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The impact of 5G on the evolution of intelligent automation and industry digitization

  • Original Research
  • Published: 21 February 2021
  • Volume 14 , pages 5977–5993, ( 2023 )

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  • Mohsen Attaran   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0358-4107 1  

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The mobile industry is developing and preparing to deploy the fifth-generation (5G) networks. The evolving 5G networks are becoming more readily available as a significant driver of the growth of IoT and other intelligent automation applications. 5G’s lightning-fast connection and low-latency are needed for advances in intelligent automation—the Internet of Things (IoT), Artificial Intelligence (AI), driverless cars, digital reality, blockchain, and future breakthroughs we haven’t even thought of yet. The advent of 5G is more than just a generational step; it opens a new world of possibilities for every tech industry. The purpose of this paper is to do a literature review and explore how 5G can enable or streamline intelligent automation in different industries. This paper reviews the evolution and development of various generations of mobile wireless technology underscores the importance of 5G revolutionary networks, reviews its key enabling technologies, examines its trends and challenges, explores its applications in different manufacturing industries, and highlights its role in shaping the age of unlimited connectivity, intelligent automation, and industry digitization.

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Purpose Claims about a supposed link between 5G and COVID-19 have been circulating the Internet, arguing that global elites were using 5G to spread the virus. It is needless to say that there’s no evidence to support the theory that 5G networks cause COVID-19 or contribute to its spread. The purpose of this research is to do a literature review and explore the practical implications of 5G revolutionary networks technology for growing industry digitization and intelligent automation.

Practical Implications 5G networks are at the very early stages of adoption. Based on the business applications presented in this paper, practitioners will learn 5G business potentials, challenges addressed by 5G, drivers for change, barriers to entry, and critical areas of concern regarding the adaptation of 5G technologies into their organizations. 

Originality/Value This paper examines the essential roles 5G plays in the success of different industries, including IoT, the auto industry and smart cars, manufacturing and smart factories, smart grids, and smart cities, and healthcare. It discusses how 5G will be critical for growing industry digitization and for addressing the numerous challenges different manufacturing industries will face in this rapidly changing landscape. Finally, this paper presents the crucial role that 5G will play in providing a competent platform to support the widespread adoption of critical communications services and driving the digitization and automation of industrial practices and processes of Industry 4.0.

Research Limitations Although the journey towards 5G networks has already begun, there have been very few reported examples of the business benefits realized by leading-edge manufacturing companies resulting from this new technology. This shortage of reporting has led to incomplete data with effects that are often anecdotal and notably, not thoroughly tested. There are only a few papers published in peer-reviewed academic journals or written as academic working papers exploring the advantages and limitations of firms implementing 5G technologies. This paper is a critical early academic contribution to a field dominated by the narratives and promises of consultants.

1 The evolution of cellular wireless networks

Cellular wireless networks have come a long way since the first 1G system was introduced in 1981, with a new mobile generation appearing approximately every 10 years (Pathak 2013 ; Mishra 2018 ). In the past 30 years, the mobile industry has transformed society through 4 or 5 generations of technology revolution and evolution, namely 1G, 2G, 3G, and 4G networking technologies (Fig.  1 ). 1G gave us a mass-market mobile telephony. 2G brought global interoperability and reliable mobile telephony and made SMS text messaging possible. 3G gave us high-speed data transfer capability for downloading information from the Internet. 4G provided a significant improvement in data capability and speed and made online platforms and high-speed mobile internet services available for the masses. 5G technology will be the most powerful cellular wireless networks with extraordinary data capabilities, unrestricted call volumes, and infinite data broadcast (Pathak 2013 ; GSMA 2017 ; Mishra 2018 ).

figure 1

The evolution of mobile communications

The following section describes each cellular network generation in more detail.

1G -A nalog Cellular Networks The first commercially automated 1G cellular network was launched in Japan by NTT in 1979 and in the US by Bell Labs in 1984. 1G networks were based on analog protocols with the speed of only 2.4 Kbps (1 kilobit = 1000 bits) and were designed for voice only. 1G enabled the use of multiple cell sites, and the ability to transfer calls from one site to the next as the user traveled between cells during a conversation. 1G has several disadvantages, including low capacity, unreliable handoff, and weak voice links. The first phones, which were based on analog technology, were very large. Voice calls were played back in radio towers, making these calls susceptible to unwanted eavesdropping by third parties (Bhalla and Bhalla 2010 ; Mishra 2018 ).

2G - Digital Networks The second-generation (2G) wireless networks were launched in the early 1990 s and were based on digital standards instead of analog. 2G digital networks enabled rapid phone-to-network signaling and helped the advent of prepaid mobile phones. Additionally, 2G made SMS text messaging possible initially on GSM networks and eventually on all digital networks. Other advantages of 2G digital networks include reduced battery power consumption, voice clarity, and reduced noise in the line. Digital encryption provided secrecy and safety to the data and voice calls. Finally, digital signals are considered environment friendly (Bhalla and Bhalla 2010 ; Mishra 2018 ).

3G - High-Speed Data Networks The third-generation (3G) wireless networks were introduced in 1998 to provide high-speed data transfer capability for downloading information from the Internet and for sending videos with the speed of 2 Mbps (1Mbit = 1000 kbit). 3G technology uses a network of phone towers to pass signals, ensuring a stable connection over long distances. 3G systems provided a significant improvement in capability over the 2G networks by using packet switching rather than circuit switching for data transmission. The high connection speeds of 3G technology-enabled media streaming of radio and even television content to 3G handsets. The technology also provided Video-conferencing support and Web browsing at higher speeds (Pathak 2013 ; Bhalla and Bhalla 2010 ; Mishra 2018 ). According to some estimates, 3G offers a real-world maximum speed of 7.2 Mbps for downloads and 2 Mbps for uploads. In the mid-2000s, an enhanced 3G mobile telephony communications protocol in the High-Speed Packet Access (HSPA) family, also coined 3.5G, 3G + or turbo 3G was implemented. 3G + allows networks based on Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) to have higher data transfer speeds and capacity (Mishra 2018 ).

4G — Growth of Mobile Broadband The fourth-generation (4G) wireless networks were commercially deployed in the United States by Verizon in 2011, with the promise of speed improvements up to 10-fold over existing 3G technologies. Standard 4G has download speeds of around 14 Mbps and can reach speeds as high as 150 Mbps. 4G networks are IP-based (Internet protocol). It uses IP even for voice data. It uses a standard communications protocol to send and receive data in packets. Using these standardized packets, 4G enables data to traverse all sorts of networks without being scrambled or corrupted. 4G networking technology is an extension of 3G technology with more bandwidth and services and with high-quality audio/video streaming capabilities. 4G provides a significant improvement in data capability and speed over the 3G systems with the data transfer speed of 100 Mbps. 4G systems eliminated circuit switching, and instead employed an all-IP network designed primarily for data. 4G enabled users to browse the web and stream HD videos on mobile devices. The 4G network allows users to download gigabytes of data in minutes or even seconds. The technology turned smartphones into the computers of the modern age (Pathak 2013 ; Bhalla and Bhalla 2010 ; Mishra 2018 ).

5G—Design Innovation Across Diverse Services The fifth-generation (5G) network, with the speed of 1–10 Gbps (1Gbit = 1000 Mbit), denotes the next major phase of mobile telecommunications standards beyond the current 4G Long Term Evolution (LTE). 5G systems are promised to be in the market by the end of 2019. 5G technology offers extraordinary data capabilities and unlimited data broadcast within the latest mobile operating systems. Other features of 5G networks are enhanced mobile broadband, dynamic low latency, wider bandwidths, device-centric mobility, simultaneous redundant, and reliable-device-to-device links (Bhalla and Bhalla 2010 ; Mishra 2018 ).

2 Key features of 5G networks

5G networks provide lower prices, lower battery consumption, and lower latency than 4G wireless networks. It is because 5G uses Ultra-Wide Band (UWB) networks with higher band breadth at low energy levels. Band breadth is 4000 Mbps, which is four hundred times faster than 4G wireless networks. 5G communication networks can also provide hundreds of billions of connections, massive machine communication, and extreme mobile broadband. Additionally, 5G offers ultra-low latency of 1 ms, 90% more energy efficiency, 99.9% ultra-reliability, 10 Gbps peak data rate transmission speeds, and mobile data volume of 10 Tb (Barreto et al. 2016 ; Hu 2016 ; Saha et al. 2016 ; Cero et al. 2017 ).

Following sections highlight key features of 5G networks in detail.

5G networking standards

The 5G networking technology standard is divided into two key parts:

Non-Standalone (NSA) The first 5G networks are based on NSA, which is the basis of commercial launches expected by the end of 2019. The NSA standard uses existing 4G LTE infrastructure to handle the Control Plane and the signal traffic. It can be thought of as just having an extra fast data pipe attached to existing 4G LTE infrastructure. NSA acts as an initial step that will allow carriers to offer commercial service throughout 2019 until the adoption of a 5G Standalone standard.

Standalone (SA) The 5G Standalone (SA) comes with entirely new core architecture. It moved the control plane transition over to the 5G Core and made significant changes for the way that networks operate. SA will be released in 2020—it will support more flexible network slicing and subcarrier encoding. It is designed to be more efficient than 4GLTE and NSA and will lead to lower costs for the carriers and improved performance for users (Cero et al. 2017 ; Saha et al. 2016 ).

Expanding the networking spectrum

According to a 2017 Cisco study, by 2021, wireless networks will increase in usage by a compounded annual growth rate of 47%. Speeds will reach peaks of 10 Gbps and deliver 1 Gbps at 500 km/h (Cisco 2019 ). 4G wireless networks lack enough spectrum bandwidth and network capacity to meet growing market demands. 5G is an evolving standard combining more spectrums and allowing for more bandwidth and much faster speeds for consumers. Consumers can connect to the 5G network and leverage the benefits of a wide range of spectrums.

The most used 5G technology is mmWave. Carriers will also be using a new spectrum in the sub-6 GHz WiFi region, low bands below 1 GHz, and existing 4G LTE bands, as shown in Fig.  2 . At present, there is a significant amount of unused high-frequency spectrum, and the higher the frequency, the more bandwidth is available (Mathias 2019 ; Kamel et al. 2016 ). 5G networking technology also relies on different wave spectrums. Wireless networks are composed of cell sites divided into sectors that send data through radio waves. Fourth-generation (4G) Long-Term Evolution (LTE) wireless technology requires high-power, large cell towers to radiate signals over long distances. 5G wireless signals, on the other hand, will be transmitted via large numbers of multiple small cell stations located in places like light poles or building roofs. The use of a large number of small cells is necessary since 5G relies on millimeter wave spectrum between 30 and 300 GHz which can only travel over short distances and is subject to interference from weather and physical obstacles (Liu and Jiang 2016 ; De Matos and Gondim 2016 ; Hossain 2013 ).

New technological innovations

figure 2

Source: Robert Triggs, Online https://www.androidauthority.com/what-is-5g-explained-944868

Networking spectrum bands.

5G is using some key new technological innovations to greatly increase the amount of spectrum used to send and receive data compared to today’s 4G LTE networks. These technologies allow for more bandwidth and much faster speeds for consumers. They are shown in Fig.  3 and are explained below (Bogale and Le 2015 ; Cero et al. 2017 ; Hu 2016 ; 5G Forum 2016 ; Niu et al. 2016 ; Larsson et al. 2014 ):

mmWave It offers a very high frequency between 17 and 110 GHz and high bandwidth for fast data transfer. It is a short-range technology that will be used in densely populated areas. It is also the most referenced 5G technology.

Sub-6   GHz Most of the future 5G networks will likely operate in WiFi-like mid-band frequencies between 3 and 6 GHz. It will cover the medium range spectrum, and it will be useful for small cell hubs for indoor use or more powerful outdoor base stations.

Low-band Operates at a very low frequency below 800 MHz and covers very long distances. It also provides blanket backbone coverage.

