fear of death essay

Why We Fear Death and How to Overcome It

You might be surprised by the factors that influence our attitudes toward death..

Posted September 2, 2020 | Reviewed by Abigail Fagan

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Death—what isn’t there to be afraid of? It’s the ultimate end! But while some people dread death, others accept it as inevitable. So why do some people fear it more than others?

It turns out that the way we think about death can affect how we think and act in daily life. For example, a 2016 study found that fear of death could amplify our desire for revenge and political violence. Palestinian, Israeli, and South Korean participants were prompted to think about personal pain or death, and then asked about their opinions about how specific political conflicts should be resolved. Those who were reminded of death were more likely to support military action than those who only thought about pain.

Fearing death also makes it harder for us to process grief . A recent study found that those who were afraid of death were more likely to have prolonged symptoms of grief after losing a loved one compared to those who had accepted death. For healthcare workers who care for dying patients, their own fear of death may get in the way of effectively communicating with patients and their families.

There are some things that may subtly, or not so subtly, affect how much we fear death.

1. Older people tend to fear death less. You might think this would be the opposite, but this pattern has been found time and time again in research studies. We tend to assume that the older someone is, the closer they seemingly are to death, and therefore the more afraid of it they should be. But interestingly, older age is associated with more acceptance of death .

This could be because older people have experienced more of life, so they have less fear of missing out. Or it might be because they have more experience with witnessing and handling the death of others.

2. Religious belief increases our fear (but it’s complicated). Here’s another counterintuitive one. You may think that religious belief, which usually includes confidence in an afterlife or a greater meaning to life, would make people feel better about the finality of death. But studies have found that those with stronger religiosity , regardless of culture or religion, have a stronger fear of death.

But it’s worth noting that there are also studies that show the opposite.

Some studies have found that, at least among Westerners, those who fear death most are moderately religious . Both non-believers and very religious people feared death less .

Perhaps being moderately religious puts people in the “existential sweet spot” for being afraid of death—they’re not as relaxed as non-believers, but they also don’t hold the same strong convictions about the afterlife that very religious people do. It’s also possible that the egg comes before the chicken—people who particularly fear death seek out religion as a coping mechanism, but they don’t end up being very religious.

3. Experience with danger. Your interactions with danger may also change your fear of death. Though some experiences make you fear death less, too much might increase your fear.

Here’s an example: In a very cool study, researchers recruited beginner, intermediate, and expert skydivers to share their feelings about death. Not surprisingly, beginner skydivers, with only an average of 1 jump under their belt, were scared of death. Intermediate skydivers, with an average of 90 jumps, were a lot less scared. But—and this is the interesting part—expert skydivers, who had jumped over 700 times, were more scared of death than intermediate skydivers.

This shows that simply risking death more doesn’t decrease your fear of it. There may be a learning curve, where getting some experience makes you feel less anxious (maybe because you gain a greater sense of control), but getting a lot of experience makes you more aware that you can’t cheat death after all.

4. Physical health. This one is less surprising: People with better physical health tend to fear death less. Researchers have found that those with better physical health tend to feel like there is more meaning in life. They also tend to have better mental health. These are the factors that make them fear death less . In a way, this can be encouraging even for those who cannot control their physical health. They may still be able to find meaning in life and work on their mental health to decrease their existential dread.

5. Attachment style. Attachment styles refer to ways we think about and behave in close relationships. These are shaped early in life so by the time we’re adults, we’re usually pretty settled into ours. Securely attached people tend to be confiding, dependable, and supportive partners. Insecurely attached people can be overly anxious and controlling, or distant and standoffish, or a mix of both.

When it comes to how they feel about death, people with secure attachment styles fear death less than people with insecure attachment styles. This is interesting because it shows that there’s a relationship and intimacy aspect to the way we think about death.

What can you do to become less afraid of death?

All of this research showing that fear of death may be fluid depending on our beliefs and experiences begs the question: What can we do to fear death less?

Some things that affect your fear of death, like your age, can’t be controlled. And most of us probably can’t (or won’t) go skydiving 90 times. But researchers have found some other things we may be able to do:

1. Help the next generation. The term “generativity” refers to a concern for younger people and a desire to nurture and guide them. When older people have a greater sense of generativity, they tend to also look back on their life without regret or anguish. This, understandably, leads to having less fear of death.

Even if you don’t have children or grandchildren, you can feed your generativity by mentoring younger people in a career or in life. You can volunteer with the Big Brothers Big Sisters program, or tutor a neighborhood kid, or mentor someone in your career field.

2. Don’t avoid the topic. We try to avoid things, like death, that make us uncomfortable, but avoidance can make those things loom even larger in our minds.

An interesting study with funeral directors found that those who had directed more funerals feared death less. Among physicians, more years of experience, and more exposure to death, also led to less fear of death. But even if you’re not a funeral director or healthcare worker, you can still familiarize yourself with death by reading about it or volunteering with organizations that take care of those with terminal illnesses.

3. Have a (simulated) out-of-body or near-death experience. Here’s a fascinating one. Multiple research studies have found that having an out-of-body experience or near-death experience makes people less afraid of death. In the case of near-death experiences , it might be that the things we confront are less scary to us.

In the case of out-of-body experiences , it might give us the sense that we live on even when we are separated from our bodies. While you shouldn’t seek a near-death experience (we don’t want it to end up being not-so-near), you could try out a virtual reality program that simulates an out-of-body experience.

4. Cultivate your meaning in life. Now, this is the tip I think is the most important and impactful.

We know that reminding people of their own mortality tends to make them fear death. But if someone feels a strong sense of having meaning in life, this reminder doesn’t bother them .

Cultivating meaning in life is no simple task, but you can start by identifying your values, which are big-picture driving forces that guide how you move through life. Whether it be creativity , success, or serenity, brainstorm the values that are most important to you and govern your life with these ideas in mind.

Mark Twain said, “The fear of death follows from the fear of life. A man who lives fully is prepared to die at any time.”

This is very wise ! Based on the research, I think it would be more precise to replace “lives fully” with “lives meaningfully.” But for some people, perhaps these are the same. No matter what your meaningful life looks like, start to develop it now, and you’ll be too busy feeling fulfilled to be afraid of death.

A version of this post titled How to Master Your Fear of Death was originally posted on Quick and Dirty Tips.

Jade Wu, Ph.D., is a clinical health psychologist and host of the Savvy Psychologist podcast. She specializes in helping those with sleep problems and anxiety disorders.

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Thanatophobia: Definition, Symptoms, Causes, Treatment

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Thanatophobia is a specific type of anxiety disorder that is characterized by an intense fear of death or fear of dying.

Individuals with thanatophobia may experience physical symptoms such as shortness of breath, increased heart rate, and sweating when they think about death.

This condition can impact an individual’s daily life, making it difficult to engage in normal activities. Seeking professional help from a mental health provider may be beneficial for managing and overcoming thanatophobia.

What Is Thanatophobia?

Thanatophobia means that one has a phobia of death or the process of dying.

The word comes from the Greek words ‘Thanatos,’ meaning death, and ‘Phobos,’ meaning fear.

While it is normal that many people will have some worries about death, for some, thinking about death or the process of dying can cause extreme fear and anxiety.

In extreme cases, thanatophobia can stop people from leaving their homes or completing their regular daily activities, causing a lot of disruption to normal functioning.

Freud was believed to be the first to coin the term thanatophobia in 1915 in his essay titled ‘Thoughts for the Time on War and Death.’

Freud suggested that death-related fears reflected unresolved childhood conflicts rather than a fear of death itself.

He believed that the fear of death was related to one’s unconscious belief in immortality, stating: ‘our unconscious does not believe in its own death; it behaves as if immortal.’

Research over the years has demonstrated that there are two separate but connected constructs to death anxiety: the fear of death and the fear of the dying process (Depaola et al., 2003).

Death anxiety has also been characterized as a conscious fear of the unknown, fear for the body after death, a fear of lost time, a fear of suffering, and a fear of loneliness.

Becker (1973) suggested that death anxiety is a real and basic fear that underlies many forms of anxiety disorders and phobias.

Becker argued that humans might manage this anxiety by living with the cultural view that offers immortality either literally (e.g., a belief in the afterlife) or symbolically (e.g., life achievements or through families).

His view was that much of people’s energy is focused on denying death as a strategy to keep death anxiety under control.

Thanatophobia is not defined as a distinct disorder in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5).

However, it falls under the category of phobias, particularly under the type of specific phobias.

It can also coexist alongside other mood or anxiety disorders, such as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), panic disorder , and illness anxiety disorders.

People who are experiencing thanatophobia may endure some of the following cognitive symptoms:

Experiencing intense anxiety or worry when encountering or thinking of death or dying.

Having excessive fear of death that gets in the way of their life.

Immediate fear or anxiety when thinking about dying or the process of dying.

General feelings of anxiety or depression.

Feelings of guilt

Feelings of agitation

Since phobias are part of an anxiety disorder, there may be physical symptoms that are experienced when faced with anxiety:

Shortness of breath

Racing heart

Stomach pains

Panic attacks

Fatigue or insomnia

Sensitivity to hot or cold

Due to the above symptoms, someone with thanatophobia may behave in certain ways to cope with their anxiety, such as:

Actively avoiding any situation that involves death or dying – this could include avoiding movies or TV shows which involve a character’s death or avoiding talking about funeral plans.

Isolating oneself from friends and family for an extended period.

Reassurance seeking from others.

Body checking behaviors such as checking heart rate or excessive checking for body abnormalities.

The exact causes of thanatophobia are not fully understood, but there are several factors that may contribute to its development.

Other mental health disorders

Death anxiety is often believed to be a basic fear for many with different mental health disorders.

Those with panic disorder may frequently fear collapsing, dying, or suffering a medical emergency due to a panic attack.

People with panic disorder tend to report substantially greater anxiety about death than those with conditions such as social anxiety disorder (Furer and Walker, 2008).

Individuals with generalized anxiety disorder may have extreme and persistent worries about multiple things, including patterns of anxiety around the death of the self and family members.

Likewise, people with PTSD may have high levels of concern about their physical safety and health. Hence, it is unsurprising that positive relationships have been found between PTSD and death anxiety.

Environmental triggers

Phobias are often triggered by a specific event; thus, a fear of death could have resulted from an early traumatic event related to almost dying or experiencing the death of a loved one.

Also, people who suffer from serious illnesses may be more likely to develop thanatophobia if they are extremely anxious about death.

Individual differences

There also appear to be some individual differences in how people fear death. In a study, it was found that elderly people tend to fear the dying process rather than death itself, while younger people would commonly report a fear of death itself (Sinoff, 2017).

Another study found that females reported higher levels of death anxiety compared to males, as well as those from a lower socioeconomic background having moderately higher levels of death anxiety (Kastenbaum, 2000).

Russac et al. (2007) found that death anxiety was high in the young adult population in both males and females. This anxiety declined over time before spiking again at around 50, particularly for women.

According to Balasubramanian et al. (2018), death anxiety is more common for people who do not have the following:

High self-esteem

Religious beliefs

Good health

A sense of fulfillment in life

Intimacy with friends and family

A fighting spirit

Another factor contributing to a fear of death can be beliefs about what will happen after death. For some, religion can be a source of comfort in providing answers to questions about the unknown.

However, religion could also contribute to fears that any deviations or mistakes may cause individuals to be eternally condemned, causing more anxiety.

Generally, firmer religious beliefs and participation in religious practice are not associated with lower death anxiety (Furer and Walker, 2008).

Types of Fears

There can be many reasons why people may develop thanatophobia, and there may be different types of fears which can trigger this. Below is a table of some of the types of fears related to thanatophobia:

Treatment Options

Treatment for thanatophobia depends on the person’s personal goals: whether they want to treat their anxious symptoms, drop safety behaviors, find a healthy way to think about death, or be able to think about death without extreme anxiety, for instance.

Some treatments which work for other anxiety disorders could also be recommended for those with thanatophobia. To help with the symptoms of anxiety, medications may be prescribed:

• Benzodiazepines  – a medication that has a sedative effect, slowing down the body and brain’s functions.These medications, such as alprazolam, diazepam, lorazepam, and clonazepam, are all used to treat conditions such as anxiety and panic disorders.These can be taken in particularly anxiety-provoking situations, but they are quite strong with many side effects, so they are not usually recommended for long-term use.
• Antidepressants   – selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are the most commonly prescribed longer-term medications for anxiety.They work by correcting the imbalance of serotonin in the brain and have been proven to be effective in relieving the symptoms of anxiety disorders and depression.Examples of SSRIs, including citalopram, sertraline, and fluoxetine, are usually a lot more tolerable than stronger medications but can still come with side effects such as headaches, nausea, and sweating.

A common therapy for phobias and other anxiety disorders is cognitive behavioral therapy ( CBT ). This involves working with a therapist to identify negative thought patterns and behaviors.

Once identified, these can be challenged and worked through using different activities and methods to change these negative thoughts and behaviors into more realistic and healthy ones.

Dropping safety behaviors

Specifically for thanatophobia, CBT can help individuals to drop safety behaviors such as body checking, reassurance seeking, and other behaviors which are prominent in death anxiety.

Once these behaviors have been identified with the therapist, these could be monitored by using a diary, for instance. In the diary, individuals can report the antecedents or consequences of these behaviors.

The clients can record the situation and thoughts related to the behaviors and rate their anxiety levels.

With the therapist, the client can select target behaviors they want to be reduced – this could be to postpone target behaviors, gradually decrease their frequency, or stop them altogether.

When dropping safety behaviors, there may be an increase in anxiety initially. However, in the long-term, there should be a significant reduction in the preoccupation with these behaviors, and anxiety should be reduced.

Exposure therapy

Exposure therapy  is a common type of therapy, especially for those with phobias. This involves gradually exposing someone to their feared object or situation so that they eventually become desensitized to it, with the goal of reducing anxiety over time.

