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Tables and Figures

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Note:  This page reflects the latest version of the APA Publication Manual (i.e., APA 7), which released in October 2019. The equivalent resources for the older APA 6 style  can be found at this page  as well as at this page (our old resources covered the material on this page on two separate pages).

The purpose of tables and figures in documents is to enhance your readers' understanding of the information in the document; usually, large amounts of information can be communicated more efficiently in tables or figures. Tables are any graphic that uses a row and column structure to organize information, whereas figures include any illustration or image other than a table.

General guidelines

Visual material such as tables and figures can be used quickly and efficiently to present a large amount of information to an audience, but visuals must be used to assist communication, not to use up space, or disguise marginally significant results behind a screen of complicated statistics. Ask yourself this question first: Is the table or figure necessary? For example, it is better to present simple descriptive statistics in the text, not in a table.

Relation of Tables or Figures and Text

Because tables and figures supplement the text, refer in the text to all tables and figures used and explain what the reader should look for when using the table or figure. Focus only on the important point the reader should draw from them, and leave the details for the reader to examine on their own.

Documentation

If you are using figures, tables and/or data from other sources, be sure to gather all the information you will need to properly document your sources.

Integrity and Independence

Each table and figure must be intelligible without reference to the text, so be sure to include an explanation of every abbreviation (except the standard statistical symbols and abbreviations).

Organization, Consistency, and Coherence

Number all tables sequentially as you refer to them in the text (Table 1, Table 2, etc.), likewise for figures (Figure 1, Figure 2, etc.). Abbreviations, terminology, and probability level values must be consistent across tables and figures in the same article. Likewise, formats, titles, and headings must be consistent. Do not repeat the same data in different tables.

Data in a table that would require only two or fewer columns and rows should be presented in the text. More complex data is better presented in tabular format. In order for quantitative data to be presented clearly and efficiently, it must be arranged logically, e.g. data to be compared must be presented next to one another (before/after, young/old, male/female, etc.), and statistical information (means, standard deviations, N values) must be presented in separate parts of the table. If possible, use canonical forms (such as ANOVA, regression, or correlation) to communicate your data effectively.

A generic example of a table with multiple notes formatted in APA 7 style.

Elements of Tables

Number all tables with Arabic numerals sequentially. Do not use suffix letters (e.g. Table 3a, 3b, 3c); instead, combine the related tables. If the manuscript includes an appendix with tables, identify them with capital letters and Arabic numerals (e.g. Table A1, Table B2).

Like the title of the paper itself, each table must have a clear and concise title. Titles should be written in italicized title case below the table number, with a blank line between the number and the title. When appropriate, you may use the title to explain an abbreviation parenthetically.

Comparison of Median Income of Adopted Children (AC) v. Foster Children (FC)

Keep headings clear and brief. The heading should not be much wider than the widest entry in the column. Use of standard abbreviations can aid in achieving that goal. There are several types of headings:

• Stub headings describe the lefthand column, or stub column , which usually lists major independent variables.
• Column headings describe entries below them, applying to just one column.
• Column spanners are headings that describe entries below them, applying to two or more columns which each have their own column heading. Column spanners are often stacked on top of column headings and together are called decked heads .
• Table Spanners cover the entire width of the table, allowing for more divisions or combining tables with identical column headings. They are the only type of heading that may be plural.

All columns must have headings, written in sentence case and using singular language (Item rather than Items) unless referring to a group (Men, Women). Each column’s items should be parallel (i.e., every item in a column labeled “%” should be a percentage and does not require the % symbol, since it’s already indicated in the heading). Subsections within the stub column can be shown by indenting headings rather than creating new columns:

Chemical Bonds

     Ionic

     Covalent

     Metallic

The body is the main part of the table, which includes all the reported information organized in cells (intersections of rows and columns). Entries should be center aligned unless left aligning them would make them easier to read (longer entries, usually). Word entries in the body should use sentence case. Leave cells blank if the element is not applicable or if data were not obtained; use a dash in cells and a general note if it is necessary to explain why cells are blank.   In reporting the data, consistency is key: Numerals should be expressed to a consistent number of decimal places that is determined by the precision of measurement. Never change the unit of measurement or the number of decimal places in the same column.

There are three types of notes for tables: general, specific, and probability notes. All of them must be placed below the table in that order.

General  notes explain, qualify or provide information about the table as a whole. Put explanations of abbreviations, symbols, etc. here.

Example:  Note . The racial categories used by the US Census (African-American, Asian American, Latinos/-as, Native-American, and Pacific Islander) have been collapsed into the category “non-White.” E = excludes respondents who self-identified as “White” and at least one other “non-White” race.

Specific  notes explain, qualify or provide information about a particular column, row, or individual entry. To indicate specific notes, use superscript lowercase letters (e.g.  a ,  b ,  c ), and order the superscripts from left to right, top to bottom. Each table’s first footnote must be the superscript  a .

a  n = 823.  b  One participant in this group was diagnosed with schizophrenia during the survey.

Probability  notes provide the reader with the results of the tests for statistical significance. Asterisks indicate the values for which the null hypothesis is rejected, with the probability ( p value) specified in the probability note. Such notes are required only when relevant to the data in the table. Consistently use the same number of asterisks for a given alpha level throughout your paper.

* p < .05. ** p < .01. *** p < .001

If you need to distinguish between two-tailed and one-tailed tests in the same table, use asterisks for two-tailed p values and an alternate symbol (such as daggers) for one-tailed p values.

* p < .05, two-tailed. ** p < .01, two-tailed. † p <.05, one-tailed. †† p < .01, one-tailed.

Borders 

Tables should only include borders and lines that are needed for clarity (i.e., between elements of a decked head, above column spanners, separating total rows, etc.). Do not use vertical borders, and do not use borders around each cell. Spacing and strict alignment is typically enough to clarify relationships between elements.

Example of a table in the text of an APA 7 paper. Note the lack of vertical borders.

Tables from Other Sources

If using tables from an external source, copy the structure of the original exactly, and cite the source in accordance with  APA style .

Table Checklist

(Taken from the  Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association , 7th ed., Section 7.20)

• Is the table necessary?
• Does it belong in the print and electronic versions of the article, or can it go in an online supplemental file?
• Are all comparable tables presented consistently?
• Are all tables numbered with Arabic numerals in the order they are mentioned in the text? Is the table number bold and left-aligned?
• Are all tables referred to in the text?
• Is the title brief but explanatory? Is it presented in italicized title case and left-aligned?
• Does every column have a column heading? Are column headings centered?
• Are all abbreviations; special use of italics, parentheses, and dashes; and special symbols explained?
• Are the notes organized according to the convention of general, specific, probability?
• Are table borders correctly used (top and bottom of table, beneath column headings, above table spanners)?
• Does the table use correct line spacing (double for the table number, title, and notes; single, one and a half, or double for the body)?
• Are entries in the left column left-aligned beneath the centered stub heading? Are all other column headings and cell entries centered?
• Are confidence intervals reported for all major point estimates?
• Are all probability level values correctly identified, and are asterisks attached to the appropriate table entries? Is a probability level assigned the same number of asterisks in all the tables in the same document?
• If the table or its data are from another source, is the source properly cited? Is permission necessary to reproduce the table?

Figures include all graphical displays of information that are not tables. Common types include graphs, charts, drawings, maps, plots, and photos. Just like tables, figures should supplement the text and should be both understandable on their own and referenced fully in the text. This section details elements of formatting writers must use when including a figure in an APA document, gives an example of a figure formatted in APA style, and includes a checklist for formatting figures.

Preparing Figures

In preparing figures, communication and readability must be the ultimate criteria. Avoid the temptation to use the special effects available in most advanced software packages. While three-dimensional effects, shading, and layered text may look interesting to the author, overuse, inconsistent use, and misuse may distort the data, and distract or even annoy readers. Design properly done is inconspicuous, almost invisible, because it supports communication. Design improperly, or amateurishly, done draws the reader’s attention from the data, and makes him or her question the author’s credibility. Line drawings are usually a good option for readability and simplicity; for photographs, high contrast between background and focal point is important, as well as cropping out extraneous detail to help the reader focus on the important aspects of the photo.

Parts of a Figure

All figures that are part of the main text require a number using Arabic numerals (Figure 1, Figure 2, etc.). Numbers are assigned based on the order in which figures appear in the text and are bolded and left aligned.

Under the number, write the title of the figure in italicized title case. The title should be brief, clear, and explanatory, and both the title and number should be double spaced.

The image of the figure is the body, and it is positioned underneath the number and title. The image should be legible in both size and resolution; fonts should be sans serif, consistently sized, and between 8-14 pt. Title case should be used for axis labels and other headings; descriptions within figures should be in sentence case. Shading and color should be limited for clarity; use patterns along with color and check contrast between colors with free online checkers to ensure all users (people with color vision deficiencies or readers printing in grayscale, for instance) can access the content. Gridlines and 3-D effects should be avoided unless they are necessary for clarity or essential content information.

Legends, or keys, explain symbols, styles, patterns, shading, or colors in the image. Words in the legend should be in title case; legends should go within or underneath the image rather than to the side. Not all figures will require a legend.

Notes clarify the content of the figure; like tables, notes can be general, specific, or probability. General notes explain units of measurement, symbols, and abbreviations, or provide citation information. Specific notes identify specific elements using superscripts; probability notes explain statistical significance of certain values.

A generic example of a figure formatted in APA 7 style.

Figure Checklist 

(Taken from the  Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association , 7 th ed., Section 7.35)

• Is the figure necessary?
• Does the figure belong in the print and electronic versions of the article, or is it supplemental?
• Is the figure simple, clean, and free of extraneous detail?
• Is the figure title descriptive of the content of the figure? Is it written in italic title case and left aligned?
• Are all elements of the figure clearly labeled?
• Are the magnitude, scale, and direction of grid elements clearly labeled?
• Are parallel figures or equally important figures prepared according to the same scale?
• Are the figures numbered consecutively with Arabic numerals? Is the figure number bold and left aligned?
• Has the figure been formatted properly? Is the font sans serif in the image portion of the figure and between sizes 8 and 14?
• Are all abbreviations and special symbols explained?
• If the figure has a legend, does it appear within or below the image? Are the legend’s words written in title case?
• Are the figure notes in general, specific, and probability order? Are they double-spaced, left aligned, and in the same font as the paper?
• Are all figures mentioned in the text?
• Has written permission for print and electronic reuse been obtained? Is proper credit given in the figure caption?
• Have all substantive modifications to photographic images been disclosed?
• Are the figures being submitted in a file format acceptable to the publisher?
• Have the files been produced at a sufficiently high resolution to allow for accurate reproduction?

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Home » Tables in Research Paper – Types, Creating Guide and Examples

Tables in Research Paper – Types, Creating Guide and Examples

Table of Contents

Tables in Research Paper

Definition:

In Research Papers , Tables are a way of presenting data and information in a structured format. Tables can be used to summarize large amounts of data or to highlight important findings. They are often used in scientific or technical papers to display experimental results, statistical analyses, or other quantitative information.

Importance of Tables in Research Paper

Tables are an important component of a research paper as they provide a clear and concise presentation of data, statistics, and other information that support the research findings . Here are some reasons why tables are important in a research paper:

• Visual Representation : Tables provide a visual representation of data that is easy to understand and interpret. They help readers to quickly grasp the main points of the research findings and draw their own conclusions.
• Organize Data : Tables help to organize large amounts of data in a systematic and structured manner. This makes it easier for readers to identify patterns and trends in the data.
• Clarity and Accuracy : Tables allow researchers to present data in a clear and accurate manner. They can include precise numbers, percentages, and other information that may be difficult to convey in written form.
• Comparison: Tables allow for easy comparison between different data sets or groups. This makes it easier to identify similarities and differences, and to draw meaningful conclusions from the data.
• Efficiency: Tables allow for a more efficient use of space in the research paper. They can convey a large amount of information in a compact and concise format, which saves space and makes the research paper more readable.

Types of Tables in Research Paper

Most common Types of Tables in Research Paper are as follows:

• Descriptive tables : These tables provide a summary of the data collected in the study. They are usually used to present basic descriptive statistics such as means, medians, standard deviations, and frequencies.
• Comparative tables : These tables are used to compare the results of different groups or variables. They may be used to show the differences between two or more groups or to compare the results of different variables.
• Correlation tables: These tables are used to show the relationships between variables. They may show the correlation coefficients between variables, or they may show the results of regression analyses.
• Longitudinal tables : These tables are used to show changes in variables over time. They may show the results of repeated measures analyses or longitudinal regression analyses.
• Qualitative tables: These tables are used to summarize qualitative data such as interview transcripts or open-ended survey responses. They may present themes or categories that emerged from the data.

How to Create Tables in Research Paper

Here are the steps to create tables in a research paper:

• Plan your table: Determine the purpose of the table and the type of information you want to include. Consider the layout and format that will best convey your information.
• Choose a table format : Decide on the type of table you want to create. Common table formats include basic tables, summary tables, comparison tables, and correlation tables.
• Choose a software program : Use a spreadsheet program like Microsoft Excel or Google Sheets to create your table. These programs allow you to easily enter and manipulate data, format the table, and export it for use in your research paper.
• Input data: Enter your data into the spreadsheet program. Make sure to label each row and column clearly.
• Format the table : Apply formatting options such as font, font size, font color, cell borders, and shading to make your table more visually appealing and easier to read.
• Insert the table into your paper: Copy and paste the table into your research paper. Make sure to place the table in the appropriate location and refer to it in the text of your paper.
• Label the table: Give the table a descriptive title that clearly and accurately summarizes the contents of the table. Also, include a number and a caption that explains the table in more detail.
• Check for accuracy: Review the table for accuracy and make any necessary changes before submitting your research paper.

Examples of Tables in Research Paper

Examples of Tables in the Research Paper are as follows:

Table 1: Demographic Characteristics of Study Participants

This table shows the demographic characteristics of 200 participants in a research study. The table includes information about age, gender, and education level. The mean age of the participants was 35.2 years with a standard deviation of 8.6 years, and the age range was between 21 and 57 years. The table also shows that 46% of the participants were male and 54% were female. In terms of education, 10% of the participants had less than a high school education, 30% were high school graduates, 35% had some college education, and 25% had a bachelor’s degree or higher.

Table 2: Summary of Key Findings

This table summarizes the key findings of a study comparing three different groups on a particular variable. The table shows the mean score, standard deviation, t-value, and p-value for each group. The asterisk next to the t-value for Group 1 indicates that the difference between Group 1 and the other groups was statistically significant at p < 0.01, while the differences between Group 2 and Group 3 were not statistically significant.

Purpose of Tables in Research Paper

The primary purposes of including tables in a research paper are:

• To present data: Tables are an effective way to present large amounts of data in a clear and organized manner. Researchers can use tables to present numerical data, survey results, or other types of data that are difficult to represent in text.
• To summarize data: Tables can be used to summarize large amounts of data into a concise and easy-to-read format. Researchers can use tables to summarize the key findings of their research, such as descriptive statistics or the results of regression analyses.
• To compare data : Tables can be used to compare data across different variables or groups. Researchers can use tables to compare the characteristics of different study populations or to compare the results of different studies on the same topic.
• To enhance the readability of the paper: Tables can help to break up long sections of text and make the paper more visually appealing. By presenting data in a table, researchers can help readers to quickly identify the most important information and understand the key findings of the study.

Advantages of Tables in Research Paper

Some of the advantages of using tables in research papers include:

• Clarity : Tables can present data in a way that is easy to read and understand. They can help readers to quickly and easily identify patterns, trends, and relationships in the data.
• Efficiency: Tables can save space and reduce the need for lengthy explanations or descriptions of the data in the main body of the paper. This can make the paper more concise and easier to read.
• Organization: Tables can help to organize large amounts of data in a logical and meaningful way. This can help to reduce confusion and make it easier for readers to navigate the data.
• Comparison : Tables can be useful for comparing data across different groups, variables, or time periods. This can help to highlight similarities, differences, and changes over time.
• Visualization : Tables can also be used to visually represent data, making it easier for readers to see patterns and trends. This can be particularly useful when the data is complex or difficult to understand.

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Effective Use of Tables and Figures in Research Papers

Research papers are often based on copious amounts of data that can be summarized and easily read through tables and graphs. When writing a research paper , it is important for data to be presented to the reader in a visually appealing way. The data in figures and tables, however, should not be a repetition of the data found in the text. There are many ways of presenting data in tables and figures, governed by a few simple rules. An APA research paper and MLA research paper both require tables and figures, but the rules around them are different. When writing a research paper, the importance of tables and figures cannot be underestimated. How do you know if you need a table or figure? The rule of thumb is that if you cannot present your data in one or two sentences, then you need a table .

Using Tables

Tables are easily created using programs such as Excel. Tables and figures in scientific papers are wonderful ways of presenting data. Effective data presentation in research papers requires understanding your reader and the elements that comprise a table. Tables have several elements, including the legend, column titles, and body. As with academic writing, it is also just as important to structure tables so that readers can easily understand them. Tables that are disorganized or otherwise confusing will make the reader lose interest in your work.

• Title: Tables should have a clear, descriptive title, which functions as the “topic sentence” of the table. The titles can be lengthy or short, depending on the discipline.
• Column Titles: The goal of these title headings is to simplify the table. The reader’s attention moves from the title to the column title sequentially. A good set of column titles will allow the reader to quickly grasp what the table is about.
• Table Body: This is the main area of the table where numerical or textual data is located. Construct your table so that elements read from up to down, and not across.

Related: Done organizing your research data effectively in tables? Check out this post on tips for citing tables in your manuscript now!

The placement of figures and tables should be at the center of the page. It should be properly referenced and ordered in the number that it appears in the text. In addition, tables should be set apart from the text. Text wrapping should not be used. Sometimes, tables and figures are presented after the references in selected journals.