Beamforming This key technology allows the beamformer (Router) to transmit signals in the direction of the consumer devices, thus creating stronger, faster, and more reliable wireless communications. Beamforming is a key technology in overcoming the range and direction limitations of the spectrum of high-frequency waveforms.

Massive MIMO Data is sent and received using multiple antennas on base stations to serve multiple end-users. The technology makes high-frequency networks much more efficient. It can also be combined with beamforming.

figure 3

Sources: Barreto et al. ( 2016 ), Hu ( 2016 ), Saha et al. ( 2016 ), Cero et al. ( 2017 )

5G networks capabilities.

Unique features of 5G networks

5G networks provide improved support of machine to machine communication, aiming at lower prices, reduced battery consumption, and lower latency than 4G instrumentation. 5G uses Ultra-Wide Band (UWB) networks with higher band breadth at low energy levels. Band breadth is of 4000 Mbps, which is four hundred times quicker than today’s 4G wireless networks (Fig.  3 ). 5G communication networks can also provide hundreds of billions of connections, massive machine communication, and extreme mobile broadband. Additionally, 5G offers ultra-low latency of 1 ms, 90% more energy efficiency, 99.9% ultra-reliability, 10 Gbps peak data rate transmission speeds, and a mobile data volume of 10 Tb (Barreto et al. 2016 ; Hu 2016 ; Saha et al. 2016 ; Cero et al. 2017 ).

Impact on download times & streaming

The download speed measured by the rate at which data (e.g., web page, photo, application, or video) can be transferred from the internet to a computer or a smartphone. They are measured in “bits per second” (bps) where a “bit” is a one or zero in binary. More commonly, however, we measure download speeds in “megabits per second” (Mbps), where 1 Megabit is equal to one million bits. A faster download speed supports higher-quality streaming and makes content from the internet load faster and with less of a wait. (Ken’s Tech Tips 2018 ).Today, more and more applications make use of streaming, including voice over IP (e.g., calling via Skype or WhatsApp), online video apps (e.g., Netflix and YouTube), and online radio (Ken’s Tech Tips 2018 ). When the content is not downloaded at a sufficient speed, we will experience pauses during playback (also known as “buffering”). The actual download speeds will depend on several factors, including location (whether you are indoors or outdoors), the distance to nearby masts, and the amount of congestion on the network. The download times for 5G networks for a webpage, an e-mail, a photograph, and a music track are near-instantaneous (Ken’s Tech Tips 2018 ).

Another great advantage of 5G networks is its reduced latency. Latency, also known as the “lag” or “ping,” is an initial delay before the server on the other end starts to respond. The download will progress only once the server has responded. It is a critical concept that affects the experience of end-users on smartphones. High latency connections cause web pages to load slowly. It affects the experience in applications that require real-time connectivity such as voice calling, video calling, and gaming applications). The major benefits of 5G are reduced latency, increased capacity, and faster download speeds. Human reaction time is 200–300 ms. 5G will reduce that to 1 ms or less. That is almost real-time. It means that we can use 5G to replace real-time interactions. The reduction in latency from 5G technology will help overall response for some of the newer embedded applications of mobile technology such as autonomous cars (Ken’s Tech Tips 2018 ).

Wi-Fi 6 vs. 5G networks

Wi-Fi 6 is the latest wireless LAN technology and has been developed parallel with 5G and is expected to hit the market around the same time as 5G. Both technologies are designed to deliver similar services and have a core mission to bring gigabit-plus throughput to end-users.

Wi-Fi 6, like all other Wi-Fi technologies, operates in unlicensed bands where permission is not required (Mathias 2019 ). In the case of licensed bands, individual companies pay a licensing fee for the right to transmit on assigned channels within that band in each geographic area. Licensing ensures that wireless operators do not interfere with each other’s transmissions. Unlicensed wireless technologies are vulnerable to interference. When using an unlicensed technology like Wi-Fi, the end-users will have to adjust to avoid interference. Additionally, the radio environment is likely to continue to change over time (Phifer 2017 ).

5G, on the other hand, is a cellular, carrier-based technology. 5G carriers obtain an exclusive license to specific blocks of spectrum across specific geographies via an auction process. They can configure their specific network to meet their particular coverage, capacity, and business objectives. Therefore, interference shouldn’t be an issue. There are numerous ways that 5G and cellular are superior to Wi-Fi and Wi-Fi6, such as authentication—intercarrier roaming is transparent. Additionally, connecting to cellular is easy; simply turn on the mobile device, whereas Wi-Fi usually requires selecting an available service set identifier and providing a security key.

There is a hope that in the future, both technologies will be used by final consumers and move these customers closer to a superior mobile network. Business-class cell phones, for example, will likely support both technologies starting in 2020 (Mathias 2019 ).

3 Intelligent automation and economic contributions of 5G networks

Manufacturing industries are moving towards digitalization for several reasons, including increasing revenue by better serving their customers, increasing demand, beating the competition, decreasing costs by increasing productivity and efficiency, and decreasing risk by increasing safety and security. A recent study identified the key challenges and requirements in digitization industries digitization (Ericsson 2017 ). These requirements range from:

Ultra-reliable, resilient, instantaneous connectivity for millions of devices.

Low-cost devices with extended battery life.

Asset tracking throughout the ever-changing supply chains.

Performing remote medical procedures.

Using AR/VR to enhance the shopping experiences.

Using AI to enhance operations in multiple areas or enterprise-wide.

5G delivers a high-speed, reliable, and secure broadband experience, and will be a major technology for growing industry digitization. It will provide the networks and platforms to drive the digitization and automation of Industry 4.0. It will support the massive rollout of intelligent IoT and the widespread adoption of critical communications services (GSMA 2017 ).

In summary, 5G networks enable service providers to build virtual networks tailored to applications requirements such as:

Mobile broadband communication, media and entertainment, and the Internet

Machine-to-Machine (Massive IoT ) Retail, shopping, manufacturing

Reliable low latency Automobile, medical, smart cities

Critical communications

Others Industry-specific services, energy, etc.

4 5G for the Internet of Things (IoT)

Internet of Things Defined

The “Internet of things” (IoT) is an extension of the Internet and other network connections to different sensors and devices—or “things”. The concept is based on a general rule that ‘Anything that can be connected will be connected (Attaran 2017b ). This includes everything from industrial equipment such as car engines, jet engines, the drill of an oil rig, washing machines, coffee makers, cellphones, wearable devices, and much more. IoT provides a higher degree of computing and analytical capabilities to even single objects. IoT is a rapidly evolving technology that more and more industries are willing to adapt to improve their efficiency. Smart terminals, mobile broadband, and cloud computing enable widespread connectivity, transforming the way we perceive the world around us people (Attaran 2017b )

IOT architecture and working principle

Figure  4 shows major architectural layers of IoT architecture. Features of each of these layers are discussed below (Opentechdiary 2015 ):

Wireless sensors actuators, and network layer—this layer has sensors, RFID tags, and connectivity network. They form the essential “things” of IoT system and collects real-time information. Sensors convert the data obtained in the outer world into data for analysis. Actuators intervene in the physical reality—they can switch off the light and adjust the temperature in a room. Sensors and actuators cover and adjust everything needed in the physical world to gain the necessary insights for further analysis.

Internet Getaways and Data Acquisition Systems This stage makes data both digitalized and aggregated. Internet getaways work through Wi-Fi, embedded OS, Signal Processors, Micro-Controllers, and the Gateway Networks including LAN (Local Area Network), WAN (Wide Area Network), etc. The responsibility of Gateways is routing the data coming from the sensor, connectivity, and network layer and pass it to the next layer. Data acquisition systems (DAS) connect to the sensor network and aggregate output. This stage processes the enormous amount of information collected on the previous stage and squeeze it to the optimal size for further analysis.

figure 4

Source: Opentechdiary ( 2015 )

IoT architecture layers.

Edge IT-Management Services This layer is responsible for data mining, text mining, analysis of IoT devices, analysis of information (stream analytics, data analytics) and device management. This stage provides analytics and pre-processing and prepares data before it is transferred to the data center or cloud for further analysis. Edge IT systems are located close to the sensors and actuators, creating a wiring closet.

Datacenter and cloud The main processes of analysis, management, and storage of data happen in the data center or cloud. This stage enables in-depth processing, along with a follow-up revision for feedback

The following sections review how the 5G network can improve processes in different layers of IoT architecture.

Mainstream adoptability

The IoT is a relatively new developing technology. Over the past few years, IoT-enabled devices have become broader, deeper, and more affordable. Sensors and tags are rapidly becoming cheaper. Readers and sensors are using less power, growing more intelligent, operating faster and at longer distances, and able to handle interference. This means better systems performance, greater capability to use sensors and tags with more data, and easier integration into existing systems without reprogramming. According to several recent research, IoT adoption over the next 10 years is on the rise. According to a Cisco estimate, devices connected to the Internet were 11 billion in 2013, 15 billion in 2014, 25 billion in 2016, and will be over 50 billion by 2020—that is seven Internet-connected “things” for every person on the planet (Evans 2011 ).

DBS Group Research has identified IoT technologies to reach the mass adoption stage in Asia over the next 5–10 years (DBS Asian Insights Insights 2018 ). According to this study, the IoT achieved a mainstream global consumer adoption rate of 14% in 2017. With growing uptake, the IoT is likely to reach an adoption rate of 18–20% by the end of 2019. By 2030, the global adoption of consumer IoT technology will reach 100% (DBS Asian Insights 2018 ).

Next stage in IoT development

In the past few years, technologies like Augmented Reality (AR), Industrial IoT (IIoT), edge computing, and Low Power Wide-Area (LPWA) were introduced that shape the next stages in IoT development. Over the next few years, more and more devices will become connected, increasing the application of IoT exponentially (Attaran 2017b ). Additionally, IoT technology is the driving force in our Industry 4.0 revolution. In Industry 4.0, industrial processes and the associated machines are becoming smarter and more modular. They could monitor, collect, exchange, analyze, and instantly act on information to intelligently change their behavior or their environment. Additionally, as the total cost of ownership of IoT devices and solutions decrease, the technology will be affordable for markets of asset tracking, agriculture, and environmental monitoring (ABI Research 2016 ).

The impact of 5G on IoT

A 2017 CEO survey of 5G potential applications revealed five different services that could be supported and would come to maturity when commercial 5G networks are widely deployed. They are highlighted in Fig.  5 (Obiodu and Giles 2017 ). IoT ranked second on the list, with 77% of the respondent of respondents believing that 5G provides broad enablement of IoT use cases. Gartner conducted another survey in 2018 to understand the growing demand and adoption plans for 5G. The results revealed that 65% of organizations had plans to deploy 5G networks to be mainly used for IoT and video communications by 2020. They identified operational efficiency as the key driver for their decision (Omale 2018 ).

figure 5

A CEO survey of possible 5G applications

Leveraging cyber-physical systems and striving towards ever more automation and autonomous decisions in environments such as the smart factories, autonomous vehicles, smart buildings, smart cities and connected industrial applications, requires substantial resources to deal with the resulting amount of data that needs to be gathered, analyzed, and transferred. Today’s network technologies are not sufficient for the ultra-connectivity needed for the future. We often need to use a mix of fixed and wireless network technologies to realize massive IoT projects. 5G has the potential to bring the reliability, latency, scalability, mobility, and security that is required for mission-critical services in the IoT ecosystem (i-SCOOP 2018 ).

