved in managing or organizing data.

Some faculty members will already have collected data that they plan to work with; other faculty members may ask you to track down data relevant to their project.

Some Starting Points for Finding Data

The collections listed below include court, economic, demographic, and other data, and they provide a snapshot of some of the many types of data and kinds of resources for finding data that are available to you. Use your Emory credentials to login and access these resources.

Many resources are available to you through Emory Libraries, including :

Hein Online’s Judges and the Judiciary : a database with materials about the structure of, and information about, state and federal courts.
Hein Online’s World Constitutions Illustrated : includes constitutions and fundamental laws; users can search by country.
ProQuest Statistical Insight : covers a wide range of subjects, including criminal law, natural resources and the environment, labor & employment, health, banking, and more.
Digital National Security Archive : includes declassified documents providing insights into human rights, U.S. foreign policy, etc.
Roper Public Opinion Research: covers a broad range of topics (state and national level); datasets can be downloaded in more than one format.
Historical Statistics of the United States Millennial Edition : Statistical tables on population, employment, income, and government from the colonial era to 2000.
A-Z Databases: Statistics & Data: (55 Databases) on a broad range of subjects (science, public policy, history, etc.).

Data and Statistical Resources Beyond Emory

You may also need to use online resources outside of Emory libraries:

IRS tax statistics for business tax statistics, charities, individuals, Statistics of Income.
US Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) for patent searches and trademark searches .
World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) : Patent searches for 50+ countries using PATENTSCOPE .
Bureau of Justice Statistics : Multiple data collections on many topics, including information on prisoners, crime, firearms, and labor statistics, price indexes, earnings and benefits statistics, and employment numbers.
U.S. Census Bureau : includes a wide range of information, including historical data, maps, info on populations, businesses, communities, with datasets, tables, fact sheets, reference maps, surveys and estimates.
Environmental Protection Agency : data on air, water, climate change, and more.
Health & Human Services (HHS): includes data on Medicare & Medicaid, social services, community health, etc.
Caselaw Access Project : Harvard’s ongoing project to digitize all federal and state court cases.
National Conference of State Legislatures (NCSL): Bill Tracking Databases with information for the 50 states.
UN Data : covers a wide range of topics, such as education, health, migration, trade, crime, and more; includes country profiles and UN Statistical tables.
ICPSR : The Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research is a data archive focused on social and behavioral sciences, with specialized collections on criminal justice, education, terrorism, and more.
Administrative Office of the Courts: Analysis & Reports: Federal Court Management Statistics, including caseloads and filings; Judicial Business of the US Courts, with tables of filings, appeals, and judicial vacancies; Judicial Facts and Figures; Federal Judicial Caseload Statistics; and Statistical Tables for the Federal Judiciary.
National Center for State Courts : Court Statistics Project . Caseload data from the courts of the 50 states, DC, and Puerto Rico. Civil court data includes caseloads, clearance rates, tort caseloads, and medical malpractice caseloads.

Working with Data

describes the data you will acquire or generate during the course of the research project
describes how you will manage, describe, analyze, and store those data
sets out what mechanisms you will use at the conclusion of your project to both share and preserve your data

DMPs are required by some funders, including the NIH and NSF, and they help ensure that whoever is conducting research using data thinks about the different stages of data use, from finding data, to describing data, to making data available to other researchers and scholars.

Because these plans require researchers to work through stages and identify components of a research project, they help to clarify what steps need to be taken at each stage of a project. Such plans are also useful for multi-person projects and projects that extend over a longer period of time.

To view examples of data management plans and to compare data management plan requirements associated with many major funders, you can review the information available at dmptool.org

Whenever possible, try to ensure that the data you and your faculty member work with align with "FAIR" ( F indable, A ccessible, I nteroperable, and R eusable) principles. Guidance on how to follow FAIR principles with respect to data (and metadata) are available at https://www.go-fair.org/fair-principles/

Additional Issues to Consider When Working with Data

It is important to determine if a dataset you plan to use is in the public domain or not. The fact that a dataset can be accessed online does not necessarily mean you have permission to make use of it. Determine if there are any restrictions or conditions that limit how or if you are allowed to use the data.
When it comes to conducting text data mining (tdm), for example, it is important to determine if licensing agreements with third parties prohibit or restrict text data mining.
It can also be important to consider ethical implications of working with particular datasets, including those involving human subjects, and to determine how the data were obtained.
Keep records of where you found data and retain any relevant files associated with the data, including README files.
Even if you or your faculty member do not write a complete, formalized data management plan, it is still beneficial for you to make a plan for how you will share and store data.