Using Figures

Figures can take many forms, such as bar graphs, frequency histograms, scatterplots, drawings, maps, etc. When using figures in a research paper, always think of your reader. What is the easiest figure for your reader to understand? How can you present the data in the simplest and most effective way? For instance, a photograph may be the best choice if you want your reader to understand spatial relationships.

• Figure Captions: Figures should be numbered and have descriptive titles or captions. The captions should be succinct enough to understand at the first glance. Captions are placed under the figure and are left justified.
• Image: Choose an image that is simple and easily understandable. Consider the size, resolution, and the image’s overall visual attractiveness.
• Additional Information: Illustrations in manuscripts are numbered separately from tables. Include any information that the reader needs to understand your figure, such as legends.

Common Errors in Research Papers

Effective data presentation in research papers requires understanding the common errors that make data presentation ineffective. These common mistakes include using the wrong type of figure for the data. For instance, using a scatterplot instead of a bar graph for showing levels of hydration is a mistake. Another common mistake is that some authors tend to italicize the table number. Remember, only the table title should be italicized .  Another common mistake is failing to attribute the table. If the table/figure is from another source, simply put “ Note. Adapted from…” underneath the table. This should help avoid any issues with plagiarism.

Using tables and figures in research papers is essential for the paper’s readability. The reader is given a chance to understand data through visual content. When writing a research paper, these elements should be considered as part of good research writing. APA research papers, MLA research papers, and other manuscripts require visual content if the data is too complex or voluminous. The importance of tables and graphs is underscored by the main purpose of writing, and that is to be understood.

Frequently Asked Questions

"Consider the following points when creating figures for research papers: Determine purpose: Clarify the message or information to be conveyed. Choose figure type: Select the appropriate type for data representation. Prepare and organize data: Collect and arrange accurate and relevant data. Select software: Use suitable software for figure creation and editing. Design figure: Focus on clarity, labeling, and visual elements. Create the figure: Plot data or generate the figure using the chosen software. Label and annotate: Clearly identify and explain all elements in the figure. Review and revise: Verify accuracy, coherence, and alignment with the paper. Format and export: Adjust format to meet publication guidelines and export as suitable file."

"To create tables for a research paper, follow these steps: 1) Determine the purpose and information to be conveyed. 2) Plan the layout, including rows, columns, and headings. 3) Use spreadsheet software like Excel to design and format the table. 4) Input accurate data into cells, aligning it logically. 5) Include column and row headers for context. 6) Format the table for readability using consistent styles. 7) Add a descriptive title and caption to summarize and provide context. 8) Number and reference the table in the paper. 9) Review and revise for accuracy and clarity before finalizing."

"Including figures in a research paper enhances clarity and visual appeal. Follow these steps: Determine the need for figures based on data trends or to explain complex processes. Choose the right type of figure, such as graphs, charts, or images, to convey your message effectively. Create or obtain the figure, properly citing the source if needed. Number and caption each figure, providing concise and informative descriptions. Place figures logically in the paper and reference them in the text. Format and label figures clearly for better understanding. Provide detailed figure captions to aid comprehension. Cite the source for non-original figures or images. Review and revise figures for accuracy and consistency."

"Research papers use various types of tables to present data: Descriptive tables: Summarize main data characteristics, often presenting demographic information. Frequency tables: Display distribution of categorical variables, showing counts or percentages in different categories. Cross-tabulation tables: Explore relationships between categorical variables by presenting joint frequencies or percentages. Summary statistics tables: Present key statistics (mean, standard deviation, etc.) for numerical variables. Comparative tables: Compare different groups or conditions, displaying key statistics side by side. Correlation or regression tables: Display results of statistical analyses, such as coefficients and p-values. Longitudinal or time-series tables: Show data collected over multiple time points with columns for periods and rows for variables/subjects. Data matrix tables: Present raw data or matrices, common in experimental psychology or biology. Label tables clearly, include titles, and use footnotes or captions for explanations."

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How to Use Tables and Figures effectively in Research Papers

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Table of Contents

Data is the most important component of any research. It needs to be presented effectively in a paper to ensure that readers understand the key message in the paper. Figures and tables act as concise tools for clear presentation . Tables display information arranged in rows and columns in a grid-like format, while figures convey information visually, and take the form of a graph, diagram, chart, or image. Be it to compare the rise and fall of GDPs among countries over the years or to understand how COVID-19 has impacted incomes all over the world, tables and figures are imperative to convey vital findings accurately.

So, what are some of the best practices to follow when creating meaningful and attractive tables and figures? Here are some tips on how best to present tables and figures in a research paper.

Guidelines for including tables and figures meaningfully in a paper:

• Self-explanatory display items: Sometimes, readers, reviewers and journal editors directly go to the tables and figures before reading the entire text. So, the tables need to be well organized and self-explanatory.
• Avoidance of repetition: Tables and figures add clarity to the research. They complement the research text and draw attention to key points. They can be used to highlight the main points of the paper, but values should not be repeated as it defeats the very purpose of these elements.
• Consistency: There should be consistency in the values and figures in the tables and figures and the main text of the research paper.
• Informative titles: Titles should be concise and describe the purpose and content of the table. It should draw the reader’s attention towards the key findings of the research. Column heads, axis labels, figure labels, etc., should also be appropriately labelled.
• Adherence to journal guidelines: It is important to follow the instructions given in the target journal regarding the preparation and presentation of figures and tables, style of numbering, titles, image resolution, file formats, etc.

Now that we know how to go about including tables and figures in the manuscript, let’s take a look at what makes tables and figures stand out and create impact.

How to present data in a table?

For effective and concise presentation of data in a table, make sure to:

• Combine repetitive tables: If the tables have similar content, they should be organized into one.
• Divide the data: If there are large amounts of information, the data should be divided into categories for more clarity and better presentation. It is necessary to clearly demarcate the categories into well-structured columns and sub-columns.
• Keep only relevant data: The tables should not look cluttered. Ensure enough spacing.

Example of table presentation in a research paper

For comprehensible and engaging presentation of figures:

• Ensure clarity: All the parts of the figure should be clear. Ensure the use of a standard font, legible labels, and sharp images.
• Use appropriate legends: They make figures effective and draw attention towards the key message.
• Make it precise: There should be correct use of scale bars in images and maps, appropriate units wherever required, and adequate labels and legends.

It is important to get tables and figures correct and precise for your research paper to convey your findings accurately and clearly. If you are confused about how to suitably present your data through tables and figures, do not worry. Elsevier Author Services are well-equipped to guide you through every step to ensure that your manuscript is of top-notch quality.

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Your Guide to Creating Effective Tables and Figures in Research Papers

Research papers are full of data and other information that needs to be effectively illustrated and organized. Without a clear presentation of a study's data, the information will not reach the intended audience and could easily be misunderstood. Clarity of thought and purpose is essential for any kind of research. Using tables and figures to present findings and other data in a research paper can be effective ways to communicate that information to the chosen audience.

When manuscripts are screened, tables and figures can give reviewers and publication editors a quick overview of the findings and key information. After the research paper is published or accepted as a final dissertation, tables and figures will offer the same opportunity for other interested readers. While some readers may not read the entire paper, the tables and figures have the chance to still get the most important parts of your research across to those readers.

However, tables and figures are only valuable within a research paper if they are succinct and informative. Just about any audience—from scientists to the general public—should be able to identify key pieces of information in well-placed and well-organized tables. Figures can help to illustrate ideas and data visually. It is important to remember that tables and figures should not simply be repetitions of data presented in the text. They are not a vehicle for superfluous or repetitious information. Stay focused, stay organized, and you will be able to use tables and figures effectively in your research papers. The following key rules for using tables and figures in research papers will help you do just that.

Check style guides and journal requirements

The first step in deciding how you want to use tables and figures in your research paper is to review the requirements outlined by your chosen style guide or the submission requirements for the journal or publication you will be submitting to. For example, JMIR Publications states that for readability purposes, we encourage authors to include no more than 5 tables and no more than 8 figures per article. They continue to outline that tables should not go beyond the 1-inch margin of a portrait-orientation 8.5"x11" page using 12pt font or they may not be able to be included in your main manuscript because of our PDF sizing.

Consider the reviewers that will be examining your research paper for consistency, clarity, and applicability to a specific publication. If your chosen publication usually has shorter articles with supplemental information provided elsewhere, then you will want to keep the number of tables and figures to a minimum.

According to the Purdue Online Writing Lab (Purdue OWL), the American Psychological Association (APA) states that Data in a table that would require only two or fewer columns and rows should be presented in the text. More complex data is better presented in tabular format. You can avoid unnecessary tables by reviewing the data and deciding if it is simple enough to be included in the text. There is a balance, and the APA guideline above gives a good standard cutoff point for text versus table. Finally, when deciding if you should include a table or a figure, ask yourself is it necessary. Are you including it because you think you should or because you think it will look more professional, or are you including it because it is necessary to articulate the data? Only include tables or figures if they are necessary to articulate the data.

Table formatting

Creating tables is not as difficult as it once was. Most word processing programs have functions that allow you to simply select how many rows and columns you want, and then it builds the structure for you. Whether you create a table in LaTeX , Microsoft Word , Microsoft Excel , or Google Sheets , there are some key features that you will want to include. Tables generally include a legend, title, column titles, and the body of the table.

When deciding what the title of the table should be, think about how you would describe the table's contents in one sentence. There isn't a set length for table titles, and it varies depending on the discipline of the research, but it does need to be specific and clear what the table is presenting. Think of this as a concise topic sentence of the table.

Column titles should be designed in such a way that they simplify the contents of the table. Readers will generally skim the column titles first before getting into the data to prepare their minds for what they are about to see. While the text introducing the table will give a brief overview of what data is being presented, the column titles break that information down into easier-to-understand parts. The Purdue OWL gives a good example of what a table format could look like:

When deciding what your column titles should be, consider the width of the column itself when the data is entered. The heading should be as close to the length of the data as possible. This can be accomplished using standard abbreviations. When using symbols for the data, such as the percentage "%" symbol, place the symbol in the heading, and then you will not use the symbol in each entry, because it is already indicated in the column title.

For the body of the table, consistency is key. Use the same number of decimal places for numbers, keep the alignment the same throughout the table data, and maintain the same unit of measurement throughout each column. When information is changed within the same column, the reader can become confused, and your data may be considered inaccurate.

Figures in research papers

Figures can be of many different graphical types, including bar graphs, scatterplots, maps, photos, and more. Compared to tables, figures have a lot more variation and personalization. Depending on the discipline, figures take different forms. Sometimes a photograph is the best choice if you're illustrating spatial relationships or data hiding techniques in images. Sometimes a map is best to illustrate locations that have specific characteristics in an economic study. Carefully consider your reader's perspective and what detail you want them to see.

As with tables, your figures should be numbered sequentially and follow the same guidelines for titles and labels. Depending on your chosen style guide, keep the figure or figure placeholder as close to the text introducing it as possible. Similar to the figure title, any captions should be succinct and clear, and they should be placed directly under the figure.

Using the wrong kind of figure is a common mistake that can affect a reader's experience with your research paper. Carefully consider what type of figure will best describe your point. For example, if you are describing levels of decomposition of different kinds of paper at a certain point in time, then a scatter plot would not be the appropriate depiction of that data; a bar graph would allow you to accurately show decomposition levels of each kind of paper at time "t." The Writing Center of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill has a good example of a bar graph offering easy-to-understand information:

If you have taken a figure from another source, such as from a presentation available online, then you will need to make sure to always cite the source. If you've modified the figure in any way, then you will need to say that you adapted the figure from that source. Plagiarism can still happen with figures – and even tables – so be sure to include a citation if needed.

Using the tips above, you can take your research data and give your reader or reviewer a clear perspective on your findings. As The Writing Center recommends, Consider the best way to communicate information to your audience, especially if you plan to use data in the form of numbers, words, or images that will help you construct and support your argument. If you can summarize the data in a couple of sentences, then don't try and expand that information into an unnecessary table or figure. Trying to use a table or figure in such cases only lengthens the paper and can make the tables and figures meaningless instead of informative.

Carefully choose your table and figure style so that they will serve as quick and clear references for your reader to see patterns, relationships, and trends you have discovered in your research. For additional assistance with formatting and requirements, be sure to review your publication or style guide's instructions to ensure success in the review and submission process.

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Figures and tables

Figures and tables (display items) are often the quickest way to  communicate large amounts of complex information that would be complicated to explain in text.

Many readers will only look at your display items without reading the main text of your manuscript. Therefore, ensure your display items can stand alone from the text and communicate clearly your most significant results.

Display items are also important for  attracting readers  to your work. Well designed and attractive display items will hold the interest of readers, compel them to take time to understand a figure and can even entice them to read your full manuscript.

Finally, high-quality display items give your work a  professional appearance . Readers will assume that a professional-looking manuscript contains good quality science. Thus readers may be more likely to trust your results and your interpretation of those results.

When deciding which of your results to present as display items consider the following questions:

• Are there any data that readers might rather see as a display item rather than text?
• Do your figures supplement the text and not just repeat what you have already stated?
• Have you put data into a table that could easily be explained in the text such as simple statistics or p values?

Tables are a concise and effective way to present large amounts of data. You should design them carefully so that you clearly communicate your results to busy researchers.

The following is an example of a well-designed table:

• Clear and concise legend/caption
• Data divided into categories for clarity
• Sufficient spacing between columns and rows
• Units are provided
• Font type and size are legible

Table of Contents (Guide To Publication)

Part ii: preparing, presenting and polishing your work – chapter 5, 5. presenting data and sources accurately and effectively.

Journal guidelines vary greatly when it comes to the advice they provide about presenting data and referring to sources. In some cases separate sections containing detailed instructions about exactly how to lay out tables and figures and how to format citations and references will be provided, while in others authors will simply be advised to format tables and figures in ‘an appropriate’ manner and will be lucky to find two or three reference examples to follow. Tables and figures do seem to receive fairly good coverage in the guidelines of most scholarly journals, however, and generally you will be able to find some indication of the referencing style required. So read anything and everything you can find in the guidelines about these elements of your paper, pay careful attention to any models provided (both appropriate and inappropriate), consult any manuals or other style guides mentioned and take a close look at papers already published by the journal to see how references, tables and figures were successfully formatted. What you learn can be both followed and used to inspire your own designs when constructing your references, tables and figures.

5.1 Tables, Figures and Other Research Data: Guidelines and Good Practice

Although the advice I share in this section should not be taken as a substitute for journal guidelines when it comes to the layout of tables and figures, it stems from a familiarity with the guidelines of many journals and the experience of encountering many tables and figures that present unfamiliar data. As with every other aspect of your paper, clarity, accuracy and precision are essential, and in the case of tables and figures, there’s little space for explanation, so data must for the most part stand on their own, with only the format you shape around them to lend structure and meaning. This means that the format of your tables and figures needs to be thought out very carefully: there needs to be enough space both to present and to separate all the information your tables and figures contain in ways that facilitate your readers’ understanding. Poorly laid out tables and figures can instead obscure that understanding, so it’s important to analyse your tables and figures as a reader would, seeking the information you’re providing, and then edit and reshape until your tables and figures achieve just what they should. Some journals will insist that tables and figures only be used if they include or illustrate information not presented elsewhere in the paper, and frown on those that repeat data in any way. So the first consideration should be whether you need tables and figures to share your research and results effectively and, if so, what exactly those tables and figures should contain. Illustrating devices or conditions discussed in a paper, providing graphs and lists of data that cannot be accommodated in detail in an article and highlighting the most significant aspects of the results of a study are a few of many reasons to provide tables and figures for your readers,

Once you’ve decided that your paper does require tables and/or figures, some basic practices and concerns found in the guidelines of many journals should be considered. For tables, for instance, ask yourself if you will you require lines or rules to separate the material – some journals ask that vertical lines be avoided, others that rules of all kinds be avoided, and a table may take more space on the page if you need to construct it without lines. For figures, there is the matter of using colour or not: some journals only print tables in monochrome (black and white) and include figures in colour solely online, while others will be happy to print your figures in colour, but they may charge a significant amount for it, so you’ll need to decide whether printing the figures in colour is worth the cost. For both tables and figures, consider the overall size of each item in terms of the printed page of the journal, and if your tables or figures will need to be reduced to such a degree that they may no longer be clear or legible, you may have to present the information in a different format or divide the information you’ve compiled in one table or figure into two or three tables or figures. Online publication is often the best route for large tables and figures, and colour rarely proves a problem with online publication.

Remember as you’re constructing your tables and figures that as a general rule each table and figure should be able to stand alone, whether it’s printed amidst the text of your paper or published separately online. For this reason, all abbreviations beyond the standard ones for common measures (cm, Hz, mph, N, SD, etc.) will need to be defined either in the table or figure itself or in close association with it, and this is the case even if you’ve already defined the abbreviations in your paper and in any preceding tables or figures. You can choose to write each term out in full within the body of the table or figure, or introduce and define the abbreviations in the heading or title of a table or in the caption or legend of a figure, or you can define any abbreviations used in a note at the bottom of the table or figure. This last approach is used for tables more often than for figures, and the abbreviations within a table are usually connected to the definitions in the note via superscript lowercase letters (but not always, so do check the journal guidelines). If you’re in any doubt about whether an abbreviation should be defined for your readers, it’s best to define it: such attention is a sign of conscientious documentation, and if the journal deems the definition unnecessary, it can always be removed.

Be sure that the terms you use in your tables and figures match those you use in the paper itself precisely, and that the abbreviations take the same forms in both the paper and the tables and figures. In fact, it’s essential to ensure that all the data presented in tables and figures are entirely consistent with data presented in the paper (and the abstract as well). This is to say that the format in which you present similar data in both places should be identical, and any overlapping data should be exactly the same in content as well as format in both places. Remember that data stand alone in a table or figure, so they need to be perfect and should be checked more than once by more than one pair of knowledgeable eyes. Even a simple error can not only render the information incorrect, it can also alter the overall appearance of the table or figure, and since an effective visual representation of information is precisely the goal of tables and figures, this can be disastrous. All numbers in a table or figure can be written as numerals and should be accurately formatted in keeping with English convention and/or journal guidelines (on the use of numbers in academic or scientific prose, see Section 4.4.1 above).