The existing IoT technology solutions are facing challenges such as a large number of connections of nodes and security issues. In order to meet widespread applications and different industry demands, IoT will require improved performance criteria in areas such as security, trustworthiness, wireless coverage, ultra-low latency, and mass connectivity. 5G can improve processes in different stages of IoT architecture (Fig.  2 ). 5G can contribute to the future of IoT through the connection of billions of smart devices to interact and share data independently. 5G is considered as a key enabling technology that will play an important role in the continued success and widespread applications of IoT. 5G will introduce new Radio Access technologies (RAT), smart antennas, and make use of higher frequencies while altering or re-architecting networks. The 5G enabled IoT will help the connection of an enormous number of these IoT devices and will also help to meet market demands for wireless services. The fifth- generation (5G) mobile network will meet the differing prerequisites of the IoT. To meet the growing requirements of IoT, the Long-Term Evolution (LTE) and 5G technologies must provide new connectivity interfaces for future IoT applications. To meet the differing prerequisites of the IoT, 5G mobile networks must guarantee that massive devices and new services such as enhanced Mobile Broadband (eMBB), massive Machine Type Communications, Critical Communications, and Network Operations are effectively upheld. 5G provides essential prerequisites and ubiquitous connectivity for end-clients, including high throughput, low latency, fast information conveyance, high versatility to empower a huge number of gadgets, productive energy utilization systems, etc. The fifth-generation (5G) mobile network will improve the range of IoT applications such as smart TVs, smart security cameras, smart dishwashers, smart thermostats, smart kitchen appliances, and so on.

The existing networks of 4G and 4G LTE cannot support the mobile telecommunications needs of IoT. 5G can also provide a solution to the issue and can provide the fastest network data rate with relatively low expectancy and better communication coverage when compared to present 4G LTE networking technologies. The fast speeds provided by 5G will bring new technological advancements. The next generation of 5G will handle hundreds of billions of connections and will provide transmission speeds of 10 Gbps and ultra-low latency of 1 ms. It also provides more reliable service in rural areas reducing the differences in service between rural and urban areas (Li et al. 2018 ). Although 5G is an extension of the 4G and 4G LTE networks, yet it comes with entirely new network architecture and functions such as virtualization, which offers more than just the impressive fast data rates. Network function virtualization offers the ability to split physical networks into multiple virtual networks where the devices can be reconfigured to create multiple networks. This feature will provide the 5G enabled IoT applications with an immediate processing ability that will allow for improved speed and coverage, and also provide the capacity to meet the demands of applications. Virtualization will also enhance the feasibility of radio access network (RAN) for next-generation voice, video, and data services.

5G networks will integrate mobile tech, big data, IoT, and cloud computing, and will generate a variety of new applications as the technology is rolled out. 5G will support smart devices, including self-driving cars, wearable, telemedicine, and Internet of Things (IoT). Autonomous cars and IoT devices are expected to be major revenue drivers for 5G networks (i-SCOOP 2018 ).

Big data, IoT, and 5G networks

Another area where 5G networking can be very helpful is “Big Data.” Data is flooding in at a rate never seen before—–doubling every 18 months (Rossi and Hirama 2015 ). The International Data Corporation report predicted that there could be an increase in digital data by 40X from 2012 to 2020 (Gantz and Reinsel 2012 ). Public customer data and new data gathered from IoT enabled devices are generating what is broadly known as “Big Data.” The amount of data that IoT devices might report back to a cloud server could easily overwhelm a relational database. Companies offering IoT enabled devices need to be prepared for storing, tracking, and analyzing the vast amounts of data that will be generated. The real value that IoT creates is at the intersection of gathering data and leveraging it. Additionally, the privacy and security of enormous data produced by millions of interconnected devices going to be challenged and private information may leak at any time (Zheng et al. 2019 ). Zheng et al. ( 2019 ). It is anticipated that IoT’s billions of connected objects will generate data volume far in excess of what can easily be processed and analyzed in the cloud, due to issues like limited bandwidth, network latency, etc. 5G has the potential to keep up with consumer and enterprise data demand while lowering carriers’ operating expenses.

IoT performance requirements for 5G networks

An important challenge for 5G networks is to support a variety of performance requirements for IoT applications in a reliable, flexible, and cost-effective way (Zhang and Fitzek 2015 ). Activity-based IoT applications pose many performance requirements, as described in several studies. Energy optimization of streaming applications in IoT has been analyzed, and energy-efficient task mapping and scheduling have been proposed (Ali et al. 2018a , b , 2019 ; Tariq et al. 2019 ). A recent study identified eight key performance indicators and requirements of activity-based IoT (5G Forum 2016 ). These performance requirements range from data rate, mobility, latency, connection density, reliability, positioning accuracy, coverage, and energy efficiency and are usually well described for specific IoT applications. A comprehensive understanding of the performance requirements of each activity based IoT application could facilitate the selection of 5G technologies needed to meet the growing demands of these applications.

Following is a more detailed description of these performance requirements:

Data Rate Data rate is an important evaluation factor for generations of wireless communication networks (Saha et al. 2016 ). 5G core network will support both peak data rate—the maximum achievable data rate by the user, and minimum guaranteed user data rate—the minimum experience data rate by the user (Oughton and Frias 2017 ). The high data rate is important in most activity-based classes of IoT applications. 5G networks support 10 Gbps for minimum peak data rate and 100 Mbps as the minimum guaranteed user data rate (5G Forum 2016 ).

Mobility IoT applications have very diverse requirements for mobility (relative velocity between the receiver and the transmitter) in 5G networks (Oughton and Frias 2017 ). Many IoT use cases require ultra-high mobility, ultrahigh traffic volume density, and ultra-high connection density. These needs may be quite challenging for 5G networks to provide on- demand mobility for all devices and services (Le et al. 2015 ).

Latency latency is perceived by the end-user and is usually expressed in terms of end-to-end (E2E) latency. 5G networks, through significant enhancements and new technology in architecture aspects, enable “zero latency” expressed by the millisecond level of E2E latency (Saha et al. 2016 ; Hu 2016 ; Ford et al. 2017 ). IoT application determines required latency levels. For example, the acceptable delay for use case mobile health and remote surgery application is in order of sub-milliseconds (Le et al. 2015 ; Blanco et al. 2017 ).

Connection Density Connection density is the number of connected and/or accessible devices per unit area, e.g., 1 million connections per square meter (Le et al. 2015 ; NGMN Alliance 2017 ). Connectivity in 5G networks is not limited to mobile devices. 5G networks can satisfy connection density and traffic density of various identified activity-based classes of IoT applications (Amaral et al. 2016 ; NGMN Alliance 2017 ).

Reliability is measured by the maximum tolerable packet loss rate at the application layer. For certain IoT uses cases such as driverless cars, 5G must bring the reliability of 99,999% or higher (Ford et al. 2017 ; Rappaport et al. 2014 ; Ge et al. 2016 ; Elayoubi et al. 2016 ). Similarly, reliability is the main characteristic of monitoring, managing, and controlling activities. Reliability will present many challenges in the future. High-speed trains are just one example of this challenge because of speed, load, and cell distance (Oughton and Frias 2017 ; Erman and Yiu 2016 ),

Position Accuracy Position accuracy is defined as the maximum positioning error tolerated by the IoT application. Accuracy positioning is very important in monitoring-based activities such as monitoring remote cameras and in controlling-based activities such as driving (Blanco et al. 2017 ). 5G networking technology should ensure accurate positioning of the outdoors device with accuracy from 10 m to less than 1 m on 80% of occasions and better than 1 m in indoor deployment (Elayoubi et al. 2016 ).

Coverage 5G core network shall be able to build the network based on the user’s need. It should provide connectivity anytime and anywhere with a minimum user experience data rate of 1 Gbps (Hossain 2013 ). Almost every activity based IoT application requires very high levels of coverage—99,999% availability (NGMN Alliance 2017 ).

Spectrum Efficiency Spectrum efficiency is defined as the aggregate data throughput of all users per unit of spectrum resource per cell or per unit area. The minimum peak spectrum efficiency is 30 bps/Hz for downlink and 15 bps/Hz for uplink (Liu and Jiang 2016 ). IoT enabled 5G networks to require 3–5 times improvement in spectrum efficiency to achieve network sustainability (Liu and Jiang 2016 ; De Matos and Gondim 2016 ; Hossain 2013 ).

Energy Efficiency Energy efficiency is the number of bits that can be transmitted per joule of energy, and it is measured in b/J (Liu and Jiang 2016 ). 5G wireless technology should aim for higher energy efficiency against increased device/network energy consumption required on wireless communications. That means the energy efficiency of the 5G network may need to be improved by a factor of 1000 (Kaur and Singh 2016 ; Akyildiz et al. 2014 ; Kamel et al. 2016 ; Bogale and Le 2015 ). Energy efficiency is a significant factor for the reduction of operating costs of telecom operators, as well as for minimizing the environmental impact of wireless technology (Bogale and Le 2015 ).

End-user willingness to Pay for 5G enabled IoT

In the summer of 2017, Gartner conducted a survey to gauge the willingness among end-user organizations to pay more for 5G networking technology (Gartner 2017 ). A vast majority of correspondents (57%) believed that 5G-capable networks would play an important role in IoT in their organizations and that their intention is to use 5G to drive IoT communication. The video was the next most popular use case, which was chosen by 53% of the respondents. The study also identified the willingness to pay for the 5G networks of surveyed organizations. 57% of surveyed organizations were willing to pay the same cost as 4G and up to 10% higher (Fig.  6 ).

figure 6

Source: Gartner ( 2017 )

Willingness of Organizations to pay for 5G.

5 5G for automotive industry and smart cars

Rethinking transportation

Henry Ford introduced his first Model T car using interchangeable parts on an assembly line in 1908. This led to a more efficient manufacturing process—the price of cars dropped, and sales picked up. Nearly 7% of American families owned a car in 1918. The number of cars nearly tripled from 8 million to 23 million in the 1920s. By 1929, 80% of American families owned a car. At this time, the auto manufacturing industry was also growing quickly—by 1925, 10% of the U.S. workforce was employed by the auto industry. Cars were the most significant innovation of the twentieth century that shaped our modern lifestyle. The rise of the automobile industry disrupted almost every industry and every aspect of the economy. Affordable cars enabled people to move from cities to the suburbs, which led to economic growth in the construction industry. This new era of transportation remained in place for 100 years (Sears 1977 ). However, a revolution is arriving by way of self-driving vehicles. These autonomous cars are anticipated to disrupt critical areas of the economy and have an even bigger impact than the automobile did in the 1920s. More specifically, self-driving cars are labeled as the fastest, deepest, most consequential disruptions of transportation in history (Arbib and Seba 2017 ).

Consumer mobility behavior is one of the areas that is changing. Individuals are increasingly using multiple modes of transportation to complete their journey(s). The “state of delivery” is another area of customer concern. Consumers are showing an obvious preference for delivered goods and services. The clear result in this practice is a decline in individual shopping trips. In dense big cities like New York City or Los Angeles, car ownership is increasingly becoming more of a burden for many, and the prospect of shared mobility now presents a competitive value proposition (McKinsey & Company 2016 ). According to a 2017 study by RethinkX, an independent think tank and research company, within 10 years of government approval of autonomous vehicles, 95% of the U.S. passenger miles will be covered by fleets of autonomous electric vehicles (Arbib and Seba 2017 ). This will create a new business model called “Transport as-a-Service” (TaaS) and will have enormous implications across the transportation and oil industries, causing oil demand and prices to plummet, and creating trillions of dollars in new business opportunities and GDP growth (Arbib and Seba 2017 ). It is predicted that TaaS will reduce energy demand by 80% and tailpipe emissions by over 90%, thus bringing dramatic reductions or perhaps even the elimination of air pollution and greenhouse gases from the transport sector and improved public health. TaaS will not only dramatically lower transportation costs but increase mobility and access to jobs, education, and health care. It has the potential to create trillions of dollars in consumer surplus and contribute to a cleaner, safer, and more walkable communities (Arbib and Seba 2017 ). According to this study, by 2030, by using the TaaS model, the average American family could save nearly $5600 per year in transportation costs, and the United States will save an additional $1 trillion per year (Arbib and Seba 2017 ).