For fear of death, exposure may be implemented through imaginal exposure focused on thoughts and memories related to death and revisiting the bodily symptoms that are cues for death anxiety.

The client could be encouraged to read obituaries, read literary accounts of death and loss, or watch TV shows with themes related to death to help with desensitization.

In therapy, the exposure would need to be repeated enough, at a comfortable pace for the client and for adequate periods, so that there is more chance of a significant reduction in anxiety.

Enhancing the enjoyment of life

When people fear death, their attention is often diverted from focusing on enjoying life – there is much less attention given to positive goals.

During therapy sessions, time can be spent on enhancing the enjoyment of life and moving towards personal goals.

People with thanatophobia could be encouraged to set aside time for enjoyable activities and less time focused on the possibility of future loss.

It has been found that often, those with death anxiety neglect the importance of a healthy lifestyle and so it can be important to ensure they are taking part in eating healthily and completing some exercise.

They may also find it useful to complete relaxation techniques such as deep breathing exercises, yoga, or practicing mindfulness to aid with anxiety symptoms.

Relapse prevention

Occasionally, setbacks can happen. In the case of death, anxiety, physical symptoms, a diagnosis of an illness, or life stress can contribute to relapses.

A helpful approach that can be learned in therapy is to prepare for the inevitable life changes and to develop healthy coping strategies.

These coping strategies can be tailored to each individual and can be encouraged to be used when experiencing death anxiety.

Coping strategies and action plans for anxiety can help individuals learn to maintain a focus on their goals in life.

Further Information

Iverach, L., Menzies, R. G., & Menzies, R. E. (2014). Death anxiety and its role in psychopathology: Reviewing the status of a transdiagnostic construct. Clinical psychology review, 34(7), 580-593. 

Menzies, R. E., Sharpe, L., & Dar‐Nimrod, I. (2019). The relationship between death anxiety and severity of mental illnesses. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 58(4), 452-467. 

Iverach L, Menzies RG, Menzies RE. Death anxiety and its role in psychopathology: Reviewing the status of a transdiagnostic construct. Clin Psychol Rev. 2014;34(7):580-593. 

Pyszczynski, T., Solomon, S., & Greenberg, J. (2015). Thirty years of terror management theory: From genesis to revelation. In Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 52, pp. 1-70). Academic Press. 

Burke, B. L., Martens, A., & Faucher, E. H. (2010). Two decades of terror management theory: A meta-analysis of mortality salience research. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 14(2), 155-195. 

Routledge, C., & Vess, M. (Eds.). (2018). Handbook of terror management theory. Academic Press.

Balasubramanian, C., Subramanian, M., Balasubramanian, S., Agrawal, A., Raveendran, S., & Kaliaperumal, C. (2018). “Thanatophobia”: Physician’s perspective of dealing with patients with fear of death.   Journal of natural science, biology, and medicine,   9(1), 103.

Becker, E. (1973).  The denial of death . New York: Free Press.

Depaola, S. J., Griffin, M., Young, J. R., & Neimeyer, R. A. (2003). Death anxiety and attitudes toward the elderly among older adults: The Role of gender and ethnicity.   Death studies, 2  7(4), 335-354.

Freud, S. (1953). Thoughts for the time on war and death (ii). Our Attitude towards Death.

Furer, P., & Walker, J. R. (2008). Death anxiety: A cognitive-behavioral approach.   Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 22  (2), 167-182.

Kastenbaum, R. (Ed.). (2000). The psychology of death. Springer Publishing Company.

Russac, R. J., Gatliff, C., Reece, M., & Spottswood, D. (2007). Death anxiety across the adult years: An examination of age and gender effects.   Death studies, 31  (6), 549-561.

Sinoff, G. (2017). Thanatophobia (death anxiety) in the elderly: The problem of the child’s inability to assess their own parent’s death anxiety state.   Frontiers in Medicine , 4, 11.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2016). Impact of the DSM-IV to DSM-5 Changes on the National Survey on Drug Use and Health. DSM-IV to DSM-5 Specific Phobia Comparison. Retrieved 2021, October 18, from:  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK519704/table/ch3.t11/

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Why Are We Afraid of Death? Essay (Critical Writing)

Introduction.

Death is one of the topics that are considered by all people at certain period of their lives. In the vast majority of cases this topic evokes fear and despair as almost all people are afraid of death. Of course, there are people who accept this inevitable stage and have no fear. However, these people have their reasons and they have their specific ways to overcome the universal fright. These reasons are religious in character. However, it can be interesting to understand why the rest of the people are so afraid of death.

Some may assume that people are afraid of pain which is often associated with death. However, this reason is secondary as many people have to live in pain due to chronic diseases. Therefore, it is not the pain that makes people tremble at the very thought of death. In fact, the major reason is the fear of the unknown. People do not know what happens next. It is universally acknowledged that people are more afraid while anticipating than when overcoming some constraints.

Of course, death is the greatest challenge that leads to something unknown. Notably, some people claim that they are afraid of non-existence as they hate the idea they will not exist anymore. Nonetheless, no one knows for sure what happens after death and this is more frightening. This makes people feel uneasy.

People need to know everything that happens to them. They want to understand the reason of their lives. Of course, they wish to understand the secrets of death. However, people are not able to understand these secrets and this unawareness makes them feel desperately insecure. People are not afraid of death itself, related pain or non-existence. People are afraid of the unknown.

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May 3, 2023

Contemplating Mortality: Powerful Essays on Death and Inspiring Perspectives

The prospect of death may be unsettling, but it also holds a deep fascination for many of us. If you're curious to explore the many facets of mortality, from the scientific to the spiritual, our article is the perfect place to start. With expert guidance and a wealth of inspiration, we'll help you write an essay that engages and enlightens readers on one of life's most enduring mysteries!

Death is a universal human experience that we all must face at some point in our lives. While it can be difficult to contemplate mortality, reflecting on death and loss can offer inspiring perspectives on the nature of life and the importance of living in the present moment. In this collection of powerful essays about death, we explore profound writings that delve into the human experience of coping with death, grief, acceptance, and philosophical reflections on mortality.

Through these essays, readers can gain insight into different perspectives on death and how we can cope with it. From personal accounts of loss to philosophical reflections on the meaning of life, these essays offer a diverse range of perspectives that will inspire and challenge readers to contemplate their mortality.

The Inevitable: Coping with Mortality and Grief

Mortality is a reality that we all have to face, and it is something that we cannot avoid. While we may all wish to live forever, the truth is that we will all eventually pass away. In this article, we will explore different aspects of coping with mortality and grief, including understanding the grieving process, dealing with the fear of death, finding meaning in life, and seeking support.

Understanding the Grieving Process

Grief is a natural and normal response to loss. It is a process that we all go through when we lose someone or something important to us. The grieving process can be different for each person and can take different amounts of time. Some common stages of grief include denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance. It is important to remember that there is no right or wrong way to grieve and that it is a personal process.

Denial is often the first stage of grief. It is a natural response to shock and disbelief. During this stage, we may refuse to believe that our loved one has passed away or that we are facing our mortality.

Anger is a common stage of grief. It can manifest as feelings of frustration, resentment, and even rage. It is important to allow yourself to feel angry and to express your emotions healthily.

Bargaining is often the stage of grief where we try to make deals with a higher power or the universe in an attempt to avoid our grief or loss. We may make promises or ask for help in exchange for something else.

Depression is a natural response to loss. It is important to allow yourself to feel sad and to seek support from others.

Acceptance is often the final stage of grief. It is when we come to terms with our loss and begin to move forward with our lives.

Dealing with the Fear of Death

The fear of death is a natural response to the realization of our mortality. It is important to acknowledge and accept our fear of death but also to not let it control our lives. Here are some ways to deal with the fear of death:

Accepting Mortality

Accepting our mortality is an important step in dealing with the fear of death. We must understand that death is a natural part of life and that it is something that we cannot avoid.

Finding Meaning in Life

Finding meaning in life can help us cope with the fear of death. It is important to pursue activities and goals that are meaningful and fulfilling to us.

Seeking Support

Seeking support from friends, family, or a therapist can help us cope with the fear of death. Talking about our fears and feelings can help us process them and move forward.

Finding meaning in life is important in coping with mortality and grief. It can help us find purpose and fulfillment, even in difficult times. Here are some ways to find meaning in life:

Pursuing Passions

Pursuing our passions and interests can help us find meaning and purpose in life. It is important to do things that we enjoy and that give us a sense of accomplishment.

Helping Others

Helping others can give us a sense of purpose and fulfillment. It can also help us feel connected to others and make a positive impact on the world.

Making Connections

Making connections with others is important in finding meaning in life. It is important to build relationships and connections with people who share our values and interests.

Seeking support is crucial when coping with mortality and grief. Here are some ways to seek support:

Talking to Friends and Family

Talking to friends and family members can provide us with a sense of comfort and support. It is important to express our feelings and emotions to those we trust.

Joining a Support Group

Joining a support group can help us connect with others who are going through similar experiences. It can provide us with a safe space to share our feelings and find support.

Seeking Professional Help

Seeking help from a therapist or counselor can help cope with grief and mortality. A mental health professional can provide us with the tools and support we need to process our emotions and move forward.

Coping with mortality and grief is a natural part of life. It is important to understand that grief is a personal process that may take time to work through. Finding meaning in life, dealing with the fear of death, and seeking support are all important ways to cope with mortality and grief. Remember to take care of yourself, allow yourself to feel your emotions, and seek support when needed.

The Ethics of Death: A Philosophical Exploration

Death is an inevitable part of life, and it is something that we will all experience at some point. It is a topic that has fascinated philosophers for centuries, and it continues to be debated to this day. In this article, we will explore the ethics of death from a philosophical perspective, considering questions such as what it means to die, the morality of assisted suicide, and the meaning of life in the face of death.

Death is a topic that elicits a wide range of emotions, from fear and sadness to acceptance and peace. Philosophers have long been interested in exploring the ethical implications of death, and in this article, we will delve into some of the most pressing questions in this field.

What does it mean to die?

The concept of death is a complex one, and there are many different ways to approach it from a philosophical perspective. One question that arises is what it means to die. Is death simply the cessation of bodily functions, or is there something more to it than that? Many philosophers argue that death represents the end of consciousness and the self, which raises questions about the nature of the soul and the afterlife.

The morality of assisted suicide

Assisted suicide is a controversial topic, and it raises several ethical concerns. On the one hand, some argue that individuals have the right to end their own lives if they are suffering from a terminal illness or unbearable pain. On the other hand, others argue that assisting someone in taking their own life is morally wrong and violates the sanctity of life. We will explore these arguments and consider the ethical implications of assisted suicide.

The meaning of life in the face of death

The inevitability of death raises important questions about the meaning of life. If our time on earth is finite, what is the purpose of our existence? Is there a higher meaning to life, or is it simply a product of biological processes? Many philosophers have grappled with these questions, and we will explore some of the most influential theories in this field.

The role of death in shaping our lives

While death is often seen as a negative force, it can also have a positive impact on our lives. The knowledge that our time on earth is limited can motivate us to live life to the fullest and to prioritize the things that truly matter. We will explore the role of death in shaping our values, goals, and priorities, and consider how we can use this knowledge to live more fulfilling lives.

The ethics of mourning

The process of mourning is an important part of the human experience, and it raises several ethical questions. How should we respond to the death of others, and what is our ethical responsibility to those who are grieving? We will explore these questions and consider how we can support those who are mourning while also respecting their autonomy and individual experiences.

The ethics of immortality

The idea of immortality has long been a fascination for humanity, but it raises important ethical questions. If we were able to live forever, what would be the implications for our sense of self, our relationships with others, and our moral responsibilities? We will explore the ethical implications of immortality and consider how it might challenge our understanding of what it means to be human.

The ethics of death in different cultural contexts

Death is a universal human experience, but how it is understood and experienced varies across different cultures. We will explore how different cultures approach death, mourning, and the afterlife, and consider the ethical implications of these differences.

Death is a complex and multifaceted topic, and it raises important questions about the nature of life, morality, and human experience. By exploring the ethics of death from a philosophical perspective, we can gain a deeper understanding of these questions and how they shape our lives.

The Ripple Effect of Loss: How Death Impacts Relationships

Losing a loved one is one of the most challenging experiences one can go through in life. It is a universal experience that touches people of all ages, cultures, and backgrounds. The grief that follows the death of someone close can be overwhelming and can take a significant toll on an individual's mental and physical health. However, it is not only the individual who experiences the grief but also the people around them. In this article, we will discuss the ripple effect of loss and how death impacts relationships.

Understanding Grief and Loss

Grief is the natural response to loss, and it can manifest in many different ways. The process of grieving is unique to each individual and can be affected by many factors, such as culture, religion, and personal beliefs. Grief can be intense and can impact all areas of life, including relationships, work, and physical health.

The Impact of Loss on Relationships

Death can impact relationships in many ways, and the effects can be long-lasting. Below are some of how loss can affect relationships:

1. Changes in Roles and Responsibilities

When someone dies, the roles and responsibilities within a family or social circle can shift dramatically. For example, a spouse who has lost their partner may have to take on responsibilities they never had before, such as managing finances or taking care of children. This can be a difficult adjustment, and it can put a strain on the relationship.

2. Changes in Communication

Grief can make it challenging to communicate with others effectively. Some people may withdraw and isolate themselves, while others may become angry and lash out. It is essential to understand that everyone grieves differently, and there is no right or wrong way to do it. However, these changes in communication can impact relationships, and it may take time to adjust to new ways of interacting with others.

3. Changes in Emotional Connection

When someone dies, the emotional connection between individuals can change. For example, a parent who has lost a child may find it challenging to connect with other parents who still have their children. This can lead to feelings of isolation and disconnection, and it can strain relationships.

4. Changes in Social Support

Social support is critical when dealing with grief and loss. However, it is not uncommon for people to feel unsupported during this time. Friends and family may not know what to say or do, or they may simply be too overwhelmed with their grief to offer support. This lack of social support can impact relationships and make it challenging to cope with grief.

