Anthropology Review

From Sharing a Meal to Sharing Culture – How Commensality Shapes Social Identity

Commensality, the act of sharing a meal with others, is a fundamental aspect of human social interaction. Across cultures and throughout history, communal eating has played an important role in building relationships and creating community.

Table of Contents

In anthropology, commensality is a key area of study as it provides insight into cultural practices, beliefs, and values.

This article will focus on how commensality shapes social identity. Through exploring the role of food and eating practices in shaping identity, examining commensality as a social activity, comparing commensality practices across cultures, and analyzing the significance of communal meals in rituals and ceremonies, we will gain a deeper understanding of how sharing a meal can have profound impacts on our sense of self and our place within society.

The Role of Food and Eating Practices in Shaping Identity

Food and eating practices are integral parts of cultural identity. What we eat, how we eat, and with whom we eat are all influenced by our cultural backgrounds. Food not only sustains us physically, but it also plays a significant role in shaping our identities.

Different cultures use food to express their identities in unique ways. For example, traditional dishes often reflect the history and geography of a particular region. In Japan, sushi is a staple food that reflects the country’s close relationship with the sea. In India, curries are a popular dish that varies depending on the region and reflects the country’s diverse culinary traditions.

Holiday foods are another way that cultures use food to express their identities. In Mexico, tamales are a traditional Christmas dish that has been passed down for generations. In Italy, panettone is a sweet bread eaten during the holiday season that is associated with family gatherings and festive celebrations.

Overall, food and eating practices play an important role in shaping cultural identity. By examining different cuisines and culinary traditions from around the world, we can gain insight into the values, beliefs, and customs of different cultures.

Commensality as a Social Activity

Commensality, or the act of sharing a meal with others, is not only a physical activity but also a social one. Eating together helps build relationships and create community by providing an opportunity for people to connect and share their experiences.

Communal eating practices have been shown to foster social bonds in many different settings. Family dinners are one example of how communal eating can bring people together. Sharing meals at home allows family members to catch up on each other’s lives, discuss important issues, and simply enjoy each other’s company.

Feasts are another example of how communal eating can foster social bonds. In many cultures, feasting is associated with celebrations and special events. By coming together to share food and drink, people are able to strengthen existing relationships and form new ones.

Overall, commensality plays an important role in building relationships and creating community. By sharing meals with others, we are able to connect on a deeper level and form meaningful bonds that contribute to our overall sense of well-being.

Commensality Across Cultures

Commensality practices vary greatly across cultures, including differences in table manners and etiquette. These variations reflect cultural values and beliefs around food, social interactions, and hospitality .

For example, in Western cultures, it is common for each person to have their own plate of food and utensils. Table manners emphasize the importance of using utensils correctly and keeping elbows off the table.

In contrast, in some Asian cultures, it is common for people to share dishes family-style and use chopsticks instead of utensils. Table manners may also involve showing respect to elders by serving them first or pouring drinks for others before yourself.

In some Middle Eastern cultures, communal eating practices are particularly important. It is customary to offer guests large amounts of food as a sign of hospitality and generosity. Guests are expected to eat heartily as a way of showing appreciation for the host’s efforts.

These differences in commensality practices reflect cultural values around food sharing, social interactions, and hospitality. For example, Western table manners emphasize individualism and personal space while Asian family-style dining reflects collectivism and community spirit. The Middle Eastern emphasis on generous portions reflects a cultural value around hospitality and the importance of taking care of one’s guests.

These differences in commensality practices highlight the unique cultural identities that shape our relationships with food and each other.

The Significance of Communal Meals in Rituals and Ceremonies

Communal meals play an important role in various rituals and ceremonies across cultures. These meals help to reinforce group identity and social cohesion by bringing people together to share food and participate in shared traditions.

Weddings are one example of a ceremony that often includes communal meals. In many cultures, the wedding feast is a key part of the celebration. By sharing food together, the bride and groom’s families are able to come together and form new relationships. The act of eating together also symbolizes unity and the formation of a new family.

Funerals are another example of how communal meals can play an important role in rituals. In some cultures, mourners may gather for a meal after the funeral as a way of supporting each other during a difficult time. Sharing food helps to create a sense of community among those who have experienced loss.

In addition to weddings and funerals, communal meals are also present in many other rituals and ceremonies, such as religious holidays or coming-of-age celebrations. These meals serve as an opportunity for people to come together, share stories, and strengthen their bonds with each other.

Thus, communal meals play an important role in reinforcing group identity and social cohesion within communities. By participating in shared traditions around food, individuals are able to connect with others on a deeper level and create lasting relationships that contribute to their overall sense of well-being.

Commensality practices play a crucial role in shaping social identity. These practices vary across cultures and reflect cultural values and beliefs around food sharing, hospitality, and social interaction.

Communal meals are an important part of various rituals and ceremonies, including weddings and funerals. By sharing food together, people are able to form new relationships and strengthen existing ones. Commensality practices also help to reinforce group identity and social cohesion within communities.

It is important to understand commensality practices when studying culture and society. By analyzing these practices, we can gain insights into cultural values around food, collectivism versus individualism, hospitality, and more. Understanding these cultural nuances can help us better appreciate the diversity of human experience and foster greater cross-cultural understanding.

Related Terms:

In-group commensality: The practice of eating with people who are part of the same social group, such as family, friends, or colleagues.

Out-group commensality: When people from different social groups share a meal.

Hospitality: The act of welcoming guests into one’s home and providing them with food and drink.

Social Bonding: The process of forming strong social relationships with others.

Cultural Transmission: The process by which culture is passed from one generation to the next.