Journal guidelines should also be consulted to determine exactly how to place and submit your tables and figures in relation to your paper. Variations are myriad: when submitting to some journals you can simply place your tables and figures where you’d have them located in the published version; others will want all tables and figures added at the end of the document and only placement notes – e.g., ‘Insert Table 1 here’ and ‘Figure 3 about here’ – within the body of the paper. ‘Added at the end of the document’ can mean either before or after the reference list, and for some journals tables should precede figures, whereas for others it’s just the opposite. Sometimes guidelines will ask that tables be embedded in or tacked onto the end of the paper, but the figures submitted in separate files, with only the figure legends included in the paper, usually at the end. The point is to note and comply with whatever is required: it’s disappointing to discover that guidelines won’t let you use tables and figures quite as you’d hoped, but better that than writing the paper with the tables and figures you want only to have it rejected because of them or (in the best scenario) have to completely rewrite your paper with different, fewer or no tables at all. If a set number or style or size of tables and figures is absolutely central to your paper, then be sure to choose a journal that allows it.

However many or few tables and figures you use, be sure to label each one accurately and to refer to each of them in the body of your paper as you report and discuss your results. Virtually all journal guidelines specify this (and others expect it), and it’s also a simple courtesy to your reader that facilitates that reader’s understanding of your paper and your tables and figures in relation to it. Unnumbered or misnumbered figures and tables to which the reader is not accurately and precisely referred at an appropriate point in the text defeat their own purpose and negate some of the hard work that went into making them by leaving it to the reader to sort out the relationship between your text and your tables and figures. Tables and figures should also be referred to in numerical order, which means that they should be numbered according to the order in which they are mentioned in the text regardless of where they are actually placed in relation to the text. For clarity, they should also be referred to by number whenever mentioned, with the usual format being ‘Figure 1’ or ‘Table 2,’ unless, of course, the journal guidelines specify a different format (such as ‘Fig.1’), and whatever format used to refer to a table or figure should match that used in the heading or caption to label the table or figure itself. In the heading/caption for a table or figure, a full stop usually follows the number (Table 1. Demographic characteristics of study participants) unless there are instructions in the guidelines to the contrary (calling for a colon, for instance, after the number instead of a full stop). The title or heading of a table is generally placed above the table, whereas figure captions or legends often appear beneath figures, but guidelines (as well as style manuals) differ on this as well, so again, reading and following the guidelines of the specific journal is essential to success (see also Section 1.2 above).

Finally, if you are using in your figures any images for which the copyright belongs to someone other than yourself, you’ll need to acknowledge the source(s), usually in the relevant figure captions, and you’ll also need to obtain permissions to reproduce such images. Although all permissions need not be obtained until your paper is accepted for publication in a journal, it’s a good idea to indicate when you submit your paper which figures will require permissions and from which individuals and institutions those permissions will need to be requested, as well as noting any permissions that you’ve already obtained. Planning ahead when it comes to permissions can prevent delays and help speed up the publication process, but remember, too, that permissions to reproduce images from other publications can be costly and the expense is usually met by the author, so it’s a good idea to consider carefully whether reproducing images and other material that require permissions is really necessary and worth the cost.

PRS Tip : So much attention is paid to numerical data in tables and images in figures that the words appearing in tables and figures sometimes suffer neglect. If the words used in tables and figures do not effectively clarify and categorise the information presented, the reader’s understanding suffers as well. So when using words in a table or figure, it’s good to keep these basic practices in mind:

• Use standard abbreviations for measures and define all abbreviations beyond those for common measures.
• Use terms and abbreviations that match exactly those used for the same concepts, categories and measures in the paper and in its other tables and figures.
• Make sure that all words are visible and legible, and not obscured or crowded by other elements of the table or figure.
• Do not allow a word to be split inappropriately onto two separate lines – use a wider column instead.
• Use capitalisation consistently throughout the tables and figures in a paper.
• If the table or figure was originally prepared in another language, translate all words into accurate English – if you’re writing for an English-speaking audience, all aspects of your paper, including your tables and figures, should be entirely legible to that audience.

This article is part of a book called Guide to Academic and Scientific Publication: How To Get Your Writing Published in Scholarly Journals . It provides practical advice on planning, preparing and submitting articles for publication in scholarly journals.

Whether you are looking for information on designing an academic or scientific article, constructing a scholarly argument, targeting the right journal, following journal guidelines with precision, providing accurate and complete references, writing correct and elegant scholarly English, communicating with journal editors or revising your paper in light of that communication, you will find guidance, tips and examples in this manual.

This book is focusing on sound scholarly principles and practices as well as the expectations and requirements of academic and scientific journals, this guide is suitable for use in a wide variety of disciplines, including Economics, Engineering, the Humanities, Law, Management, Mathematics, Medicine and the Social, Physical and Biological Sciences .

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Creating tables in scientific papers: row and column titles, units, error values and sample sizes

This is the second post in our series about creating and editing scientific tables. In the first post , we saw how basic table formatting and effective table titles could be used to improve an example of a poorly constructed table.

This post will deal with table row and column titles, units, error values and sample sizes. Let’s continue with the example table that we began to improve in the first post .

Fig. 1: Improved table after placing values in individual cells, formatting and double spacing, and adding an informative title.

Rule 4. Use short, descriptive row and column titles

The title of Table 1 (above) indicates the data in the table is about wheat plants exposed to salinity. Unfortunately, the row titles do not provide any useful information, except to show there were two groups in the experiment (control and test).

If this table was in a scientific paper, you could read the materials and methods section to find out how the control group and test groups were treated. However, every table should be understandable on its own, without having to look at other parts of the paper.

Therefore, the row titles in Table 1 should be the concentration of salt used in each group, perhaps Control (0 mM NaCl) and 50 mM NaCl (instead of control and test).

The column titles (light, 5 days and 10 days) in Table 1 are quite obvious: the researcher probably exposed the wheat plants to different periods of light each day, and then measured plant height after 5 and 10 days.

However, it is important to remember that simple titles such as “light” may be easily misunderstood by someone who is not familiar with your research.

Table 1 could be improved if the row titles provided a little more information, perhaps “Light exposure per day (hours)” or “Light/day (h)” instead of “light”. Similarly, “5 days exposure” and 10 days exposure” would be better than “5 days” and “10 days”.

If you need to use long or complicated titles that don’t easily fit in the column or row titles (for example, non-small cell lung carcinoma) then it is fine to use abbreviations (NSCLC), as long as you remember to define them in the table footnote.

Again, this makes the table easier to read and prevents your reader from having to look through the paper for the definitions for each abbreviation.

Rule 5. Always include the units, error values and number of samples

Although we have improved the content of Table 1 by changing the row and column titles, some very important information is still missing.

You could probably guess that the height of wheat plants is measured in centimeters, and the light exposure per day was measured in hours.

However, you may not be able to guess the correct units in every table (and your reader should never have to guess!!), so the units should be included in every table.

Additionally, it is not known what the numbers placed after the “±” represent in Table 1, as they could be the standard deviation or standard error of the mean. Therefore, every table should include the units (for example cm and hours) and define the error values (for example mean ± S.E.M.).

It is also important to show how many samples (or patients, cultivars, replicates) were in each group, especially if the sample sizes varied. You can choose where to include the units, error values and sample sizes, depending on the layout and information in your table.

For example, the units can be placed after every value, placed in a new row at the top of the table along with the type measurement as shown in Fig. 2 below or placed in a footnote, for example: “Values are mean centimeters ± SEM; ( n = 5 per group).”

Fig. 2: Examples of different ways to include the units, error values and sample size information in a scientific table.

The table is improved by including more information in the row and column titles (rule 4), and defining units, error values and sample sizes (rule 5).

However, there is still some information missing and a few minor mistakes. Can you see any?

In the final post of this series, I will discuss the final pieces of information that should be included in every scientific table.

At Science Editing Experts, we help scientists like you to submit well-written journal papers with confidence and complete your thesis without headaches, so you can focus on your research and career.

Andrea Devlin PhD

Chief editor and owner of Science Editing Experts

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Home → Academic Writing → Tips On Effective Use Of Tables And Figures In Research Papers

Tips On Effective Use Of Tables And Figures In Research Papers

• December 24, 2022

Several studies, journal guidelines, and discourses on scientific writing affirm the critical role that tables, figures, and graphs (or display items) play in enhancing the quality of manuscripts. Scientific tables and graphs can be utilized to represent sizeable numerical or statistical data in a time- and space-effective manner. Readers are often drawn towards tables and figures, because they perceive it as easy-reading, as compared to reading a verbose account of the same content. They rightly assume that these display items will provide them with a larger amount of information in a shorter time span. 

At the manuscript screening stage, these display items offer reviewers and journal editors a quick overview of the study findings, and once the paper is published, they do the same for readers (some of whom look only at these display items and not at the rest of the manuscript). However, tables and figures only add value to the format of a research report, if they are brief yet sufficiently informative.

These visual elements help authors present detailed results and complex relationships, patterns, and trends clearly and concisely; reduce the length of the manuscript and enhance readers’ understanding of the study results. Therefore, these tools are integral to the format of a research paper because, if clear and well-organized, they speed up the comprehension and interpretation of the study’s findings. 

But while well-presented tables and figures in research papers can efficiently capture and present information, poorly crafted tables and figures can confuse readers and impair the effectiveness of a paper.  To help authors get the balance right, this article presents some essential guidelines to the effective use of tables and figures in research papers. 

Planning your paper: When to use tables and figures in scientific papers

Producing effective tables and figures requires careful planning that begins at the manuscript writing stage itself. Here’s how to go about it:

• First, check out what your target journal has to say on the issue. Some journals limit the number of tables and figures and also have specific guidelines on the design aspects of these display items.
• Next, decide whether to use tables and figures or text to put across key information.(Refer to Table 1 below for help on making this decision.)
• After you’ve decided to use a display item, choose the display item that best fits your purpose based on what you wish readers to focus on and what you want to present (Refer to Table 1 below for more information).
• Finally, follow the best-practice guidelines outlined in section 3 and review the examples presented in section 4 of this paper to ensure that your tables and figures are well-designed.

Table 1: How to choose between tables, figures, and text to present data

Best practices for presentation of tables and figures in scientific papers

General guidelines:

• Ensure that display items are self-explanatory : Some readers (and certainly reviewers and journal editors) turn their attention to the tables and figures before they read the entire text, so these display items should be self-contained.
• Refer, but don’t repeat : Use the text to draw the reader’s attention to the significance and key points of the table/figure, but don’t repeat details. So for example, you could highlight your main finding (e.g., “We found that the treatment was effective in only 24% of the cases, as shown in Figure 1”), but don’t repeat exact values (e.g., “As Table 2 shows, 32% of the subjects chose Option 1, 12% chose Option 2, 10% chose Option 3, and 46% chose Option 4”). This defeats the very purpose (efficiency and clarity) of having a table or figure. 
• Be consistent : Ensure consistency between values or details in a table (e.g., abbreviations, group names, treatment names) and those in the text. 
• Give clear, informative titles : Table and figure titles should not be vague but should concisely describe the purpose or contents of the table/figure and should ideally draw the reader’s attention to what you want him/her to notice (e.g., Advantages and disadvantages of using sleep therapy with patients suffering from schizophrenia). Also ensure that column heads, axis labels, figure labels, etc., are clearly and appropriately labelled.
• Adhere to journal guidelines : Check what your target journal has to say about issues like the number of tables and figures, the style of numbering, titles, image resolution, file formats, etc., and follow these instructions carefully. 

Guidelines for tables:

• Combine repetitive tables : Tables and figures that present repetitive information will impair communication rather than enhance it. Examine the titles of all your tables and figures and check if they talk about the same or similar things. If they do, rethink the presentation and combine or delete the tables/graphs.
• Divide the data : When presenting large amounts of information, divide the data into clear and appropriate categories and present them in columns titled accurately and descriptively. 
• Watch the extent of data in your tables : If the data you have to present is extensive and would make the tables too cluttered or long, consider making the tables a part of the Appendix or supplemental material.
• De-clutter your table : Ensure that there is sufficient spacing between columns and rows and that the layout does not make the table look too messy or crowded.  

Guidelines for figures:

• Ensure image clarity : Make sure that all the parts of the figure are clear:18 Use standard font; check that labels are legible against the figure background; and ensure that images are sharp.
• Use legends to explain the key message : Figure legends are pivotal to the effectiveness of a figure. Use them to draw attention to the central message as well as to explain abbreviations and symbols.
• Label all important parts : Label the key sections and parts of schematic diagrams and photographs, and all axes, curves, and data sets in graphs and data plots.
• Give specifics : Include scale bars in images and maps; specify units wherever quantities are listed; include legends in maps and schematics; and specify latitudes and longitudes on maps. This section presents one example each of a well-prepared table and a well-designed figure.

Table 2: The table below is taken from a dietary study on chick-rearing macaroni penguins and is an example of an effective table for the following reasons:

• The title clearly describes what the table is about.
• The column heads are descriptive and clearly indicate the nature of the data presented. The data is divided into categories for clarity.
• It is self-contained and can be understood quite well even without reference to the entire paper.
• Superscript letters and notes are used to offer additional, clarifying information.
• Sufficient spacing is present between columns and rows; the layout is clean, and the font is legible.

Examples of an effective figure (graph)

The figure below from a paper on the efficacy of oyster reefs as natural breakwaters, scores on several counts:

• The informative title that immediately tells the reader what to expect in the graph.
• The axes are labeled clearly.
• The key clearly identifies what each element in the graph stands for.
• A figure legend at the bottom draws the reader’s attention to the graph’s key points.
• A note at the bottom acknowledges the source.
• The graph is 2-dimensional, with no clutter.    

Figures and tables, or display items, are powerful communication tools—they give your manuscript a professional feel, attract and sustain the interest of readers, and efficiently present large amounts of complex information. Moreover, as most journals editors and reviewers will glance at these display items before they begin a full reading of your paper, their importance cannot be overemphasized. 

Keep striving, researchers! ✨

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Best Practices for Designing and Formatting Tables in Research Papers

Introduction

Advantages of using tables in research papers, simple table, complex table, comparison table, statistical table, guidelines for effective use of tables in research papers, i. conditional formatting, ii. data bars, iii. highlighting cells:, how to fit my table by splitting it into multiple pages, can i give citations within the table , what is creative commons license, whether tables are also part of the plagiarism check, how many tables should be there in a research paper of 10 pages, can i put tables at the end of research paper, can i put table in single column in a two column research paper format.

Tables are a crucial aspect of research papers, providing a visual representation of data and results. They are used to effectively and concisely convey information to the reader. The purpose of using tables in research papers is to organize and present data in a manner that is easy to understand and interpret.

A table is a way of arranging data in rows and columns, allowing the reader to quickly identify patterns and trends within the data. It can be used to compare different results or to present large amounts of information in a clear and organized manner.

The importance of using tables in research papers cannot be overstated. Not only do they improve the overall clarity and organization of the paper, but they also make it easier for the reader to understand and interpret the results.

In this article, we will explore the advantages of using tables in research papers, the different types of tables commonly used, and how to effectively utilize tables in your research paper.

As a researcher or academic, you may have started out presenting data and information in your research papers in a simple format, such as just listing the data as plain text. However, as you progressed in your work, you soon realized the importance of presenting the information in a clear and organized manner.

You may have experienced the difficulties of presenting complex data in a simple format, and struggled with making the information easy for readers to understand. That’s when you discovered the power of tables.

Tables allow you to present complex data in a simple and easy-to-read format, helping your readers understand the information quickly and accurately. They also help to save space and make it easier to compare different data sets.

However, you soon learned that simply presenting the data in a table was not enough. You realized the importance of differentiating the rows in your tables to make the information stand out and easier to understand. You explored different ways to do this, such as using different background colors, shading, bold or italic text, different font sizes or styles, and different alignments.

Through your experience, you learned that tables play a crucial role in research papers, and that differentiating the rows in your tables can greatly improve the clarity and organization of your information. You continued to refine your table-making skills, ultimately resulting in the ability to present your data and information in the best possible way.

There are several benefits to using tables in research papers, including:

• Clarity and Organization of Data: Tables help to visually organize data and results, making it easier for the reader to understand and interpret the information. This can be particularly useful when presenting complex or detailed data sets.
• Easy Comparison of Results: Tables allow for quick and easy comparison of results, making it simpler for the reader to identify trends and patterns in the data. This is especially useful when presenting multiple results or comparing results from different experiments or studies.
• Ability to present large amounts of information: Tables are an effective way to present large amounts of data in a concise and organized manner. They help to break down complex information into manageable chunks, making it easier for the reader to comprehend.
• Improved Visual Appeal: Tables can improve the visual appeal of a research paper, breaking up long sections of text and making it easier for the reader to follow the information being presented. They can also help to clarify and emphasize key results or findings.

By utilizing tables in your research paper, you can effectively communicate your results and make it easier for the reader to understand the information you are presenting. The use of tables can also improve the overall clarity and organization of the paper, making it a valuable tool for any researcher.

Types of Tables Commonly Used in Research Papers

There are several types of tables commonly used in research papers, including:

A simple table presents data in a basic format, with columns and rows to organize the information. This type of table is useful for presenting simple data sets, such as small amounts of numerical or categorical data.

A complex table is used to present more complex data sets, such as large amounts of numerical data or data with multiple categories. This type of table may also include subheadings, footnotes, or other additional information to help the reader understand the data being presented.