Coping with Loss and Its Impact on Relationships

Coping with grief and loss is a long and difficult process, but it is possible to find ways to manage the impact on relationships. Below are some strategies that can help:

1. Communication

Effective communication is essential when dealing with grief and loss. It is essential to talk about how you feel and what you need from others. This can help to reduce misunderstandings and make it easier to navigate changes in relationships.

2. Seek Support

It is important to seek support from friends, family, or a professional if you are struggling to cope with grief and loss. Having someone to talk to can help to alleviate feelings of isolation and provide a safe space to process emotions.

3. Self-Care

Self-care is critical when dealing with grief and loss. It is essential to take care of your physical and emotional well-being. This can include things like exercise, eating well, and engaging in activities that you enjoy.

4. Allow for Flexibility

It is essential to allow for flexibility in relationships when dealing with grief and loss. People may not be able to provide the same level of support they once did or may need more support than they did before. Being open to changes in roles and responsibilities can help to reduce strain on relationships.

5. Find Meaning

Finding meaning in the loss can be a powerful way to cope with grief and loss. This can involve creating a memorial, participating in a support group, or volunteering for a cause that is meaningful to you.

The impact of loss is not limited to the individual who experiences it but extends to those around them as well. Relationships can be greatly impacted by the death of a loved one, and it is important to be aware of the changes that may occur. Coping with loss and its impact on relationships involves effective communication, seeking support, self-care, flexibility, and finding meaning.

What Lies Beyond Reflections on the Mystery of Death

Death is an inevitable part of life, and yet it remains one of the greatest mysteries that we face as humans. What happens when we die? Is there an afterlife? These are questions that have puzzled us for centuries, and they continue to do so today. In this article, we will explore the various perspectives on death and what lies beyond.

Understanding Death

Before we can delve into what lies beyond, we must first understand what death is. Death is defined as the permanent cessation of all biological functions that sustain a living organism. This can occur as a result of illness, injury, or simply old age. Death is a natural process that occurs to all living things, but it is also a process that is often accompanied by fear and uncertainty.

The Physical Process of Death

When a person dies, their body undergoes several physical changes. The heart stops beating, and the body begins to cool and stiffen. This is known as rigor mortis, and it typically sets in within 2-6 hours after death. The body also begins to break down, and this can lead to a release of gases that cause bloating and discoloration.

The Psychological Experience of Death

In addition to the physical changes that occur during and after death, there is also a psychological experience that accompanies it. Many people report feeling a sense of detachment from their physical body, as well as a sense of peace and calm. Others report seeing bright lights or visions of loved ones who have already passed on.

Perspectives on What Lies Beyond

There are many different perspectives on what lies beyond death. Some people believe in an afterlife, while others believe in reincarnation or simply that death is the end of consciousness. Let's explore some of these perspectives in more detail.

One of the most common beliefs about what lies beyond death is the idea of an afterlife. This can take many forms, depending on one's religious or spiritual beliefs. For example, many Christians believe in heaven and hell, where people go after they die depending on their actions during life. Muslims believe in paradise and hellfire, while Hindus believe in reincarnation.

Reincarnation

Reincarnation is the belief that after we die, our consciousness is reborn into a new body. This can be based on karma, meaning that the quality of one's past actions will determine the quality of their next life. Some people believe that we can choose the circumstances of our next life based on our desires and attachments in this life.

End of Consciousness

The idea that death is simply the end of consciousness is a common belief among atheists and materialists. This view holds that the brain is responsible for creating consciousness, and when the brain dies, consciousness ceases to exist. While this view may be comforting to some, others find it unsettling.

Death is a complex and mysterious phenomenon that continues to fascinate us. While we may never fully understand what lies beyond death, it's important to remember that everyone has their own beliefs and perspectives on the matter. Whether you believe in an afterlife, reincarnation, or simply the end of consciousness, it's important to find ways to cope with the loss of a loved one and to find peace with your mortality.

Final Words

In conclusion, these powerful essays on death offer inspiring perspectives and deep insights into the human experience of coping with mortality, grief, and loss. From personal accounts to philosophical reflections, these essays provide a diverse range of perspectives that encourage readers to contemplate their mortality and the meaning of life.

By reading and reflecting on these essays, readers can gain a better understanding of how death shapes our lives and relationships, and how we can learn to accept and cope with this inevitable part of the human experience.

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1000-Word Philosophy: An Introductory Anthology

Philosophy, One Thousand Words at a Time

Is Death Bad? Epicurus and Lucretius on the Fear of Death

Author: Frederik Kaufman Categories: Ethics , Metaphysics , Historical Philosophy Word count: 987

Listen here ; video below

Most people think dying would be bad for them and so they fear it. Is that fear rational?

The ancient Greek philosopher Epicurus (341-270 BCE) says no. He argues that death—as the permanent extinction of consciousness—is not bad, so we should not fear it. The Roman philosopher Lucretius (94- circa 55 BCE) agrees, and he defends Epicurus.

If Epicurus and Lucretius are right, then fear of death is irrational. But are they right?

1. Epicurus’ Argument

Death, Epicurus argued, cannot touch us because “while we exist death is not present, and when death is present we no longer exist.” Since death cannot touch us it cannot be bad. Fear is rational only for something bad. So Epicurus concludes that fearing death is pointless. [1]

To be clear: the issue is being dead, not dying, since while dying we still exist. Dying can be awful and so rightly feared.

2. Reaction to Epicurus

Common sense has long recoiled to Epicurus. Surely death is bad if it deprives us of the goods of life. Granted, if continued life would be terrible, then death might not deprive. But if it does deprive us of good experiences, then it is bad because it is bad to be deprived of any good. [2]

3. Lucretius’ Argument

This common sense reaction to Epicurus plays right into Lucretius’ hands. For if we say that death is bad because it deprives us of time alive, then when we were born also deprives us of time alive, since we could have been born earlier than we were (or whenever we began to exist). However, since no one fears missing out on time before they were born, they should not fear missing out on time after they die.

Lucretius writes:

Look back again to see how the past ages of everlasting time, before we were born, have been as naught to us. These then nature holds up to us as a mirror of the time that is to come, when we are dead and gone. Is there aught that looks terrible in this, aught that seems gloomy? Is it not a calmer rest than any sleep? [3]

4. Responding to Lucretius

If we concede that being born “late” is just as bad as dying “early,” then maybe we should lament both when we were born and when we will die. [4]

However, this is hard to believe and even harder to actually do.

Alternatively, even if our non-existence before birth and after death both deprive, maybe death deprives us of something we care about, whereas we are indifferent to time we missed before we were born. [5] That is, we could simply have a preference for the future. [6]

However, even if true, this preference merely explains why we care about missing future goods by dying when we will instead of the goods we missed by being born when we were. Lucretius’ claim is that our preference is irrational, since the two periods of non-existence are symmetrical, so we should have similar attitudes toward them. Lucretius can even agree that we are biased toward the future; that, he would say, is the problem!

5. A Different Answer to Lucretius

Here is a more promising response. [7] I might die later than I will, but I could not have been born earlier than I was. Anyone born earlier would not be me, because different gametes would produce a different individual. [8] If so, then I can rationally lament the one but not the other.

But here’s a problem: if particular gametes determine one’s identity, in vitro fertilization (IVF) shows how the same human being could exist earlier. [9] If the embryo from which a person developed were implanted earlier than it was, it seems that that same person could have existed earlier than she did.

The earlier IVF human being would indeed be identical to the later one, but the term “human being” is ambiguous between “human organism,” which is a biological concept, and “ person ,” which is a metaphysical concept. Permanent coma victims, for example, are obviously human organisms, but not persons in the sense in which you are a person, namely, as a center of rational self-awareness. Conversely, Superman, were he to exist, would be a person in that sense, though obviously not a member of our species .

So the embryo could have been implanted earlier, which would have resulted in the same human organism as the later implanted embryo, but would it have given rise to the same person ? [10]

We care about the details of our lives. Our concerns, memories, hopes, relationships, and all that makes our lives worth living matters to each of us. That is what death threatens. Call this our “thick personhood,” to distinguish it from the bare human organism shorn of one’s biographical life. [11] So even if an earlier existing human organism would be identical to a later existing one, that is not what matters to each of us. [12]

If I die tomorrow (contrary to fact, I fervently hope!), I can nevertheless easily imagine extending my established biography past tomorrow, but I cannot imagine my biography beginning earlier than it did. How, for example, could I have met my wife before she was born? Unless we can somehow push everything back in time in lock-step unison, our thick personhoods cannot possibly exist earlier than they do. [13]

We cannot be deprived of impossible things, such as the cake we ate yesterday. Since it is impossible for thick persons to exist earlier than they do, one cannot be deprived of time before birth. But it is possible to die later than one will, so we can be deprived of that time. [14] If so, this answers Lucretius.

6. Conclusion

So to return to the intuitive response to Epicurus: since death typically deprives us of good life experiences, that’s what makes it bad, thus justifying some appropriate level of fear. That’s what most of us thought initially, and it looks like we were right.

[1] Epicurus, “Letter to Menoeceus,” Principal Doctrines , Library of Liberal Arts, Russel Geer, tr., 1978. p. 54. For Epicurus, happiness (understood as pleasure) is the only thing that has intrinsic value , that is, pleasure is the only thing valuable for its own sake; it is the end with respect to which everything else is a means, and so it is the ultimate goal in life. Fear of death causes extreme anxiety, thus ruining our lives. This is no idle issue. How we face the prospect of our own death is perhaps the greatest quandary of the human condition. This applies to those who think death is annihilation and maybe even more so to those who deny it.

Lucretius, a committed Epicurean, expresses gratitude to his mentor for freeing him from the fear of death that afflicts so many people, causing them to lead desperate lives and to do awful things; On the Nature of Things , Bk II, p. 65, Cecil Bailey, tr, Oxford University Press, 1950:

Sweet it is, when on the great sea the winds are buffeting the waters, to gaze from the land on another’s great struggles; not because it is pleasure or joy that any one should be distressed, but because it is sweet to perceive from what misfortune you yourself are free.

[2] For development of this argument, see Thomas Nagel’s seminal article, “Death,” reprinted in Mortal Questions , Cambridge University Press, 1979. pp. 1-10. Many other philosophers develop the deprivation account, including Fred Feldman, in Confrontations with the Reaper , Oxford University Press, 1992; Ben Bradley, in Well-Being and Death , Oxford University Press, 2009; and Shelly Kagan, in Death , Yale University Press, 2012; and many more. The deprivation account is the most popular explanation for why death is bad, when it is bad. It is popular because it is intuitively correct, but like many seemingly obvious views in philosophy it requires more intellectual effort to establish than anyone ever imagined, as these books demonstrate. Death is a perennial topic for philosophy, but since Nagel’s article there has been a great deal of interest in the metaphysical and ethical questions surrounding death.

[3] Lucretius, On the Nature of Things , trans. Cyril Bailey, Oxford University Press, 1920, III. 927.

[4] Fred Feldman, “Some Puzzles About the Evil of Death,” Philosophical Review 100.2, April 1991 205-27 (reprinted in David Benatar, Life, Death, and Meaning, Roman and Littlefield, 2004, p. 234), holds that we should try to view our births in the same way we view our deaths:

There are, after all, two ways in which we can rectify the apparently irrational emotional asymmetry [between late birth and early death]. On the one hand, we can follow Lucretius and cease viewing early death as a bad thing for Claudette. On the other hand, we can at least try to start viewing late birth as a bad thing. My suggestion is that in the present case the latter course would be preferable. I think it must be granted that our emotional reactions toward pleasures lost by early death are quite different from our emotional reactions toward similar pleasures lost by late birth. If my proposal is right, this emotional asymmetry is irrational.

That the lateness of our birth could be as tragic as our untimely death is even harder to accept than Lucretius’ recommendation that we become indifferent to death.

[5] Anthony Brueckner and John Martin Fischer, “Why Death is Bad,” Philosophical Studies 50 (1986) pp. 213-21, p. 219. Brueckner and Fischer think that we could be born earlier than we were, but since we have a bias toward the future, we are indifferent to goods that we missed by being born when we were. See Lukas J. Meier (2019) “What Matters in the Mirror of Time: Why Lucretius’ Symmetry Argument Fails,” A ustralasian Journal of Philosophy , 97:4, 651-660 for an account of what matters in pre-vital and post-mortem times.

[6] Fischer and Brueckner, “The Asymmetry of Early Death and Late Birth,” Philosophical Studies 71 (1993) 327-31; p. 328. appeal to a variation on a famous thought experiment of Derek Parfit’s that purports to show our temporal bias. (A “bias” is an irrational preference, since the idea of a rational bias seems incoherent.) Here is is Brueckner and Fischer’s version of Parfit’s thought experiment:

Imagine that you are in some hospital to test a drug. The drug induces intense pleasure for an hour followed by amnesia. You awaken and ask the nurse about your situation. She says that either you tried the drug yesterday (and had an hour of pleasure) or you will try the drug tomorrow (and will have an hour of pleasure). While she checks on your status, it is clear that you prefer to have the pleasure tomorrow.

[7] Nagel, ibid. p. 7

[8] For discussion of this claim, see Origin Essentialism by Chad Vance.

[9] Jeff McMahan (in “The Lucretian Argument,” in The Good, the Right, Life and Death: Essays in Honor of Fred Feldman . McDaniel, Kris (ed). Ashgate, 2006. Pp. 213-226, p. 216) asks us to:

[C]onsider someone who is the product of in vitro fertilization (IVF). Her parents wanted a child but not until they were older. But they worried that conceiving a child when they were older would carry a higher risk that their child would have a congenital defect. So they had IVF and had the resulting embryos frozen. They then waited 15 years before implanting the embryo that in fact developed into this person. This seems to be a case in which, if the parents had implanted this same embryo earlier, the same person would have had an earlier origin…If this is right, there are some people who could have come into existence earlier than they did.