Anthropology Glossary Terms starting with C

Caudillismo

Anthropology of the City

Class Consciousness

Cognatic Kinship

Cognitive Anthropology

Colonialism

Commensality

Commodity or Commodification

Concubinage

Consanguinity

Conscience Collective

Conspicuous Consumption

Contagious Magic

Creole Language

Critical Medical Anthropology

Cultural Baseline

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  • Second Opinion

Why the Family Meal Is Important

For many parents, it would be much easier and simpler to forget about family dinners. Jobs, children, after-school activities all contribute to families being constantly on the go, thus feeling the need to eat on the run.

But more and more parents are realizing the importance of shared family time at the dinner table. Often, this is the only time when all family members are all together in one place. 

Although family dinners are viewed by some people as another burdensome chore at the end of a tiring day, more American families realize that the benefits of sharing time at day's end cannot be measured by calories alone.

Numerous studies show that eating together not only is an important aspect of family life, but helps make weight control easier.

When a family sits down together, it helps them handle the stresses of daily life and the hassles of day-to-day existence. Eating together tends to promote more sensible eating habits, which in turn helps family members manage their weight more easily. 

Here are tips from the experts on family dining:

Expectations

The purpose of a family dinner may differ from family to family. In one family, good table manners might be the most important thing parents want to teach; in another, it might be communicating with one another, learning how to listen, and learning to respect each other.

Children need to learn a little bit at a time, experts say. If dinnertime is an interesting time of day for your child, he is going to learn how to sit, and say, "How was your day?" and "What was the best thing that happened to you today?"

Communication

Dinnertime is a time of respite from the hustle-bustle of everyday life. Your family can review the day that's passed and plan for the day that's coming.

Teach by example

Divide tasks, so Mom alone is not responsible for preparing food, serving, and washing dishes. The chores and joys of feeding, nurturing and cleaning up should be shared.

Don't discuss things that would embarrass or humiliate family members. Certain subjects children may want to discuss might require more compassion, or more individualized listening. Otherwise, there are no taboo topics.

Build self-esteem

Dinner is a perfect opportunity to build self-esteem in children. By listening to what children have to say, you are saying, "I value what you do; I respect who you are and what you're doing; what you do is important to me."

Mealtime can be looked at as an opportunity or as a chore. If it's viewed as an opportunity, then all sorts of possibilities are created; if it's viewed as a chore, then the possibilities don't exist. And it doesn't matter if the food is filet mignon, or pizza and salad.

Parents should let children choose their own seats. If they fight over a favorite seat, help settle the dispute peacefully.

Family dynamics

One parent may feed the kids early, with the intention of protecting the other parent from a raucous meal. But this actually can isolate the absent parent from family dynamics and create distance. Certain scheduling conflicts cannot be avoided, but carving out family meal time on a regular basis can enhance family dynamics. 

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EATING MEALS TOGETHER: A PERCEPTION OF FAMILY FUNCTIONING THROUGH FAMILY RITUALS AMONG TEENAGERS

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Abbot JM, Byrd-Bredbenner C. Development of a Self-Directed Home Kitchen Makeover for Mothers of Young Children. The Forum. 2009;14:1-7. Available online at: www.ncsu.edu/ffci This paper describes formative research guiding the development of an intervention designed to improve the ability of mothers of young children to plan, prepare, and serve healthy family meals. Interviews showed that the mothers needed and wanted help in using pre-prepared ingredients to save time; kitchen organization and food storage; and healthy meal preparation and grocery shopping.

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Overweight and obesity are a major problem affecting children in many countries. The practice of sharing regular family meals has been shown to improve children's diets and eating habits, which in turn can have favourable outcomes for children's weight status. This study explored children's family mealtime attitudes and experiences to identify themes that may be effective in encouraging families to have regular family meals. Most of the children showed a strong preference to eat together as a family. They reported ...

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In-home and shared meals have been hypothesized to have positive effects. This narrative review examines research on the influence of in-home eating on diet quality, health outcomes, and family relationships. A combination search approach included a search of PubMed, backward searches of previous published reviews, and studies the authors were familiar with. A search identified 118 publications; 54 original studies and 11 review studies were included in this review. Each study was reviewed and summarized. The diverse designs precluded quantitative data synthesis. Relatively strong evidence from cross-sectional research supports the association of shared family meals with favorable dietary patterns in children and adolescents, including consumption of fruits, vegetables, and healthful nutrients. Correlational evidence links shared meals with health and psychosocial outcomes in youth, including less obesity, decreased risk for eating disorders, and academic achievement. Most evidence ...

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The power of a family meal

{***Pause/Music***} {***Noah***}

Coming up on Harvard Chan: This Week in Health…The power of a family meal.

{***Kathryn Walton Soundbite***} (It’s really a time for family members to kind of slow down. I think in our busy lives it’s hard to find that time. So, if we’re able to just take some time out of our day, sit down with others, and connect, I think that can be really, really valuable.)

A growing body of evidence shows that when families sit down for meals together, children and adolescents eat healthier.

In this week’s podcast, we’ll explore new research on the impact of these meals—and ways to make it easier for families to dine together.

Hello and welcome to Harvard Chan: This Week in Health, I’m Noah Leavitt.

For busy families, gathering together for a meal—whether it’s breakfast or dinner—can be difficult. But a growing body of research shows that these meals together can have an important influence on the quality of food that children and teens eat.

There’s been less research on effective ways to encourage families to eat together more often.

In this week’s episode we’re speaking with the author of a new study that could help public health professionals target interventions at busy families.

Kathryn Walton, is a research fellow at the Hospital for Sick Children in Toronto and a PhD student at the University of Guelph in Toronto. One of the co-authors of this study is Bryn Austin, who is a professor in the Department of Social and Behavioral Sciences here at the Harvard Chan School.