Autonomous cars disrupt the transportation industry in several ways. Driven by the exponential rise in electric vehicles, improved connectivity services provided by faster networking solutions, and technological breakthrough, consumer mobility behavior is changing. It is predicted that one out of ten cars sold in 2030 will potentially be a shared vehicle. Once regulatory issues have been resolved, up to 15% of new cars sold in 2030 could be fully autonomous (McKinsey & Company 2016 ). Auto production will suffer because autonomous fleets will need far fewer cars than are currently consumed. According to an estimate by RethinkX Sector Disruption Report, the number of U.S. vehicles will drop 82% from 247 to 44 million in the new age of autonomous vehicles. That will lead to a 70% reduction in automotive manufacturing. Moreover, nearly 100 million existing vehicles will be abandoned as they become economically unviable (Arbib and Seba 2017 ). This could result in total disruption and almost complete destruction of the auto industry—specifically car dealers, maintenance, and insurance companies. Automakers’ business models will shift from producing cars for public consumption to producing cars to deploy in their self-driving fleets. Traffic becomes a thing of the past, commute times will decline significantly, and workers can move even further from their place of employment. As a result, real estate will become more accessible, increasing urban sprawl (Arbib and Seba 2017 ). The primary challenges impeding faster market penetration for fully autonomous vehicles are pricing, consumer understanding, and safety/security issues. Fully self-driving vehicles are unlikely to be commercially available before 2020 (McKinsey & Company 2016 ). However, these driverless cars are already here to stay. Tesla recently announced the company’s aspiration to release a fully autonomous Robo taxi fleet next year. Lyft announced that self-driving cars are a central part of its vision for reducing individual car ownership, creating safer streets, and alleviating congestion. In 2018, Lyft partnered with vehicle technology firm Aptiv to begin its driverless car program in Las Vegas. Lyft’s fleet of 30 driverless cars has completed 50,000 rides in Las Vegas, up from 30,000 in January 2019. Passengers rated their trips an impressive average of 4.97 out of 5. Moreover, 92% of riders felt very safe or extremely safe during the ride. 95% of riders indicated it was their first time inside a self-driving vehicle (Lyft Blog 2019 ). Lyft is looking for partnerships to further its self-driving ambitions. It recently announced a deal with self-driving technology firm Waymo for a ridesharing service in Phoenix, Arizona (Mogg 2019 ).

The impact of 5G on automotive industry

According to a 2017 study by Qualcomm, by 2035, 5G networks will enable more than $2.4 trillion in total economic output in the automotive sector, including its supply chain and its customers. 5G economic impacts in this sector will represent about 20% of the total global 5G economic impact by 2035 (Condon 2017 ). According to the World Economic Forum, the digital transformation of the automotive industry will generate $67 billion in value for that sector over the 2015–2025 periods. Additionally, this transformation will generate $3.1 trillion in the societal benefit that includes autonomous vehicles improvement and the transportation enterprise ecosystem over the same period (World Economic Forum 2015 ).

Automakers are racing to improve the technology that will power self-driving cars. 5G networks enable the digital transformation of the automotive industry. Smart cars consume a lot of bandwidth, require quicker responses from the network, and demand continuous connectivity to the network. 5G supports higher bandwidth and lower latencies, which enables Smart Cars to function efficiently. 5G technology improves mobile wireless networks’ capacity and data speeds. It allows network providers to offer much more robust internet connections to devices. As such, 5G will play an important role in the proliferation of self-driving cars, which will produce enormous amounts of data. This technology makes intelligent driving safer and more efficient. As such, 5G networks will help enable the autonomous urban ride services and most self-driving car players. Additionally, 5G networks can offer many services to automakers, including navigation information, traffic information, e-tolling, hazard warning, collision warning, weather updates, and cybersecurity services to monitor vehicles for intrusions.

6 5G for manufacturing sector and smart factory

The constantly changing manufacturing industry

The manufacturing industry is going through a significant period of change driven by rapid technological advancements that have enabled manufacturers to meet consumer demands better. Technology will play a key role in empowering manufacturers to innovate and embrace the opportunities that will present themselves. Manufacturers must keep up with the technological evolution of the products and processes, as they are continually improved. As more and more ‘smart’ devices are integrated into manufacturing, industry 4.0 will continue to dominate the manufacturing process. Industry 4.0 combines artificial intelligence and data science to realize the potential of the Internet of Things (IoT) (Attaran 2017b ). Sensors and tags are attached to parts to track them throughout the manufacturing and assembly process. Sensors are also used to improve the performance of machines, to extend their lives, to predict when equipment is wearing down or in need of repair, and to learn how machines can be redesigned to be more efficient. This could reduce maintenance costs by 40% and cut unplanned downtime by 50% (Hale 2019 ). Furthermore, an increasing amount of data being created by Industry 4.0 provides the opportunity for the manufacturer to significantly enhance the customer experience.

Additionally, during the past years, the use of additive manufacturing (AM) technologies in different industries have increased substantially. AM is used to produce products that can be customized individually. The technology offers several benefits to the manufacturing industry, including shorter production lead times, reduced time to market for new product designs, and faster response to customer demand (Attaran 2017a ).

Finally, Artificial Intelligence (AI) is another technology that is set to have a profound impact on the manufacturing industry in several diverse ways. For example, AI can be used to make more sense of the mountains of data manufacturers are now collecting and storing. It can also be used to improve customer service and support.

5G and manufacturing industry

Manufacturing companies around the world are under extreme competitive pressure due to shorter business and product lifecycles. Margins are being squeezed more than ever, and workforces are aging and becoming costlier to maintain. To compete globally, manufacturing companies have to improve efficiency and reduce costs through new process innovations—technologies like robotics, warehouse automation, smart factories, and flexible manufacturing help. 5G networks and IoT will play crucial roles in enhancing and enabling these manufacturing advances. 5G networking technologies provide the network characteristics essential for manufacturing. 5G will give manufacturing companies a chance to build smart factories and truly take advantage of technologies such as automation, artificial intelligence, and augmented reality for troubleshooting. 5G is a significant technology for industry digitalization that directly enhances connectivity, quality, speed, latency, and bandwidth. 5G could help overcome manufacturing problems and pain points, including connectivity issues such as insufficient bandwidth, speed, and latency issues. 5G will also improve connectivity for a large network of sensors for predictive maintenance of factory floor machines and robots. 5G networks will allow for higher flexibility, lower cost, and shorter lead times for factory floor layout changes and alterations. 5G networks, services, and connectivity capabilities have the potential to transform production, business models, and sales in ways that will benefit manufacturing. Advanced 5G networks and information processing technology can streamline smart factories, improve internal and external communications, and unify full product life cycle management on a single network. Other important pain points and crucial manufacturing use cases 5G can overcome are summarized in Table  1 (Ericsson 2019 ).

7 5G for the healthcare industry

The ever-changing healthcare industry

Allied Market Research estimates that there are 3.7 million connected medical devices in use to enable healthcare decisions. According to its prediction, the worldwide IoT healthcare market will reach $136.8 billion by 2021 (Market Watch 2016 ). The applications of IoT in the healthcare industry are limitless. The concept is referred to as the Internet of Medical Things or “IoMT.” It is the collection of medical devices equipped with Wi-Fi and applications connected to healthcare IT systems through online computer networks. As hospitals struggle to lower operating costs and remain competitive, IoMT has the potential to reduce costs and improve a patient’s journey through a medical facility. The idea of telemedicine or the ability of a doctor with a webcam to diagnose a patient’s problems without an office visit is becoming popular. This is very useful when patients live in remote areas or when they need specialized care. Mobile health can help the healthcare industry improve efficiency and reduce costs in the areas of disease prevention, counseling, treatment, and rehabilitation (Marr 2018 ).

5G advantages for healthcare

5G networks and services provide mobile health platform advantages such as integrated mobility and advanced connectivity so doctors and nurses can achieve patient monitoring anywhere, anytime. 5G technology enables patients to use wearable devices to transmit their health symptoms and status. 5G enhanced mobile broadband with faster speed and more bandwidth can help doctors have access to patient’s information for remote monitoring and diagnosis.

5G networks enable factory robots to communicate their task and position, allowing them to do more tasks efficiently and wirelessly. Drones could fly over a field of crops, using sensors on the ground, to sort, pick, feed, and water individual plants. In April 2019, a Chinese neurosurgeon successfully operated on a patient suffering from Parkinson’s disease. The doctor used a pacemaker-like implant on a patient that was about 1864 miles away during the surgery. This surgery was only possible because of the lightning-fast connection of 5G networks that allows surgeons such as the one in China to control an off-site surgical robot and operate in real-time (China Daily 2019 ).

A recent study by Ericsson identified different ways the healthcare industry can derive value out of 5G networking technology (Ericsson 2018 ). They are summarized below:

Effective capture of the vast amount of patient data.

Real-time mobile delivery of rich medical data.

Improved availability of suitable infrastructure.

Improved security of patient data and superior data storage.

Ability to accurately control remote medical equipment without delay.

Ability to incorporate augmented and virtual reality for enhanced training of interns.

Facilitate the connectivity and operations of smart medical objects and instruments such as syringes, beds, and cabinets.

8 5G for smart grids and smart cities

5G for smart grids

The smart grid is one example of the application of IoT where components of the electric grid from transformers to power lines to home electric meters have sensors and are capable of two-way communication. The electric company can use the smart grid to manage distribution more efficiently, be proactive about maintenance, and respond to outages faster. Smart grids integrate traditional power systems with information, communication, and control technology to improve the power grid’s stability, security, and operating efficiency. Power generation facilities are digitizing form, scale, power management, and control to increase systems and operating efficiency. The communications systems for smart grids cover all nodes on the power system, including power generation, transformation, transmission, distribution, and usage. The new digitized power generation facility attempts to improve the efficiency of power systems by building a high capacity, high-speed, real-time, secure, and stable communications networks. 5G greatly enhances the amount of spectrum used to send and receive data. It can act as an integrator and support the diverse requirements of smart grids. 5G is more efficient and faster than fiber optic and short-range wireless communications technology, supports over-the-air wireless connectivity, and has excellent disaster recovery capabilities. Other advantages like ultra-high bandwidth, wide-area seamless coverage, and roaming make 5G an ideal technology for smart and digital grids.

A recent study by Ericsson identified different ways the Energy and Utilities industry can derive value out of 5G networking technology (Ericsson 2018 ). They are summarized below:

Improves the integration of new technologies within the existing infrastructure.

Improves capturing and handling of the large volume of data.

Facilitates automation across distribution, operations, and energy efficiencies.

Facilitates connecting and monitoring of remote sites such as wind farms.

Improves industrial control and automation systems.

Improves applications to gather and monitor data.

Improves management of distributed energy resources.

Improves integration of sensors in microgrid and distributed generation.

5G for smart cities

In addition, 5G is a critical element in providing better networking in our technological world. For example, a smart city integrates information and communication technology and 5G networking solutions in a secure fashion to manage a city’s different functions. Those functions include, but are not limited to, schools, libraries, transportation systems, hospitals, power plants, water supply networks, waste management, law enforcement, and other community services. There is a need for finding a way of aggregating multiple layers of data, spanning traffic flows, individual transactions, human movement, shifts in energy usage, security activity, and almost any major component of contemporary economies. 5G technology can facilitate this aggregation. 5G technology can facilitate this aggregation. The savings gained from Smart Cities is incredible. For example, smart water technology can save $12 billion annually. Sensors installed in individual vehicles can be linked to broader systems that help to manage traffic congestion across the city.

9 Obstacles to rapid adoption

There are numerous challenges in applying 5G networking technology in a way that would allow for its significant and rapid growth. Security and privacy is the primary concern among consumers and businesses as devices become more connected. The major challenges include technological maturity, global standardization, government regulations, and cost. A recent study conducted by Ericsson revealed that companies are still hobbled when it comes to overcoming barriers to actually using the 5G technology. The significant barriers were identified as data security and privacy, lack of standards, and challenges of end-to-end implementation (Ericsson 2018 ). 5G’s speed will expedite incidents of a breach, and as we add more small cells, there will also be more vulnerable hardware. 5G technology also brings an increase in open-source designs and technologies. Open source brings the speed of innovation and collaboration, but it can also bring security vulnerabilities.