The issues of this case lead to what’s called “the non-identity problem”: for an introduction, see The Non-Identity Problem by Duncan Purves.

[10] John Locke, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding , Bk II, ch xxvii, paragraph 9. Locke distinguished sharply between the “man” or the human organism and the “person,” which Locke said is “a thinking intelligent being, that has reason and reflection, and can consider itself as itself, the same thinking thing, in different times and places.”

[11] For discussion of thick and thin personhood see Frederik Kaufman, “Pre-Vital and Post-Mortem Non-Existence,” American Philosophical Quarterly , 36, (1999), pp. 1-19.

[12] Derek Parfit, Reasons and Persons, Oxford University Press, 1984. Ch 12, “Why Our Identity Is Not What Matters.” Parfit argues that our continuing psychological sense of ourselves is what matters, not whether from some metaphysical point of view there is just one self-identical entity. He shows this by means of highly original thought experiments whereby a person undergoes fission, resulting in two streams of consciousness; since there are two, they cannot be numerically identical.

[13] Travis Timmerman, “Avoiding the Asymmetry Problem,” Ratio 31/1 (2018) pp. 88-102; Timmerman argues that since the Milky Way could have begun earlier than it did, someone could be deprived of the time he or she could have had had the Milky Way formed earlier.

In response, I, following Nagel, argue that we must put some limits on how possible a possibility must be for its non-realization to count as a misfortune. So even if it is possible for the Milky Way to have formed earlier than it did, one is not deprived of that additional possible time simply because the Milky Way did not form earlier than it could have. To miss out on time alive by dying in a car crash tomorrow hardly compares with missing out on time alive because the Milky Way formed later rather than earlier. The former is clearly a misfortune, whereas it is hard to see the latter that way. See my “Coming Into and Going Out of Existence,” in Exploring the Philosophy of Death and Dying , Travis Timmerman and Michael Cholbi, eds, Routledge 2020.

[14] The sense of “possible” here may be controversial. (For an overview of the many meanings of “possible” see Possibility and Necessity: An Introduction to Modality by Andre Leo Rusavuk). It seems possible that the pedestrian might not have stepped off the curb when he did and into the path of the car that struck and killed him. If we deny that, then we must also abandon the idea of deprivation, since deprivation implies that there could have been a different outcome of events. That is, if we cannot be deprived of impossible things and it is impossible for things to turn out different than they did, then we cannot be deprived by the way things turned out.

Bradley, Ben, Well-Being and Death , Oxford University Press , 2009 .

Brueckner, Anthony, and Fischer, John Martin, “Why Death is Bad,” Philosophical Studies 50 (1986) pp. 213-21.

Brueckner, Anthony, and Fischer, John Martin, “The Asymmetry of Early Death and Late Birth,” Philosophical Studies 71 (1993) pp. 327-31.

Epicurus, Letter to Menoeceus, Principal Doctrines , Library of Liberal Arts, Russel Geer, tr., (1978).

Feldman, Fred, “Some Puzzles About the Evil of Death,” Philosophical Review 100.2, April (1991) pp. 205-27.

Kagan, Shelly, Death , Yale University Press, 2012

Kaufman, Frederik, “Coming Into and Going Out of Existence,” in Exploring the Philosophy of Death and Dying , Travis Timmerman and Michael Cholbi, eds, Routledge 2020.

Kaufman, Frederik, “Pre-Vital and Post-Mortem Non-Existence,” American Philosophical Quarterly, vol 36, 1999.

Locke, John, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding , 1690.

Lucretius, On the Nature of Things , trans. Cyril Bailey, Oxford University Press, 1920.

McMahan, Jeff, “The Lucretian Argument,” in The Good, the Right, Life and Death: Essays in Honor of Fred Feldman . McDaniel, Kris (ed). Ashgate, 2006 .

Nagel, Thomas, “Death,” reprinted in Mortal Questions , Cambridge University Press, (1979).

P arfit, Derek, Reasons and Persons, Oxford University Press, (1984).

Timmerman, Travis, “Avoiding the Asymmetry Problem,” Ratio 31/1 (2018) pp. 88-102.

For Further Reading

Luper, Steven, “Death”, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2019 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2019/entries/death/>.

Related Essays

The Badness of Death by Duncan Purves

The Non-Identity Problem by Duncan Purves

Personal Identity by Chad Vance

Origin Essentialism by Chad Vance

Happiness by Kiki Berk

Ancient Cynicism: Rejecting Civilization and Returning to Nature by G. M. Trujillo, Jr.

The Ethics of Abortion by Nathan Nobis

Euthanasia, or Mercy Killing by Nathan Nobis

The Death Penalty by Benjamin S. Yost

“Can They Suffer?”: Bentham on our Obligations to Animals  by Daniel Weltman

Existentialism by Addison Ellis

Camus on the Absurd: The Myth of Sisyphus by Erik Van Aken

Hope by Michael Milona & Katie Stockdale

Is Immortality Desirable? by Felipe Pereira

Hell and Universalism by A.G. Holdier

Possibility and Necessity: An Introduction to Modality by Andre Leo Rusavuk

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Frederik Kaufman is a Professor in the Department of Philosophy and Religion at Ithaca College. faculty.ithaca.edu/kaufmanf/

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Hidden Brain

We're all gonna die how fear of death drives our behavior.

Shankar Vedantam

Rhaina Cohen

Jennifer Schmidt

We're All Gonna Die!

Many people tend to push frightening realities out of mind rather than face them head-on. That's especially true when it comes to the terrifying event that no one can escape — death. Psychologist Sheldon Solomon says people may suppress conscious thoughts about their mortality, but unconscious ones still seep through.

In the book The Worm at the Core: On the Role of Death in Life , Solomon, along with psychologists Jeff Greenberg and Tom Pyszczynski , illustrate how death anxiety influences people's behavior in ways they would never suspect. The fear of death is so overwhelming, they say, that people go to great lengths to seek security; they embrace belief systems that give them a sense of meaning — religion, values, community.

Through decades of studies, Solomon and his colleagues have shown that people suppress their fear of mortality by supporting those who are similar to themselves. "If somebody does something that's in accord with your belief system, then being reminded of death should make you like them more so," Solomon says.

People don't just respond by clinging to their in-group. They act in ways that make them feel better about themselves, whether that's demonstrating their physical prowess or buying status goods. In short, Solomon says, "we shore up our self-esteem in response to existential anxieties."

This week on Hidden Brain, we learn how the specter of death hovers in the background, shaping everything from the risks we take to the politicians we elect.

Additional resources

The Worm at the Core: On the Role of Death in Life , by Sheldon Solomon, Jeff Greenberg and Tom Pyszczynski, 2015

The Birth and Death of Meaning , by Ernest Becker, 1971

The Denial of Death , by Ernest Becker, 1973

These articles describe how death reminders influence the following behaviors and preferences:

— Bond recommendations by municipal court judges

— Germans' preference for German vs. non-German items

— Reckless driving

— Tanning habits

— Support for charismatic politicians

— Desire to harm someone who doesn't share your beliefs

Inaccurate statement about German funeral practices Oct. 8, 2019

In an earlier version of this podcast, guest Sheldon Solomon said that German funeral parlors often have embalmed corpses in their windows. Solomon says that he misspoke, and meant to say that the funeral parlor in which he conducted a study had an urn in the window, not a corpse.

• terror management theory
• self-esteem

Community in Mission

Blog of the Archdiocese of Washington

A Brief Essay on the Fear of Death

In times like these, consider well this text from Hebrews:

Since the children have flesh and blood, [Jesus] too shared in their humanity so that by his death he might destroy him who holds the power of death—that is, the devil—and free those who all their lives were held in slavery by their fear of death (Heb. 2:14-15).

In the past I have written on these verses allegorically, pointing out that “the fear of death” can be understood more broadly as anything that diminishes us, that makes us feel less adequate than others. Maybe we think others are smarter or more popular that we are. Perhaps we do not feel attractive enough; we’re too tall or too short, too fat or too thin. Maybe we resent the fact that others are richer or more powerful. Perhaps we wish we were younger, stronger, and more energetic. Maybe we wish we were older, wiser, and more settled. Perhaps we feel diminished because we think others have a better marriage, a nicer home, or more accomplished children. Maybe we compare ourselves unfavorably to a sibling who has done better financially or socially than we have. Advertisers tap into this wider understanding of the fear of death (diminishment) to create anguish over our inadequacy, selflessly offering us their product, which will remedy the problem for just $19.95 plus shipping and handling.

But in the face of this most recent global panic about a relatively strong virus, we need also to ponder the literal meaning of this text. Whether you are of the view that this is an extreme threat that requires dramatic measures or you think the matter is exaggerated and the measures are too severe, it is clear that the fear of death has seized large numbers throughout the world. The text from Hebrews above should make us ponder the satanic origins of this gripping fear.

What makes the worldwide fear suspiciously satanic is that it is almost wholly focused on physical death and worldly setbacks. Would that we had such fears about our spiritual and moral well-being. There are innumerable threats to our very salvation in the temptations and seductions all about us. These can kill our soul through mortal sin. There are many drives of sin that fester in us like a cancer, hardening our hearts or giving us a “spiritual Alzheimer’s” wherein we forget why we were made and who is our Heavenly Father.

You see, I have a dream that we, as a world, recognize the gravity of our collective spiritual condition. In this dream, the heads of governments insist that we all follow strict protocols to avoid temptation as well as seducing others into sin. There would be 24/7 coverage, with updates on our progress, interviews with priests and religious, proclamation of scripture by moral and biblical experts, and stories of recovery and courage from the lives of the saints related by hagiographers. I dream of many rushing to prepare the test kits of examinations of conscience and an army of priests and bishops deployed to hear confessions around the clock. Well, you get the point.

It is certainly not wrong to look for a cure for the latest virus. I only wish we were as concerned for our spiritual and moral well-being. Jesus says, Do not be afraid of those who kill the body but cannot kill the soul. Instead, fear the One who can destroy both soul and body in hell (Matt 10:28). We do face physical threats in this world, but they are not our worst enemy. Moral plagues and sinful viruses can damage us eternally.

In times like these, when the temptation to fear death is so strong, resist the devil and run to God. Dwell in the shelter of the Most High. Be sheltered by Him from the scourge that lays waste at noon and the plague that prowls in the darkness ( cf Ps 91). Make your first goal to stay spiritually alive and flee anything that might lead to mortal sin. If you do this, then even if you were to die, by dying in faith you would receive a maximum promotion (likely through Purgatory) to the heavenly realms. Be strong! Fear not!   The devil is a liar; he wants us to fear lesser things so that we ignore the more serious. Wash your hands, but don’t forget the spiritual version:   Cleanse your hands, you sinners, and purify your hearts, you double-minded. Draw near to God, and He will draw near to you (James 4:8).

One Reply to “A Brief Essay on the Fear of Death”

Wonderfully written. Definitely worth me putting this direction into action.

Thank you for sharing your wisdom!

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William Hazlitt

On the fear of death.

And our little life is rounded with a sleep.

Perhaps the best cure for the fear of death is to reflect that life has a beginning as well as an end. There was a time when we were not: this gives us no concern—why, then, should it trouble us that a time will come when we shall cease to be? I have no wish to have been alive a hundred years ago, or in the reign of Queen Anne: why should I regret and lay it so much to heart that I shall not be alive a hundred years hence, in the reign of I cannot tell whom?

When Bickerstaff wrote his Essays I knew nothing of the subjects of them; nay, much later, and but the other day, as it were, in the beginning of the reign of George III., when Goldsmith, Johnson, Burke, used to meet at the Globe, when Garrick was in his glory, and Reynolds was over head and ears with his portraits, and Sterne brought out the volumes of Tristram Shandy year by year, it was without consulting me: I had not the slightest intimation of what was going on: the debates in the House of Commons on the American War, or the firing at Bunker’s Hill, disturbed not me: yet I thought this no evil—I neither ate, drank, nor was merry, yet I did not complain: I had not then looked out into this breathing world, yet I was well; and the world did quite as well without me as I did without it! Why, then, should I make all this outcry about parting with it, and being no worse off than I was before? There is nothing in the recollection that at a certain time we were not come into the world that ‘the gorge rises at’—why should we revolt at the idea that we must one day go out of it? To die is only to be as we were before we were born; yet no one feels any remorse, or regret, or repugnance, in contemplating this last idea. It is rather a relief and disburdening of the mind: it seems to have been holiday-time with us then: we were not called to appear upon the stage of life, to wear robes or tatters, to laugh or cry, be hooted or applauded; we had lain perdus all this while, snug, out of harm’s way; and had slept out our thousands of centuries without wanting to be waked up; at peace and free from care, in a long nonage, in a sleep deeper and calmer than that of infancy, wrapped in the softest and finest dust. And the worst that we dread is, after a short, fretful, feverish being, after vain hopes and idle fears, to sink to final repose again, and forget the troubled dream of life! . . . Ye armed men, knights templars, that sleep in the stone aisles of that old Temple church, where all is silent above, and where a deeper silence reigns below (not broken by the pealing organ), are ye not contented where ye lie? Or would you come out of your long homes to go to the Holy War? Or do ye complain that pain no longer visits you, that sickness has done its worst, that you have paid the last debt to nature, that you hear no more of the thickening phalanx of the foe, or your lady’s waning love; and that while this ball of earth rolls its eternal round, no sound shall ever pierce through to disturb your lasting repose, fixed as the marble over your tombs, breathless as the grave that holds you! And thou, oh! thou, to whom my heart turns, and will turn while it has feeling left, who didst love in vain, and whose first was thy last sigh, wilt not thou too rest in peace (or wilt thou cry to me complaining from thy clay-cold bed) when that sad heart is no longer sad, and that sorrow is dead which thou wert only called into the world to feel!

It is certain that there is nothing in the idea of a pre-existent state that excites our longing like the prospect of a posthumous existence. We are satisfied to have begun life when we did; we have no ambition to have set out on our journey sooner; and feel that we have had quite enough to do to battle our way through since. We cannot say,

The wars we well remember of King Nine, Of old Assaracus and Inachus divine.