The researchers found that when families sit down together for dinner, adolescents and young adults eat more fruits and veggies and consume fewer fast-food and takeout items.

What’s unique about this study is that Walton and her colleagues looked at the families participating in the meal—assessing how they communicated, managed schedules, and even bonded with children—something called family functioning.

And they found that the benefits of family meals were seen regardless of how well—or poorly—a family functioned. I spoke to Walton about the findings of her study—and how they could inform future initiatives to encourage families to eat together.

I began our conversation by asking her to explain what existing research has shown about the benefits of family meals.

{***Kathryn Walton Interview***}

KATHRYN WALTON: We know that family meals have many, many benefits for both children and adolescents. When we think about dietary intake we see higher intakes of fruits and vegetables, lower intakes of sugar sweetened beverages like sodas, less takeout, less fast food. But we also see higher well-being. We see lower rates of depression, substance abuse, and disordered eating.

So the benefits of family meals are very broad, but what my team was interested in was that perhaps these benefits only exist for certain families. And so it may not be the best message to be promoting family meals broadly for everybody when perhaps the benefits may look different for different families. So that’s kind of what brought us to this research, because nobody had really looked at the general family that actually participates in the family meal. So what do those interactions look like for different families when they sit down together?

So that’s really what inspired this research, is to understand, do high and low functioning families benefit the same way?

NOAH LEAVITT: And so you mentioned there that you were looking at something called family functioning. So can you explain a little bit about what that is, and then how you go about measuring that?

KATHRYN WALTON: Yeah, for sure. So family functioning is a measure of how well families problem solve, communicate, and connect emotionally. And so if we think about family meals, these are really important aspects of the meal. You’re sitting down with other people, there is going to be communication that goes on, but even in the planning of the meal itself. And so we sort of thought that perhaps for some families that experience lower levels of functioning, that they might have more difficulties planning the meal, making it happen, or perhaps the modeling that parents do during meal time, so modeling the foods they eat, modeling healthful food behaviors.

If parents and children don’t have a strong bond, perhaps that modeling isn’t as beneficial or as effective as families who have a stronger emotional bond. So that’s a little bit about that. So for example, one of the questions is when we make plans, we’re able to make things happen. And then another question is members in our family are accepted for who they are. So it’s fairly broad in terms of thinking about functioning.

NOAH LEAVITT: So as I was reading about that and hearing you talk about that, I would be interested to know, are there are any correlations between family functioning and other socioeconomic factors? Like are high functioning families likely to be higher income? Or low functioning families are likely be lower income? Do we know anything there about the factors that maybe drive higher levels of family functioning?

KATHRYN WALTON: For sure. So from our data, we don’t see that, because all of the participants were children of nurses from the Nurses’ Health Study. So in our study, everybody came from families with fairly similar income levels. So we do see at the same income level families from high end low functioning. Certainly there are correlates that can influence functioning, but across the board we do see families at all ends of the spectrum of socioeconomic status with both high and low functioning. So I wouldn’t say that income is a proxy for family functioning or anything like that.

NOAH LEAVITT: Mhm. Mhm. And then so in terms of would you actually found with the study, and as you kind of indicated you’re looking to see whether the benefits of these family meals hold up regardless of family functioning. So what did you find in terms of high functioning families, versus low functioning families, and the impact of these family meals on the nutrition of youth and adolescents?

KATHRYN WALTON: So we found that as you mentioned, above and beyond family functioning, that family meals do matter. So we first looked at does the association look different between high and low functioning families? So we looked at effect modification. And we found that the effect of family meals on youth dietary intake really looked very, very similar. There were no significant differences between those from high and low functioning families.

So then we thought, OK, let’s adjust for family functioning in our models. And again, we didn’t see any change in our associations when we adjusted for family functioning. So really it didn’t change our story. And so we see that for adolescents and young adults in both high and low functioning families, when we think about dietary intake, sitting down together really does make an impact.

NOAH LEAVITT: And so I know you looked at a few things, for example, vegetable consumption, sugar sweetened beverage consumption. Where did you see the family meals having the most impact? Was it increased vegetable consumption, decreased sugar sweetened beverages consumption, where was the most impact seen?

KATHRYN WALTON: Yeah, that’s a great question. And I think the fruit and vegetable intake was a big one. And that’s mostly because we typically see the amounts of fruits and vegetables eaten among this population really decline. And I think the other interesting thing is that we did look at fruit without juice servings. So we’re looking at whole fruits and vegetables, which is an important point. Because a lot of studies combine juice in that when we think about sugar intakes and that type of thing.

So it was the fruits and vegetables that we did see the most impact on, which is great. Amongst the youth in our study, we actually didn’t see a lot of sugar sweetened beverage select soda consumption, fast food or take out. So our effect sizes were fairly small there, but we did see some decline.

NOAH LEAVITT: And one of the other things I noticed is that there were some differences in terms of male and female participants in terms of kind of their dietary intake. So what were some of those differences, and do you have a sense of what might have driven those differences?

KATHRYN WALTON: Yeah. So I guess the biggest difference was that for male participants, frequent family dinners were significantly associated with fewer sugar sweetened beverages– so again, those sodas– but not for females. But again, the association actually looks fairly similar. It could be that they’re just consuming– we do see that males tend to drink more of those beverages than females. So that could be driving that association.

And we do see slightly higher rates of family meal participation among the females. So that could also be driving that a little bit as well.

NOAH LEAVITT: I thought it was interesting. There was a quote from one of your colleagues, Jess Haynes, who was talking about family meals don’t need to be complicated. It can be pulling something out of the freezer, putting a bag salad in a bowl, keeping it simple. So I think given that, what do you think it is about family meals that make them so influential in terms of improving dietary intake for kids in a family?