Technology standard is non-consistent and remains fragmented in most areas. Technical and boundary limitations still exist in some areas of technology. Capturing the full potential of 5G networking potentials will require innovation in technologies and business models, as well as investment in new capabilities and talent. Most businesses have not equipped their teams with 5G capable smartphones, scanners, laptops, nor, in the case of manufacturing facilities, smart machines on the factory floor. These devices will need to be upgraded or replaced, which means added training and cost for businesses. Business infrastructures will require updating to reap the full interconnected benefits of 5G. Existing devices will need to be upgraded or replaced with new devices that are enabled for 5G technology.

10 Summary and Conclusions

5G networks and services will be deployed in stages over the next few years to provide a platform on which new digital services and business models can thrive. 5G will mark a turning point in the future of communications bringing high-powered connectivity to billions of devices. It will enable machines to communicate in an IoT environment capable of driving a near-endless array of services. As more devices become connected, and the IoT use cases grow exponentially, 5G networks facilitate the rapid increase of IoT and will bring significant benefits to corporations and consumers. 5G networks will revolutionize transportation and will reliably connect patients and doctors all over the globe providing improved access to medical treatment. As digital transformation is shifting user experience away from the text, image, and video into immersive VR and AR., 5G cellular technology will facilitate this new shift by offering high speed, superior reliability, extreme bandwidth capacity, and low latency.

This paper examined the essential roles 5G plays in the success of different industries, including IoT, the auto industry and smart cars, manufacturing and smart factories, smart grids, and smart cities, and healthcare. It discussed how 5G is critical for growing industry digitization and for addressing the numerous challenges different manufacturing industries face in this rapidly changing landscape. Finally, this paper presented the crucial role that 5G plays in providing a competent platform to support the widespread adoption of critical communications services and driving the digitization and automation of industrial practices and processes of Industry 4.0.

Future directions

5G will continue to evolve as companies work towards its next phase, though it will take some time before 5G networks are fully rolled out and utilized. It is expected that 5G will scale rapidly after launch in 2020, with coverage reaching just over a third of the global population in 5 years.

The implications of the rise of an autonomous electric fleet for the transportation industry, society, and the automotive industry are huge. 5G will play an important role in making electric vehicles and autonomous ride-sharing a reality. 5G will enable networks of self-driving cars with the ability to send data between each other, communicate with traffic lights, road sensors, aerial drones, and so on within a millisecond. Additionally, autonomous trains, delivery trucks, even airplanes could be on the horizon soon.

5G Wireless will also play a crucial role in a growing number of consumer electronics technologies and companies and will transform the fundamental ways industries conduct business. 5G wireless will enable companies to be on the growing side of the growth wave keeping their investors, customers, and workers happy. So, the very near future will be one of the most exciting times for business in our lifetimes, full of challenges, opportunities, and risks.

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Attaran, M. The impact of 5G on the evolution of intelligent automation and industry digitization. J Ambient Intell Human Comput 14 , 5977–5993 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12652-020-02521-x

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Research areas in 5G Technology

We are currently on the cusp of 5G rollout. As industry experts predict , 5G deployments will gain momentum, and the accessibility of 5G devices will grow in 2020 and beyond. But as the general public waits for mass-market 5G devices, our understanding of this new technology is continuing to develop. Public and private organizations are exploring several research areas in 5G technology, helping to create more awareness of breakthroughs in this technology, its potential applications and implications, and the challenges surrounding it. 

What is especially clear at this point is that 5G technology offers a transformative experience for mobile communications around the globe. Its benefits, which include higher data rates, faster connectivity, and potentially lower power consumption, promise to benefit industry, professional users, casual consumers, and everyone in between. As this article highlights, researchers have not yet solved or surmounted all of the challenges and obstacles surrounding the wide scale deployment of 5G technology. But the potential impact that it will have on the entire matrix of how we communicate is limited only by the imagination of the experts currently at its frontier. 

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New developments and applications in 5G technologies

Much of the transformative impact of 5G stems from the higher data transmission speeds and lower latency that this fifth generation of cellular technology enables. Currently, when you click on a link or start streaming a video, the lag time between your request to the network and its delivery to your device is about twenty milliseconds. 

That may not seem like a long time. But for the expert mobile robotics surgeon, that lag might be the difference between a successful or failed procedure. With 5G, latency can be as low as one millisecond. 

5G will greatly increase bandwidth capacity and transmission speeds. Wireless carriers like Verizon and AT&T have recorded speeds of one gigabyte per second. That’s anywhere from ten to one hundred times faster than an average cellular connection and even faster than a fiber-optic cable connection. Such speeds offer exciting possibilities for new developments and applications in numerous industries and economic sectors.

E-health services

For example, 5G speeds allow telemedicine services to enhance their doctor-patient relationships by decreasing troublesome lag times in calls. This helps patients return to the experience of intimacy they are used to from in-person meetings with health-care professionals. 

As 5G technology continues to advance its deployment, telemedicine specialists find that they can live anywhere in the world, be licensed in numerous states, and have faster access to cloud data storage and retrieval. This is especially important during the COVID-19 pandemic , which is spurring new developments in telemedicine as a delivery platform for medical services. 

Energy infrastructure

In addition to transforming e-health services, the speed and reliability of 5G network connectivity can improve the infrastructure of America’s energy sector with smart power grids. Such grids bring automation to the legacy power arrangement, optimizing the storage and delivery of energy. With smart power grids, the energy sector can more effectively manage power consumption and distribution based on need and integrate off-grid energy sources such as windmills and solar panels.

Another specific area to see increased advancement due to 5G technology is artificial intelligence (AI). One of the main barriers to successful integration of AI is processing speeds. With 5G, data transfer speeds are ten times faster than those possible with 4G. This makes it possible to receive and analyze information much more efficiently. And it puts AI on a faster track in numerous industries in both urban and rural settings. 

In rural settings, for example, 5G is helping improve cattle farming efficiency . By placing sensors on cows, farmers capture data that AI and machine learning can process to predict when cows are likely to give birth. This helps both farmers and veterinarians better predict and prepare for cow pregnancies.

However, it’s heavily populated cities across the country that are likely to witness the most change as mobile networks create access to heretofore unexperienced connectivity. 

Smart cities

Increased connectivity is key to the emergence of smart cities . These cities conceive of improving the living standards of residents by increasing the connectivity infrastructure of the city. This affects numerous aspects of city life, from traffic management and safety and security to governance, education, and more. 

Smart cities become “smarter” when services and applications become remotely accessible. Hence, innovative smartphone applications are key to smart city infrastructure. But the potential of these applications is seriously limited in cities with spotty connectivity and wide variations in data transmission speed. This is why 5G technology is crucial to continued developments in smart cities.

Other applications

Many other industries and economic sectors will benefit from 5G. Additional examples include automotive communication, smart retail and manufacturing. 

Wave spectrum challenges with 5G

While the potential applications of 5G technology are exciting, realizing the technology’s potential is not without its challenges. Notably, 5G global upgrades and changes are producing wave spectrum challenges.

A number of companies, such as Samsung, Huawei Technologies, ZTE Corporation, Nokia Networks, Qualcomm, Verizon, AT&T, and Cisco Systems are competing to make 5G technology available across the globe. But while in competition with each other, they all share the same goal and face the same dilemma.

Common goal

The goal for 5G is to provide the requisite bandwidth to every user with a device capable of higher data rates. Networks can provide this bandwidth by using a frequency spectrum above six gigahertz . 

Though the military has already been using frequencies above six gigahertz, commercial consumer-based networks are now doing so for the first time. All over the globe, researchers are exploring the new possibilities of spectrum and frequency channels for 5G communications. And they are focusing on the frequency range between twenty-five and eighty-six gigahertz.

Common dilemma

While researchers see great potential with a high-frequency version of 5G, it comes with a key challenge. It is very short range. Objects such as trees and buildings cause significant signal obstruction, necessitating numerous cell towers to avoid signal path loss. 

However, multiple-input, multiple-output (MIMO) technology is proving to be an effective technique for expanding the capacity of 5G connectivity and addressing signal path challenges. Researchers are keying into MIMO deployment due to its design simplicity and multiple offered features. 

A massive MIMO network can provide service to an increased multiplicity of mobile devices in a condensed area at a single frequency simultaneously. And by facilitating a greater number of antennas, a massive MIMO network is more resistant to signal interference and jamming.

Even with MIMO technology, however, line of sight will still be important for high-frequency 5G. Base stations on top of most buildings are likely to remain a necessity. As such, a complete 5G rollout is potentially still years away. 

Current solutions and the way forward

In the interim, telecommunication providers have come up with an alternative to high-frequency 5G— “midband spectrum.” This is what T-Mobile uses. But this compromise does not offer significant performance benefits in comparison to 4G and thus is unlikely to satisfy user expectations. 

Despite the frequency challenges currently surrounding 5G, it is important to keep in mind that there is a common evolution with new technological developments. Initial efforts to develop new technology are often complex and proprietary at the outset. But over time, innovation and advancements provide a clear, unified pathway forward.

This is the path that 5G is bound to follow. Currently, however, MIMO technological advancements notwithstanding, 5G rollout is still in its early, complex phase.

Battery life and energy storage for 5G equipment

For users to enjoy the full potential of 5G technology, longer battery life and better energy storage is essential. So this is what the industry is aiming for.

Currently, researchers are looking to lithium battery technology to boost battery life and optimize 5G equipment for user expectations. However, the verdict is mixed when it comes to the utility of lithium batteries in a 5G world. 

Questions about battery demands and performance

In theory, 5G smartphones will be less taxed than current smartphones. This is because a 5G network with local 5G base stations will dramatically increase computation speeds and enable the transfer of the bulk of computation from your smartphone to the cloud. This means less battery usage for daily tasks and longer life for your battery. Or does it?

A competing theory focuses on the 5G phones themselves. Unlike 4G chips, the chips that power 5G phones are incredibly draining to lithium batteries. 

Early experiments indicate that the state-of-the-art radio frequency switches running in smartphones are continually jumping from 3G to 4G to Wi-Fi. As a smartphone stays connected to these different sources, its battery drains faster.

The present limited infrastructure of 5G exacerbates this problem. Current 5G smartphones need to maintain a connection to multiple networks in order to ensure consistent phone call, text message, and data delivery. And this multiplicity of connections contributes to battery drain.

Until the technology improves and becomes more widely available, consumers are left with a choice: the regular draining expectations that come with 4G devices or access to the speeds and convenience of 5G Internet. 

Possibilities for improvement on the horizon

Fortunately, what can be expected with continuous 5G rollout is continuous improvements in battery performance. As 5G continues to expand across the globe, increasing the energy density and extending the lifetime of batteries will be vital. So market competition for problem-solving battery solutions promises to be fierce and drive innovation to meet user expectations. 

Additional research areas in 5G technology

While research in battery technology remains important, researchers are also focusing their attention on a number of other areas of concern. This research is likewise aimed at meeting user expectations and realizing the full potential of 5G technology as it gains more footing in public and private sectors. 

Small cell research

For example, researchers are focusing on small cells to meet the much higher data capacity demands of 5G networks. As mobile carriers look to densify their networks, small cell research is leading the way toward a solution.

Small cells are low-powered radio access points that take the place of traditional wireless transmission systems or base stations. By making use of low-power and short-range transmissions in small geographic areas, small cells are particularly well suited for the rollout of high-frequency 5G. As such, small cells are likely to appear by the hundreds of thousands across the United States as cellular companies work to improve mobile communication for their subscribers. The faster small cell technology advances, the sooner consumers will have specific 5G devices connected to 5G-only Internet. 

Security-oriented research

Security is also quickly becoming a major area of focus amid the push for a global 5G rollout. Earlier iterations of cellular technology were based primarily on hardware. When voice and text were routed to separate physical devices, each device managed its own network security. There was network security for voice calls, network security for short message system (SMS), and so forth.