A comparison table is used to compare data or results from multiple sources, experiments, or studies. This type of table allows the reader to quickly identify similarities and differences between the data being presented.

A statistical table presents numerical data and statistical results, such as means, standard deviations, and p-values. This type of table is useful for presenting results from statistical analyses and can be used to effectively communicate the significance of the results.

When using tables in research papers, it is important to follow certain guidelines to effectively communicate the information being presented. Some of these guidelines include:

• Clearly label the table and provide a brief description: Label the table with a clear and descriptive title, and provide a brief description of the information being presented. This will help the reader understand the purpose of the table and what information they can expect to find.
• Choose the right type of table: Choose the right type of table for the data being presented, as outlined in the previous section. This will help to effectively communicate the results and make it easier for the reader to understand the information.
• Keep tables simple and concise: Keep tables simple and concise, using only the necessary information to effectively communicate the results. Avoid using overly complex or cluttered tables, as this can make it more difficult for the reader to understand the information being presented.
• Use appropriate formatting: Use appropriate formatting to effectively communicate the information being presented. For example, use bold or italic text to highlight important information, and align the columns and rows in a way that makes the information easy to read.
• Provide clear and concise captions: Provide clear and concise captions for each table, explaining the purpose and results of the data being presented. This will help the reader understand the information being presented and will also provide context for the results.

By following these guidelines, researchers can effectively utilize tables in their research papers to communicate their results in a clear and organized manner. The use of tables can improve the overall clarity and organization of the paper, making it easier for the reader to understand the information being presented.

Highlighting Key Information in Tables Through Row Differentiation

When presenting data in a table, it is important to make sure that the information is organized and easy to understand. One effective way to do this is by differentiating the rows in the table. Here are several ways to achieve this, including using different background colors, shading or borders, text formatting, alignment, row spacing, and highlighting cells with specific values. These methods can help to group similar data, highlight important data points, and make the table easier to read and understand. Whether you are presenting data in a research paper, a business report, or any other type of document, utilizing these techniques can enhance the clarity and impact of your data presentation.

• Background color: Different background colors can be used to distinguish between rows and highlight specific groups of data.
• Shading or borders: Using shading or borders can help to separate rows in a table and distinguish between different groups of data.
• Text formatting: Bold or italic text can be used to highlight specific rows and make them stand out from the rest of the data. Different font sizes or styles can also be used to differentiate between rows.
• Alignment: Different alignments, such as centre or right alignments, can be used to differentiate between rows and distinguish between different types of data.
• Row spacing: Increasing the row spacing can help to separate the rows and make the table easier to read.
• Differentiating rows based on values: This is a feature in spreadsheet programs like Microsoft Excel and Google Sheets that allows you to apply conditional formatting rules to cells based on their values.

These are just a few examples of ways to differentiate rows in a table. The best approach will depend on the type of data being presented and the purpose of the table. The goal should be to make it easy for the reader to understand the information being presented and distinguish between different rows. As points 1-5 are most familiar and well known, I will elaborate point 6 in the following section.

Differentiate Rows in a Table Based on the Values of the Table.

There are several ways to do this:

This is a feature in spreadsheet programs like Microsoft Excel and Google Sheets that allows you to apply conditional formatting rules to cells based on their values. For example, you could apply a certain color to cells with a certain value range or highlight cells with specific values.

This is another feature in spreadsheet programs that allows you to add a bar to cells based on their values. This can help you visualize the relative magnitude of values within a table.

You can also manually highlight cells with specific values to draw attention to them. This can be done using the built-in highlighting tools in spreadsheet programs or by manually adding borders or shading to the cells.

How to fit Big Table in a Research Paper?

Tables are a crucial component of research papers as they help to present data in a clear and organized manner. However, sometimes the amount of data you need to present can result in a table that is too big to fit on one page. In such cases, fitting the table into a research paper can become a challenge. But with a few adjustments and strategies, you can effectively fit a big table into your research paper and ensure that the information is presented in a clear and readable manner. In this article, we’ll discuss a few methods for fitting a large table into a research paper.

• Reduce the font size : Reducing the font size can help fit more data into the same amount of space, but it may make the table more difficult to read.
• Split the table into multiple smaller tables: Splitting the large table into smaller tables that focus on different aspects of the data can make it easier to read and understand.
• Use landscape orientation: Changing the orientation of the page to landscape can provide more space for the table.
• Use a smaller font for numerical values: If the data in the table consists mainly of numerical values, you can use a smaller font for the values and a larger font for the headings.
• Use abbreviations or symbols: Replacing lengthy text with abbreviations or symbols can reduce the size of the table while still conveying the necessary information.
• Use a table that scrolls horizontally: Some word processors and typesetting programs allow you to create tables that can be scrolled horizontally, allowing you to fit more data into the same amount of space.
• Omit non-essential information: If the table contains data that is not critical to your research, consider omitting it to reduce the size of the table.

The best option of all is to split a table and show it across multiple pages when the table contains more items row-wise. in a research paper. The exact method for doing so depends on the word processing software or typesetting system you are using.

For example, in Microsoft Word , you can split a table across multiple pages by selecting the row below which you want to split the table, and then going to “Layout” > “Breaks” > “Next Page” to insert a page break. The upper part of the table will be on one page and the lower part will start on the next page.

In LaTeX , you can split a table across multiple pages using the long table package. The long table package allows you to create tables that span multiple pages, with header and footer rows that repeat on each page.

Regardless of the method used, it is important to ensure that the split table is still readable and the data is easy to understand, even when split across multiple pages.

When splitting a table across multiple pages in a research paper, it is important to ensure that the headings are also repeated on each page to make the table readable and easy to understand.

In Microsoft Word, you can repeat the headings by selecting the first row of the table (which contains the headings) and then right-clicking and selecting “Table Properties.” In the “Row” tab, you can check the “Repeat as header row at the top of each page” option. This will cause the headings to be repeated at the top of each page on which the table is split.

In LaTeX, you can repeat the headings by using the long table package as described in my previous answer. The long table package provides options for defining the header and footer rows that are repeated on each page of the table.

Regardless of the method used, it is important to ensure that the headings are clearly visible and easily distinguishable from the rest of the table. This helps readers understand the data contained in the table and follow its structure, even when split across multiple pages.

When splitting a table across multiple pages in a research paper, it is important to ensure that the headings are also repeated on each page to make the table readable and easy to understand. In Microsoft Word, you can repeat the headings by selecting the first row of the table (which contains the headings) and then right-clicking and selecting “Table Properties.” In the “Row” tab, you can check the “Repeat as header row at the top of each page” option. This will cause the headings to be repeated at the top of each page on which the table is split.

In LaTeX, you can repeat the headings by using the longtable package. The longtable package provides options for defining the header and footer rows that are repeated on each page of the table. Regardless of the method used, it is important to ensure that the headings are clearly visible and easily distinguishable from the rest of the table. This helps readers understand the data contained in the table and follow its structure, even when split across multiple pages.

How to Refer Tables in a Research Paper?

In a research paper, tables are usually referred to in the text by their number, such as Table 1, Table 2, etc. To refer to a specific element within a table, such as a specific row or column, you can specify the table number followed by the row and column number, e.g. “Table 1, Row 2, Column 3”. When referring to a table, it is important to ensure that the reference is clear and accurate and that the table is properly cited if the information is taken from another source.

Yes, you can give references or citations within a table in a research paper. The exact method of citing within a table depends on the referencing style you are using, but common methods include adding a superscript number or symbol in the cell of the table and then listing the corresponding reference in a footnote or in a reference list at the end of the paper. It is important to be consistent and clear in your referencing within tables to avoid confusion and to give credit where it is due.

here is an example of referencing within a table:

In this example, the reference column lists the number of sources where the information for each row was obtained. This information can then be referenced in the text of the research paper. For example, you could write “The sales and expenses for the North region in 2010 and 2011 are shown in Table 1 and are cited in references [1] and [2].”

Copyrights, Permissions and Plagiarism Check for Tables

Tables, like other types of data and images, can be subject to copyright protection. It depends on the specific circumstances surrounding the creation and use of the table. If the table is original and creative, it may be eligible for copyright protection as a literary work. On the other hand, if the table simply presents factual information in a straightforward manner, it may not be eligible for copyright protection. It’s important to consider the legal implications before using a table in a research paper or other publication. In general, it’s advisable to obtain permission from the copyright holder or to use tables that are in the public domain or licensed under a Creative Commons license.

To determine whether a table is under copyright protection, you can consider the following factors:

• Originality: If the table is original and creative, it may be eligible for copyright protection.
• Factual information: If the table simply presents factual information in a straightforward manner, it may not be eligible for copyright protection.
• Attribution: If the table was created by someone else, you should check for any attribution or copyright information. This information may be found in the table itself, in the source material from which the table was created, or in a separate copyright notice.
• Public domain: Tables that are in the public domain are not under copyright protection. You can use these tables without permission.
• Creative Commons license: Some tables may be licensed under a Creative Commons license, which allows you to use the table with certain conditions.

It’s important to check the specific circumstances surrounding the creation and use of the table to determine whether it’s under copyright protection. If in doubt, it’s advisable to obtain permission from the copyright holder or to use tables that are in the public domain or licensed under a Creative Commons license.

Creative Commons is a nonprofit organization that provides a set of standardized licenses for creators to use when making their work available to others. These licenses are designed to help creators maintain control over their work, while also making it possible for others to use, share, and build upon that work in ways that are legal and consistent with the creator’s intentions.

Some common creative commons licenses include Attribution (CC BY), Attribution-ShareAlike (CC BY-SA), and Attribution-NoDerivs (CC BY-ND) licenses. These licenses specify how others are allowed to use a creator’s work, such as by requiring attribution, allowing derivative works, or requiring that any derivative works be shared under the same license.

To obtain a Creative Commons license, one should approach the Creative Commons organization, which provides free, flexible copyright licenses that allow creators to share their work with the public while maintaining control over their rights.

The organization provides a license wizard that allows creators to choose the license that best suits their needs and provides guidance on how to properly use the license. The license can be applied to various types of creative works, including text, images, videos, and music.

Tables are also part of the plagiarism checks in research papers. All sources and information used in a research paper, including tables, should be properly cited to avoid plagiarism. Tables created from original data and analysis are also subject to plagiarism checks, as they are considered original content. It is important to ensure that all information in a research paper, including tables, is properly cited and does not violate copyright or plagiarism laws.

To avoid plagiarism in tables in a research paper, one should follow the following guidelines:

• Always properly cite any sources used to create the table, including any data, calculations, or other information that has been used.
• Use original language and explanations when writing captions and annotations for the table.
• Use a plagiarism detection tool, such as Turnitin, to check the content of the table.
• Make sure to use different sources to create the table, rather than relying on a single source.
• Use proper referencing styles and formatting, such as MLA, APA, or Chicago style, to avoid any accidental plagiarism.
• Avoid copying tables directly from other sources, even if you have cited the source.
• Create the table yourself, using data and calculations that you have obtained independently.
• If you must use a table from another source, make sure to make substantial changes to it so that it is no longer an exact copy.
• Always be mindful of copyright laws and make sure to obtain permission to use any copyrighted materials in your table.
• Regularly review and update your table to ensure that it is in compliance with plagiarism and copyright laws.

I have written an article on The Consequences of Plagiarism: What You Need to Know? . This article will help you to understand the importance of understanding consequences of plagiarism.

In conclusion, tables are an essential tool for presenting data and information in a clear and organized manner in research papers. They are used to present complex data in a simple and easy-to-read format, which helps readers to understand the information quickly and accurately. Tables also help to save space and make it easier to compare different data sets.

Differentiating the rows in a table is an important aspect of table design, as it helps to make the information stand out and makes it easier to understand. There are several ways to differentiate rows in a table, including using different background colors, shading, bold or italic text, different font sizes or styles, and different alignments. The most appropriate method will depend on the data being presented and the purpose of the table.

Frequently Asked Questions

The number of tables in a research paper can vary depending on the specific requirements of the paper and the nature of the research being presented. As a general guideline, there is no strict rule on how many tables should be included in a 10-page research paper, as it can vary greatly depending on the research topic, methodology, and the amount of data being presented. As a rough estimate, a 10-page research paper may include anywhere from 1 to 5 tables, but this can vary significantly based on the factors mentioned above.

Yes, it is common to include tables at the end of a research paper, after the references section. This is typically done to keep the main body of the research paper focused on the narrative and analysis, while providing supplementary information, such as tables or other supporting data, at the end.

Yes, it is possible to include a table in a single column format within a two-column research paper. In a two-column format, the text typically flows in two columns, side by side, across the page. However, if you need to include a table that requires a wider layout or if it is easier to read as a single column, you can insert a table that spans the entire width of the page in a single column format.

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• Citing tables and figures from other sources in APA Style

Citing Tables and Figures in APA Style | Format & Examples

Published on November 6, 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on December 27, 2023.

When you reprint or adapt a table or figure from another source, the source should be acknowledged in an in-text citation and in your reference list . Follow the format for the source type you took the table or figure from.

You also have to include a copyright statement in a note beneath the table or figure. The example below shows how to cite a figure from a journal article .

Table of contents

Citing tables and figures, including a copyright note, examples from different source types, frequently asked questions about apa style citations.

Tables and figures taken from other sources are numbered and presented in the same format as your other tables and figures . Refer to them as Table 1, Figure 3, etc., but include an in-text citation after you mention them to acknowledge the source.

You should also include the source in the reference list. Follow the standard format for the source type you took the table or figure from.

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As well as a citation and reference, when you reproduce a table or figure in your own work, you also need to acknowledge the source in a note directly below it.

The image below shows an example of a table with a copyright note.

If you’ve reproduced a table or figure exactly, start the note with “From …” If you’ve adapted it in some way for your own purposes (e.g. incorporating part of a table or figure into a new table or figure in your paper), write “Adapted from …”

This is followed by information about the source (title, author, year, publisher, and location), and then copyright information at the end.

Types of copyright and permission

A source will either be under standard copyright, under a Creative Commons license, or in the public domain. You need to state which of these is the case.

Under standard copyright, you sometimes also need permission from the publisher to reprint or adapt materials. If you sought and obtained permission, mention this at the end of the note.

Look for information on copyright and permissions from the publisher. If you’re having trouble finding this information, consult your supervisor for advice.

• From a journal article
• From a website
• From a book

Copyright information can usually be found wherever the table or figure was published. For example, for a diagram in a journal article , look on the journal’s website or the database where you found the article. Images found on sites like Flickr are listed with clear copyright information.

If you find that permission is required to reproduce the material, be sure to contact the author or publisher and ask for it.

APA doesn’t require you to include a list of tables or a list of figures . However, it is advisable to do so if your text is long enough to feature a table of contents and it includes a lot of tables and/or figures .

A list of tables and list of figures appear (in that order) after your table of contents, and are presented in a similar way.

If you adapt or reproduce a table or figure from another source, you should include that source in your APA reference list . You should also include copyright information in the note for the table or figure, and include an APA in-text citation when you refer to it.

Tables and figures you created yourself, based on your own data, are not included in the reference list.

In most styles, the title page is used purely to provide information and doesn’t include any images. Ask your supervisor if you are allowed to include an image on the title page before doing so. If you do decide to include one, make sure to check whether you need permission from the creator of the image.

Include a note directly beneath the image acknowledging where it comes from, beginning with the word “ Note .” (italicized and followed by a period). Include a citation and copyright attribution . Don’t title, number, or label the image as a figure , since it doesn’t appear in your main text.

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How to clearly articulate results and construct tables and figures in a scientific paper?

The writing of the results section of a scientific paper is very important for the readers for clearly understanding of the study. This review summarizes the rules for writing the results section of a scientific paper and describes the use of tables and figures.

Introduction

Medical articles consist of review articles, case reports, and letters to the editor which are prepared with the intention of publishing in journals related to the medical discipline of the author. For an academician to be able to progress in carreer, and make his/her activities known in the academic environment, require preparation of the protocol of his/her academic research article, and acquiring sufficient information, and experience related to the composition of this article. In this review article, the information related to the writing of the ‘Results’ section, and use of tables, and figures will be presented to the attention of the readers.

Writing the ‘Results’ section

The ‘Results’ section is perhaps the most important part of a research article. In fact the authors will share the results of their research/study with their readers. Renown British biologist Thomas Henry Huxley (1825–1895) indicated his feelings as “The great tragedy of science: the slaying of a beautiful hypothesis by an ugly fact.” which emphasizes the importance of accurately, and impressively written results.

In essence results provide a response for the question” What is found in the research performed?”. Therefore, it is the most vital part of the article. As a priority, while drafting the ‘Results’ section of a manuscript one should not firstly write down methods in the ‘Material and Method’ section. The first sentence should give information about the number of patients who met the inclusion criteria, and thus enrolled in the study. [ 1 ] Besides information about the number of patients excluded from the study, and the reasons for exclusion is very important in that they will enlighten the readers, and reviewers who critically evaluate the manuscript, and also reflect the seriousness of the study. On the other hand, the results obtained should be recorded in chronological order, and without any comments. [ 2 ] In this section use of simple present tense is more appropriate. The findings should be expressed in brief, lucid, and explicable words. The writing style should not be boring for the reader. During writing process of a research article, a generally ill-conceived point is that positive, and significant findings are more important, attractive, and valuable, while negative, and insignificant findings are worthless, and less attractive. A scientific research is not performed to confirm a hypothesis, rather to test it. Not only positive, and significant results are worth writing, on the other hand negative or statistically insignificant result which support fallacy of a widely accepted opinion might be valuable. Therefore, all findings obtained during research should be inclıuded in the ‘Results’ section. [ 1 ]

While writing the ‘Results’ section, the sequence of results, tabulated data, and information which will be illustrated as figures should be definitively indicated. In indicating insignificant changes, do not use expressions as “decreased” or “increased”, these words should be reserved for significant changes. If results related to more than one parameter would be reported, it is appropriate to write the results under the subheading of its related parameter so as to facilitate reading, and comprehension of information. [ 2 ] Only data, and information concerning the study in question should be included in the ‘Results’ section. Results not mentioned in this section should not be included in the ‘Discussion’ and ‘Summary’ sections. Since the results obtained by the authors are cited in the ‘Results’ section, any reference should not be indicated in this section. [ 3 ]

In the ‘Results’ section, numerical expressions should be written in technically appropriate terms. The number of digits (1, 2 or 3 digits) to be written after a comma (in Turkish) or a point (in especially American English) should be determined The number of digits written after the punctuation marks should not be changed all throughout the text. Data should be expressed as mean/median ± standard deviation. Data as age, and scale scores should be indicated together with ranges of values. Absolute numerical value corresponding to a percentage must be also indicated. P values calculated in statistical analysis should be expressed in their absolute values. While writing p values of statistically significant data, instead of p<0.05 the actual level of significance should be recorded. If p value is smaller than 0.001, then it can be written as p <0.01. [ 2 ] While writing the ‘Results’ section, significant data which should be recalled by the readers must be indicated in the main text. It will be appropriate to indicate other demographic numerical details in tables or figures.