KATHRYN WALTON: It’s really a time for family members to kind of slow down. I think in our busy lives it’s hard to find that time. So if we’re able to just take some time out of our day, sit down with others, and connect, I think that can be really, really valuable. Putting down the screens, turning off the TV, and just sitting down face to face with others can be really beneficial.

And I think that we do need to remember that it doesn’t have to be a big full blown– I know American Thanksgiving just happened– it doesn’t have to be a Thanksgiving style meal every night. That’s just too much. And I think when we sort of let go of those expectations, and know that just sitting down together in itself makes a difference, I think that can help families.

Make what’s easy. Pull stuff out of the freezer as Jess said. Throw a bag salad on. Whether it comes from a bag or you chop it up yourself, you’re getting the same nutritional benefits.

NOAH LEAVITT: So I think one of the interesting points you make in the paper is that even though there is this kind of growing evidence of the benefits of family meals, there haven’t been many interventions designed to promote more family meals. So I guess given this growing body of evidence, what might an intervention look like aimed at getting families to sit down together and eat more often?

KATHRYN WALTON: Yeah, that’s a great question. And I think it is an interesting point that we have all this great research showing the benefits, but we really haven’t done a good job of helping families out. We just keep saying it’s great, it’s great, it’s great. But how do we actually sit down and make that time? So I think the big thing for interventions is that time piece, that families are very, very busy, and to sit down for even 20-30 minutes can be a challenge.

And so one of the things I like to think about is how do we make it easier to happen, and that I think includes getting the youth in the family involved, so that it’s not just one person night after night preparing everything while others sit and watch TV or whatever. So many hands do make light work. So if we can get the adolescents helping prepare the meal, not only does it get on the table faster, but it also helps teach really important food skills that will serve those adolescents into their adult years.

And we do with the family meal research, interestingly, see intergenerational associations. So youth that sit down for frequent family meals during their adolescence do so with their own children when they become parents. So it does have intergenerational implications.

NOAH LEAVITT: Is this something, I guess, where you could see potentially schools getting involved, I don’t know, doctors, hospitals, to kind of– because as you said, if making it start more with teenagers, if there are opportunities there to kind of provide more nutrition, kind of cooking training to teenagers, so when they go home they’re able to kind of jump in the kitchen and help out their families?

KATHRYN WALTON: Oh, for sure. I think that in the schools we could see more home economics type courses, nutrition courses to teach those really valuable food skills. We overall in North America have seen a decline in food skills. And so when we think about preparing healthful meals, that’s an important piece.

But thinking even more broadly, as a society we don’t make it easy, either. Like if we think about we want our kids to be physically active, which is great, and of course has many, many benefits for long term health. But extracurriculars are always during dinnertime. So it’s sort of which one do you do you pick? Do you sit down together, or do you put your child in the activity, and then you’re running through the drive-through? Right?

So it’s hard to make it all happen. And so I think as a society, thinking through the timing of when– it’s a bigger issue. But it’s something that our environment really doesn’t support.

NOAH LEAVITT: And I imagine that that time crunch is probably even harder for– if you’re a family where both the mother and father work, or maybe one of the parents is working two jobs. Is that, I guess, kind of a next step here? Like how do you find time for those family meals when people are maybe working multiple jobs just to make ends meet?

KATHRYN WALTON: Oh for sure. And I think that’s a really important piece, and something that’s a reality for many, many families. And I think a big point to that is to really highlight the research that shows that it doesn’t have to be dinner time. So in our study, we did measure family dinners, so the evening meal. But the research looking at other meals during the day show that the benefits from sitting down together any time of day still hold. So breakfast counts. If both parents are working in the evenings, and you can get even 15 minutes to sit down and check in before the start of the day with your children at breakfast time, that’s great.

And I think the other thing is that we need to be not so hard on ourselves. It’s very difficult, I think, for families to sit down together seven nights a week. A lot of the research does look at five meals a week for showing many benefits, but we do see that every meal counts. So even if you can sit down together one night a week, and as it gets easier, and as family members’ schedules change and make it, perhaps, easier to sit down more often, add more meals in.

But start where families are. I think we see it as an all or nothing thing, and the research doesn’t support that. Each meal you sit down together, the more benefits you get.

NOAH LEAVITT: You mentioned a few minutes ago this idea that the meals don’t have to be complicated. It can be a bag salad, it can be something frozen, it can be something simple. Kind of going back to that question about maybe like lower income families, or people working two jobs, what’s the role of– in the US we have Snap as a safety net nutritional program. Is there a role there for these kind of nutritional safety net programs to take any steps there that they can provide foods that are more conducive to a family quickly getting together for 30 minutes on a weeknight, or even a quick breakfast before school during the week?

KATHRYN WALTON: Yeah, for sure. I think it’s really a sort of broader public health question of how do we support families in making it easier? I do think that having for sure access to healthful foods does make the foods that you’re serving during the meals more beneficial. But when we think about family meals, just sitting down together is great. So whether you’re serving a pizza, or you’re serving some sort of gourmet salad, your children will reap many benefits from sitting down together.

So I think getting families to sit down together first, and then second, if we can start to add a salad in, make the side yourselves, slowly add some more homemade food in there as it allows, I think that that’s good. But just sitting down together is great too.

NOAH LEAVITT: Right. The idea of carve out the time first to get everyone to the table. And then from there you can think more critically about where you’re serving.