Neither have we any wish: we are contented to read of them in story, and to stand and gaze at the vast sea of time that separates us from them. It was early days then: the world was not well-aired enough for us: we have no inclination to have been up and stirring. We do not consider the six thousand years of the world before we were born as so much time lost to us: we are perfectly indifferent about the matter. We do not grieve and lament that we did not happen to be in time to see the grand mask and pageant of human life going on in all that period; though we are mortified at being obliged to quit our stand before the rest of the procession passes.

It may be suggested in explanation of this difference, that we know from various records and traditions what happened in the time of Queen Anne, or even in the reigns of the Assyrian monarchs, but that we have no means of ascertaining what is to happen hereafter but by awaiting the event, and that our eagerness and curiosity are sharpened in proportion as we are in the dark about it. This is not at all the case; for at that rate we should be constantly wishing to make a voyage of discovery to Greenland or to the Moon, neither of which we have, in general, the least desire to do. Neither, in truth, have we any particular solicitude to pry into the secrets of futurity, but as a pretext for prolonging our own existence. It is not so much that we care to be alive a hundred or a thousand years hence, any more than to have been alive a hundred or a thousand years ago: but the thing lies here, that we would all of us wish the present moment to last for ever. We would be as we are, and would have the world remain just as it is, to please us.

The present eye catches the present object—

to have and to hold while it may; and abhors, on any terms, to have it torn from us, and nothing left in its room. It is the pang of parting, the unloosing our grasp, the breaking asunder some strong tie, the leaving some cherished purpose unfulfilled, that creates the repugnance to go, and ’makes calamity of so long life,‘ as it often is.

O! thou strong heart! There’s such a covenant ’twixt the world and thee They’re loth to break!

The love of life, then, is an habitual attachment, not an abstract principle. Simply to be does not ‘content man’s natural desire’: we long to be in a certain time, place, and circumstance. We would much rather be now, ’on this bank and shoal of time,‘ than have our choice of any future period, than take a slice of fifty or sixty years out of the Millennium, for instance. This shows that our attachment is not confined either to being or to well-being ; but that we have an inveterate prejudice in favour of our immediate existence, such as it is. The mountaineer will not leave his rock, nor the savage his hut; neither are we willing to give up our present mode of life, with all its advantages and disadvantages, for any other that could be substituted for it. No man would, I think, exchange his existence with any other man, however fortunate. We had as lief not be , as not be ourselves . There are some persons of that reach of soul that they would like to live two hundred and fifty years hence, to see to what height of empire America will have grown up in that period, or whether the English constitution will last so long. These are points beyond me. But I confess I should like to live to see the downfall of the Bourbons. That is a vital question with me; and I shall like it the better, the sooner it happens!

No young man ever thinks he shall die. He may believe that others will, or assent to the doctrine that ’all men are mortal’ as an abstract proposition, but he is far enough from bringing it home to himself individually.[1] Youth, buoyant activity, and animal spirits, hold absolute antipathy with old age as well as with death; nor have we, in the hey-day of life, any more than in the thoughtlessness of childhood, the remotest conception how

This sensible warm motion can become A kneaded clod—

nor how sanguine, florid health and vigour, shall ‘turn to withered, weak, and grey.’ Or if in a moment of idle speculation we indulge in this notion of the close of life as a theory, it is amazing at what a distance it seems; what a long, leisurely interval there is between; what a contrast its slow and solemn approach affords to our present gay dreams of existence! We eye the farthest verge of the horizon, and think what a way we shall have to look back upon, ere we arrive at our journey’s end; and without our in the least suspecting it, the mists are at our feet, and the shadows of age encompass us. The two divisions of our lives have melted into each other: the extreme points close and meet with none of that romantic interval stretching out between them that we had reckoned upon; and for the rich, melancholy, solemn hues of age, ‘the sear, the yellow leaf,’ the deepening shadows of an autumnal evening, we only feel a dank, cold mist, encircling all objects, after the spirit of youth is fled. There is no inducement to look forward; and what is worse, little interest in looking back to what has become so trite and common. The pleasures of our existence have worn themselves out, are ‘gone into the wastes of time,’ or have turned their indifferent side to us: the pains by their repeated blows have worn us out, and have left us neither spirit nor inclination to encounter them again in retrospect. We do not want to rip up old grievances, nor to renew our youth like the phoenix, nor to live our lives twice over. Once is enough. As the tree falls, so let it lie. Shut up the book and close the account once for all!

It has been thought by some that life is like the exploring of a passage that grows narrower and darker the farther we advance, without a possibility of ever turning back, and where we are stifled for want of breath at last. For myself, I do not complain of the greater thickness of the atmosphere as I approach the narrow house. I felt it more formerly,[2] when the idea alone seemed to suppress a thousand rising hopes, and weighed upon the pulses of the blood. At present I rather feel a thinness and want of support, I stretch out my hand to some object and find none, I am too much in a world of abstraction; the naked map of life is spread out before me, and in the emptiness and desolation I see Death coming to meet me. In my youth I could not behold him for the crowd of objects and feelings, and Hope stood always between us, saying, ‘Never mind that old fellow!’ If I had lived indeed, I should not care to die. But I do not like a contract of pleasure broken off unfulfilled, a marriage with joy unconsummated, a promise of happiness rescinded. My public and private hopes have been left a ruin, or remain only to mock me. I would wish them to be re-edified. I should like to see some prospect of good to mankind, such as my life began with. I should like to leave some sterling work behind me. I should like to have some friendly hand to consign me to the grave. On these conditions I am ready, if not willing, to depart. I shall then write on my tomb—GRATEFUL AND CONTENTED! But I have thought and suffered too much to be willing to have thought and suffered in vain.—In looking back, it sometimes appears to me as if I had in a manner slept out my life in a dream or shadow on the side of the hill of knowledge, where I have fed on books, on thoughts, on pictures, and only heard in half-murmurs the trampling of busy feet, or the noises of the throng below. Waked out of this dim, twilight existence. and startled with the passing scene, I have felt a wish to descend to the world of realities, and join in the chase. But I fear too late, and that I had better return to my bookish chimeras and indolence once more! Zanetto, lascia le donne, et studia la matematica. [“Johnny, leave women alone and go study mathematics” - Rousseau] I will think of it.

It is not wonderful that the contemplation and fear of death become more familiar to us as we approach nearer to it: that life seems to ebb with the decay of blood and youthful spirits; and that as we find everything about us subject to chance and change, as our strength and beauty die, as our hopes and passions, our friends and our affections leave us, we begin by degrees to feel ourselves mortal!

I have never seen death but once, and that was in an infant. It is years ago. The look was calm and placid, and the face was fair and firm. It was as if a waxen image had been laid out in the coffin, and strewed with innocent flowers. It was not like death, but more like an image of life! No breath moved the lips, no pulse stirred, no sight or sound would enter those eyes or ears more. While I looked at it, I saw no pain was there; it seemed to smile at the short pang of life which was over: but I could not bear the coffin-lid to be closed—it seemed to stifle me; and still as the nettles wave in a corner of the churchyard over his little grave, the welcome breeze helps to refresh me, and ease the tightness at my breast!

An ivory or marble image, like Chantry’s monument of the two children, is contemplated with pure delight. Why do we not grieve and fret that the marble is not alive, or fancy that it has a shortness of breath? It never was alive; and it is the difficulty of making the transition from life to death, the struggle between the two in our imagination, that confounds their properties painfully together, and makes us conceive that the infant that is but just dead, still wants to breathe, to enjoy, and look about it, and is prevented by the icy hand of death, locking up its faculties and benumbing its senses; so that, if it could, it would complain of its own hard state. Perhaps religious considerations reconcile the mind to this change sooner than any others, by representing the spirit as fled to another sphere, and leaving the body behind it. So in reflecting on death generally, we mix up the idea of life with it, and thus make it the ghastly monster it is. We think, how we should feel, not how the dead feel.

Still from the tomb the voice of nature cries; Even in our ashes live their wonted fires!

There is an admirable passage on this subject in Tucker’s Light of Nature Pursued , which I shall transcribe, as by much the best illustration I can offer of it.

‘The melancholy appearance of a lifeless body, the mansion provided for it to inhabit, dark, cold, close and solitary, are shocking to the imagination; but it is to the imagination only, not the understanding; for whoever consults this faculty will see at first glance, that there is nothing dismal in all these circumstances: if the corpse were kept wrapped up in a warm bed, with a roasting fire in the chamber, it would feel no comfortable warmth therefrom; were store of tapers lighted up as soon as day shuts in, it would see no objects to divert it; were it left at large it would have no liberty, nor if surrounded with company would be cheered thereby; neither are the distorted features expressions of pain, uneasiness, or distress. This every one knows, and will readily allow upon being suggested, yet still cannot behold, nor even cast a thought upon those objects without shuddering; for knowing that a living person must suffer grievously under such appearances, they become habitually formidable to the mind, and strike a mechanical horror, which is increased by the customs of the world around us.’

There is usually one pang added voluntarily and unnecessarily to the fear of death, by our affecting to compassionate the loss which others will have in us. If that were all, we might reasonably set our minds at rest. The pathetic exhortation on country tombstones, ‘Grieve not for me, my wife and children dear,’ etc., is for the most part speedily followed to the letter. We do not leave so great a void in society as we are inclined to imagine, partly to magnify our own importance. and partly to console ourselves by sympathy. Even in the same family the gap is not so great; the wound closes up sooner than we should expect. Nay, our room is not unfrequently thought better than our company. People walk along the streets the day after our deaths just as they did before, and the crowd is not diminished. While we were living, the world seemed in a manner to exist only for us, for our delight and amusement, because it contributed to them. But our hearts cease to beat, and it goes on as usual, and thinks no more about us than it did in our lifetime. The million are devoid of sentiment, and care as little for you or me as if we belonged to the moon. We live the week over in the Sunday’s paper, or are decently interred in some obituary at the month’s end! It is not surprising that we are forgotten so soon after we quit this mortal stage; we are scarcely noticed while we are on it. It is not merely that our names are not known in China—they have hardly been heard of in the next street. We are hand and glove with the universe, and think the obligation is mutual. This is an evident fallacy. If this, however, does not trouble us now, it will not hereafter. A handful of dust can have no quarrel to pick with its neighbours, or complaint to make against Providence, and might well exclaim, if it had but an understanding and a tongue, ‘Go thy ways, old world, swing round in blue ether, voluble to every age, you and I shall no more jostle!’

It is amazing how soon the rich and titled, and even some of those who have wielded great political power, are forgotten.

A little rule, a little sway, Is all the great and mighty have Betwixt the cradle and the grave—

and, after its short date, they hardly leave a name behind them. ‘A great man’s memory may, at the common rate, survive him half a year.’ His heirs and successors take his titles, his power, and his wealth—all that made him considerable or courted by others; and he has left nothing else behind him either to delight or benefit the world. Posterity are not by any means so disinterested as they are supposed to be. They give their gratitude and admiration only in return for benefits conferred. They cherish the memory of those to whom they are indebted for instruction and delight; and they cherish it just in proportion to the instruction and delight they are conscious they receive. The sentiment of admiration springs immediately from this ground, and cannot be otherwise than well founded.[3]

The effeminate clinging to life as such, as a general or abstract idea, is the effect of a highly civilised and artificial state of society. Men formerly plunged into all the vicissitudes and dangers of war, or staked their all upon a single die, or some one passion, which if they could not have gratified, life became a burden to them—now our strongest passion is to think, our chief amusement is to read new plays, new poems, new novels, and this we may do at our leisure, in perfect security, ad infinitum . If we look into the old histories and romances, before the belles-lettres neutralised human affairs and reduced passion to a state of mental equivocation, we find the heroes and heroines not setting their lives ‘at a pin’s fee,’ but rather courting opportunities of throwing them away in very wantonness of spirit. They raise their fondness for some favourite pursuit to its height, to a pitch of madness, and think no price too dear to pay for its full gratification. Everything else is dross. They go to death as to a bridal bed, and sacrifice themselves or others without remorse at the shrine of love, of honour, of religion, or any other prevailing feeling. Romeo runs his ‘sea-sick, weary bark upon the rocks’ of death the instant he finds himself deprived of his Juliet; and she clasps his neck in their last agonies, and follows him to the same fatal shore. One strong idea takes possession of the mind and overrules every other; and even life itself, joyless without that, becomes an object of indifference or loathing. There is at least more of imagination in such a state of things, more vigour of feeling and promptitude to act, than in our lingering, languid, protracted attachment to life for its own poor sake. It is, perhaps, also better, as well as more heroical, to strike at some daring or darling object, and if we fail in that, to take the consequences manfully, than to renew the lease of a tedious, spiritless, charmless existence, merely (as Pierre says) ‘to lose it afterwards in some vile brawl’ for some worthless object. Was there not a spirit of martyrdom as well as a spice of the reckless energy of barbarism in this bold defiance of death? Had not religion something to do with it: the implicit belief in a future life, which rendered this of less value, and embodied something beyond it to the imagination; so that the rough soldier, the infatuated lover, the valorous knight, etc., could afford to throw away the present venture, and take a leap into the arms of futurity, which the modern sceptic shrinks back from, with all his boasted reason and vain philosophy, weaker than a woman! I cannot help thinking so myself; but I have endeavoured to explain this point before, and will not enlarge farther on it here.

A life of action and danger moderates the dread of death. It not only gives us fortitude to bear pain, but teaches us at every step the precarious tenure on which we hold our present being. Sedentary and studious men are the most apprehensive on this score. Dr. Johnson was an instance in point. A few years seemed to him soon over, compared with those sweeping contemplations on time and infinity with which he had been used to pose himself. In the still-life of a man of letters there was no obvious reason for a change. He might sit in an arm-chair and pour out cups of tea to all eternity. Would it had been possible for him to do so! The most rational cure after all for the inordinate fear of death is to set a just value on life. If we merely wish to continue on the scene to indulge our headstrong humours and tormenting passions, we had better begone at once; and if we only cherish a fondness for existence according to the good we derive from it, the pang we feel at parting with it will not be very severe!