Data Resources and Services Available to the Emory Community

Data support at Emory is offered to students and to faculty, both for research projects and for teaching. The Research Services librarians at the Law School and members of Emory's Data Services team can help users in a number of ways, including:

data management planning
collaboration tools
capturing data
data storage
data analysis
how to find data
grant support
compliance and legal issues
data sharing

In addition, a number of Emory units offer in-person consultations and workshops on working with data. Past workshop topics have focused on statistical analysis, text analysis, GIS and mapping, documenting data, and related topics. Units that offer data-related services include:

Emory Center for Digital Scholarship (ECDS)
Scholarly Communications Office
Woodruff Health Sciences Center Library

Emory University's Data Librarian, Robert O'Reilly, has compiled a number of different guides that focus specifically on finding and using data. Some of these guides provide general information while others are focused on particular subject areas or disciplines. Dr. O'Reilly's guide on Data Resources and Support provides a useful starting point if you plan to work with data, as it describes data services offered to the Emory community and starting points for finding different kinds of data.

Screenshots of the Emory Research Data website and the LibGuide on Data Resources and Support are provided below:

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Empirical Research: Definition, Methods, Types and Examples
Empirical research is defined as any research where conclusions of the study is strictly drawn from concretely empirical evidence, and therefore "verifiable" evidence. ... Using this, the researcher can answer empirical questions which have to be clearly defined and answerable with the findings he has got.
Empirical research
Empirical research is research using empirical evidence. ... Quantifying the evidence or making sense of it in qualitative form, a researcher can answer empirical questions, which should be clearly defined and answerable with the evidence collected (usually called data). Research design varies by field and by the question being investigated.
Empirical Research: Defining, Identifying, & Finding
Empirical research methodologies can be described as quantitative, qualitative, or a mix of both (usually called mixed-methods). Ruane (2016) (UofM login required) gets at the basic differences in approach between quantitative and qualitative research: Quantitative research -- an approach to documenting reality that relies heavily on numbers both for the measurement of variables and for data ...
Writing Strong Research Questions
Learn how to write a research question for your academic paper, dissertation, or thesis. Find out what makes a strong research question and see examples for different purposes and types of research.
Empirical Research in the Social Sciences and Education
Empirical research is based on observed and measured phenomena and derives knowledge from actual experience rather than from theory or belief. How do you know if a study is empirical? Read the subheadings within the article, book, or report and look for a description of the research "methodology." ... Specific research questions to be answered ...
Empirical Research
This video covers what empirical research is, what kinds of questions and methods empirical researchers use, and some tips for finding empirical research articles in your discipline. ... Strategies for Empirical Research in Writing is a particularly accessible approach to both qualitative and quantitative empirical research methods, helping ...
10 Research Question Examples to Guide your Research Project
The first question asks for a ready-made solution, and is not focused or researchable. The second question is a clearer comparative question, but note that it may not be practically feasible. For a smaller research project or thesis, it could be narrowed down further to focus on the effectiveness of drunk driving laws in just one or two countries.
What Is Empirical Research? Definition, Types & Samples in 2024
Empirical research is a method of studying the world based on concrete, verifiable evidence. It can be qualitative or quantitative, and uses various methods such as observation, interview, case study, survey, etc.
Designing a Research Question
Research questions are vital to qualitative, quantitative, and mixed-methods research. They "narrow the research objective and research purpose" ([]: p 475; [2, 3]) and determine the study methods (e.g., research paradigm, design, sampling method, instruments, and analysis).Despite the essential role the question holds in guiding and focusing research, White [] noted that academic ...
Empirical Research
In empirical research, knowledge is developed from factual experience as opposed to theoretical assumption and usually involved the use of data sources like datasets or fieldwork, but can also be based on observations within a laboratory setting. Testing hypothesis or answering definite questions is a primary feature of empirical research.
2.2 Generating Good Research Questions
Research questions often begin as more general research ideas—usually focusing on some behavior or psychological characteristic: talkativeness, memory for touches, depression, bungee jumping, and so on. ... Practice: Generate five empirical research questions about each of the following behaviors or psychological characteristics: long ...
What is Empirical Research? Definition, Methods, Examples
Empirical research is the cornerstone of scientific inquiry, providing a systematic and structured approach to investigating the world around us. It is the process of gathering and analyzing empirical or observable data to test hypotheses, answer research questions, or gain insights into various phenomena.
Empirical Research: Defining, Identifying, & Finding
Once you know the characteristics of empirical research, the next question is how to find those characteristics when reading a scholarly, peer-reviewed journal article.Knowing the basic structure of an article will help you identify those characteristics quickly. The IMRaD Layout. Many scholarly, peer-reviewed journal articles, especially empirical articles, are structured according to the ...
Empirical Research: Defining, Identifying, & Finding
The "Introduction" is where you are most likely to find the research question. Finding the Criteria. The research question may not be clearly labeled in the Introduction. Often, the author(s) may rephrase their question as a research statement or a hypothesis. Some research may have more than one research question or a research question with ...
Identifying the research question (and an aside about theory)
Empirical research questions can have different purposes. Some empirical social science research questions seek to describe social phenomena. Sometimes, you'll see the phrase mere description used, and some research methods textbook authors will say that description doesn't even count as research. This is nonsense.
What is Empirical Research Study? [Examples & Method]
Empirical research can also be carried out to determine the relationship between seasonal migration and the body mass of flying birds. A researcher may need to observe the birds and carry out necessary observation and experimentation in order to arrive at objective outcomes that answer the research question. Empirical Research Data Collection ...
Empirical Research: A Comprehensive Guide for Academics
Tips for Empirical Writing. In empirical research, the writing is usually done in research papers, articles, or reports. The empirical writing follows a set structure, and each section has a specific role. Here are some tips for your empirical writing. 7. Define Your Objectives: When you write about your research, start by making your goals clear.
Empirical Research
Specific research questions to be answered; Definition of the population, behavior, or phenomena being studied; ... Another hint: some scholarly journals use a specific layout, called the "IMRaD" format, to communicate empirical research findings. Such articles typically have 4 components: Introduction: sometimes called "literature review" ...
The Empirical Research Paper: A Guide
The introduction section is where you introduce the background and nature of your research question, justify the importance of your research, state your hypotheses, and how your research will contribute to scientific knowledge.. Begin with some opening statements to help situate the reader. Do not immediately dive into the highly technical terminology or the specifics of your research question.
Empirical evidence
Empirical evidence is subject to assessments of its validity. Validity can be internal, involving the soundness of an experiment's design and execution and the accuracy of subsequent data analysis, or external, involving generalizability to other research contexts (see ecological validity).
Empirical Research: Quantitative & Qualitative
Empirical research is based on phenomena that can be observed and measured. Empirical research derives knowledge from actual experience rather than from theory or belief. Key characteristics of empirical research include: Specific research questions to be answered; Definitions of the population, behavior, or phenomena being studied; ...
POSC 325: Political Analysis: Research Question Development
It allows you to see what research has already been done. During the development phase, ask yourself open-ended questions to help formulate a list of potential research questions: Who: think in terms of demographics (gender, age, ethnicity, religious preference, special interest groups, etc) What: think about concepts/aspects, sociological and ...
PDF Examples of Empirical Research Questions
This web page provides a list of 35 empirical research questions for economics students. Each question is followed by a brief description of the topic and possible variations.
Empirical Research
Empirical Research: Introduction. Scholars who do empirical research use observable, measurable, verifiable facts or information to support their assertions. Part of your job working with an Emory Law faculty member may involve working with data. Depending on your project, you may need to find qualitative (text-based) or quantitative (numerical ...