As an example elucidating the abovementioned topics a research paper written by the authors of this review article, and published in the Turkish Journal of Urology in the year 2007 (Türk Üroloji Dergisi 2007;33:18–23) is presented below:

“A total of 9 (56.2%) female, and 7 (43.8%) male patients with were included in this study. Mean age of all the patients was 44.3±13.8 (17–65) years, and mean dimensions of the adrenal mass was 4.5±3.4 (1–14) cm. Mean ages of the male, and female patients were 44.1 (30–65), and 42.4 (17–64) years, while mean diameters of adrenal masses were 3.2 (1–5), and 4.5 (1–14) cm (p age =0.963, p mass size =0.206). Surgical procedures were realized using transperitoneal approach through Chevron incision in 1 (6.2%), and retroperitoneal approach using flank incision with removal of the 11. rib in 15 (93.7%) patients. Right (n=6; 37.5%), and left (n=2; 12.5%) adrenalectomies were performed. Two (12.5%) patients underwent bilateral adrenalectomy in the same session because of clinical Cushing’s syndrome persisted despite transsphenoidal hipophysectomy. Mean operative time, and length of the hospital stay were 135 (65–190) min, and 3 (2–6) days, respectively. While resecting 11. rib during retroperitoneal adrenalectomy performed in 1 patient, pleura was perforated for nearly 1.5 cm. The perforated region was drained, and closed intraoperatively with 4/0 polyglyctan sutures. The patient did not develop postoperative pneumothorax. In none of the patients postoperative complications as pneumothorax, bleeding, prolonged drainage were seen. Results of histopathological analysis of the specimens retrieved at the end of the operation were summarized in Table 1 .” Table 1. Histopathological examination results of the patients Histopathological diagnosis Men n (%) Women n (%) Total n (%) Adrenal cortical adenoma 5 (31.3) 6 (37.6) 11 (68.8) Pheochromocytoma 1 (6.2) 1 (6.2) 2 (12.6) Ganglioneuroma 1 (6.2) - 1 (6.2) Myelolipoma - 1 (6.2) 1 (6.2) Adrenal carcinoma - 1 (6.2) 1 (6.2) Total 7 (43.7) 9 (56.2) 16 (100) Open in a separate window

Use of tables, and figures

To prevent the audience from getting bored while reading a scientific article, some of the data should be expressed in a visual format in graphics, and figures rather than crowded numerical values in the text. Peer-reviewers frequently look at tables, and figures. High quality tables, and figures increase the chance of acceptance of the manuscript for publication.

Number of tables in the manuscript should not exceed the number recommended by the editorial board of the journal. Data in the main text, and tables should not be repeated many times. Tables should be comprehensible, and a reader should be able to express an opinion about the results just at looking at the tables without reading the main text. Data included in tables should comply with those mentioned in the main text, and percentages in rows, and columns should be summed up accurately. Unit of each variable should be absolutely defined. Sampling size of each group should be absolutely indicated. Values should be expressed as values±standard error, range or 95% confidence interval. Tables should include precise p values, and level of significance as assessed with statistical analysis should be indicated in footnotes. [ 2 ] Use of abbreviations in tables should be avoided, if abbreviations are required they should be defined explicitly in the footnotes or legends of the tables. As a general rule, rows should be arranged as double-spaced Besides do not use pattern coloring for cells of rows, and columns. Values included in tables should be correctly approximated. [ 1 , 2 ]

As an example elucidating the abovementioned topics a research paper written by the authors of this review article, and published in the Turkish Journal of Urology in the year 2007 (Türk Üroloji Dergisi 2007;33:18–23).is shown in Table 1 .

Most of the readers priorly prefer to look at figures, and graphs rather than reading lots of pages. Selection of appropriate types of graphs for demonstration of data is a critical decision which requires artist’s meticulousness. As is the case with tables, graphs, and figures should also disploay information not provided in the text. Bar, line, and pie graphs, scatter plots, and histograms are some examples of graphs. In graphs, independent variables should be represented on the horizontal, and dependent variables on the vertical axis. Number of subjects in every subgroup should be indicated The labels on each axis should be easily understandable. [ 2 ] The label of the Y axis should be written vertically from bottom to top. The fundamental point in writing explanatory notes for graphs, and figures is to help the readers understand the contents of them without referring to the main text. Meanings of abbreviations, and acronyms used in the graphs, and figures should be provided in explanatory notes. In the explanatory notes striking data should be emphasized. Statistical tests used, levels of significance, sampling size, stains used for analyses, and magnification rate should be written in order to facilitate comprehension of the study procedures. [ 1 , 2 ]

Flow diagram can be utilized in the ‘Results’ section. This diagram facilitates comprehension of the results obtained at certain steps of monitorization during the research process. Flow diagram can be used either in the ‘Results’ or ‘Material and Method’ section. [ 2 , 3 ]

Histopathological analyses, surgical technique or radiological images which are considered to be more useful for the comprehension of the text by the readers can be visually displayed. Important findings should be marked on photos, and their definitions should be provided clearly in the explanatory legends. [ 1 ]

As an example elucidating the abovementioned issues, graphics, and flow diagram in the ‘Results’ section of a research paper written by the authors of this review article, and published in the World Journal of Urology in the year 2010 (World J Urol 2010;28:17–22.) are shown in Figures 1 , and ​ and2 2 .

a The mean SHIM scores of the groups before and after treatment. SHIM sexual health inventory for male. b The mean IPSS scores of the groups before and after treatment. IPSS international prostate symptom score

Flowchart showing patients’ progress during the study. SHIM sexual health inventory for male, IIEF international index of erectile function, IPSS international prostate symptom score, QoL quality of life, Q max maximum urinary flow rate. PRV post voiding residual urine volume

In conclusion, in line with the motto of the famous German physicist Albert Einstein (1879–1955). ‘If you are out to describe the truth, leave elegance to the tailor .’ results obtained in a scientific research article should be expressed accurately, and with a masterstroke of a tailor in compliance with certain rules which will ensure acceptability of the scientific manuscript by the editorial board of the journal, and also facilitate its intelligibility by the readers.

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Writing Research Papers

• Research Paper Structure

Whether you are writing a B.S. Degree Research Paper or completing a research report for a Psychology course, it is highly likely that you will need to organize your research paper in accordance with American Psychological Association (APA) guidelines.  Here we discuss the structure of research papers according to APA style.

Major Sections of a Research Paper in APA Style

A complete research paper in APA style that is reporting on experimental research will typically contain a Title page, Abstract, Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion, and References sections. 1  Many will also contain Figures and Tables and some will have an Appendix or Appendices.  These sections are detailed as follows (for a more in-depth guide, please refer to " How to Write a Research Paper in APA Style ”, a comprehensive guide developed by Prof. Emma Geller). 2

What is this paper called and who wrote it? – the first page of the paper; this includes the name of the paper, a “running head”, authors, and institutional affiliation of the authors.  The institutional affiliation is usually listed in an Author Note that is placed towards the bottom of the title page.  In some cases, the Author Note also contains an acknowledgment of any funding support and of any individuals that assisted with the research project.

One-paragraph summary of the entire study – typically no more than 250 words in length (and in many cases it is well shorter than that), the Abstract provides an overview of the study.

Introduction

What is the topic and why is it worth studying? – the first major section of text in the paper, the Introduction commonly describes the topic under investigation, summarizes or discusses relevant prior research (for related details, please see the Writing Literature Reviews section of this website), identifies unresolved issues that the current research will address, and provides an overview of the research that is to be described in greater detail in the sections to follow.

What did you do? – a section which details how the research was performed.  It typically features a description of the participants/subjects that were involved, the study design, the materials that were used, and the study procedure.  If there were multiple experiments, then each experiment may require a separate Methods section.  A rule of thumb is that the Methods section should be sufficiently detailed for another researcher to duplicate your research.

What did you find? – a section which describes the data that was collected and the results of any statistical tests that were performed.  It may also be prefaced by a description of the analysis procedure that was used. If there were multiple experiments, then each experiment may require a separate Results section.

What is the significance of your results? – the final major section of text in the paper.  The Discussion commonly features a summary of the results that were obtained in the study, describes how those results address the topic under investigation and/or the issues that the research was designed to address, and may expand upon the implications of those findings.  Limitations and directions for future research are also commonly addressed.

List of articles and any books cited – an alphabetized list of the sources that are cited in the paper (by last name of the first author of each source).  Each reference should follow specific APA guidelines regarding author names, dates, article titles, journal titles, journal volume numbers, page numbers, book publishers, publisher locations, websites, and so on (for more information, please see the Citing References in APA Style page of this website).

Tables and Figures

Graphs and data (optional in some cases) – depending on the type of research being performed, there may be Tables and/or Figures (however, in some cases, there may be neither).  In APA style, each Table and each Figure is placed on a separate page and all Tables and Figures are included after the References.   Tables are included first, followed by Figures.   However, for some journals and undergraduate research papers (such as the B.S. Research Paper or Honors Thesis), Tables and Figures may be embedded in the text (depending on the instructor’s or editor’s policies; for more details, see "Deviations from APA Style" below).

Supplementary information (optional) – in some cases, additional information that is not critical to understanding the research paper, such as a list of experiment stimuli, details of a secondary analysis, or programming code, is provided.  This is often placed in an Appendix.

Variations of Research Papers in APA Style

Although the major sections described above are common to most research papers written in APA style, there are variations on that pattern.  These variations include: 

• Literature reviews – when a paper is reviewing prior published research and not presenting new empirical research itself (such as in a review article, and particularly a qualitative review), then the authors may forgo any Methods and Results sections. Instead, there is a different structure such as an Introduction section followed by sections for each of the different aspects of the body of research being reviewed, and then perhaps a Discussion section. 
• Multi-experiment papers – when there are multiple experiments, it is common to follow the Introduction with an Experiment 1 section, itself containing Methods, Results, and Discussion subsections. Then there is an Experiment 2 section with a similar structure, an Experiment 3 section with a similar structure, and so on until all experiments are covered.  Towards the end of the paper there is a General Discussion section followed by References.  Additionally, in multi-experiment papers, it is common for the Results and Discussion subsections for individual experiments to be combined into single “Results and Discussion” sections.

Departures from APA Style

In some cases, official APA style might not be followed (however, be sure to check with your editor, instructor, or other sources before deviating from standards of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association).  Such deviations may include:

• Placement of Tables and Figures  – in some cases, to make reading through the paper easier, Tables and/or Figures are embedded in the text (for example, having a bar graph placed in the relevant Results section). The embedding of Tables and/or Figures in the text is one of the most common deviations from APA style (and is commonly allowed in B.S. Degree Research Papers and Honors Theses; however you should check with your instructor, supervisor, or editor first). 
• Incomplete research – sometimes a B.S. Degree Research Paper in this department is written about research that is currently being planned or is in progress. In those circumstances, sometimes only an Introduction and Methods section, followed by References, is included (that is, in cases where the research itself has not formally begun).  In other cases, preliminary results are presented and noted as such in the Results section (such as in cases where the study is underway but not complete), and the Discussion section includes caveats about the in-progress nature of the research.  Again, you should check with your instructor, supervisor, or editor first.
• Class assignments – in some classes in this department, an assignment must be written in APA style but is not exactly a traditional research paper (for instance, a student asked to write about an article that they read, and to write that report in APA style). In that case, the structure of the paper might approximate the typical sections of a research paper in APA style, but not entirely.  You should check with your instructor for further guidelines.

Workshops and Downloadable Resources

• For in-person discussion of the process of writing research papers, please consider attending this department’s “Writing Research Papers” workshop (for dates and times, please check the undergraduate workshops calendar).

Downloadable Resources

• How to Write APA Style Research Papers (a comprehensive guide) [ PDF ]
• Tips for Writing APA Style Research Papers (a brief summary) [ PDF ]
• Example APA Style Research Paper (for B.S. Degree – empirical research) [ PDF ]
• Example APA Style Research Paper (for B.S. Degree – literature review) [ PDF ]

Further Resources

How-To Videos     

• Writing Research Paper Videos

APA Journal Article Reporting Guidelines

• Appelbaum, M., Cooper, H., Kline, R. B., Mayo-Wilson, E., Nezu, A. M., & Rao, S. M. (2018). Journal article reporting standards for quantitative research in psychology: The APA Publications and Communications Board task force report . American Psychologist , 73 (1), 3.
• Levitt, H. M., Bamberg, M., Creswell, J. W., Frost, D. M., Josselson, R., & Suárez-Orozco, C. (2018). Journal article reporting standards for qualitative primary, qualitative meta-analytic, and mixed methods research in psychology: The APA Publications and Communications Board task force report . American Psychologist , 73 (1), 26.  

External Resources

• Formatting APA Style Papers in Microsoft Word
• How to Write an APA Style Research Paper from Hamilton University
• WikiHow Guide to Writing APA Research Papers
• Sample APA Formatted Paper with Comments
• Sample APA Formatted Paper
• Tips for Writing a Paper in APA Style

1 VandenBos, G. R. (Ed). (2010). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed.) (pp. 41-60).  Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

2 geller, e. (2018).  how to write an apa-style research report . [instructional materials]. , prepared by s. c. pan for ucsd psychology.

Back to top  

• Formatting Research Papers
• Using Databases and Finding References
• What Types of References Are Appropriate?
• Evaluating References and Taking Notes
• Citing References
• Writing a Literature Review
• Writing Process and Revising
• Improving Scientific Writing
• Academic Integrity and Avoiding Plagiarism
• Writing Research Papers Videos

What are the Different Types of Research Papers?

There is a diverse array of research papers that one can find in academic writing. Research papers are a rigorous combination of knowledge, thinking, analysis, research, and writing. Early career researchers and students need to know that research papers can be of fundamentally different types. Generally, they combine aspects and elements of multiple strands or frameworks of research. This depends primarily on the aim of the study, the discipline, the critical requirements of research publications and journals and the research topic or area. Specifically, research papers can be differentiated by their primary rationale, structure, and emphasis. The different types of research papers contribute to the universe of knowledge while providing invaluable insights for policy and scope for further advanced research and development. In this article, we will look at various kinds of research papers and understand their underlying principles, objectives, and purposes.  

Different types of research papers

• Argumentative Research Paper:  In an argumentative paper, the researcher is expected to present facts and findings on both sides of a given topic but make an extended and persuasive argument supporting one side  over  the other. The purpose of such research papers is to provide evidence-based arguments to support the claim or thesis statement taken up by the researcher. Emotions mustn’t inform the building up of the case. Conversely, facts and findings must be objective and logical while presenting both sides of the issue. The position taken up by the researcher must be stated clearly and in a well-defined manner. The evidence supporting the claim must be well-researched and up-to-date, and the paper presents differing views on the topic, even if these do not agree or align with the researcher’s thesis statement. 
• Analytical Research Paper:  In an analytical research paper, the researcher starts by asking a research question, followed by a collection of appropriate data from a wide range of sources. These include primary and secondary data, which the researcher needs to analyze and interpret closely. Critical and analytical thinking skills are therefore crucial to this process. Rather than presenting a summary of the data, the researcher is expected to analyze the findings and perspectives of each source material before putting forward their critical insights and concluding. Personal biases or positions mustn’t influence or creep into the process of writing an analytical research paper. 
• Experimental Research Paper:  Experimental research papers provide a detailed report on a particular research experiment undertaken by a researcher and its outcomes or findings. Based on the research experiment, the researcher explains the experimental design and procedure, shows sufficient data, presents analysis, and draws a conclusion. Such research papers are more common in fields such as biology, chemistry, and physics. Experimental research involves conducting experiments in controlled conditions to test specific hypotheses. This not only allows researchers to arrive at particular conclusions but also helps them understand causal relationships. As it lends itself to replicating the findings of the research, it enhances the validity of the research conducted. 

Some more types of research papers

In addition to the above-detailed types of research papers, there are many more types, including review papers, case study papers, comparative research papers and so on.  

• Review papers   provide a detailed overview and analysis of existing research on a particular topic. The key objective of a review paper is to provide readers with a comprehensive understanding of the latest research findings on a specific subject. 
• Case study papers  usually focus on a single or small number of cases. This is used in research when the aim is to obtain an in-depth investigation of an issue.  
• Comparative research papers  involve comparing and contrasting two or more entities or cases that help to identify and arrive at trends or relationships. The objective of relative research papers is to increase knowledge and understand issues in different contexts. 
• Survey research papers  require that a survey be conducted on a given topic by posing questions to potential respondents. Once the survey has been completed, the researcher analyzes the information and presents it as a research paper. 
• Interpretative paper s  employ the knowledge or information gained from pursuing a specific issue or research topic in a particular field. It is written around theoretical frameworks and uses data to support the thesis statement and findings.  