[1] All men think all men mortal but themselves.—YOUNG. [2] I remember once, In particular, having this feeling in reading Schiller’s Don Carlos , where there is a description of death, in a degree that almost stifled me. [3] It has been usual to raise a very unjust clamour against the enormous salaries of public singers, actors, and so on. This matter seems reducible to a moral equation. They are paid out of money raised by voluntary contributions in the strictest sense; and if they did not bring certain sums into the treasury, the managers would not engage them. These sums are exactly in proportion to the number of Individuals to whom their performance gives an extraordinary degree of pleasure. The talents of a singer, actor, etc., are therefore worth just as much as they will fetch

MLA Citation

Hazlitt, William. “On the fear of death.” 1822. Quotidiana. Ed. Patrick Madden. 18 Dec 2007. 26 May 2024 <http://essays.quotidiana.org/hazlitt/fear_of_death/>.

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In our warm imaginative youth, death is far removed from us, and attains thereby a certain picturesqueness. The grim thought stands in the ideal world as a ruin stands in a blooming landscape.

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The votaries of fame may acquire a sort of insensibility to death and its consequences. But he alone whose peace is made with God, can walk with composure through the gloomy valley of the shadow of death, and fear no evil.

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Death we can face: but knowing, as some of us do, what is human life, which of us is it that without shuddering could (if consciously we were summoned) face the hour of birth?

“Savannah-la-mar”

The time which is contracts into a mathematic point; and even that point perishes a thousand times before we can utter its birth. All is finite in the present; and even that finite is infinite in its velocity of flight towards death.

Quotidiana is an online anthology of "classical" essays, from antiquity to the early twentieth century. All essays and images are in the public domain. Commentaries are copyrighted, but may be used with proper attribution. Special thanks to the BYU College of Humanities and English Department for funding, and to Joey Franklin and Lara Burton , for tireless research assisting.

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fear of death essay

Updated 17 March 2023

Subject Biology ,  Illness ,  Myself

Downloads 37

Category Health ,  Life ,  Science

Topic Body ,  Death ,  Soul

Death is an inevitable natural occurrence that separates the body from the soul (Druart, 2000). Humans are unable to ignore it or take any action to entirely eradicate it from society. Humans have only succeeded in delaying death by implementing procedures like the treatment of diseases and the dissemination of warnings about potential life-threatening hazards. Every day, the media raises the stakes for the propagation of fear of death. There will always be news stories about people who have died or are in grave danger of dying if required precautions are not taken. The subject of death and the fear associated with it has become a subject of interests to researchers, particularly in the social sciences. Psychologists, for example, have found out that people tend to be motivated by the fear of their mortality (Taylor, 2002). The paper will scrutinize the different reasons why people fear death through visiting the academic resources and providing arguments and counterarguments It is ironic that people continue to fear death and this has been a topic that is beyond comprehension given that it is an eventuality of life. Nyatanga (2006) pointed out that it was incomprehensible that humans fear death yet they have not experienced it yet. This motivated the researcher to exactly find out why people fear death. It should, however, be noted that revelations made by Nyatanga as well as other prominent social scientists are not the ideal of rationality. Besides, the findings cannot be used as a justification of the real truth behind the fear mystery. A common assumption made by the society as well as the scholars is that death creates a state of nothingness and non-existence to those who face it. The fear of death is more deeply rooted among the people who hold developed concepts of life in great awe. These people are aware that life must have a beginning and an end, yet the latter is not well embraced. This fear is further heightened by the meaning attached by the people on the death of their relatives and friends. There is a congruence amongst scholars that this fear is inevitable in almost every human being and can be quantified through the use of definable basis. Epicurus, a Greek philosopher, is among the earliest intellectual to scrutinize the issue of fearing death. He argued that death is not something that human beings should be concerned about because in as long as one is alive, death is not there (Zilboorg, 1943). Epicurus is among the renowned atomists that held the belief that every living thing has material entities that must come to extinction because they are not souls. These are the same ideas behind the idea that people should not fear death if life ends at death. It is however not clear whether the death is associated with pleasure or pain. There are however other aspects that are associated with the process of dying such as diseases, distress or disabilities that should make people associate death with pain. Epicurus ideas would, later on, be proven true by modern researchers in the field of cognitive neuroscience that is carrying out studies on the brain and the mind. If an individual's mind is the brain, then an argument can be made that there is no suffering after death because the brain stops functioning. This was a well thought argument that would be embraced by other philosophers after his death. Scholars have always been interested in finding out what is exactly feared in death. A closer analysis of the phenomenon reveals that it is not the death that people fear. Instead, people fear what is associated with the presence of the death or its arrival. People tend to fear the consequences of the death itself which remain a mysterious subject. Myriads of losses are associated with death and cuts across the spiritual, social, emotional and psychological realm. Death has an indiscriminate nature which makes people be concerned about the control they have over their lives as well as their aspirations. Those people with a strong religious belief have their worries too. This is as a result of their beliefs failing to deliver the anticipated promises in the afterlife. Besides, staunch believers in the life after death might also have a fear of death because of the premature deaths that are considered as not being well prepared. However, the argument that there is premature death sparks debate on whether there is a point that death is acceptable and welcomed. The idea of premature death is almost everywhere including the mainstream media, resulting to more questions by scholars who want to understand the concept of death. Rejecting the view that there is no life after death would however be ruled out by the reports of people who claim to have an experience. This was an issue that was well delved into by William who challenged the skeptics (Blum, 2007). According to William, life is what one might choose it to be like. To reinforce these ideas, he argued that one has the choice to kill and end in prison or conform to the societal norms and live contently. This principle can further be extended to the belief of hell and heaven and more importantly applied in the justifications of the fear of death. Religious views have also been associated with impacting on the degree of fearing death. Most religions believe that life on earth is just a small portion lived by the eternal soul. For this reason, religion has to come in again and provide a solution to a puzzle that it created regarding life and eternality. It is for this reason that profound researches have been done on religion which seems to give answers to the questions that science has failed to adequately address. The fear of death is said to be decreased when one finds the right religion that guarantees an afterlife. However, different religions and their sub-groups have different perceptions on death, and this is evident in Christianity, Buddhism, Islam, and Judaism. Besides, it should be noted that further beyond these divisions, varying beliefs are held like that of purgatory amongst the Protestants and Catholics. It is a close analysis of these diverging views that renders the reinforcement departure from religion. The varying views on the concept of death make people wonder if the right religion has been invented. Neimeyer et al. (1999), questioned the idea behind religion buffering against the death fears. They argued that there lacked empirical evidences to establish the nature the of relationship between the two variables. Leming (2010) further strengthened this idea by arguing that there is fear and religion are negatively related. Religion has been providing comfort in times of stress and suffering, besides, it gives a hope of reuniting with the loved ones after death. Religion has also been suppressing fear of death through offering social support as seen in the theory of terror management. From this perspective, religion succeeds in as an effective buffer for giving hope in both symbolic and literal immortality. These arguments further widen the scope of understanding how religion is associated with the fear of death. Leming (2010), further argued that the nature of the relationship between fear and death is more complex than it is perceived. A linear association between these variables might indeed be curvilinear. The people who are on the furthest ends of the religious beliefs continuum have the least fears regarding death. Fear is mostly associated with those individuals that are moderate. The complexity is further reinforced by studies on the relation between death anxiety and religiousness. The relationship is mediated by the perception that life is purely meaningful. Ambivalence and contradictions in death and the afterlife, as well as the lack of a personal philosophy related to death, are also factors associated with the complexity. From an existential perspective, people looking for their own ways that act as a buffer against the mystery. Existentialists argue that although religion offer solutions and answers to dilemmas in life, everybody feels the urge to have a control over their lives. This is a concept that also applies to the secular ideology as argued by Power and Smith (2008). They further argued that the symbolic immortality can be achieved in secular and religious means hence mitigating the death anxiety. The rational approach to the causes of fearing death sees no reason why people should fear something they have never experienced. This is as a result of lacking a personal appreciation of the real nature of the phenomenon. This fear of death before experiencing it has posed a great challenge in the philosophical world since the ancient times. Borrowing from the poetic works of Lecreticius, there is no individual that fears the time before coming into existence (Wallach, 1976). These ideas introduced a symmetrical argument on the concept of fearing death. Lecreticus was driven by the core idea that pre-birth (the period before existence) and death (future non-existence) are mysterious periods which should not be a worry for human beings. It is not possible to have justifications of the conditions of the future non-existence. A thin difference exists between this state and the pre-natal non-existence. From Epicurus and Lecreticus analogies, death is a phenomenon that is irrelevant to both the living and the death. Nagel (1970) wanted to establish the causes of the fear of death and have different views from those of Epicurus. According to him, one would only establish the real association between the two periods of life if there are sufficient facts to prove any similarities or differences. Nagel stated the difference between the posthumous state of existence and the pre-natal mystery. Death deprives off people's self, and if they had not died, they would be alive. This is a concept that was elaborated by Nagel through arguments and counterarguments. Generally, Nagel implicitly implied that there is little that human beings can say about death or death. In the process, he brought out the asymmetry between the two mysterious states of existence. From this standpoint, Lecretius's views become relevant and persuasive, but this can be said to be so at the philosophical level because people still fear death. Conclusively, the idea of having a fear of death has been a subject of debate for a long time probably even before the civilization era. It is plausible to arrive at a conclusion that there is no rationality behind a dying person having fears over death. It is, however, true and acceptable that those associated with the dying person have reasons to before death. This normally associated with the negative consequences that the diseased leave behind. It is also valid for the people to fear death as a result of failing to achieve the promises that religion gave in the current state of life. Philosophical perspectives have also given the issue a multifaceted approach, provoking different thoughts on the issue. Regardless of the sensitization on the need to remain unworried on the phenomenon, people will continue to fear death for years and centuries to come. However, Williams idea on life is what a person want to make of it can be used to ease the tension amongst those who liked his ideas. Human beings will continue to come up with new modern medicines to cure diseases and prolong life, but there will never be an immortality drug. Therefore, death will continue to be a mystery to the physical and the social scientists as well as other professionals regardless of their intellectual capabilities. References Blum, D. (2007). Ghost hunters: William James and the search for scientific proof of life after death. Penguin. Druart, T. A. (2000). The human soul's individuation and its survival after the body's death: Avicenna on the causal relation between body and soul. Arabic sciences and philosophy, 10(02), 259-273. Leming, M. R., & Dickinson, G. E. (2010). Understanding dying, death, and bereavement. Cengage Learning. Nagel, T. (1970). Death. Noûs, 73-80. Neimeyer, R. A., Currier, J. M., Coleman, R., Tomer, A., & Samuel, E. (2011). Confronting suffering and death at the end of life: The impact of religiosity, psychosocial factors, and life regret among hospice patients. Death Studies, 35(9), 777-800. Nyatanga, B., & de Vocht, H. (2006). Towards a definition of death anxiety. International Journal of Palliative Nursing, 12(9). Power, T. L., & Smith, S. M. (2008). Predictors of fear of death and self-mortality: An Atlantic Canadian perspective. Death Studies, 32(3), 253-272. Taylor, T. (2002). The buried soul: How humans invented death. Beacon Press. Wallach, B. P. (1976). Lucretius and the Diatribe Against the Fear of Death: De Rerum Natura III, 830-1094 [lines] (Vol. 40). Brill Archive. Zilboorg, G. (1943). Fear of death. The Psychoanalytic Quarterly.

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Montaigne’s Essays : A Humanistic Approach to Fear

• First Online: 18 April 2018

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• Sergio Starkstein 2  

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Montaigne’s Essays is of major importance for the philosophy of fear. In this work, Montaigne provides narratives of a variety of fears, and in doing so describes a full palette of fear-related emotions, from individual doubts and avoidance, to terror and generalised panic. Montaigne’s analysis and treatment of fear is unique because he is among the first philosophers to openly discuss his own fears and the variety of philosophical therapies he used to subdue them. After employing Stoic and Epicurean remedies, Montaigne found the most useful philosophical therapy in the sceptical Pyrrhonian tradition. Thus, the Essays express an open-minded, particularistic and anti-dogmatic approach to life. Montaigne’s motto ‘What do I know?’ reflects his non-partisan approach and receptiveness to improving his emotional well-being, as well as increasing his knowledge and joy of life by accepting life events as these unfold.

It is fear that I am most afraid of: In harshness it surpasses all other mischances . Michel de Montaigne, Essays (Book I, “On fear”) (Montaigne 2003 )

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It is difficult to introduce Montaigne as a philosopher, as he did not belong to the ‘establishment’ nor did he want to become a ‘professional’ philosopher. He was a ‘humanist’ in the sense of Petrarch and Erasmus, a man of letters, and a politician. Nevertheless, the Essays is the work of a profound philosopher, one of the most original thinkers of the Renaissance who understood the human soul as few before or after him. Julie Roberts ( 2015 , p. 246) considers the Essays as a “pathographically curative” text, with the effort to examine oneself as one of the main aspects of philosophical therapy. She connects Montaigne’s therapy with Foucault’s “care of the self” (Foucault 1986 ). Rachel Starr ( 2012 , p. 436) considers the Essays as the pinnacle of “humanistic psychotherapy.”

After publishing the first edition in 1580, Montaigne continued adding material, which creates some confusion, as he did not correct his previous concepts even when they were in contradiction with the new ones. The additions from 1580 to 1588 are marked with a “B”, whereas the additions from 1588–1592 made in the 1588 ‘Bordeaux copy’ (first published in 1595) are marked with a “C”. I have used Screech’s translation (Montaigne 2003 ), but also added material from Frame’s translation whenever I considered the concept to be more clearly conveyed (Montaigne 1965 ). Reference to specific essays will be given to by volume and number, and page numbers within specific essays will be referred to by volume, essay, and page number. Letters A, B and C are used, when necessary, to indicate the different editions.