5G moves away from this by making everything more software based. In theory, this makes things less secure, as there are now more ways to attack the network. Originally, 5G did have some security layers built in at the federal level. Under the Obama administration, legislation mandating clearly defined security at the network stage passed. However, the Trump administration is looking to replace these security layers with its own “national spectrum strategy.”

With uncertainty about existing safeguards, the cybersecurity protections available to citizens and governments amid 5G rollout is a matter of critical importance. This is creating a market for new cybersecurity research and solutions—solutions that will be key to safely and securely realizing the true value of 5G wireless technology going forward.

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Comment on “5G mobile networks and health-a state-of-the-science review of the research into low-level RF fields above 6 GHz” by Karipidis et al.

  • Steven Weller   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4697-6351 1 , 2 ,
  • Murray May 2 ,
  • Julie McCredden 2 ,
  • Victor Leach 2 ,
  • Dung Phung 3 &
  • Igor Belyaev 4  

Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology volume  33 ,  pages 17–20 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

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Karipidis et al. [ 1 ] (hereinafter: Karipidis) published a scoping review investigating radiofrequency (RF) studies in the range >6 GHz, with a particular focus on the millimetre wave (MMW) band. The Karipidis review was performed against a backdrop of rising public concerns associated with the health and safety of 5th generation (5G) wireless technology [ 2 ]. Subsequently, the telecommunications industry is now using the Karipidis review to suggest “no evidence of adverse health effects from the radio waves used in 5G including mmWave” [ 3 ]. Notwithstanding the fact that no studies have investigated specific 5G frequencies and modulations, does the Karipidis review stand up to scrutiny in providing assurances of safety (no evidence of harm) that industry is suggesting? The analysis herein reveals that it does not.

A host of study design weaknesses in the existing literature were critiqued throughout the Karipidis review. In spite of the apparent lack of rigour attributed to many papers, Karipidis concluded that “experimental studies provided no confirmed evidence that low-level MMWs are associated with biological effects relevant to human health” and similarly, that radar-related epidemiological studies “presented little evidence of an association between low-level MMWs and any adverse health effects”.

This line of reasoning parallels that used previously by scientists working for the tobacco industry, whose studies repeatedly arrived at conclusions suggesting no clear determination of harm could be made [ 4 ]. This was part of a broader strategy of manufacturing doubt about the potential negative health effects of their product, as summarised by Gilbert [ 5 ]:

“The very nature of scientific exploration is to ask and answer the next question. But rather than accepting the process of scientific discovery, business interests press to have every tiny bit of uncertainty explored before any policy decision can be made, demanding proof rather than precaution—in fact, they even manufacture uncertainty. As a result, decisions are not made; policy is not advanced; problems are not addressed.”

A similar ethos is observed with the handling of scientific evidence by some governments and associated regulatory bodies in regards to radiofrequency exposures and health risks [ 6 , 7 ]. The same was noted by the US Court of Appeals in the recent case against the FCC [ 8 ].

Surprisingly, the Karipidis review did not identify and discuss potential risk implications. This is of significant importance, because as Karipidis noted, the use of RF frequencies above 6 GHz is only just beginning. Best practice demands a risk management approach for the identification of all potential hazards and implementation of mitigation strategies to address these risks. This is already the case with low-dose ionizing radiation [ 9 ], but is sorely neglected for non-ionizing RF radiation [ 10 ]. Rather than waiting for harm to be established before acting, a precautionary approach to risk management is necessary [ 6 , 11 ].

Detailed analysis of Karipidis tables and selection of papers

In order to conduct an independent assessment of the Karipidis review, we performed our own literature search using the same international research libraries as Karipidis, and also accessed the Oceania Radiofrequency Scientific Advisory Association (ORSAA) database (ODEB) [ 12 ].

To perform our assessment, the Karipidis review was critiqued and classified into different categories as summarised in Tables  1  and 2 . The full set of Karipidis tables, our corresponding review comments and analysis can be downloaded from the ORSAA website [ 13 ]. The results reveal issues of potential bias as well as questions around the completeness and thoroughness of the work conducted by Karipidis.

Critique summary

Examination of the Karipidis 5G health review reveals many errors in classification and analysis. Some are minor, and although indicating a lack of diligence, they have no substantial implications for the outcomes identified in the papers reviewed. Of much greater concern are the number of misstatements, misclassifications, and exclusions of important findings from sound research.

The Karipidis review is at best a superficial analysis of a restricted set of available publications investigating exposures to radio frequencies in the >6 GHz range. No attempt has been made to understand or reconcile differing study outcomes. Karipidis has simply restated the results for specific endpoints, showing papers that have demonstrated statistically significant effects and those that have not. Divergent findings have been used to suggest ‘inconsistency’ as a problem, thereby diminishing the importance of biological effect findings. In contrast, our assessment [ 13 ] provides rational justifications to explain some of the divergent findings. We have also previously discussed a number of physical and biological variables, which underlie the different outcomes from studies investigating biological effects of RF exposures in general [ 14 ], and MMW exposures in particular [ 15 ]. Karipidis also attributed ‘quality’ deficiencies to a number of studies that are unjustified [ 13 ].

A literature search identified a significant number of relevant papers (at least 70 experimental papers and 16 epidemiological papers available from PubMed and ODEB) were missing from the Karipidis collection. These papers cover all major themes presented by Karipidis and more, with the majority showing statistically significant effects. By restricting the paper selection criteria, the balance of evidence can be skewed. A lack of transparency regarding papers found and ultimately discarded by Karipidis means that selection bias cannot be excluded.

Also missing from the Karipidis review is an analysis of potential publication and funding biases, which would allow the reader to assess how such influences affect study outcomes. This is often very obvious. For example, on a related topic, Carpenter [ 16 ] found that evidence for magnetic fields increasing the risk of cancer is neither inconsistent nor inconclusive (from government or independent studies), yet almost all industry supported studies fail to find any significant or even suggested associations. A similar industry funding study bias was observed with mobile phones [ 17 ].

The biased selections and assessments that have been uncovered in the Karipidis review create an unbalanced view of the science, and skew the final conclusion towards uncertainty. In contrast, when appraising all relevant findings, the evidence found in our review points to risks not fully considered by the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) or the Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency (ARPANSA) in their respective RF guidelines and RF standards. These guidelines do not reflect the current state of scientific knowledge and are based on acute heating protection only [ 10 ], which is purely for regulatory convenience. The gulf between thermal and non-thermal evaluative frameworks has previously been discussed [ 6 , 18 ].

Other important works have been omitted from the Karipidis review. Epidemiological studies suggest that RF exposures from other technologies such as radar are associated with an increased risk of hemolymphatic cancers [ 19 ], and experimental studies investigating genotoxicity in blood cells [ 20 ] have found the same. Such converging evidence requires an immediate focused investigation into RF bioeffects rather than dismissal. Other health risks potentially linked to RF exposures include pregnancy complications, fertility impairment, testicular cancer and brain cancer. These are identified in our analysis [ 13 ] and will be discussed in a future paper.

Other researchers [ 21 ] agree that the current peer reviewed science points to “predictable harm to life forms within mixed frequency mesh networks with negative consequences likely over time”. Russell assessed the literature on MMW effects on skin and eyes, the immune system, gene expression, and bacterial antibiotic resistance. Because of the shallow penetration of MMW, the skin and eyes are of significant concern. More than a decade ago, research by Feldman et al. [ 22 ] indicated that sweat ducts in the skin could behave as antennas and thus respond to MMW. The same group [ 23 ] later stated that there is enough evidence suggesting that helical sweat ducts in conjunction with wavelengths approaching the dimensions of skin layers could lead to non-thermal biological effects.

Finally, the Karipidis review lacks representation of many species, including plants, amphibians, birds, domestic animals and most importantly, insects. Therefore, readers are provided with little to no understanding of how MMWs impact these important ecological entities. This is a significant gap.

The above critique of the Karipidis review raises a number of ‘red-flags’. These require clarification and clear justification before telecommunications companies are given carte blanche to begin rolling out novel modulated signals to which biological systems have never been exposed.

Karipidis has conducted an investigation resulting in the exclusion of important findings, while also overemphasising quality deficiencies and inconsistencies in the data, thereby suggesting confirmation bias. Di Ciaula [ 24 ] argues that underestimating the relevance of available results (in particular those from in vitro and animal models) is ethically unacceptable, and is equivalent to saying that potential hazardous effects can only be assessed after the agent has had time to exert its harmful effects.

In this regard, Gee’s discussion [ 25 ] of risk assessment is pertinent. In “late lessons from early warnings” a variety of case studies spanning chemicals, physical agents, pathogens, and environmental issues illustrate how timing is critical for risk analysis and application of the precautionary principle. In all cases, precautionary action, or foresight based on a lower strength of evidence, would have lowered the burden of disease, reduced unnecessary suffering and prevented many premature deaths.

In our opinion, the Karipidis review provides insufficient evidence of safety, which is being used by Industry [ 3 ] as justification for the planned densification and ubiquitous use of radiofrequencies >6 GHz as part of the 5G rollout. However, we concur with Karipidis that future experimental studies “should improve the experimental design” and “epidemiological research should continue to monitor long-term health effects in the population related to wireless telecommunications”.

The Karipidis review seemingly equates risk management with the need to confirm evidence of harm. The point at which harm becomes a public issue is far too late, given the size of the population being exposed without formal consent. We consider that risks to humans and the environment identified in past epidemiological studies [ 13 ], as well as unknown risks yet to be identified, warrant the application of a precautionary approach.

We find the Karipidis review to be both inadequate and incomplete, sending the wrong messages regarding safety assessment and public health.

Data availability

Data generated and analysed for the production of this comment article is freely available for download from the Oceania Radiofrequency Scientific Advisory (ORSAA) website at the following address: https://www.orsaa.org/5g-review-supplementary-material.html .

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Acknowledgements

We would like to acknowledge Professor Cordia Chu, director at Griffith University, School of Medicine and Dentistry, who provided invaluable advice in the development of this paper.

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Centre for Environmental and Population Health, School of Medicine and Dentistry, Griffith University, 170 Kessels Road, Nathan, Brisbane, QLD, 4111, Australia

Steven Weller

Oceania Radiofrequency Scientific Advisory Association (ORSAA), Scarborough, QLD, 4020, Australia

Steven Weller, Murray May, Julie McCredden & Victor Leach

School of Public Health, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia

Department of Radiobiology, Cancer Research Institute, Biomedical Research Center, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, 845 05, Slovak Republic

Igor Belyaev

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Contributions

SW was responsible for reviewing and categorising all Karipidis research articles, writing the analysis documents and initial comment letter. MM and JM offered feedback, and further contributed to writing of letter content and adding references. VL provided ORSAA database relevant records, offered feedback and further contributed to letter content. DP offered feedback and advice on epidemiological studies. IB contributed to letter content, provided feedback and contributed to the analysis documents.

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Weller, S., May, M., McCredden, J. et al. Comment on “5G mobile networks and health-a state-of-the-science review of the research into low-level RF fields above 6 GHz” by Karipidis et al.. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 33 , 17–20 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41370-022-00497-8

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The population health effects from 5G: Controlling the narrative

Introduction.

The development and implementation of the fifth-generation wireless technology (5G) are currently ongoing and have largely been met with enthusiasm from the telecommunication industry, applications industries, national governments, and the public. However, 5G has also been met with resistance from anti-5G campaigning organizations supported by pockets of the general public. Concerns relate to the perception that 5G might increase total exposure to radiofrequency (RF) radiation, with further concerns around the fact that in addition to the frequency bands used in 3G and 4G, 5G will (and in some places already does) also use frequencies of >6 GHz including a new ~ 30–300 GHz “high band” with wavelengths from 10 to 1 mm [millimeter waves (MMWs)] ( 1 ). Further concerns relate to the use of multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) technologies and beamforming, and to the implications on infrastructure as 5G requires many additional new small cells. A cursory read of popular and social media provides interesting reading and illustrates how different interpretations of the same information can result in widely varying interpretations, not least compounded by 5G-related conspiracy theories ( 2 ). Competing narratives around 5G are also described around geopolitical debates ( 3 ). Ideally, the peer-reviewed evidence synthesis literature should be free of these and other non-scientific influences, but in practice, this is rarely, if ever, the case. To explore the narrative that formed the basis for the evaluation of health risks in the peer-reviewed scientific literature, the publications on the topic published during the first critical period of discussion are briefly reviewed and discussed.