Research papers are an essential part of academic writing and contribute significantly to advancing our knowledge and understanding of different subjects. The researcher’s ability to conduct research, analyze data, and present their findings is crucial to producing high-quality research papers. By understanding the different types of research papers and their underlying principles, researchers can contribute to the advancement of knowledge in their respective fields and provide invaluable insights for policy and further research.

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• Open access
• Published: 18 March 2022

CAR-NK cells for cancer immunotherapy: from bench to bedside

• Leisheng Zhang   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6540-0943 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6   na1 ,
• Yuan Meng 7   na1 ,
• Xiaoming Feng 7 &
• Zhongchao Han 4 , 5 , 7 , 8  

Biomarker Research volume  10 , Article number:  12 ( 2022 ) Cite this article

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Natural killer (NK) cells are unique innate immune cells and manifest rapid and potent cytotoxicity for cancer immunotherapy and pathogen removal without the requirement of prior sensitization or recognition of peptide antigens. Distinguish from the T lymphocyte-based cythotherapy with toxic side effects, chimeric antigen receptor-transduced NK (CAR-NK) cells are adequate to simultaneously improve efficacy and control adverse effects including acute cytokine release syndrome (CRS), neurotoxicity and graft-versus-host disease (GVHD). Moreover, considering the inherent properties of NK cells, the CAR-NK cells are “off-the-shelf” product satisfying the clinical demand for large-scale manufacture for cancer immunotherapy attribute to the cytotoxic effect via both NK cell receptor-dependent and CAR-dependent signaling cascades. In this review, we mainly focus on the latest updates of CAR-NK cell-based tactics, together with the opportunities and challenges for cancer immunotherapies, which represent the paradigm for boosting the immune system to enhance antitumor responses and ultimately eliminate malignancies. Collectively, we summarize and highlight the auspicious improvement in CAR-NK cells and will benefit the large-scale preclinical and clinical investigations in adoptive immunotherapy.

Introduction

Anticancer immunotherapies, including adoptive cytotherapy and checkpoint inhibitors, have present as novel pillars with oncology management [ 1 , 2 ]. For decades, pioneering investigators have devoted to verify the interactions between the responses of the human immune system and numerous cancers or invaders such as bacteria and viruses, which collectively accelerate the development of clinically effective cancer immunotherapy [ 3 , 4 ]. However, those reported “immune enhancement” strategies have a series of disadvantages such as rare objective responses and concomitant immune-related adverse events (irAEs), which could be largely alleviated by the termed “immune normalization” (e.g., PD-1/PD-L1) with more beneficial cancer response-to-toxicity profile [ 4 ].

Current studies have indicated the diversity of cancer immunotherapies together with the potentially combined strategies in multiple indications [ 5 , 6 ]. For instance, we and other investigators have reported the successful generation of T lymphocyte-mediated tactics including chimeric antigen receptor-modified T (CAR-T) cells and T cell receptor-engineered T (TCR-T) cells as well as tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) and regulatory T (Treg) cells in eliminating malignant hematologic tumors (e.g., B acute lymphoblastic leukemia) and metastatic solid tumors (e.g., HBV-related hepatocellular carcinoma, head and neck squamous cell carcinoma) processed by antigen-presenting cells (APCs) and fine-tuned by co-stimulatory or co-inhibitory signals [ 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 ]. However, the adoptive T cell-based immunotherapy severely constrained by the major limitation of the rapidly declined cellular viability and function, together with the requirement of concurrent administration of the adjuvant drugs after transplantation [ 13 ]. Moreover, due to the alteration in genetic mutation and cell-surface biomarker expression and the resultant off-target effects, tumor escape has become a common but intractable outcome of malignant transformation and identification of more optimal candidates or personalized neoantigens seems boundless [ 14 , 15 , 16 ]. Collectively, the autologous T lymphocytes, including the classical T cell receptor-engineered T (TCR-T) cells and CAR-transduced T (CAR-T) cells, are labor-intensive to manufacture and logistically challenging to personalized deliver to inpatients.

In consequence, state-of-the-art renewal has turned to rediscover the immune recognition and eradication of tumor cells by comminating with immune checkpoint blockade (e.g., CTLA4, PD-1/PD-L1), and in particular, to harness the innate immune response with moderate cytotoxicity and reduced adverse effects [ 17 , 18 ]. Of the indicated innate immune cells such as macrophages (Mø) and dendritic cells (DCs), autologous or allogeneic NK cells are adequate to fulfill the biofunction of combating malignant tumors and pathogenic microorganisms via paracrine effects (e.g., IFN-γ, GM-CSF), antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC) and direct cytolytic effect dispense with preliminary antigen presentation as well as manipulating other immune contextures to recognize and attack cancer cells [ 1 , 5 , 19 , 20 , 21 ]. However, the heterogeneous tumor cells with genetic or epigenetic variations are also sufficient to elude the immunological surveillance and even reversely suppress NK cell cytotoxicity by interdicting the corresponding activating receptors [ 5 , 22 , 23 ]. Considering the deficiency of CAR-T and non-gene-edited NK cells, CAR-NK cells have been recognized as novel therapeutic options aiming at reducing the incidence of relapse and attaining complete remission. Of note, considerable progresses have been achieved in an increasing number of therapeutic dimensions ranging from preclinical studies to clinical practices [ 24 ].

Therefore, in this review article, we mainly summarize the key elements and current advances of CAR-NK cell-based immunotherapy including cell sources, novel target selection, design of CAR construction, mode of CAR transduction, and ultimately discuss the opportunities and challenges of adoptive CAR-NK cell-based cancer immunotherapy. Collectively, the CAR-NK cell-mediated cytotherapy has constituted a promising area of cellular immunotherapy innovation.

Cell sources for CAR-NK cells

Nk cell lines.

Generally, considering the difficulty in isolating, purifying and expanding primary NK cells as well as the inefficiency in transducing CAR constructs, the well-established NK cell lines with indefinite expansion capacity have been used in clinical practice [ 25 ]. Notably, the representative IL-2 depend NK-92 cell line and the NK-92MI derivation exhibit splendid advantages of easy expansion, cultivation and activation in the context of lymphodepletion, together with sustainable and reliable cytotoxicity after infusion against leukemia cells (Fig.  1 ) [ 24 ]. For example, Boyiadzis and the colleagues conducted a phase 1 clinical trial of NK92 cell-based adoptive immunotherapy in patients with refractory and relapsed acute myeloid leukemia (AML) and confirmed the feasibility, safety and strong anti-leukemia activity [ 26 ]. Simultaneously, it’s noteworthy that NK92 cells are originated from patients with non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma and thus require irradiation prior to infusion to eliminate risks of malignant transformation and the accompanied chromosomal abnormalities [ 27 ]. Another preclinical study upon AML immunotherapy by Kloess et al verified that engineered CD123-CAR-NK-92 cells showed higher levels of granzyme and interleukin secretion and preferable cytotoxic activities over the primary human donor-derived CD123-CAR-NK cells, while revealed significant side effects against nonmalignant cells as well [ 28 ]. Additionally, Binyamin et al. found that NK-92 cells revealed enhanced ADCC by blocking the inhibitory receptors (e.g., KIR2DL1, KIR3DL1) and combining with rituximab [ 29 ].

The schematic diagram of the sources of NK cells

Another classical NK cell line YT with the prostate cancer cell antigen PSMA transduction and shp-2 (PTPN11) deletion has been indicated with enhanced cytotoxicity [ 30 ]. Meanwhile, the leukemic cell line YT has also been proved with spontaneous cytotoxicity against B lymphoma and specifical lytic effect upon AML by targeting CD80 + /CD86 + B lymphoblastoid cells and CD33 + leukemia cells, respectively [ 31 , 32 ]. Despite the increasing references of CAR-NK cell-based cancer immunotherapy, yet most of the current studies are preclinical. However, the observations of the existing studies are favor of novel treatment concepts employing CAR-NK cell lines with potent degranulation and selective cytotoxicity in malignancies [ 33 ].

Peripheral blood-derived NK (PB-NK) cells

In peripheral blood, NK cells account for a proportion of 5–20% of leukocytes, which are divided into the dominating CD56 dim CD16 high subset (85–95%) and the minimal CD56 bright CD16 low/neg subset (5–15%) [ 5 , 34 ]. Besides, PB-NK cells express a wide range of active receptors and thus hold potential as splendid sources for adoptive CAR-NK cell generation (Fig.  1 ) [ 21 , 35 ]. In general, resting PB-NK cells reveal a tremendous proliferative CD3 − CD56 bright cellular phenotype and are capable of secreting immunomodulatory cytokines, while the CD3 − CD56 dim counterpart possesses highly cytotoxicity and poor proliferation in response to cytokine stimulation (e.g., IL-2) [ 36 ].

To date, autogenous and allogeneic donor-derived PB-NK cells and CAR-PB-NK cells have been most effective in the treatment of acute leukemia (clinically effective doses ranging from 1 × 10 6 /kg to 9.3 × 10 6 /kg) whereas with relatively minimal activity against solid tumors [ 37 , 38 , 39 ]. Recently, a preclinical study by Quintarelli et al confirmed that CD19-CAR-transduced PB-NK cells were sufficient to mediate robust cytotoxicity against B-cell precursor acute lymphocytic leukemia (Bcp-ALL) and maintain the function of all “native” NK coreceptors after genetic modification [ 40 ].

Umbilical cord blood-derived NK (UC-NK) cells

Differ from PB-NK cells, NK cells in umbilical cord blood (UC-NK) only account for a proportion of approximately 5% of total mononuclear cells (TNCs) but offer unique alloreactive advantages for adoptive immunotherapy and boost the potential as a third-party product for extensive clinical scalability (Fig.  1 ) [ 36 , 41 ]. In spite of the higher percentage of naïve NK cell population in circulating umbilical cord blood, yet most of the UC-NK cells were adequate to differentiate into functionally mature and active effector cells and thus the successful acquisition of functional competence after ex vivo co-stimulation with cytokine cocktails (e.g., IL-2, IL-7, IL-12, IL-15, IL-18) [ 36 , 42 ]. For example, Xing et al reported the low cytolytic activity of resident UC-NK cells in vivo attribute to impaired lytic immunological synapse formation as well as the enhancement by IL-2 stimulation during ex vivo expansion and activation [ 43 ]. Collectively, the existing literatures indicate that UC-NK cells are phenotypically and functionally immature but are capable of maturation [ 42 ].

Of note, an increasing number of investigators have turned to UC-NK cells for generating preclinically or clinically tested CAR-NK cells [ 44 ]. For instance, a fist-in-human phase 1/2 clinical trial identified the feasibility of lympho-depleted CAR-UC-NK cells for the treatment of recurrent and refractory CD19 + B-cell lymphoma including seven cases with complete remissions without causing major toxic effects [ 45 ]. Despite the once reported generation of over 100 engineered CAR-NK cell doses from one cord blood unit, yet the UC-NK cells have noteworthy limitations in cell mass for large-scale adoptive immunotherapy but with high level of the inhibitory receptor NKG2A expression and poor in vitro cytotoxicity [ 36 , 42 , 46 ].

Placental blood-derived NK (P-NK) cells

In spite of the rare content of P-NK cells (< 2%) in TNCs, yet placental blood is more abundant compared to the aforementioned adult peripheral blood and umbilical cord blood (Fig.  1 ). Meanwhile, current strategies have indicated the high-efficient generation of clinical-grade CD3 − CD56 + NK cells (an average of nearly 1.0 billion NK cells per donor) with remarkably increased antitumor cytolytic activity from placenta perfusate [ 38 ]. Compared to UC-NK cells, the derived P-NK cells are largely similar to UC-NK cells phenotypically and functionally, but display distinct microRNA expression profiles, immunophenotypes and superiority in killing a wide range of cancer cell lines in vitro and thus hold potential for CAR-P-NK cell-based immunotherapeutic development [ 38 , 47 ]. Notably, Guo et al very recently raised the possibility of enhancing cytotoxicity of P-NK cells via CRISPR/Cas9-induced CBLB ablation [ 48 ].

Stem cell-derived NK cells

Currently, prospective studies have also indicated the feasibility of deriving mature NK cells from CD34 + hematopoietic stem/progenitor cells (HSPCs). In a preclinical study upon AML xenograft model, Cany et al reported the proof-of-concept safety and efficiency of targeting bone marrow-residing leukemia cells via the CCR6/CCL20 and CXCR3/CXCL10–11 axis in NOD/SCID/IL2Rg null mice [ 49 ].

Human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs), including human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) and human embryonic stem cells (hESCs), possess self-renewal and multi-lineage differentiation potential [ 50 , 51 , 52 ]. During the past decades, we and other investigators have reported the generation of progenitor cells and functional cells from hPSCs including mesenchymal stem/stromal cells (MSCs), megakaryocytes (MKs) and NK cells [ 50 , 53 ]. Notably, differ from other cell sources with dominating limitations in NK cell survival and proliferation, hPSC-NK cells can be manufactured from the standardized hPSC population and thus satisfy the clinical demands for large-scale, homogeneous CAR-NK cell products (Fig.  1 ) [ 54 , 55 ]. Meanwhile, considering the relatively low efficiency of CAR transduction into primary NK cells, the deficiency of adult PB-NK cells and perinatal UC-NK cells and P-NK cells in cellular activity against solid tumors might be overcome by the genetically modified CAR-hPSC-NK cells via viral or non-viral strategies as hypothesized by pioneering investigators [ 54 , 56 ].

Moreover, it is considered that CARs can be easily and conveniently delivered into hPSCs by utilizing the non-viral transgenic strategy [ 57 , 58 ]. For example, Ni and the colleagues reported the integration of chimeric receptor CD4ζ into hPSC-derived NK cells (CD4ζ-hESC-NK cells, CD4ζ-hiPSC-NK cells) with improved efficacy upon human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)/AIDS [ 57 ]. Of note, Li et al recently highlighted the feasibility of transducing CAR constructs with conventional NK cell-specific intracellular activating domains into iPSC-NK cells (CAR + iPSC-NK cells) for the further optimization of tumor-specific recognition and cytotoxicity [ 59 ].

Memory-like NK (ML-NK) cells

Cytokine-induced ML-NK cells with the dominant NKG2A checkpoint expression, phenotypically distinct from the in vivo conventional NK cells, have been considered safe and sufficient to induce remissions in patients with AML, which are recognized as new avenues to facilitate CAR-NK cell therapeutics (Fig.  1 ) [ 60 , 61 ]. Therefore, we and other investigators presume that CAR-ML-NK cells possess more potent and flexible response to a variety of cancer cell-associated triggers compared to the conventional NK cells [ 62 , 63 ]. It’s noteworthy that the differentiated memory-like CAR-NK cells displayed elevated activating receptors against myeloid leukemia and prolonged survival in vivo dispense with the typical KIR-KIR ligand interactions [ 61 , 64 ]. Meanwhile, numerous preclinical data have demonstrated the superior degranulation and IFN-γ-associated response of CAR-NK cells as well as enhanced cancer cell killing and ADCC effect against tumor cells [ 65 , 66 ].

Notably, peripheral blood-derived ML-NKs with a truncated CD-19-CAR transduction were phenotypically and functionally mature and manifested significantly raised IFN-γ secretion and degranulation, broaden recognition and specific killing against NK-resistant lymphoma compared to the conventional CAR-NK cells or no-specific NK cells [ 63 ]. Moreover, Foltz et al reported that the CAR-NK cells could even survive and persist in vivo for over 2 months following adoptive transfer in the immune compatible environment, which would be significant improvement of the short lifespan of conventional NK cells.

Targets for CAR-NK cells

Aiming to generate novel CAR-NK cell-based cancer therapeutics, the consideration of tumor-specific surface antigens and the costimulatory molecules is the first-line decision to be made by investigators [ 55 ]. Direct transfer of CAR structures involved in CAR-T (e.g., CD19, CD3ζ, 4-1BB, CD28) into NK cells is the predominantly initial CAR-NK cell-based studies (Fig.  2 , Table  1 ) [ 111 , 112 ]. For instance, there are a series of activating receptors such as TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligands (TRAILs), co-stimulatory receptors (e.g., CD244, CD137) and the well-established subsets (e.g., FcgRIIIa, FasL, NKG2D, NKp44, NKp46), which are capable of provoking cytolytic programs via intra-cytoplasmic ITAMs (e.g., 2B4, 41BB) [ 59 , 113 , 114 ]. Significant efforts have been made to enhance CAR-NK cell responses against surface antigens by multiple targeted activation such as CD19, CD20, CD22, CD276, CD138, CS1, HER-2, NKG2D and GD 2 [ 5 , 67 , 69 , 115 , 116 ].

The overview of the constructs and targets of CAR-NK cells

Nowadays, several groups further indicated the re-designment of CAR-NK cells with NK cell signaling-associated domains to enhance the antitumor efficacy by improving cytotoxicity and INF-γ secretion such as DAP-10, DAP-12, 2B 4 [ 117 ]. Nevertheless, due to the rare tumor-specific cell-surface antigens, CAR-NK cells also endure the main disadvantages of requiring extracellular surface expression of specific targets on cancer cells, which thus restrict the broadness and specificity of CAR-NK cell application [ 4 , 118 ]. To overcome the short lifespan and transient cytotoxic activity of CAR-NK cells, Zhang et al recently transduced the homodimers and heterodimers of ErbB2/HER2-specific CARs with CD3ζ and composite CD28ζ signaling domains into NK-92/63.z cells to induce long-lasting endogenous cytotoxicity against immunocompetent glioblastoma (Fig.  2 , Table 1 ) [ 87 ].