The presence of clearly demarcated philosophical stages in Montaigne’s intellectual evolution has been contested by a number of authors, and is extensively discussed in Bermúdez ( 2015 , pp. 54–61). Frame ( 1955 , pp. 5–7) describes three periods in Montaigne’s philosophical development: the first one (“Stoic period”) extended from 1572 to 1574; the second one (“Sceptical period”) extended from 1575 to 1577, and the final period (“Epicurean period”) extended from 1578 until Montaigne’s death in 1592.

This type of autobiographical writing was not new (Montaigne’s Essays was preceded by Augustine’s Confessions and Petrarch’s Secretum ), but Montaigne’s text is unique in the frankness of personal descriptions, in which a reader of any place and period may be easily reflected.

Fear is a main theme in I.6 “The hour of parley is dangerous”, I.11 “On prognostications”, I.16 “On punishing cowardice”, I.19 “That we should not be deemed happy till after our death”, I.20 “To philosophise is to learn how to die”, I.21 “On the power of imagination”, I.33 “On fleeing from pleasures at the cost of one’s life”, I.39 “On solitude”, and I.57 “On the length of life”.

This sounds anachronistic, but the extrapolation of the Essays into contemporary life is commonly practiced and for good reasons (Lazar and Madden 2015 , pp. 1–2), as fear is one of the most primitive human emotions, the phenomenology in terms of feelings and behaviour has not changed in its conceptual essence, and the main causes of this emotion are perennial, such as the fear of death, poverty, sickness and wars.

Scholar ( 2010 ), remarks that the Essays “haunt its readers” by the free-thinking style of Montaigne’s writings. Montaigne was a scholar, but fiercely anti-dogmatic, anti-authoritarian, and able to make “all questions accessible to his readers” (Scholar 2010 , p. 7).

“When he is threatened with a blow nothing can stop a man closing his eyes, or trembling if you set him on the edge of a precipice…” (A.2.3.388).

“Anyone who is afraid of suffering suffers already of being afraid” (3.13.1243).

The main essays discussing the fear of death are “Constancy” (1.12), “That the taste of good and evil…” (1.14), “That to philosophise is to learn to die” (1.20), “Solitude” (1.39) and “The inconsistency of our own actions” (2.1).

The topic on the futility of premeditation is discussed in-depth in the penultimate essay “On physiognomy” (3.22).

“I am one of those by whom the powerful blows of the imagination are felt most strongly. Everyone is hit by it, but some are bowled over” (A.1.21.109).

“When I contemplate an illness I seize upon it and lodge it within myself” (C.1.21.109).

“Once the pain has gone I am not much depressed by weakness or lassitude. I know of several bodily afflictions which are horrifying even to name but which I fear less than hundreds of current disturbances and distresses of the mind” (C.3.13.1245).

“Then, there is no madness, no raving lunacy, which such agitations do not bring forth” (A.1.8.30).

“Resigned to any outcome whatsoever once the dice have been thrown” (B.2.17.732); and “Few emotions have ever disturbed my sleep, yet even the slightest need to decide anything can disturb it for me” (B.2.17.732).

“In events I act like a man: in the conduct of events, like a boy. The dread of a tumble gives me more anguish than the fall” (B.2.17.733).

“…thank God we have nothing to do with each other” (A.1.24.143).

“I tell those who urge me to take medicine at least to wait until I am well and have got my strength back in order to have the means of resisting the hazardous effects of their potions” (A.1.24.143).

“Can I feel something disintegrating? Do not expect me to waste time having my pulse and urine checked so that anxious prognostics can be drawn from them: I will be in plenty of time to feel the anguish without prolonging things by an anguished fear” (B.3.13.1243).

His father lived to 74 years, a grandfather to 69, and a great-grandfather to almost 80, “none having swallowed any kind of drug” (A.2.37.864).

“How many men have been made ill by the sheer force of imagination? Is it not normal to see men bled, purged and swallowing medicines to cure ills which they feel only in their minds?” (A.2.12.547).

“Why do doctors first work on the confidence of their patient with so many fake promises of a cure if not to allow the action of the imagination to make up for the trickery of their potions? They know that one of the masters of their craft told them in writing that there are men for whom it is enough merely to look at a medicine for it to prove effective” (A.1.21.116). Thus, the trickery of doctors consisted in using medications as strong placebos to cure imaginary illnesses, as well as convincing patients that their drugs were curing an otherwise irreversible condition (Justman 2015 ).

Robert ( 2015 , pp. 721–744) has analysed the subtle way in which Montaigne ridiculed both physicians and patients for engaging in fully unproven expensive treatments.

“… they rob us of feelings and concern for what now is, in order to spend time over what will be – even when we ourselves shall be no more” (B.1.3.11).

“The continual suspicion, which leads a Prince to distrust everyone may torment him strangely” (A.1.24.145).

“So vain and worthless is human wisdom: despite all our projects, counsels and precautions, the outcome remains in the possession of Fortune” (A.1.24.143).

“The longest of my projects are for less than a year; I think only of bringing things to a close; I free myself from all fresh hopes and achievements” (C.2.28.797).

“My old age…deadens within me many of the desires and worries which trouble our lives: worry about the way the world is going; worry about money, honours, erudition, health… and me” (C.2.28.797).

“I am the most ill-disposed toward pain” (C.1.14.69).

“When my condition is bad I cling violently to my illness: I abandon myself to despair and let myself go towards catastrophe” (B.3.9.1072).

“Death is the only guarantor of our freedom, the common and ready cure of our ills” (A.1.14.53). Montaigne acceptance of suicide is not explicitly stated in the text, perhaps due to fear of the Inquisition.

It may also be the case that Montaigne had no firm opinion about the best ‘remedies’ for fear, and left different options open.

“The anxiety to do well…puts the soul on the rack, break it, and make it impotent” (Montaigne 1965 1.10.26, Frame’s translation).

Bakewell states that premeditation did not liberate Montaigne from his fears, but actually served to imprison him (Bakewell 2010 , p. 3).

“Do we ask to be whipped right now…just because it may be that Fortune will, perhaps, make you suffer a whipping some day?” (B.3.12.1189).

“No man has ever prepared to leave the world more simply nor more fully than I have. No one has more completely let go of everything than I try to do” (C.1.20.98) [my italics].

“How many country-folk do I see ignoring poverty; how many yearning for death or meeting it without panic or distress? That man over there who is trenching my garden has, this morning, buried his father or his son” (B.3.12.1178).

This description seems to idealise and romanticise the behaviour of the ‘lower classes’, but this is what Montaigne was contemplating, what he saw in his own estate. Although he cannot know what was going on in the minds of his peasants and he employs a clumsy generalisation I believe that this image can be read as being used to contrast different human responses to fear and to show that fear can be successfully dominated.

Hartle ( 2013 , p. 17) also believes in a more opinionated than a non-judgmental Montaigne, stressing that throughout the Essays Montaigne constantly makes judgments of all sorts. This is certainly true, except for the questions that obsessed Montaigne the most: the fears of sickness poverty and death. When discussing Montaigne’s scepticism in relation to Sextus Empiricus, Bermúdez Vazquez remarks that “philosophical speculation leads only to confusion because of the inevitability of uncertainty. It produces anxiety rather than peace of mind” (p. 17).

“Fear, desire, hope, impel us towards the future; they rob us of feelings and concern for what now is, in order to spend time over what will be – even when we ourselves shall be no more” (B.1.3.11).

This has obvious Buddhist resonances, and may be related to Montaigne’s admiration of Pyrrhonism, which has many affinities with Eastern thought (Beckwith 2015 ). Pyrrho’s main concepts as reported by Sextus Empiricus had been translated into French about 20 years before the first edition of the Essays (see Calhoun 2015 ).

Montaigne’s purported unnoticed way of life was only partially true, since while trying to stay away from the daily nuisance at his chateau, he would eagerly seek the company of the few erudite Montaigne had in esteem to engage in conversation, and more reluctantly, work for the king on political missions.

“The greatest thing in the world is to know how to live to yourself” (A.1.39.272).

This is clarified in a footnote by Screech (Montaigne 2003 ) as “I make a distinction,” a term used in formal debates to reject or modify an opponent’s assertion.

“Life must be its own objective, its own purpose. Its right concern is to rule itself, govern itself, put up with itself” (C.3.12.1191).

The number following the year corresponds to the remark in Philosophical Investigations .

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Starkstein, S. (2018). Montaigne’s Essays : A Humanistic Approach to Fear. In: A Conceptual and Therapeutic Analysis of Fear. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-78349-9_4

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Of Death | Summary and Analysis

Analysis of of death by francis bacon.

Of Death is a cogent essay by Sir Francis Bacon that deeply engages with the subject of Death – a biological reality and a philosophical concept that has arrested the attention of mankind for ages.

The essay deftly manoeuvres around the concept of mortality, arguing that death is not as negative as the world seems to believe it is. Bacon, the elegant rationalist, essentially argues that the fear of death is, above all,  unreasonable . He opines that the fear of death is manufactured without reason, as death itself does not cause torture upon anyone, but the living left behind grieve as though the dead are subject to agony. Written in Bacon’s signature aphoristic style, Of Death endeavours to shed light on the way that man has accepted death, with the insistence that death is only natural, and fearing it achieves nothing.

Of Death  | Summary and Analysis

The essay begins with Bacon saying that men fear death because they fear the unknown, just as children fear the dark as they do not know what they will find there. Yet, as horror stories increase the fear of children, so do tales of the pains of death increase the fears of men. Seeing death as a punishment given for the sins committed by the flesh is understood to be religious, but fearing death is nothing but the weakness of man’s natural being. Yet, there is a lot of imagination and ego within the understanding of death given by religious leaders. They make people imagine how terrible and painful the throes of death will be, while in reality, death is usually quick and painless.

“ Pompa mortis magis terret, quam mors ipsa ” means “ It is the pomp of death that alarms us more than death itself ”. This is taken from Ovid’s “ Metamorphoses”,  a Latin poem from 8 AD. The pomp of death is in reference to the wild assumptions and assertions that people make about life after death and the torture that one is expected to go through in the passage from this life to the next.

To the living, death is shown to be terrible by the expressions of grief and the parades of the funerals. The weeping, the mass of people dressed only in black, the paying of respects, the groans and moans and expressions of pain represent death as a terrible thing. Yet, the weaknesses in man win him over and turn death into a less terrible enemy. Man masters the fear of death and diminishes it through his desire for worldly happiness, or his fear of worldly pain. A contemporary example would be that people know that excessive smoking will ruin them, yet the enjoyment of smoking or the fear of the pain of going through a nicotine withdrawal are valued more than the corruption of the body and the consequent pains of death. Death is no terrible enemy because man has so many worldly pleasures that win over the fear of death.

The numerous emotions of man connect themselves back to death. The desire for revenge triumphs the fear of death. The fullness of love diminishes the thought of death, making it insignificant. Honour aspires toward death, as can be seen in a soldier who fights for his country, and finds honour in sacrificing himself and entering into the arms of death. [1]

Grief flieth toward it means that when a man feels such deep anguish, they may see death as their only escape, so they ponder upon death as a means to resolve the misery they are forced to experience. Fear  preoccupateth  it means that fear anticipates it. A fearful man always has death on his mind. Shakespeare said, “ A coward dies a thousand times before his death, but the valiant taste of death but once. ” This sort of man constantly anticipates death in his fear. And finally, compassion may bring about death, as when the Roman emperor Otho committed suicide, his admirers followed suit out of tenderness and pity.

Yet, Seneca says “ Cogita quamdiu eadem feceris; mori velle, non tantum fortis aut miser, sed etiam fastidiosus potest ”  –  Think how long thou hast done the same thing; not only a valiant man or a miserable man but also a fastidious man is able to wish for death.  Men may wish for death as they feel that their lives get repetitious. This wearies them and they will desire the perceived release of death, though they are neither in misery nor are they courageous and honourable.

Bacon also notes that a good man remains good even unto death. The approach of death does not change the goodness of their spirits. He used the example of several Roman emperors. Augustus Caesar died with the words  “ Livia, conjugii nostri memor, vive et vale ” –  Farewell, Livia; and forget not the days of our marriage . He did not die with fear or anger, but with acceptance, and a request to be remembered.

Tiberius, his successor, was described as “ Jam Tiberium vires et corpus, non dissimulatio, deserebant ”  –  His powers of body were gone, but his power of dissimulation still remained .  Dissimulation means concealing one’s thoughts or true character. During his rule, Tiberius never revealed himself truly, and even practised this dissimulation up until his death, never revealing the steady decline of his health. Bacon uses this example to show that even as death approached Tiberius, the man remained the same.

Similarly, for the rest. Vespasian joked “ Ut puto deus fio ”  –  As I think, I am becoming a god.  Galba said “ Feri, si ex re sit populi Romani ”-  Strike, if it be for the good of the Romans , giving himself up for his country at the hands of Otho.

Septimius Severus said “ Adeste si quid mihi restat agendum ”   – Be at hand, if there is anything more for me to do . He said this to his sons as his reign was cut short by his illness. The goodness of his spirit and his care for the Roman people did not diminish as even in his last moments he told his sons to be ready to do any work that he had left incomplete.

People made death seem much scarier than it really is because of the great preparations they undertook before death. A philosopher said “ qui finem vitæ extremum inter munera ponat naturæ ”  –  who accounts the close of life as one of the benefits of nature , which means that it is as natural to die as it is to be born. The prerequisites of life are birth and death. Bacon ends with the assertion that the man who dies having lived a life of commitment and hard work, like the soldier who dies on the battlefield, does not feel the pain of death as their mind is fixed on something good, like their honour or their accomplishments. They are not subject to the grief or agony of death as their mind is on a higher plane. The “ dolors of death ” means the pain or suffering of death.