KATHRYN WALTON: I argue that the research really does support that that bonding time is really beneficial. And we do see research showing that for families with lower levels of functioning, so families that find it challenging to communicate, and may not have a strong emotional bond with each other, sitting down together or preparing a meal together can really help with that functioning and that communication. Because at very most, when you’re sitting down together you do have to ask for the ketchup to be passed. But preparing a meal together gives everyone a role in the family, as well, and can help with that bonding. So we do see that the more you sit down together, the higher your functioning can be.

NOAH LEAVITT: That was actually going to be something I was going to ask, was can these family dinners in some sense improve the functioning of these lower functioning families? Because it seems to be getting a lot of the things that they may struggle with, such as communication, or managing schedules, or those kinds of things.

KATHRYN WALTON: And I do think that it is important to note in the findings of our study that we see both high and low functioning families sitting down together frequently. So when we think about interventions, it’s not just low functioning families that we need to target there. We have lots of adolescents and young adults in our study that reported high levels of family functioning, but that they weren’t sitting down together. So I think we need to sort of look at why families sit down together in the first place, and target the interventions to the individual families.

NOAH LEAVITT: And so that leads well into my last question. I always like to ask people, what would the next steps be? So from your perspective, is it really making maybe digging more in, doing a larger, longer study to get at those factors that are driving why people might sit down for meals together, or why they just aren’t finding the time to do that?

KATHRYN WALTON: Yeah, for sure. I think that we have a really good body of research looking at the barriers for family meals. So we know that. We know why it’s hard to sit down for family meals– time, feeding picky eaters, that type of thing. But we really need to know despite these barriers, why are the families that are sitting down together doing that, and why are the families that aren’t, beyond other barriers, why aren’t they sitting down together? I think that’s an important piece to creating some interventions.

But then we really just need to dive in and start trying to support families, so testing interventions. What works, what doesn’t? And really partnering with families that we’re trying to support to make those interventions tailored, because I think every family experiences their own barriers. So whether we have a toolbox of items, whether we have healthful recipes, and we have items to help with conversation for families that are a bit nervous sitting down together for the first time, or whether we have tips on how to get the meal on the table faster, and then families can choose what benefits them most. Those are just some ideas, but really I think those are the next steps. We need to really understand why families do and don’t, beyond just time, and feeding picky eaters, and that type of thing.

{***Pause/Music***}

That was my conversation with Kathryn Walton about her research on family meals. If you want to read the full paper, we’ll have a link on our website, hsph.me/thisweekinhealth.

That’s all for this week’s episode. A reminder that you can always find us on iTunes, Soundcloud, Spotify, and Stitcher.

December 7, 2018 — For busy families, gathering together for a meal—whether it’s breakfast or dinner—can be difficult. But a growing body of research shows that these meals together can have an important influence on the quality of food that children and teens eat. However, there’s been less research on effective ways to encourage families to eat together more often. In this week’s episode we’re speaking with  Kathryn Walton , research fellow at the Hospital for Sick Children in Toronto and a PhD student at the University of Guelph in Toronto, about a new study that could help public health professionals target interventions at busy families.

Walton and a team of researchers, including Bryn Austin , professor in the Department of Social and Behavioral Sciences , found that when families sit down together for dinner, adolescents and young adults eat more fruits and vegetables and consume fewer fast-food and takeout items. What’s unique about this study is that Walton and her colleagues looked at the families participating in the meal—assessing how they communicated, managed schedules, and even bonded with children, something called family functioning. And they found that the benefits of family meals were seen regardless of how well—or poorly—a family functioned. We spoke with Walton about the findings of her study and how they could inform future initiatives to encourage families to eat together.

You can subscribe to Harvard Chan: This Week in Health by visiting  iTunes  or  Google Play  and you can listen to it by following us on  Soundcloud , and stream it on the  Stitcher  app or on  Spotify .

Family Dinners Improve Teens’ Eating Habits No Matter How Well Family Functions, New U of G Study Finds

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Mahurin Honors College  Capstone Experience/Thesis Projects

Mahurin Honors College Capstone Experience/Thesis Projects

Passing the salt: how eating together creates community.

Diversity and Community Studies

Rebecca Katz , Western Kentucky University Follow

Document Type

Sharing a meal is a simple, yet sacred occasion. It is a universal act that is important to building relationships within people groups. Intentionally eating together creates time and space to engage in the spiritual and intellectual levels that are unique to human beings. Sharing food cultivates community because the implications of the meal extend beyond the time of eating together. While there are other places people meet, gathering around a meal is the most accessible because if nothing else, everyone must eat. Through participant observation and personal interviews, this CE/T project explores four meals to determine how eating together creates common space and develops community. This research will be used to facilitate other groups to who wish create their own meal tradition as a means to build or perpetuate relationships.

Advisor(s) or Committee Chair

Dr. Paul Markham

  • Disciplines

Critical and Cultural Studies | International and Intercultural Communication | Interpersonal and Small Group Communication | Social and Cultural Anthropology

Recommended Citation

Katz, Rebecca, "Passing the Salt: How Eating Together Creates Community" (2012). Mahurin Honors College Capstone Experience/Thesis Projects. Paper 351. https://digitalcommons.wku.edu/stu_hon_theses/351

Since May 23, 2012

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Why eating family meals together is still important today, eating together as a family is more important than ever, because there are more competing distractions, more activity choices outside the home, and a constant bombardment of information from technology..

This article has been updated from its original text.

During the day most of us are out in the community mixing with all kinds of people. Our children are learning about the world from many sources, often without parental filters or input. Even when everyone is home, individuals do their own thing. Perhaps the only opportunity of the day to talk with each other is at the dinner table.

Children in today’s busy world need a shared, safe space to discuss ideas within the understanding company of family, and parents need a routine time to connect with kids.