Construction of CARs

Generally, the CARs are engineered receptor proteins to enable NK cells with novel ability to target cancer cell-specific antigen proteins, which are composed of an intracellular activating signaling domain, a transmembrane region and an extracellular antigen binding domain (Fig.  2 , Table 1 ) [ 55 ]. The intracellular activating signaling domains (e.g., CD137, CD28) mainly mediate the activation and cytotoxicity of CAR-NK cells, while the extracellular antigen binding domains (e.g., the single-chain variable fragments) recognize the specific antigen of tumor cells [ 21 ]. For example, Quintarelli and the colleagues reported the successful design of retroviral plasmid carrying the cassettes of a second-generation CD19-CAR construct and transduced into PB-NK cells for Bcp-ALL management [ 40 ]. Simultaneously, another preclinical study reported the splendid efficiency of CAR-NK-92 and CAR-NK-92MI cells with the second- or third-generation CARs targeting CD3ζ and CD5 domains against mouse model of T-cell malignancies, respectively [ 69 , 119 ]. Very recently, Daher et al took advantage of the fourth-generation “armored” CARs for generating CAR-UC-NK cells by targeting the cytokine-inducible SH2-containing (CIS) protein, which efficiently boosted NK cell antitumor activity against lymphoma xenografts and resulted in enhanced aerobic glycolysis [ 41 , 120 ].

Therewith, due to the potentially excessive cytokine secretion of CAR-NKs, there is a possibility that the fourth-generation of CARs might cause unanticipated toxicity and should reinsert suicide genes (Fig.  2 , Table 1 ) [ 121 ]. Collectively, the genetically engineered CAR-NK cells contain a typically extracellular antigen-binding domain, a hinge and transmembrane region and the concomitant intracellular costimulatory domains from receptors, which represents the paradigmatic design of utilizing engineered NK cells for effective attack of cancer cells [ 4 , 122 ]. Of note, the choice and design of the NK cell activating receptor (e.g., NKG2D, DAP10) and remaining domains of the CAR construct, including the aforementioned transmembrane domains (e.g., CD28), co-stimulatory domains and signaling domains (e.g., CD3ζ), together with the NK cell subtypes, should be taken into incorporated consideration [ 55 ].

CAR transduction

CAR-transduced cytotherapy was initially advocated using autologous T lymphocytes (CAR-T) and obtained great success in treating hematological malignancies whereas marginal success in facing solid tumors largely attributes to the highly immunosuppressive cancer microenvironment [ 9 , 122 , 123 ]. Advances in genome editing technique and the applicability of the approach have vastly accelerated the development of designer CAR-NK cell therapy products, which are currently being tested in both preclinical studies and clinical trials [ 55 ].

For decades, a plethora of groups have reported the successful transduction of CAR constructs into expanded NK cells by utilizing a single round of retroviral vector-based method ranging from 27 to 52%, and in particular, an even higher efficient transduction (approximately 70%) has been achieved by Imamura and the colleagues for IL-15 expression [ 124 , 125 ]. Strikingly, Daher and the colleagues compared the retrovirus transfection of iC9.CAR19.CD28-z-2A-IL-15 (with IL-15) with CAR19.CD28-z (without IL-15) into UC-NK cells, and confirmed the feasibility of high-efficient CAR-NK cell generation and the persistence of in vivo antitumor activity in xenogeneic lymphoma models [ 41 ]. Furthermore, Suerth et al systematically compared different retroviral pseudotypes, retroviral vector systems and transduction protocols, and verified that the highest (up to 60%) transduction levels of CAR-19 expression cassette were achieved with α-retroviral plasmids into primary human NK cells [ 126 ]. Simultaneously, the retrovirus-based gene-delivery vehicles also have main obstacles to widespread clinical applications including the immunogenicity and insertional mutagenesis as well [ 58 ].

As with retrovirus, lentiviral also have been widely used by preclinical studies for CAR vector transduction into NK cells such as UC-NK cells, PB-NK cells, iPSC-NK cells and ML-NK cells. For example, talented investigators utilized the scFvs-based CD33-CAR and CD19-CAR lacking the immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif (ITAM) domains to manufacture the second-generation CARs with CD3ζ and CD137 intracellular domains [ 63 , 127 , 128 ]. Simultaneously, Oelsner and other investigators verified that gene-modified CAR-NK-92 cells after lentiviral-mediated gene transfer displayed stable and homogeneous CD-19-and CD20-specific CAR expression, high and specific ADCC against lymphoma and leukemia cells [ 5 , 33 , 129 ].

Nonviral-mediated transfection

To overcome the major barriers of low-efficient exogenous gene transfer into the primary NK cells, a certain number of research groups turn to the nonviral-mediated transfection such as lipofection and electroporation [ 58 , 130 ]. Of them, the nonviral plasmids are emerging as promising alternatives and facilitate clinical CAR-NK cell-based cancer immunotherapy [ 58 ]. Compared to the aforementioned virus-mediated strategies, the nonviral methods revealed transient and rapid expression of CAR-conjunct genes as well as less variability and apoptosis, whereas the generated CAR-NK cells showed declined expression level of transgenes due to the non-integrated property [ 58 ]. Of note, the current progresses of transfection technologies, including the DNA transposon systems composed of the PiggyBac (PB) and the sleeping beauty (SB) subsets, are sufficient to deliver CAR structures into the genomes of primary NK cells or iPSCs with long-lasting transgene expression [ 131 ].

Collectively, the transposon systems for high-efficient CAR-NK cell generation have splendid advantages such as increased biosafety, rapid and persistent transgene expression, low immunogenicity, cost-effect and capacity for large gene fragment (> 100 kb) transduction, which make them attractive options for CAR-NK cell manufacturing [ 130 ]. Nevertheless, considering the dissatisfactory efficiency in current transduction and the potential advances in CAR construct design, the next-generation of CAR-NK cells might cause fewer cytotoxicity and even ultimately eliminate the demands for suicide genes or safety switches [ 121 ].

CAR-NKs in cancer immunotherapy

Nowadays, CAR-NK cell-mediated immunotherapy has grown exponentially and emerged as an alternative treatment option for patients with metastatic malignancies (Fig.  3 , Table  2 ). Despite the manifestation of CAR-NK cells in cancer immunotherapy has been extensively explored, yet most of the applications in numerous tumor models are relatively restricted and mainly staying at the preclinical stage [ 5 , 24 ]. Clinically approved second-generation CAR-NK cells usually contain the CD3ζ domain in combination with either a 4-1BB (Kymriah®) or CD28 (Yescarta®) co-stimulatory domain, and prominently focus on CD19 + lymphoid-derived hematologic malignancies [ 55 ].

The distribution of CAR-NK cell-based clinical trials worldwide

Hematological malignancies

Similar to CAR-T-based immunotherapy, CAR-NK cells were initially introduced to combat with hematological malignancies such as lymphoma, myeloma and leukemia (Fig.  4 , Table 2 ) [ 121 , 122 ]. Current studies have indicated the preferable efficiency of CD19-CAR-NK cells in combating lymphoid malignancies over CAR-T-based cellular immunotherapy, which largely attribute to the aforementioned merits [ 55 , 132 ]. For example, a preclinical study took advantage of the UC-NK cells and the fourth-generation iCas9.CAR-19-CD28-ζ-IL15 plasmid with a suicide gene for Raji lymphoma xenograft model treatment, the CD19-CAR-UC-NK cells exhibited preferable antitumor efficacy and enhanced persistence over the non-transduced UC-NK cells [ 46 ].

The dissection of CAR-NK cell-based clinical trials A-B. The status ( A ) and phase ( B ) of CAR-NK cell-based clinical trials. C . The detailed distribution of CAR-NK cell-based clinical trials in cancer immunotherapy

Simultaneously, the first large-scale trial of HLA-mismatched CAR-UC-NK cell-based immunotherapy (ClinicalTrials.gov number: NCT03056339) in combination with lymphodepleting chemotherapy for 11 patients with CD19 + CLL and B cell lymphoid tumors has shown safety and inspiring clinical outcomes (response rate: 73%; complete remission rate: 64%) within 30 days [ 45 ]. However, as commented by Karadimitris, CAR-UC-NK cells could also result in high rate of non-durable clinical response, which suggested the favorable initial toxicity and efficacy but uncertain durability of clinical manifestation of CAR-NK-based leukemia immunotherapy [ 133 ].

Metastatic solid tumors

In recent years, CAR-T cell immunotherapy has revealed promising therapeutic manifestation in a series of hematologic malignancies, yet also with considerable drawbacks and limitations in metastatic solid tumor management as well (Fig.  4 , Table 2 ) [ 55 , 134 ]. Considering the intrinsic and advantaged properties, including substantially cytolytic ability, non-MHC-restricted recognition, natural infiltration in tumor tissues and convenience for their preparation as well as minimal untoward effects (e.g., CRS, GvHD and neurotoxicity), engineered CAR-NK cells are supposed as promising therapeutic option for solid tumor administration in clinical practice [ 54 , 134 , 135 ]. Currently, CAR-NK cells have been preclinically tested in multiple solid tumors including breast cancer, ovarian cancer, pancreatic cancer, colon cancer, glioblastoma, hepatocellular carcinoma, head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) [ 90 , 117 , 136 , 137 ]. For example, numerous preclinical studies have confirmed the efficacy of CAR-NK cells upon CXCL12/SDF-1α secreting glioblastoma and epithelial cell adhesion molecule (EpCAM) positive colorectal cancer cells in xenograft model by targeting EGFRvIII via intravenous infusion [ 80 , 138 ].

However, there are very limited clinical data existing on the potential of CAR-NK cells in solid tumor treatment (Fig.  4 , Table 2 ) [ 117 ]. For instance, the outcomes of three phase I/II clinical studies of allogeneic ROBO-1-CAR-NK-92 cell-based cellular immunotherapy in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) and relative solid tumors with ROBO-1 expression for enrolled patients in China (NCT03940820, NCT03941457, NCT03931720) ulteriorly indicated the feasibility for non-hematological neoplasm treatment with CAR-NK cells [ 117 , 135 , 139 ]. Another phase II trial of PD-L1-CAR-NK cell-based immunotherapy combined with IL-15 agonist (N-803) and pembrolizumab (NCT04847466) is currently launched in the United States. Therefore, integration of the CAR-NK cells and antitumor drugs is promising for further altering immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME) and administrating the aggressiveness and the metastatic ability of the resistant tumors [ 117 ].

Conclusion and perspective

The heterogeneous NK cell population is advantaged immune cells with powerful cytotoxic activity and plays a unique role in both innate and adoptive immune responses, while the signatures could be eluded by tumor microenvironment [ 118 , 140 , 141 , 142 ]. NK cells engineered with CAR expression (CAR-NK cells) have been celebrated as a landmark breakthrough of anti-tumor immunotherapy by discerning germline-encoded cell surface receptors between healthy and cancer tissues [ 143 , 144 ]. Differ from NK cells and CAR-T cells, the genetically modified NK (CAR-NK) cells have superiority in further augmenting the specificity and cytotoxicity of adoptive NK cells without causing adverse effects including GvHD, CRS or immune cell- associated neurotoxicity syndrome (ICANS) [ 5 , 60 , 143 , 145 ]. Thus, CAR-NK cells with favorable cytotoxicity, short lifespan and low manufacturing costs have been considered as promising alternatives to engineered CAR-T cells [ 143 ].

Despite the encouraging progress of CAR-NK cell-based immunotherapy, the discontented response-to-toxicity ratio and the insufficiently broad spectrum of indications further limit the application of these therapies [ 4 ]. Moreover, compared to the updates of CAR-T-based immunotherapy, the number of clinical trials and the detailed information of CAR-NK cell infusion in patients, including the in vivo spatio-temporal metabolism and host factors in the microenvironment that reversely contribute to CAR-NK cells, have not been extensively investigated [ 60 ]. Generally, compared to CAR-T cells, CAR-NK cell-based adoptive immunotherapy is also restricted to the major limitations before large-scale practical application such as insufficient capacity in proliferation and activation in vivo and durability, together with the obstacle in preparation of CAR-NK cells (e.g., low genetic transfection efficiency, low proportion of NK cells in blood, and limited amplification efficiency) [ 133 , 146 ]. Conversely, CAR-NK cells have various merits over CAR-T cells due to their unique biological characteristics [ 117 ]. On the one hand, CAR-NK cells can be conveniently prepared from a wider range of autogenous and allogeneic sources without causing severe adverse reaction (e.g., aGVHD, CRS) by CAR-T-based implantation. On the other hand, CAR-NK cells are adequate for cell immunosurveillance dispense with pre-sensitization and thus have more flexible killing capacity upon both hematologic and solid tumor cells over CAR-T cells via both the CAR-dependent manner and CAR-independent intrinsic mechanisms, which thus provide alternative strategies for conquering tumor escape and varied adverse events (e.g., “on-target, off-tumor toxicity” during CAR-T application) [ 5 , 112 , 117 , 147 ].

Nevertheless, the success of CAR-NK cells in the administration of multiple malignancies provides proof-of-principle for harnessing the immune system therapeutically, yet the short lifespan (2 weeks) and in vivo kinetics (e.g., proliferation rate, ageing) of CAR-NKs also narrows the therapeutic window and the resultant short duration of responses after infusion [ 122 , 148 , 149 ]. Therefore, the ex vivo expansion and activation of primary NK cells as well as the storage and shipping of NK cells for large-scale CAR-NK cell generation are prerequisites for ensuring the safety and effectiveness in vivo. For instance, a series of methodologies have been continuously developed for the persistence and activation of primary NK cells such as feeder cell stimulation (e.g., the irradiated PBMCs, K562-mb15-41BBL cells, EBV-LCLs) [ 150 , 151 , 152 , 153 ], cytokine cocktail (e.g., IL-2, IL15, 1 L-18) [ 14 , 35 ] and physicochemical irritation (e.g., bioreactors with an assorted bag) [ 154 ]. Of note, it is great important to improve the freezing and shipping conditions (e.g., refrigeration, liquid nitrogen, drikold) for sustaining primary NK cell vitality, which will finally help CAR-NK cells necessitate adaptation of cancer immunotherapy under GMP conditions [ 5 , 155 ].

Therefore, before large-scale application in cancer immunotherapy, a cohort of central issues in basic research and clinical practice of CAR-NK cells need to be improved. Firstly, many healthy tissues of the body also express cancer-associated surface antigens on tumor cells, which might cause potential off tumor or on target toxicity of CAR-NK cells. Current pioneering studies have suggested the engineering solution by inserting suicide genes or transducing genes encoding cytokines into the CAR-transduced effectors to prolong the in vivo persistence, respectively [ 45 , 118 , 156 ]. Secondly, the lessons learned from modified T cells (e.g., CAR-T, TCR-T) and NK cells in the administration of malignancies are worthy to be further exploited in CAR-NK cell-mediated cancer immunotherapy in future such as the optimization of large-scale NK cell-expansion approaches, antigen targets including the chimeric co-stimulatory converting receptors (CCCRs), structures with nanobodies and delivery efficiency as well as the selection of ideal patient populations in clinical trials [ 91 , 111 , 117 ]. Likewise, the potential tumor escape from CAR-NK cell cytotoxicity by shedding pivotal ligands and even via immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment should also take into consideration [ 14 , 140 , 157 ]. In particular, the pivotal signaling pathways and inhibitory checkpoints (e.g., CIS) that orchestrate CAR-NK cell “fitness” (e.g., effector function, survival and differentiation) and biofunction in tumor microenvironments have not been well defined [ 41 , 120 , 158 ]. Thirdly, despite CAR-NK cells are considered as “off-the-shelf” cancer immunotherapy, there’s still a long way before the large-scale generation of clinical-grade products under good manufacturing practice (GMP) and convenient to universally save the lives of inpatients with standard supervision. For example, Gaddy and Broxmeyer reported the functional maturation subset (adult-like NK activity) and the phenotypic maturation subset (adult-like CD3 − CD56 + CD16 + or CD3 − CD56 + CD16 − phenotype) of UC-NK cells by IL-2, IL-12 or IL-15 stimulation [ 42 ]. As to the recommended parameters of cell products, the manufactured CAR-NK cells should contain mostly CD3 − CD56 + cells (≥90%), minimally CD3 + (≤0.2%) and CD14 + (≤5%) cells, together with the removal of endotoxin, mycoplasma and bacterial contaminations as well as contamination of co-cultured cells (≤1%) [ 159 , 160 ]. Fourthly, the schedule of CAR-NK cell-based cancer immunotherapy, including the dosage, duration, kinetics and the concurrent interactions with endogenous immune cells as well as the underlying mechanisms of CAR-NK cell function, is awaiting to be optimized according to large-scale clinical trials [ 5 , 161 ]. For instance, the molecular understanding of the biofunction of the natural cytotoxicity receptors (NCRs) (e.g., NKp30, NKp44, NKp46) and multidimensional immune correlations (e.g., NKG2A + , CD8α + ) in cancer immunosurveillance, and in particular, the ontogenic development and maturational signals of NK cells is instrumental to exploring novel access points to combat malignancies [ 42 , 60 , 144 , 162 ].

Moreover, the comprehensive treatment composed of a plethora of methods, including traditional therapy (e.g., surgery, radiotherapy, chemotherapy), non-cellular immunotherapy (e.g., CTLA-4, mRNA vaccine) and cellular immunotherapy (e.g., CAR-T, TCR-T, γδT, ML-NK cells) as well as auxiliary methods (TriKEs, ROCK engagers, TriNKETs) and immune-checkpoint inhibitors (e.g., CTLA-4, PD-1/PD-L1), are under clinical investigation to augment the longevity and cytotoxicity of CAR-NK cells [ 146 , 163 ]. For example, a latest study upon combined approach suggested that antitumor activity and metabolic fitness of armored CAR-NK cells with IL-15 secretion could be enhanced by targeting a cytokine checkpoint, which represented an important milestone in the exploration of the next-generation cancer immunotherapy [ 41 , 117 , 164 , 165 ]. Another study conducted combined CAR-T infusion after NKG2D.ζ-NK cell administration and found improved anti-cancer activity and tumor infiltration [ 55 ]. Collectively, the pioneering preclinical and clinical studies have suggested the multifaceted opportunities and challenges of allogeneic CAR-NK cells, which are recognized as pivotal and promising “off-the-shelf” product in the next-generation cellular immunotherapies targeting recurrent and refractory malignancies.