But, the sweetest song is “ Nunc dimittis ”  –  Now lettest thou … depart . This hymn is one of willingly walking into the hands of death after living a fulfilling life, and meeting all expectations. Death opens the door to fame and diminishes envy because when one dies, people no longer dwell on their wrongdoing, and instead are generous to a fault, and uplift them as much as they can. The adherence to the rule of “ Speak well of the dead ” results in people being made to seem much better than they were, and thus they are memorialised in good fame.  “ Extinctus amabitur   idem ” –  The same man that was envied while he lived, shall be loved when he is gone . The man who, in his life, was hated and envied and insulted by those jealous of him, will be praised and loved and spoken well of in his death. Those who envied him will cease to speak badly of him, and so extinguish their envy.

In this essay, Bacon opines that the fear of death is manufactured without reason, as death itself does not cause torture upon anyone, but the living left behind grieve as though the dead are subject to agony. The fear of death is easily overcome by weak men, and the fear of death does not affect men of strong character. Death is nothing to fear as it is as natural as birth, and less painless than one is made to believe.

The one who lives a life of fulfilment and commitment does not feel death to be something they are forced into, as they accomplish their goals and freely walk into death’s warm embrace. The goodness of man will be honoured and remembered, and his shortfalls and transgressions will be swept under the rug, never to be spoken of again. Man will be loved after death, not hated.

Francis Bacon | About the Author

Francis Bacon, also called Lord Verulam, was born on 22 January 1561, in London. He is well known as a philosopher, and his main aim was the promotion of the scientific method. He was a great influence during the scientific revolution and was himself influenced by philosophers like Machiavelli, Plato, and Aristotle.

In 1603, he was knighted by King James I. Bacon was the 1st Viscount St Alban, and was also Lord Chancellor from 1617-1621. He was accused of accepting bribes quite soon after he became the Viscount, and was imprisoned. He was later pardoned by the King, following which he retired.

Some of his notable works are  ‘Novum Organum’  and ‘ Scala Intellectus’ . There is a Francis Bacon Award that is granted every 2 years for scholars whose work has a significant impact on the history of science, technology, or philosophy.

Bacon died on 9 April 1626, in London.

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Read our detailed study guide on the essay “Of Death” by Francis Bacon. Our study guide covers Of Death summary and analysis.

Of Death Summary

Bacon opens the essay with a simile of death and darkness. He starts his argument the men fears that death in the same a child fears the darkness. The fear of darkness increases among the children when the horrific tales about the darkness is narrated to them. Same is the case with men. With the stories of death is narrated to them, the fear inside them increases. It is natural to think about death, however, to think about it with composure is a virtue of the wise men. To worry about the sin after committing is the characteristic of a holy and religious man but to fear the death as the supremacy of nature is man’s weakness.

In spite of sufficient awareness, the human beings still associate a lot of superstitions and mix it with vanity. For instance, one might have read in the friars’ book of meditation that by inflicting certain pain on oneself one can realize the true nature of pain during death. One can experience regret for the cause of others death, by doing so. Moreover, by wounding the legs severely, one could die suffering less pain. The other vital parts of the human body like heart, brain, lungs, etc. do not experience as much pain as a wounded leg can.

It is well said by a philosopher that the assumption of forthcoming death frights men more than the death itself. The advent of death becomes more disturbing and horrifying with the grunts and screams of the dying man along with the frustrated and weeping faces of the dear ones. Such harshness of the situation makes the death appear to be more frightening than it really is.

Bacon argues about the advent of the death on a man from a totally different perspective. As per him, it becomes easy for a man to die when he sees his dear one weeping for him. He feels relief that he is not abandoned by him. Therefore, to Bacon, death is not an enemy for those who have so many attendants who can battle for him.

Whenever someone in the fire of avenging the other kills him, no doubt, revenge triumphs over death but the love insults it. We have heard about the story of King Otho who killed himself. His subject overwhelmed to mourn and drove some of them to suicide. To Bacon, death serves to be vindictive to love as it is considered to be the link between the dead and the one whose heart is filled with love.

Bacon quotes another philosopher Seneca that one will be sensible to imagine and longed-for the death as it brings relief from the sorrows and sufferings of life. In certain condition, someone’s life might be too wearisome to tolerate, and death passes relief to them. Some people live a life without any excitement and actions in it. Such a life could neither be regarded as pleasing one nor the sorrowful. However, one cannot bear such a wearisome life for a long period of time. Eventfully, resulting in death.

With the emperor of Rome was dying, Augustus Caesar, his farewell words are “Farewell, Livia. Never forget the days of our marriage”. Tiberius, another king of the Rome commented on Caesar’s farewell words that “although his bodily power is gone, the power to hide his feeling still remains”. Moreover, bacon mentions two more emperors of Rome, Vespasian, and Galba, who just like Augustus faced the death bravely.

Bacon argues that the Stoics made a lot of costly preparations upon death that make the death appears more dreadful than it really is. To die is a natural phenomenon. For a little infant, it is as much as painful to born as for the young man to die. However, the one who dies early is just like the soldiers who are wounded in hot blood and seldom feels pain.

Bacon concluded the essay by praising the virtues of bravely pursuing to die for the country or noble cause. Whenever a man dies, serving his country, or for a noble cause, the gates of fame opens for him and he receives a lot of adoration even from those who envy and condemns them during the life.

Of Death Analysis

Of Death is an argumentative essay by Francis Bacon in which he argues about the positive aspects of death. One has to die either today or tomorrow. So it is better to die courageously and bravely so that you can win people’s appraisal.

Critical Appreciation:

Brevity, directness, wit, and to the point arguments are one of the qualities that Bacon’s essay contain. The systematic way of writing makes bacon’s essay to move from one point to another logically. Moreover, the subject matters he discusses in his writing style are all based on the real life and the reader found an epigrammatic wisdom in it. With the use of metaphors, similes referring to various historical stories makes his essay comprehensible and agreeable.

This essay is the reflection of Bacon’s wisdom and experience that he acquired during the life. Bacon reinforces his arguments with the use of metaphors, similes, and quotation from wise and famous philosophers. The essay comprises of aphoristic sentences that engage the readers.

Bacon attempts to give the readers a nerve to face the death by arguing that the actual pain or death is not as much as we think about it. He starts the essay with a simile of death and darkness and the similarity in the fear that is associated with both. He argues that the death is not as horrifying as it appears to be. However, mourns and groans of the dying person along with the weeping and harsh expression of his dear one makes the sight of death horrifying.

Bacon also argues about the people who are under the strong influence love, revenge and grief. To such people, death doesn’t appear to be terrifying. Bacon mentions few Roman emperors who faced the death with valor, courage, and bravery. He after arguing about the terrifying side of the death mentions that the death has a bright side, too. It is only after the death of a person that he is appraised and his good deeds are remembered. All the envy and bitterness vanishes with the death.

By reading the essay we not only come across Bacon’s rich thoughts about the death but also find some distinctive fictitious qualities in the essay. He by the use of simile he makes his meaning more clear that a man who dies for serving his nation or for any other earnest cause is just like a young soldier who is wounded in the hot blood.

The essay, Of Death, is full of the richness of content and meaning. It is also Bacon’s model of concise and eloquent prose, just like all other essays.

More From Francis Bacon

• Of Adversity
• Of Ambition
• Of Discourse
• Of Followers and Friends
• Of Friendship
• Of Great Place
• Of Marriage and Single Life
• Of Nobility
• Of Parents and Children
• Of Simulation and Dissimulation
• Of Superstition
• Of Goodness and Goodness of Nature

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Home News Denial of Death back to News

Denial of Death

How well do we really accept our mortality.

minute read

I recently attended a neurology lunch and learn at the CU School of Medicine and listened to Dr. Robert Halloway Jr. talk about his insights about palliative care, philosophy and death.  

Halloway referenced a book called “Denial of Death”, a book first published in the 1970’s by Ernest Becker.  I was intrigued by the idea that fear of death is the ultimate driving force for humans and began reading.

Although my philosophical perspective stems from a Frankl-esque perspective that meaning and purpose  drive human nature, Becker’s theory that all things stem from trying to avoid and deny death is compelling.  Even meaning, purpose, and legacy can arguably be derived from an underlying fear of death.  Freud got it wrong according to Becker: Freud was so committed to his causa sui project of sexuality as the underpinning of human nature that he could not accept or evaluate his own mortality.  

What does death avoidance look like?  Our human behavior to deny the reality of our death in fact (vs the idea of dying in general) generates all types of activities and distractions.  Some distractions include keeping our heads down and focusing on the moment, self-medication, burying ourselves in work, and overall creating a delusion around ourselves that insulates us from death.  Publishing and focusing on achievement are other death-denying pursuits.  

Becker argues that social constructs like religion, culture, and community are all ways to attempt to conquer death.  If our reputation and laws and connections continue, then arguably we have cheated death. Raising children and parenthood is thought to secure our legacy through our progeny.   Conversely, behavioral health challenges (referred to in the book as “neuroses” and “psychoses”) are a result of seeing the world too clearly which causes an intolerance for reality.

It seems like Becker would be able to relate to the Buddhist perspective that in order to decrease suffering, we need to embrace the idea that we will die one day, and it will free us from the struggle to avoid death.  We realize that an academic exercise is divergent from living from the place of fear of the future trajectory of serious illness, and people employ a variety of distractions in order to not feel the fear.  When we meet with people living with serious illness as palliative care professionals, keeping in mind this overarching denial of death might help us better understand the subconscious conflict that is playing out.  

Here is the information for Becker’s book: Becker, E. (1973) The Denial of Death.  New York: The Free Press. 316 pages.  ISBN 978-0-684-83240-1 Amazon.com : denial of death becker

And the link to the Ernest Becker foundation is below: The Denial of Death and the Practice of Dying — Ernest Becker Foundation - Illuminating Denial of Death

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EU foreign chief says Israel must respect UN court, control settler violence

The U.N. top court's ruled Israel must end its offensive in Rafah.

BRUSSELS -- The European Union's foreign policy chief insisted Sunday that Israel must abide by the U.N. top court's rulings and end its offensive in the southern Gaza city of Rafah and, at the same time, questioned the possible involvement of authorities in the settler violence against Palestinians in the occupied West Bank.

On a day that visiting Palestinian Prime Minister Mohammad Mustafa basked in the attention after two EU nations and Norway pledged to recognize a Palestinian state, Josep Borrell further pressured Israel to take immediate actions to make sure that tax income meant for the Palestinian authorities is no longer stopped.

The demands came at the end of the week that saw the international community put increasing pressure on Israel to fundamentally change the course of the war it wages on Hamas in the Gaza Strip through international court action and diplomatic maneuvering.

Borrell insisted Israel had driven the Palestinians to the edge of a catastrophe because “the situation in Gaza is beyond words. The occupied West Bank is on the brink, risking an explosion any time.”

While most of the global attention is centered on Gaza, Borrell said that “we should not forget what’s happening in the West Bank,” where the seat of the Palestinian Authority is based.

“There we see an intensified spiral of violence. Indiscriminate and punishing attacks by extremist settlers, more and more targeting humanitarian aid heading to Gaza. And they are heavily armed. And the question is, who is arming them? And who is not preventing this attack from happening,” Borrell said.

Rights groups and Palestinian residents have said that Israeli forces often provide an umbrella of security to armed settlers attacking Palestinian towns and nomadic communities.

Such settler violence, Borrell said, "is coupled with unprecedented Israeli settlement expansions and land grabbing.”

Borrell also countered Israeli threats to hit the Palestinians financially. On Wednesday, Finance Minister Bezalel Smotrich said he would stop transferring tax revenue earmarked for the Palestinian Authority, a move that threatens to handicap its already waning ability to pay salaries to thousands of employees.

Under interim peace accords in the 1990s, Israel collects tax revenue on behalf of the Palestinians, and it has used the money as a tool to pressure the PA. After the Oct. 7 Hamas attack that triggered the war in Gaza, Smotrich froze the transfers, but Israel agreed to send the money to Norway, which transferred it to the PA. Smotrich said Wednesday that he was ending that arrangement.

“Unduly withheld revenues have to be released,” said Borrell, with Norwegian Foreign Minister Espen Barth Eide standing next to him.

Eide was in Brussels Sunday to hand over diplomatic papers to Mustafa ahead of Norway's formal recognition of a Palestinian state, a largely symbolic move that has infuriated Israel.

The formal recognition by Norway as well as Spain and Ireland — which all have a record of friendly ties with both the Israelis and the Palestinians, while long advocating for a Palestinian state — is planned for Tuesday.

The diplomatic move by the three nations was a welcome boost of support for Palestinian officials who have sought for decades to establish a statehood in east Jerusalem, the West Bank and the Gaza Strip — territories Israel seized in the 1967 Mideast war and still controls.

“Recognition means a lot for us. It is the most important thing that anybody can do for the Palestinian people," said Mustafa. "It is a great deal for us.”

Some 140 countries — more than two-thirds of the United Nations — recognize a Palestinian state but a majority of the 27 EU nations still do not. Several have said they would recognize it when the conditions are right.

The EU, the United States and Britain, among others, back the idea of an independent Palestinian state alongside Israel but say it should come as part of a negotiated settlement.

Belgium, which holds the EU presidency, has said that first the Israeli hostages held by Hamas need to be freed and the fighting in Gaza must end. Some other governments favor a new initiative toward a two-state solution, 15 years after negotiations between Israel and the Palestinians collapsed.

Sunday's handover of papers came only two days after the United Nations’ top court ordered Israel to immediately halt its military offensive in the southern Gaza city of Rafah in the latest move that piled more pressure on the increasingly isolated country.

Days earlier, the chief prosecutor for the International Criminal Court requested arrest warrants for Israeli leaders, including Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu, along with Hamas officials.

The war in Gaza started after Hamas-led militants stormed across the border, killing 1,200 people and taking some 250 hostage. Israel’s ensuing offensive has killed more than 35,000 Palestinians, according to Gaza’s Health Ministry, and has caused a humanitarian crisis and a near-famine.

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