The way it was

I would like to share what family dinners mean to me. When I was growing up in rural northern California, I could always count on meeting my parents and two sisters at the maple dinner table around 6:30. We all helped getting dinner ready and would sit down together. For at least half an hour we would discuss how our day had gone, talked about matters which concerned us, and made future family plans. After a busy day our evening meal was a chance to gather our little tribe around the table and reconnect with each other. This pleasant time seemed like a reward for the day’s hard work.

Dining was about “us”, rather than the “I” so many families have evolved to cater to. There wasn’t a separate menu for each person. Even the babies had whatever we adults ate, just pureed or minced. If someone didn’t like something they were given a dab, just in case this was the day it suddenly tasted good, which often happened. As kids, we were most enthusiastic about the dishes we had a part in producing.

Conversation was spontaneous and unpredictable, although negative topics were discouraged since they might impair our appetites. Discussion between bites was fun, and often interspersed with fits of giggling with my sisters, to my father’s constant chagrin.

This nightly gathering was a common scene in America in the ‘50’s and ‘60’s. People didn’t make plans around dinnertime and you were expected to be at your seat or sitting with your friend’s family at their table. Folks didn’t call during the dinner hour.

Why we don’t eat together as much today

In recent generations, Americans moved from cooking at home to eating out because they think they don’t have time to cook, says Sheryl Garrett, founder of the Garrett Planning Network. But that’s not a sound decision, she says.

“If you think about it, if you count packing the family into the car, driving to the Applebee’s, standing in line for 20 minutes, getting to your table, waiting for your food, checking out, paying the bill of 40 or 50 dollars, and then driving back home, have you saved any time at all? No, definitely not. And you’ve probably spent four times the money you would have at home.”

The variety and convenience of ‘fast food’ has certainly taken a bite out of family mealtimes. And with good reason. Food franchises have learned how to cater to our fast-paced lifestyles by delivering a wide range of food items ‘on the go’ at low cost. Today, with 19% of meals in the US being eaten in cars, we’ve come to depend on ready access to food. But while convenience foods have their place, especially for quick breakfasts and lunches for working people, they are no substitute for family dinners eaten together.

The benefits of eating family meals together

While our smart phones and devices have brought us closer to the rest of humanity, it is the family meal that brings us closer to our own clan. The fabric of family is woven by shared experiences and time spent together. Here are some things we gain when we share meals as a family:

Eating together is more efficient, less expensive and healthier

My mother planned well-balanced meals using few convenience foods because cooking from scratch was always more economical, healthful, and tasty. My dad had a garden and a few fruit trees which provided fresh produce. To supplement, in summer we would go to big farms to do the last picking of strawberries, peaches, plums, and corn. Then we would spend hours freezing or canning summer’s bounty to enjoy all winter.

In the fall my father would go deer hunting and we would have organic venison. Also there were local pasture-fed animals to source from farmers. We knew where our food came from, and it was almost always locally sourced.

When I became responsible for the care of my own children, I grew more interested in nutrition. Being a single adventurous woman in San Francisco I had explored spices, seasonings and ethnic foods, but returned to the idea that freshness was the key to flavor and nutrition. In Laurel’s Kitchen and Diet for a Small Planet , I learned why whole natural foods, minimally processed, improve our health.

Eating together teaches children food sustainability.

When our children were young, one of the common threads of table conversation was acknowledging where our food came from. Each item usually had a story, such as where bananas grew and what kind of trip they had coming to our home. By growing and raising much of our food, the children learned the basics of gardening and took more interest in meals. They might have picked the broccoli, helped make applesauce from apples they picked by climbing trees, or collected the eggs for the omelet.

Children need to learn how the cost of convenience foods goes beyond the purchase price. The environmental costs of individual portion packaging, for manufacturing and disposal, are significant. A major perpetrator of deforestation in the South is the fast food industry. With nearly 100 paper packaging mills in the US South and thousands of restaurants worldwide, major fast food retailers such as McDonald’s, Wendy’s, KFC and Taco Bell are leaders in paper consumption and subsequent waste.

Eating together builds closer relationships within the family

It goes without saying that communication is the key to understanding. Although we live as a family, each member is on a different track through life. Spending time together over meals lets us keep in touch with each other on a regular basis. To quote Joseph Califano, Jr, of Columbia University, “One of the simplest and most effective ways for parents to be engaged in their teens’ lives is by having frequent family dinners.”

Nights at the round table

When my husband Greg was a child, his family ate at a round table. The table was inherited from grandparents, and placing it in the dining room suited the shape of the room. But there was another benefit to the round table which was less apparent: because there was no “head” to the table, everyone in the family had an equal place. The ambience was very democratic – the children shared ideas with their parents as equals, and this encouraged the spontaneous and relaxed sharing of ideas.

The neighbors across the street were a fun, vibrant Italian family. But dinnertime was a strict affair, with the father sitting at the head of the large rectangular table and the mother at the opposite end. The father held court during meals, and the kids were expected to “eat up and shut up.” Although Greg spent much of his time in their house, he never stayed for dinner. He seemed to think that the table seating arrangement, which mirrored the traditional family hierarchy, stifled open communication.

It may be a stretch to think that the shape of the table and the seating order can influence communication, but we also dine at a round table in our home, and it has been the center of countless happy times spent with family and friends.

How to change the family dynamic

What if you decide your goal is to gather everyone to the table and have quality meal time together? How do you change the dynamic in your home?

Try setting a modest goal of two times a week and build from there

Eating meals together as a family does not necessarily mean the experience will be wonderful. Even within families, it takes practice to get along. Researchers at the National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse (CASA) at Columbia University found essentially that family dinner gets better with practice; the less often a family eats together, the worse the experience is likely to be, the less healthy the food and the more meager the talk.