Availability of data and materials

All data are included in this published article. Meanwhile, the datasets involved in the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Abbreviations

Chimeric antigen receptor-transduced NK

Cytokine release syndrome

Graft-versus-host disease

Immune-related adverse events

Chimeric antigen receptor-modified T

T cell receptor-engineered T

Tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes

Antigen-presenting cells

Antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity

Acute myeloid leukemia

Leukemia stem cells

Peripheral blood-derived NK

B-cell precursor acute lymphocytic leukemia

Umbilical cord blood-derived NK

Placental blood-derived NK

Human pluripotent stem cells

Human induced pluripotent stem cells

Human embryonic stem cells

Mesenchymal stem/stromal cells

Epithelial cell adhesion molecule

Immune cell- associated neurotoxicity syndrome

Good manufacturing practice

Natural cytotoxicity receptors

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Acknowledgements

The coauthors thank the members in Key Laboratory of Molecular Diagnostics and Precision Medicine for Surgical Oncology in Gansu Province of Gansu Provincial Hospital, NHC Key Laboratory of Diagnosis and Therapy of Gastrointestinal Tumor, The First Affiliated Hospital of Shandong First Medical University, Key Laboratory of Radiation Technology and Biophysics in Hefei Institute of Physical Science in Chinese Academy of Sciences, and State Key Laboratory of Experimental Hematology & National Clinical Research Center for Blood Disease, Institute of Hematology & Blood Diseases Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College for their technical support.

This work was supported by grants from the project Youth Fund supported by Shandong Provincial Natural Science Foundation (ZR2020QC097), National Natural Science Foundation of China (81330015), the Non-profit Central Research Institute Fund of Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences (2019PT320005), Science and technology projects of Guizhou Province (QKH-J-ZK [2021]-107), Project funded by China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (2019 M661033), Natural Science Foundation of Hebei Province (H2020206403), Natural Science Foundation of Tianjin City (19JCQNJC12500), Major Project of Fundamental Research Funds of the Central Public Welfare Scientific Research Institutes of the Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences (2018PT31048, 2019PT310013), Jiangxi Provincial Key New Product Incubation Program Funded by Technical Innovation Guidance Program of Shangrao (2020G002), Natural Science Foundation of Jiangxi Province (20212BAB216073), Key project funded by Department of Science and Technology of Shangrao City (2020AB002).

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Leisheng Zhang and Yuan Meng contributed equally to this work.

Authors and Affiliations

Key Laboratory of Molecular Diagnostics and Precision Medicine for Surgical Oncology in Gansu Province & NHC Key Laboratory of Diagnosis and Therapy of Gastrointestinal Tumor, Gansu Provincial Hospital, Lanzhou, 730000, China

Leisheng Zhang

Center for Cellular Therapies, The First Affiliated Hospital of Shandong First Medical University, Ji-nan, 250014, China

Key Laboratory of Radiation Technology and Biophysics, Hefei Institute of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 350 Shushanhu Road, Shushan District, Hefei, 230031, Anhui Province, China

Institute of Stem Cells, Health-Biotech (Tianjin) Stem Cell Research Institute Co., Ltd, Tianjin, 301700, China

Leisheng Zhang & Zhongchao Han

Jiangxi Research Center of Stem Cell Engineering, Jiangxi Health-Biotech Stem Cell Technology Co., Ltd., Shangrao, 334000, China

Key Laboratory of Molecular Diagnostics and Precision Medicine for Surgical Oncology in Gansu Province, Gansu Provincial Hospital, 204 Donggangxi Road, Chengguan District, Lanzhou City, 730013, Gansu Province, China

State Key Laboratory of Experimental Hematology & National Clinical Research Center for Blood Disease, Institute of Hematology & Blood Diseases Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Tianjin, 300020, China

Yuan Meng, Xiaoming Feng & Zhongchao Han

Stem Cell Bank of Guizhou Province, Guizhou Health-Biotech Biotechnology Co., Ltd., Guiyang, 550000, China

Zhongchao Han

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L.Z., Y.M., X.F. and Z.H.: collection and assembly of data, manuscript writing; X.F. and Z.H.: helped with collection and assembly of data; L.Z.: data analysis and interpretation, manuscript writing; L.Z.: conception and design, revision, final approval of manuscript. All coauthors have read and approved the final manuscript.

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Correspondence to Leisheng Zhang , Xiaoming Feng or Zhongchao Han .

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Zhang, L., Meng, Y., Feng, X. et al. CAR-NK cells for cancer immunotherapy: from bench to bedside. Biomark Res 10 , 12 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40364-022-00364-6

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Methodology: teens and parents survey.

The analysis in this report is based on a self-administered web survey conducted from Sept. 26 to Oct. 23, 2023, among a sample of 1,453 dyads, with each dyad (or pair) comprised of one U.S. teen ages 13 to 17 and one parent per teen. The margin of sampling error for the full sample of 1,453 teens is plus or minus 3.2 percentage points. The margin of sampling error for the full sample of 1,453 parents is plus or minus 3.2 percentage points. The survey was conducted by Ipsos Public Affairs in English and Spanish using KnowledgePanel, its nationally representative online research panel.

The research plan for this project was submitted to an external institutional review board (IRB), Advarra, which is an independent committee of experts that specializes in helping to protect the rights of research participants. The IRB thoroughly vetted this research before data collection began. Due the risks associated with surveying minors, this research underwent a full board review and received approval (Approval ID Pro00073203).

KnowledgePanel members are recruited through probability sampling methods and include both those with internet access and those who did not have internet access at the time of their recruitment. KnowledgePanel provides internet access for those who do not have it and, if needed, a device to access the internet when they join the panel. KnowledgePanel’s recruitment process was originally based exclusively on a national random-digit-dialing (RDD) sampling methodology. In 2009, Ipsos migrated to an address-based sampling (ABS) recruitment methodology via the U.S. Postal Service’s Delivery Sequence File (DSF). The DSF has been estimated to cover as much as 98% of the population, although some studies suggest that the coverage could be in the low 90% range. 4

Panelists were eligible for participation in this survey if they indicated on an earlier profile survey that they were the parent of a teen ages 13 to 17. A random sample of 3,981 eligible panel members were invited to participate in the study. Responding parents were screened and considered qualified for the study if they reconfirmed that they were the parent of at least one child ages 13 to 17 and granted permission for their teen who was chosen to participate in the study. In households with more than one eligible teen, parents were asked to think about one randomly selected teen and that teen was instructed to complete the teen portion of the survey. A survey was considered complete if both the parent and selected teen completed their portions of the questionnaire, or if the parent did not qualify during the initial screening.

Of the sampled panelists, 1,763 (excluding break-offs) responded to the invitation and 1,453 qualified, completed the parent portion of the survey, and had their selected teen complete the teen portion of the survey yielding a final stage completion rate of 44% and a qualification rate of 82%. The cumulative response rate accounting for nonresponse to the recruitment surveys and attrition is 2.2%. The break-off rate among those who logged on to the survey (regardless of whether they completed any items or qualified for the study) is 26.9%.

Upon completion, qualified respondents received a cash-equivalent incentive worth $10 for completing the survey. To encourage response from non-Hispanic Black panelists, the incentive was increased from $10 to $20 on Oct. 5, 2023. The incentive was increased again on Oct. 10, 2023, from $20 to $40; then to $50 on Oct. 17, 2023; and to $75 on Oct. 20, 2023. Reminders and notifications of the change in incentive were sent for each increase.

All panelists received email invitations and any nonresponders received reminders, shown in the table. The field period was closed on Oct. 23, 2023.

The analysis in this report was performed using separate weights for parents and teens. The parent weight was created in a multistep process that begins with a base design weight for the parent, which is computed to reflect their probability of selection for recruitment into the KnowledgePanel. These selection probabilities were then adjusted to account for the probability of selection for this survey which included oversamples of Black and Hispanic parents.

Next, an iterative technique was used to align the parent design weights to population benchmarks for parents of teens ages 13 to 17 on the dimensions identified in the accompanying table, to account for any differential nonresponse that may have occurred.

To create the teen weight, an adjustment factor was applied to the final parent weight to reflect the selection of one teen per household. Finally, the teen weights were further raked to match the demographic distribution for teens ages 13 to 17 who live with parents. The teen weights were adjusted on the same teen dimensions as parent dimensions with the exception of teen education, which was not used in the teen weighting.

Sampling errors and tests of statistical significance take into account the effect of weighting. Interviews were conducted in both English and Spanish.

In addition to sampling error, one should bear in mind that question wording and practical difficulties in conducting surveys can introduce error or bias into the findings of opinion polls.

The following tables show the unweighted sample sizes and the error attributable to sampling that would be expected at the 95% level of confidence for different groups in the survey:

Sample sizes and sampling errors for subgroups are available upon request.

Dispositions and response rates

The tables below display dispositions used in the calculation of completion, qualification and cumulative response rates. 5

© Pew Research Center, 2023

• AAPOR Task force on Address-based Sampling. 2016. “AAPOR Report: Address-based Sampling.” ↩
• For more information on this method of calculating response rates, refer to Callegaro, Mario, and Charles DiSogra. 2008. “Computing response metrics for online panels.” Public Opinion Quarterly. ↩

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About Pew Research Center Pew Research Center is a nonpartisan fact tank that informs the public about the issues, attitudes and trends shaping the world. It conducts public opinion polling, demographic research, media content analysis and other empirical social science research. Pew Research Center does not take policy positions. It is a subsidiary of The Pew Charitable Trusts .

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Australia’s chief scientist takes on the journal publishers gatekeeping knowledge

Under Dr Cathy Foley’s world-first open access model, all Australians would have access to research papers for free

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Before Latin mass was abandoned in the late 1960s, the average church-goer got by picking up snippets of phrases and the meanings of gestures.

To Dr Averil Cook, that’s what scientific research is like in the 21st century. The public relies on information to be synthesised for us, trickled down until it is devoid of its origin.

Cook, a clinical psychologist, is lucky. She can access the full breadth of scientific research due to being an adjunct professor at UNSW.

But without the backing of academic institutions and prestigious organisations, professionals – including doctors, frontline clinicians and politicians – are in the dark, unless they can fork out thousands on expensive journal subscriptions.

“In my work, access to research is critical – we’re scientists, it’s constantly evolving,” Cook says. “But most psychologists don’t have the chance to become adjuncts or access journals.

“It’s a source of deep frustration. I need to be kept up date with all sorts of scientific updates but you’re hamstrung if you wait for it to be filtered to you.”

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The gatekeeping of research journals needs to be urgently addressed if Australia is to drive innovation, academics have warned, with the nation lagging behind on open access reform.

Australia has produced almost 2m research publications since the turn of the century. But just 43% were open access, with the rest stuck behind expensive paywalls and largely inaccessible to the public.

Australia’s chief scientist, Dr Cathy Foley, has placed open access firmly on the agenda before her three-year tenure ends in December.

Her world-first open access model, recently finalised for the federal government, would provide a centralised digital library for all Australians to access research papers free of charge, as long as they had a MyGov account or were in education. It is currently under departmental consideration.

“We’ve set up a crazy system where publishers own and control knowledge and we’ve let them do that,” Foley says. “Researchers give content for free, sign over copyright, and publishers make a lot of money.

“You can get rubbish, nonsense and misinformation online for free but you have to pay for the good stuff. We need to make sure we’re getting the right information out there.”

Journal publishers have one of the highest profit margins of any industry, taking in an estimated $20bn US a year .

Five major players control more than half of the market, led by Elsevier, with a profit margin of nearly 40% – in excess of Apple, Netflix, Google and Amazon. None are Australian, a market composed of small journal publishers that’s been on a steady decline for a decade.

Under the “publish or perish” mentality, academics fork thousands to publish a paper in a high-profile journal, relying on the distribution of their research to maintain positions, reach audiences and attract grants.

Meanwhile, the journals run largely on volunteer labour. Peer reviews are done for free, and editors take small stipends of about $1,500 a year. Some, including Foley, edit gratis.

Then, universities pay millions to access to the journals, despite the production of content being largely paid by research funds. Without subscriptions, downloading a single paper can cost anywhere from $30 to more than $500.

There have been radical attempts to take-down the monopolies. A decade ago, Alexandra Elbakyan, hailed as the “Robin Hood of Science”, set up a pirate “shadow library” in Kazakhstan in protest of the high cost of accessing research.

SciHub provides free access to papers by bypassing paywalls and ignoring copyright, relying on donations and frequently changing domain names to stay operational.

It now serves more than 400,000 requests a day, hoarding more than 84 million papers despite being banned in some countries, sued twice in the United States and sitting on the European Commission’s “piracy watch list”. Its viability, and legality, remains uncertain.

In Australia, the Council of Australian University Librarians (CAUL) has taken the lead on negotiating open access agreements on behalf of institutions.

The executive director, Jane Angel, says “double dipping” publishers are the only beneficiaries of the current system.

“Article processing charges are paid by the researcher to publish the article, and then publishers sell the published research to the universities who buy it back for use in the very institutions that have already paid for and generated the research,” she says.

“It’s the people who have that privilege of affiliation or association with an educational [or research] establishment who may have access, or those beyond who have the means to pay.

“If knowledge stays behind paywalls, it impedes the advancement of our country. It’s also a moral question for Australia – is the current publishing model fair?

“Open access is about making us a more equitable society, because it puts information into the hands of everyone.”

Open access rates are steadily increasing – as of 2023, four in 10 papers Australian papers were closed, compared with six in 10 the previous decade. But the country still has not caught up internationally.

There are 134 countries that rank higher than Australia on Curtin University’s open access dashboard , including the UK and large parts of Europe, which have sweeping requirements that publicly funded research be freely available at an additional author fee.

In Australia, just two national funding agencies – the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) and the Australian Research Council (ARC) – require publications from funded research be made freely available, with loopholes for legal and contractual arrangements. Only half of government-listed universities have an open access policy or statement.

Foley’s model would go further, democratising the system by making Australia the first country in the world to have a single relationship with all publishers.

She says the cost would be low, pooling together Australia’s estimated half a billion spent annually on subscriptions, similar to how medicine is subsidised under the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (PBS).

But it relies on universities, publishers, stakeholders and the federal government to agree.

Elsevier is on board. A spokesperson says they’ve been “working constructively” with Foley and “stands ready to support her vision”.

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“Around 20% of Australia’s peer-reviewed scholarly output over the last six years is published with Elsevier,” the spokesperson says, adding Australia’s citations impact is twice the world average.

Vice-chancellors and ministers have also taken a keen interest – though some universities have expressed reservations about how it would impact budgets and the future of librarians.

“This is transformational, but threatening for some,” Foley says. “Publishers are very open to this to build social license. It has potential for Australia to create a competitive advantage.”

In part, a competitive advantage comes down to money.

According to the CWTS Leiden Ranking , the Harvard University ranks first globally for open access to its research (72.7% of publications). It’s also the richest university in the world – bigger than the economies of 120 nations .

The University of Melbourne ranks first in Australia and 18th in the world, with 65% of its publications available to the public and a high output of research (25,769 publications).

The only other Australian universities with open access proportions of more than 60% are ANU, QUT, Griffith University and the University of South Australia.

Foley says it’s not just universities who would win from a nation-wide deal. Leading academic research is also inaccessible to federal ministers, who she says struggle to make key policy decisions without access to the latest literature.

The Productivity Commission’s five-yearly inquiry , published last year, pointed to statistics showing research papers had a limited reach for Australian businesses and policymakers.

“As a society, this is limiting our ability to make good decisions,” Foley says.

“The number of times I’ve spoken about this to politicians and ministers … they’re making decisions on a Sunday night, getting ready for a cabinet meeting … they want to get to the core of the information to be able to understand it.”

Others say democratisation is not so simple.

Nicole Clark, a university librarian at QUT, says diverse-voices need to be prioritised before publisher driven models.

QUT was the first university in the world to have an open access policy, and recently celebrated two decades of its free repository, which holds 74,000 research outputs.

“In large part our open access policy is an equity argument – we have peer-reviewed literature but also theses and non-traditional publications … early versions of manuscripts, artworks, music,” she says.

“That’s not going to get covered under Foley’s plan.”

Cook agrees. She says researchers are desperate for their publications to be open access to reach wider audiences, but it also comes at a cost.

The prestigious publication Nature, for instance, receives four times more downloads for its open-access journals, but article processing charges are $9,500.

“You end up with the top tier providing research,” she says. “You don’t get people like my students who don’t have money to throw away.”

She says it’s “naive” to assume expanding open access will democratise the system unless barriers to the production of research are broken down – which requires investment in early career researchers and people from diverse cohorts.

“Science has been curated by people in power,” she says. “This information effects our lives, the people we see and there’s no way to access it except through a filtered and biased medium.”

Mark Gregory, an associate professor at RMIT’s School of Engineering, says Foley’s model is fundamentally flawed because it enshrines a national debt to wealthy international publishers, who were likely to tack on hefty increases once an agreement was reached.

“Why do Australians have this desire to make Americans rich? It’s the public’s money,” he says, citing Europe and China, which have invested significant sums in building up local journals with open access.

Gregory says Australia should do the same, via a national research publisher funded by universities that could bring struggling local journals under its banner.

“If these were Australian journals, the government could regulate funding and negotiate agreements for open access publishing. Otherwise, we’re going to lose them all [to the big corporations],” he says.

“We need the boat to be rocked.”

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