PubMed, Ovid Medline, and Web of Science databases of peer-reviewed literature were searched for reviews, commentaries, and opinion articles related to 5G and health. Inclusion was limited to these publications as these provide overviews of the evidence and/or initiate, drive, or direct the scientific debate, and primary research studies were excluded. Only publications in English language were included, and an a priori cutoff of the first 3 years from the first publication was assumed to describe the initiation and direction of the debate. Included articles were ranked based on the month and year of online publication (often “ahead of print”) to provide a chronological timeline of when information would have become available. Articles were assigned as “industry” or “activism” depending on whether the articles report links between the authors and either industry or campaigning organizations related to 5G in particular or mobile phones more broadly, or as “independent” otherwise. In case no such links were reported, a basic internet search was performed to identify unreported links.

An overview of the 15 articles included in this review is provided in Table 1 . The set of articles covered the period of 2018–2021, thus providing an overview of the first 3 years of publications on 5G and health.

Overview of included publications.

The first review was published in February 2018 by Di Ciaula ( 4 ) and was based on a systematic search of epidemiological, in vivo , and in vitro studies identified in the PubMed database. Di Ciaula reported no funding or conflict of interest (CoI), but an internet search identified membership of the International Society of Doctors for Environment (ISDE), which published a 5G appeal for a moratorium on the development of 5G ( https://www.isde.org/5G_appeal.pdf ). Di Ciaula discussed the evidence for cancer, reproductive effects, neurologic effects, and microbiological effects and specifically addressed evidence in relation to MMWs. No formal assessment of the quality of the studies was included, and the author concluded that “[the evidence] clearly point to the existence of multi-level interactions between high-frequency EMF and biological systems, and to the possibility of oncologic and non-oncologic (mainly reproductive, metabolic, neurologic, microbiologic) effects” and further raises concerns regarding the increased susceptibility of children. The main aim of the review was to provide the rationale to invoke the precautionary principle, which is mentioned both in the Conclusion section and Abstract.

Russell published a similar review in April 2018 ( 5 ). Despite being the Executive Director of Physicians for Safe Technology, the author reported no affiliation, funding, or CoI. Russell does acknowledge support from Smernoff and Moskowitz; an internet search identifies the latter as being on the Advisory Board of Physicians for Safe Technology as well as being an advisor to the International EMF Scientist Appeal (and its spokesperson for the United States). The review reported effects on cancer, dermal effects, ocular effects, effects on reproduction and neurology, microbiological effects, and effects on the immune system. It further reports specific effects from MMWs, electrohypersensitivity [or, more accurately, idiopathic environmental intolerance attributed to electromagnetic fields (IEI-EMF)], and effects on children, and discusses how industry bias has obscured these facts. Scientific uncertainty is only mentioned in passing and is largely attributed to industry distortion. Russell concludes that “current radiofrequency radiation wavelengths we are exposed to appear to act as a toxin to biological systems” and “although 5G technology may have many unimagined uses and benefits, it is also increasingly clear that significant negative consequences to human health and ecosystems could occur if it is widely adopted.” It further makes specific policy recommendations that “public health regulations need to be updated to match appropriate independent science with the adoption of biologically based exposure standards prior to further deployment of 4G or 5G technology” and that “a moratorium on the deployment of 5G is warranted, along with the development of independent health and environmental advisory boards that include independent scientists who research biological effects and exposure levels of radiofrequency radiation.”

McClelland and Jaboin, who do not seem to have published on the topic of mobile phones and health before, published a commentary in August 2018 ( 6 ). They reported no CoIs, the commentary was supported by a few references to in vivo studies, and the sole aim of the commentary was to bring a 5G moratorium to the attention of the journal's readership.

Miller et al. published their review on August 2019 ( 7 ). The manuscript was initially developed as a Position Statement of the International Network for Epidemiology in Policy (INEP), but after its board voted to abandon its involvement, the authors decided to publish it regardless. They reported affiliations to universities as well as the campaigning organizations the Environmental Health Trust and the Environment and Cancer Research Foundation, but did not, for example, report their involvement in the Physician's Health Initiative for Radiation and Environment (PHIRE) (Miller, Hardell, Davis) and Oceania Radiofrequency Scientific Advisory Association (ORSAA) (Hardell, Morgan, Davis). No information is provided on the methodology of this narrative review, and no quality assessment of included references is conducted, but scientific uncertainty is discussed. Carcinogenic and reproductive effects are reported as a specific susceptibility of children to RF. Particularly in relation to 5G, skin effects, oxidative stress, altered gene expression, immune function, and other biological endpoints are mentioned. The authors make several policy recommendations, but not specifically in relation to 5G.

In September 2019, Simkó and Mattsson published a pragmatic review of in vivo and in vitro evidence for health and biological effects in relation to 6 to 100 GHz frequency range ( 8 ). Both authors were from SciProof International and reported that their review was funded by Deutsche Telekom Technik GmbH. Although described in opaque language, the review seems to be based on a systematic approach to evidence synthesis and includes an assessment of study quality. Scientific uncertainty is discussed in detail, and the authors conclude that “regarding the health effects of 6–100 GHz at power densities not exceeding the exposure guidelines, the studies provide no clear evidence due to contradictory information from the in vivo and in vitro investigations.” They further highlight that “regarding the quality of the presented studies, a few studies fulfill the minimal quality criteria to allow any further conclusions.”

Hardell and Nyberg published a commentary in January 2020 ( 9 ). Both reported university affiliations and reported that neither funding was received for the work nor do they report any CoIs. However, in addition to unreported associations already mentioned above, it has also been documented that Hardell has previously received direct industry funding as well as funding from pressure groups, while he has also acted as an expert witness for the plaintiff in hearings around brain tumors and mobile phones ( 10 ). He is the spokesperson for the International EMF Scientist Appeal for Sweden and also runs a charity, the Environment and Cancer Research Foundation, which accepts direct donations and is heavily involved in appeals. The commentary includes several strong claims, including that “RF radiation may now be classified as a human carcinogen, Group 1” and that “experience with the EU, and the governments of the Nordic countries suggest that the majority of decision-makers are scientifically uninformed on health risks from RF radiation”, and interestingly and without basis that “they [the EU and governments of Nordic countries] seem to be uninterested to being informed by scientists representing the majority of the scientific community.”

In January 2020, there was also the publication of a review of health effects of 5G under real-life conditions by Kostoff et al. ( 11 ). They reported university affiliations and declared that neither external funding was received for the work nor any CoIs. However, an internet search identified that Héroux is the spokesperson for the International EMF Scientists Appeal for Canada. There is no assessment of study quality or scientific uncertainty. They mentioned that industry influence is the cause of the lack of consensus on health effects of mobile phones. The authors claimed that “there is a large body of data from laboratory and epidemiological studies showing that previous and present generations of wireless networking technology have significant adverse health impacts”, and that, with respect to 5G specifically, “superimposing 5G radiation on an already imbedded toxic wireless radiation environment will exacerbate the adverse health effects shown to exist.”

An information statement from the IEEE Committee on Man and Radiation (COMAR) was published in relation to health and safety issues concerning the exposure of the general public to electromagnetic energy from 5G wireless communication networks in June 2020 ( 1 ). All authors report industry CoIs. The main focus of the review relates to RF exposures from 5G, but some discussion specifically on potential biological and health effects of MMWs is included. Study quality is discussed in detail, including the varying quality of narrative reviews [including ( 4 )], and research gaps regarding the bioeffects of MMWs are highlighted. The authors refer back to ( 8 ) for a discussion on bioeffects and conclude that “… while we acknowledge gaps in the scientific literature, particularly for exposures at MMW frequencies, the likelihood of yet unknown health hazards at exposure levels within current exposure limits is considered to be very low, if they exist at all.”

Hardell contributed a second commentary in this period, with Carlberg as co-author ( 12 ). In this commentary, they reported the Environmental and Cancer Research Foundation as their affiliation, but declared neither CoI nor any external funding for the work. Also, the authors discussed the involvement of certain experts in various committees related to RF health and safety in the EU and internationally and the influence of industry. In addition, they mentioned effects of RF exposure, including 5G, on cancer, reproduction, and neurology; effects on the immune system; and microbiological effects, and also mentioned the susceptibility of children to RF. The claim that “the IARC Category should be upgraded from Group 2B to Group 1, a human carcinogen” is re-iterated, referencing Hardell's earlier contribution as the basis for this claim ( 9 ). Hardell and Carlberg highlighted the appeal for a 5G moratorium sent to the EU in 2017.

Leszczynski published a review on the physiological effects of MMWs on the skin and skin cells in August 2020 ( 13 ). He reports a university affiliation, neither external funding for the work nor CoI. Leszczynski conducted a systematic review of several databases for studies of >6 GHz. The quality and uncertainty of the available evidence are specifically discussed, and he concludes that “this evidence is currently insufficient to claim that any effects have been proven or disproven”. Leszczynski addresses policy and argues that “deployment for industrial use should be the first, but the further broader deployment for the non-industrial use should preferably await for the results of the biomedical research”.

Frank published an essay on 5G and the precautionary principle in January 2021 ( 14 ). He declares neither external funding nor CoI. He is, however, a member of the PHIRE team. Frank has no previous track record in radiation epidemiology, but he has reviewed the evidence and provided support for the work by Miller et al. ( 7 ). He concluded that the precautionary principle should be applied and recommended a moratorium on 5G development.

A team from the Swinburne University of Technology and the Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency (ARPANSA) published two studies in March 2021: a comprehensive review of the literature for experimental studies of bioeffects of RF fields between 6 and 300 GHz and a complementary meta-analysis ( 15 , 16 ). The authors reported Australian government and National Health and Medical Research Council funding, but no CoIs. Of relevance is that Karipidis is a member of the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICRNIRP). The included studies in these publications were identified in a systematic literature search, and the authors have explicitly discussed study quality. They concluded that many studies have low-quality methods and that experimental data do not provide evidence that low-level MMWs are associated with biological effects relevant to human health.

Jargin published a letter to the editor in March 2021 ( 17 ) in which he has argued that various publications claiming there are health harms related to 5G published by interest groups overestimate any health risks from RF-EMF to hamper the technological advancement of developed nations. He further argued that excessive restrictions would only be unfavorable for the economy and add difficulties to daily life. As such, it advocates a policy recommendation of no action. He has reported neither external funding for the work nor any CoI.

Hardell also contributed a third publication ( 18 ). In this opinion piece/review, Hardell argued that evaluations by the Health Council of the Netherlands, the WHO, ICNIRP, and the Swedish Radiation Safety Authority are not impartial and that a moratorium on the implementation of 5G is urgently required. He has reported both university and foundation affiliations, but has reported neither external funding nor any of the above identified CoI.

This chronological overview of the publications published during the initial critical phase of discussions around 5G and health leads to the interesting observation that publications by authors with links to anti-5G campaigning organizations dominated the early phase in which adverse effects related to 5G were discussed. Over half of the 15 publications had links to such organizations in the initial 3-year period covered here. Such patterns of efforts to control the narrative during critical periods have been studied elsewhere, for example, in the sugar-sweetened beverage research ( 19 ); although in this example, the opposite pattern was observed in which the contribution of industry-related studies was high at the start and decreased significantly with time.