Empirical Research: Definition, Methods, Types and Examples

Empirical research: Definition

Types and methodologies of empirical research

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2.2 Generating Good Research Questions

Finding Inspiration

Generating Empirically Testable Research Questions

Evaluating Research Questions

Interestingness

Feasibility

Key Takeaways

What is Empirical Research? Definition, Methods, Examples

What is Empirical Research?

Characteristics of Empirical Research

Importance of Empirical Research

How to Conduct Empirical Research?

1. Select a Research Topic

2. Formulate Research Questions

3. Review Existing Literature

4. Define Variables

Empirical Research Design

Types of Empirical Research

Experimental Design

Observational Design

Survey Design

Case Study Design

Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research

Data Collection for Empirical Research

Sampling Methods

Data Collection Instruments

Data Collection Procedures

Ethical Considerations

Empirical Research Data Analysis

Data Preparation

Descriptive Statistics

Inferential Statistics

Qualitative Data Analysis

Data Visualization

How to Report Empirical Research Results?

1. Write the Research Paper

2. Create Visuals and Tables

3. Interpret Findings

Examples of Empirical Research

Social Sciences

Environmental Science

Business and Economics

Conclusion for Empirical Research

How to Collect Data for Empirical Research?

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Empirical Research: Defining, Identifying, & Finding

The Introduction Section

What Criteria to Look For

Finding the Criteria

Words That May Signify the Research Question

What Headings to Look Under

Identifying the research question (and an aside about theory)

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What is Empirical Research?