Simplify the food preparation

Probably the main reason we favor convenience food is the perception that home-cooked meals take more time to put together. This can certainly be the case. But there are shortcuts we can use to make food preparation fast and easy. Soups and stews can be made in quantities large enough to last two or three dinners. And when cooking rice or potatoes, make enough for a few meals. Recipes can be kept simple if you cook using fresh ingredients, and meals will still taste delicious.

Turn off cell phones and texting devices

The interruption of a phone call or text message is a sure way to break the conversation and remind everyone of events beyond the dinner table. It’s bad enough that tele-marketers call during the dinner hour. At our home we unplug the phone during mealtime; it makes our time together more relaxing and conducive to conversation.

Get the family involved in shopping and food preparation

Learning to shop wisely and to prepare food are useful life skills which are becoming more important with rising food prices and economic uncertainty. Young children can be helpful in the kitchen given a little guidance. We taught our kids how to roll out their own tortillas, which was messy, but they were proud to contribute to the meal. And they would eat just about anything if it were wrapped in one of their tortillas. When shopping, we practiced thrift. I remember preparing to order in a breakfast restaurant, and one of our kids asked the waitress for “bacon on sale”, thinking that was what you call “bacon”.

It is hard to fathom that 1/3 of America’s children eat fast food every day, according to Michael Pollan’s The Omnivore’s Dilemma. Good quality food, simply prepared, should take less than 45 minutes to put on the table. With good organization and family participation, food can be prepared in advance on the weekend, with some frozen for future meals. Any recipe can be adapted to be more healthful, even just by reducing the oil or butter and substituting whole wheat for white flour.

“If it were just about food, we would squirt it into their mouths with a tube,” says Robin Fox, an anthropologist who teaches at Rutgers University in New Jersey, about the intangible benefits that family dinner bestows on us. “A meal is about civilizing children. It’s about teaching them to be a member of their culture.”

Being together daily at the table is an important chance to celebrate being a family: by staying in touch, learning about family culture, food, and practicing the social skills of dining and conversation. Family meals are for nourishment, comfort and support. And, food is better eaten with the people we love!

About the Author

Lindsay Seaman Lindsay Seaman is an avid reader and researcher who grew up in rural communities in northern California. In 2010 she retired from her school district career and is now following her passion for organic gardening while helping manage the Eartheasy homestead. She works with Greg in the “research” gardens and orchard, where she enjoys experimenting with new ideas in organic food production.

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The Importance of Eating Together

Family dinners build relationships, and help kids do better in school.

family eating together thesis statement

After my mother passed away and my brother went to study in New Zealand, the first thing that really felt different was the dinner table. My father and I began eating separately. We went out to dinners with our friends, ate sandwiches in front of our computers, delivery pizzas while watching movies. Some days we rarely saw each other at all. Then, a few weeks before I was set to leave for university, my father walked downstairs. “You know, I think we should start eating together even if it’s just you and me,” he said. “Your mother would have wanted that.” It wasn’t ideal, of course—the meals we made weren’t particularly amazing and we missed the presence of Mom and my brother—but there was something special about setting aside time to be with my father. It was therapeutic: an excuse to talk, to reflect on the day, and on recent events. Our chats about the banal—of baseball and television—often led to discussions of the serious—of politics and death, of memories and loss. Eating together was a small act, and it required very little of us—45 minutes away from our usual, quotidian distractions—and yet it was invariably one of the happiest parts of my day.

Sadly, Americans rarely eat together anymore. In fact, the average American eats one in every five meals in her car, one in four Americans eats at least one fast food meal every single day, and the majority of American families report eating a single meal together less than five days a week. It’s a pity that so many Americans are missing out on what could be meaningful time with their loved ones, but it’s even more than that. Not eating together also has quantifiably negative effects both physically and psychologically.

Using data from nearly three-quarters of the world’s countries, a new analysis from the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) found that students who do not regularly eat with their parents are significantly more likely to be truant at school. The average truancy rate in the two weeks before the International Program for International Student Assessment (PISA), a test administered to 15-year-olds by the OECD and used in the analysis as a measure for absenteeism, was about 15 percent throughout the world on average, but it was nearly 30 percent when pupils reported they didn’t often share meals with their families.

Children who do not eat dinner with their parents at least twice a week also were 40 percent more likely to be overweight compared to those who do, as outlined in a research presentation given at the European Congress on Obesity in Bulgaria this May. On the contrary, children who do eat dinner with their parents five or more days a week have less trouble with drugs and alcohol, eat healthier, show better academic performance, and report being closer with their parents than children who eat dinner with their parents less often, according to a study conducted by the National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse at Columbia University.

There are two big reasons for these negative effects associated with not eating meals together: the first is simply that when we eat out—especially at the inexpensive fast food and take-out places that most children go to when not eating with their family—we tend not to eat very healthy things. As Michael Pollan wrote in his most recent book, Cooked , meals eaten outside of the home are almost uniformly less healthy than homemade foods, generally having higher fat, salt, and caloric content.

The other reason is that eating alone can be alienating. The dinner table can act as a unifier, a place of community. Sharing a meal is an excuse to catch up and talk, one of the few times where people are happy to put aside their work and take time out of their day. After all, it is rare that we Americans grant ourselves pleasure over productivity (just look at the fact that the average American works nearly 220 hours more per year than the average Frenchman).

In many countries, mealtime is treated as sacred. In France, for instance, while it is acceptable to eat by oneself, one should never rush a meal. A frenzied salad muncher on the métro invites dirty glares, and employees are given at least an hour for lunch. In many Mexican cities, townspeople will eat together with friends and family in central areas like parks or town squares. In Cambodia, villagers spread out colorful mats and bring food to share with loved ones like a potluck .