With the increasing contribution from independent and industry-linked authors over the covered time period, the narrative shifts from the exclusive reporting of increased risks of all biological or health effects covered to predominantly descriptions of mixed results and conclusions not supporting increased risks. This difference in the interpretation of the same evidence depending on the affiliation in RF research has been mentioned previously, specifically in relation to the funding source of primary studies ( 20 , 21 ), but the current overview is indicative of a similar pattern in other types of peer-reviewed publications. Reviews from independent and industry-linked authors were systematic-style reviews, rather than narrative reviews, and were of higher methodological quality because they based their inferences on a more systematic approach to the identification of relevant literature and also explicitly included some forms of assessment of the quality of these studies. They also had a narrower aim in terms of exposures or health outcomes, which will have facilitated a more systematic approach. There is evidence from various industries, including the telecommunications industry ( 20 , 21 ), of a correlation between industry funding of research and null findings. However, there is much less discussion of its mirror image: the phenomenon that independently funded studies may be biased if the authors have strong a priori beliefs about the question under study. This “white hat bias” is observable in the literature as selective referencing and the acceptance of a lower standard of scientific evidence for studies supporting the authors' beliefs ( 22 ), and was first explored in obesity research ( 23 , 24 ). The non-systematic inclusion of references (or “cherry picking”) and lack of explicit assessment of study quality observed in the publications in the current work were most prominent in the narrative reviews by authors with links to campaigning organizations and likely will have resulted in biased inferences. Importantly, since these publications made up most of the earliest publications during the critical window, these inferences will have disproportionally influenced the narrative. Given that all of these articles had the specific aim to influence policy and, in most cases, advocated for a moratorium on 5G, this provides further support for the presence of “white hat bias” influencing the initial peer-reviewed and, through that, lay literature.

Given the observed differences between publications by authors with links to campaigning organizations and those with industry-linked or independent authors, the reporting of CoI becomes more important. Direct industry funding and other financial CoIs are generally considered the main sources of potential bias, and these were reported by the publications with links to industry (either as a CoI or as a funding source) and by one of the papers with links to activism. However, no other financial CoIs were reported; for example, it is recorded that Hardell, who has contributed three publications in this critical time period, has previously received direct industry funding as well as funding from pressure groups, while he has also acted as an expert witness for the plaintiff in hearings around brain tumors and mobile phones ( 10 ). Importantly, industry and other financial CoIs are not the only potential source of CoI bias ( 25 ), and a variety of non-financial CoIs have been described, for instance, originating from particular concerns, ideals, and predilections ( 26 ). Membership of campaigning organizations or their advisory or expert boards would, presumably, constitute such non-financial CoIs and, therefore, should have been reported. Despite internet searches by the authors identifying quite a number of such CoIs, only a few of these were reported by the authors (or could be inferred from affiliations). Likewise, the membership of national or international expert organizations constitutes non-financial CoIs that ideally should have been reported, and Karipidis' membership of ICNIRP is relevant in the context of these publications.

Although the discussed timeline of publications highlights some interesting trends and areas of concern, this work has a number of limitations. Although the selected manuscripts were identified through a systematic search, it was not a systematic review of the literature, and publications that did not specifically mention 5G in the title, abstract, or keywords might have been missed. Furthermore, the search was also limited to publications in English language. Although the wider debate about health effects of 5G is much larger and also includes gray literature, popular, and social media, these were not included in this overview. It would be an interesting future exercise to evaluate similar trends in these media. Although several non-reported CoIs were identified, these were identified following cursory internet searches only and do not constitute an exhaustive list. It is likely that a more thorough systematic search would reveal additional links not reported here. It is also possible that some such CoIs did not exist yet at the time of publication.

In conclusion, the discussion around 5G as a significant human health risk in the peer-reviewed literature was initially largely driven by authors from, or with links to, various campaigning organizations and linked publications directly to appeals for a moratorium on 5G. Commentaries and letters are personal opinions and are rarely based upon a methodological appraisal of the evidence, but the narrative of the initial period covered in the current review, relied mostly on reviews of lower methodological quality compared, with the subsequently published reviews by independent researchers and researchers with links to industry. It is likely that articles in the popular media, therefore, were influenced more heavily by the initial advocacy publications than by the later higher quality contributions. Importantly, there is no clear answer (yet) whether the resulting narrative from the peer-reviewed literature describes an overestimation of risks as a result of articles with links to campaigning organizations, or whether later contributions from authors with links to industry, and possibly most independent authors, at the latter stages of the critical window describe an underestimation of true causal associations, or whether their combined evaluation will inform future evidence synthesis closer to “the truth”. It is, however, well established that not including explicit evaluation of the quality of studies included in evidence synthesis, and which was most evident in publications classified as “activism”, makes such reviews more susceptible to biased inferences. In addition to issues related to controlling the narrative and the impact of “white hat bias”, the current work further describes undisclosed non-financial CoIs that are likely to have influenced the interpretation of evidence. This was also observed particularly for those publications associated with campaigning organizations. The narrative around 5G and potential human health effects should be interpreted through this lens, in particular because many of the authors with links to various campaigning organizations in this article (Hardell, Héroux, Miller, and Moskowitz) as well as others who published works after the covered period have recently joined up formally in a new advocacy group ICBE-EMF ( 27 ).

Author contributions

FdV conceived of the study and wrote the first version of the manuscript. FdV and PA conducted the analyses. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank Tabitha Pring, whose MSc dissertation partly informed the current work.

Conflict of interest

FdV is a member of the Committee on Medical Aspects of Radiation in the Environment COMARE, IRPA NIR Task Group, SRP EMFOR, and EMF Group of the Health Council of the Netherlands. FdV consulted for EPRI not directly related to this work. The remaining author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher's note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

A Survey of 5G Network: Architecture and Emerging Technologies

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5g research papers 2021

5G Home Internet Soars in 2023, As Cable and Phone-Based Broadband Slump

What has 5G done for normal people? It's let them fire their cable provider.

That's the takeaway from Leichtman Research Group stats that show a boom in 5G home internet services from carriers like T-Mobile and Verizon (aka fixed wireless) in 2023—at the expense of traditional cable and phone-based connectivity.

T-Mobile saw the biggest gain in raw numbers, with an increase of 2.13 million fixed-wireless customers, bringing it to 4.78 million total. Verizon, however, more than doubled its existing fixed-wireless subscriber total, adding 1.54 million to reach 3.07 million (with its wireline broadband accounting for another 7.65 million).

Meanwhile, the top cable providers covered in LRG’s study lost a combined 63,000 subscribers. Altice USA, which does business as Optimum, lost 114,000 and fell below T-Mobile in size at 4.52 million broadband customers, followed by Comcast’s Xfinity , which lost 66,000 subscribers but retained its title as the nation’s largest broadband provider with 32.25 million total. The second-largest, Charter, reported an increase of 155,000 subscribers to its Spectrum broadband, finishing 2023 with 30.59 million subscribers.

Among the top phone-based telcos, a combined drop of 80,000 subscribers obscures the continued popularity of fiber broadband . LRG found that those firms saw a net increase of some 1.97 million fiber subscribers—erased by 2.05 million people who ditched non-fiber connections from those providers. 

Lumen, formerly CenturyLink, fared worse with a decline of 279,000 subscribers, followed by AT&T (the third biggest ISP, with 15.29 million customers), which lost 98,000 subs. Verizon, meanwhile, racked up a net increase of 166,000.  Many of these closed accounts were DSL , an old and slow wired service delivered over copper phone lines, but not all. In an email, Leichtman noted that most of AT&T’s wireline losses involved people dropping the hybrid fiber-copper service once marketed as U-Verse .

LRG draws these numbers from corporate filings, supplemented by Leichtman’s estimates for such privately held firms as cable operators Cox and Mediacom.

The appeal of fixed-wireless services over more established rivals isn’t just a matter of lower rates . These offerings come without the data caps endemic among cable providers (although T-Mobile now allows for the deprioritization of the most intensive users) and lack the fine-print fees that led the FCC to require ISPs to post rate details in a format modeled after nutrition labels . 

LRG has seen the growth of “FWA” escalate dramatically since 2021 —when, its release notes, fixed wireless accounted for 20% of net broadband additions, then grew to 90% of 2022 net adds and made up 104% of 2023’s. And last year’s total slightly understates the reality, since AT&T’s latest quarterly filing doesn’t break out the 67,000 new subscribers for its “Internet Air” wireless service noted in a press release at the time .

Another category of no-wires broadband, however, doesn’t show up in Thursday’s report at all: satellite. “Unfortunately, I don’t have the necessary trending data for satellite broadband,” Leichtman said. 

In particular, SpaceX’s Starlink offered minimal details about its US customer base until an FCC filing in December cited “more than 1.3 million” subscribers . Some of those people appear to have left an older, slower, and capacity-constrained satellite service—EchoStar-owned HughesNet, which last week reported a loss of 224,000 subscribers in 2023 that left it at 1 million total.

5G Home Internet Soars in 2023, As Cable and Phone-Based Broadband Slump

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    Topics. Research areas in 5G technology. Research areas in 5G Technology. We are currently on the cusp of 5G rollout. As industry experts predict, 5G deployments will gain momentum, and the accessibility of 5G devices will grow in 2020 and beyond. But as the general public waits for mass-market 5G devices, our understanding of this new ...

  16. 5G Wireless Communication and Health Effects—A Pragmatic Review Based

    In the following, health-related published scientific papers dealing with frequencies from 6 GHz to 100 GHz (using the term MMW for all the frequencies) are described in detail. ... gaps in knowledge regarding the health impact of MMW in the 6-100 GHz frequency range at relevant power densities for 5G, research is needed at many levels. It is ...

  17. A Study on 5G Technology and Its Applications in Telecommunications

    Abstract: As the fifth generation of mobile networks climbs above the horizon, this technology's transformational impact and is set to have on the world is commendable. The 5G network is a promising technology that revolutionizes and connects the global world through seamless connectivity. This paper presents a survey on 5G networks on how, in particular, it to address the drawbacks of ...

  18. PDF 5G-Advanced Technology Evolution from a Network Perspective 2. ...

    Therefore, this white paper proposes that continuous research on the follow-up evolution of 5G networks— 5G-Advanced [1] is required, ... The global commercial deployment of 5G networks is in full swing. By end of 2021, 200 5G networks in 78 countries and regions have been commercially released [2]. On top of this, over

  19. PDF Study and Investigation on 5G Technology: A Systematic Review

    • This paper covers the emerging applications and research groups working on 5G & differ-ent research areas in 5G wireless communication network with a descriptive taxonomy. • This survey discusses the current vision of the 5G networks, advantages, applications,

  20. Comment on "5G mobile networks and health-a state-of-the ...

    Karipidis K, Mate R, Urban D, Tinker R, Wood A. 5G mobile networks and health-a state-of-the-science review of the research into low-level RF fields above 6 GHz. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol. 2021 ...

  21. The population health effects from 5G: Controlling the narrative

    Leszczynski addresses policy and argues that "deployment for industrial use should be the first, but the further broader deployment for the non-industrial use should preferably await for the results of the biomedical research". Frank published an essay on 5G and the precautionary principle in January 2021 . He declares neither external ...

  22. PDF Research Paper on Future of 5g Wireless System

    CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH IN INDIA (ISSN 2231-2137): SPECIAL ISSUE : APRIL, 2021 RESEARCH PAPER ON FUTURE OF 5G WIRELESS SYSTEM Mr. Vinayak Pujari1, Dr. Rajendra Patil2 and Mr. Kajima Tambe3

  23. A Survey of 5G Network: Architecture and Emerging Technologies

    In the near future, i.e., beyond 4G, some of the prime objectives or demands that need to be addressed are increased capacity, improved data rate, decreased latency, and better quality of service. To meet these demands, drastic improvements need to be made in cellular network architecture. This paper presents the results of a detailed survey on the fifth generation (5G) cellular network ...

  24. 5G Home Internet Soars in 2023, As Cable and Phone-Based ...

    LRG has seen the growth of "FWA" escalate dramatically since 2021—when, its release notes, fixed wireless accounted for 20% of net broadband additions, then grew to 90% of 2022 net adds and ...