In her book Eating Together , Alice Julier argues that dining together can radically shift people’s perspectives: It reduces people’s perceptions of inequality, and diners tend to view those of different races, genders, and socioeconomic backgrounds as more equal than they would in other social scenarios.

It hasn’t always been the case that Americans don’t prioritize eating together and eating slowly. In 1950, Elizabeth David, who was recognized as the sort of soul-stirring American culinary evangelist du moment, as perhaps Alice Waters or David Lebovitz is today, published A Book of Mediterranean Food . She wrote that great food is simple. She proposed that meals didn’t have to come from fancy or trendy restaurants, and that enjoying basic meals with loved ones makes for the best eating. In one particularly salient passage, she writes:

“In the shade of the lemon grove I break off a hunch of bread, sprinkle it with the delicious fruity olive oil, empty my glass of sour white Capri wine; and remember that Norman Douglas once wrote that whoever has helped us to a larger understanding is entitled to our gratitude for all time.”

Her equation for physical and psychological well-being is easy: Eat simply and eat together.

For the average American family, who now spends nearly as much money on fast food as they do on groceries, this simplicity is not so easily achieved. Perhaps the root of this problem is cultural misperception.

In America, it seems snobbish to take time to eat good food with one’s family. The Norman Rockwell portrait of the family around the dinner table now seems less middle-class and more haute bourgeois, as many families can’t afford to have one parent stay home from work, spending his or her day cleaning and cooking a roast and side of potatoes for the spouse and kids. Most parents don’t have time to cook, many don’t even know how, and the idea that one should spend extra money and time picking up produce at the supermarket rather than grabbing a bucket of Chinese take-out can seem unfeasible, unnecessary, and slightly pretentious. It’s understandable to want to save time and money. It’s the same reason that small shops go out of business once Walmart moves into town; but in this case it is not the shop owner who suffers, it is the consumer of unhealthy and rushed meals.

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How to Want Less

How then do we eat better, not just from a nutritional perspective, but from a psychological one as well?

“To eat is a necessity, but to eat intelligently is an art,” said the 17th-century writer François de La Rochefoucauld. What “intelligence” means in the context of eating is debatable. There are those who obsess over their food—where it is sourced, if it is organic, the nebulous desire for culinary “originality”—who are known in the U.S. as “foodies” and in France as generation Le Fooding , both of which are the hipsters of cuisine, moneyed and sometimes picky. But this doesn’t seem quite like “intelligence” as de La Rochefoucauld meant it.

Perhaps to “eat intelligently,” one needs only to eat together. Although it would be nice to eat healthily as well, even take-out makes for a decent enough meal, psychologically speaking, so long as your family, roommates, or friends are present.

It’s incredible what we’re willing to make time for if we’re motivated. (Although we often end up just a bit too squeezed to make it to the gym in the morning, we can still find time to go to the movies after work.) Perhaps seeing eating together not as another appointment on a busy schedule, but rather as an opportunity to de-stress, a chance to catch up with those whom we love then, could help our children do better in school, get in better shape, and be less likely to abuse drugs and alcohol. Eating together also led children to report better relationships with their parents and surely relationships between adults can similarly benefit.

On our last night before I left home to return to school, my father and I went out to our favorite hometown restaurant, a Sichuan place where we always order the same thing: Yu Xiang Qiezi for me, Black Date Chicken for him. But even after 60 years of life on this planet and countless dinners here, he still could not properly hold a pair of chopsticks. “Let me help,” I said, and after a little resistance, he obliged me. “See you have to hold this one perfectly still,” I said, motioning to the chopstick in my left hand, “while you move this one to pick up your food.” The waiter came with another bowl of rice on which he would try. He nodded. “I think I’ve got it,” he said, delicately holding the chopsticks between his fingers. “The chopsticks each have an individual role, but in order not to drop your food, they have to work together. Right?” I smiled. “Exactly.”

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family eating together thesis statement

The Importance of Eating Together

family eating together thesis statement

Anne Myers-Wright RD/APD

Most of us take eating together for granted but the simple act of sharing a meal is a greater one than we imagine. Food is so much more than just fuel. It’s a fundamental part of our health, relationships, culture and well-being. Eating together is about coming together; about belonging.

No-one likes to eat alone. Sadly, however, it is becoming more and more common for many of us to do so, especially in the UK. At the end of last year, the annual UK National Food and Drink report (2017/18) showed that close to a third of us had eaten alone in the last month.

There will always be times when we are eating alone. If we can, however, it’s better for us to try to minimise those times as much as possible. Eating together has benefits both physically and mentally.

Why we should eat together more

It’s tradition, and it’s basically in our genes.

Families have eaten together for as long as they have eaten! In most societies, families celebrate important events by sharing food. Mealtimes have traditionally been those times when whole communities or villages come together. Eating together is a symbol of shared life. It’s part of who we are.

Meal times are for bonding and communication

The dinner table is a place of community. Eating together gives us the opportunity to talk, laugh and share. Taking time out to catch up and talk lets us truly connect. For families, this is an important opportunity to switch off the digital distractions and enjoy each other. Family meals foster a sense of belonging. Research has shown that children who eat regularly with their families feel loved, safe and secure. Even teenagers, despite what we may think, treasure the family eating experience. A US study showed that 71% of teenagers said they consider talking, catching up, and spending time with family members as the best part of family dinners.

Eating together is better for our health and well-being

Regularly eaten meals that are prepared and/or eaten in company tend to be more nutritious and healthier. People who eat meals together have been shown to eat more fruit and vegetables, more dairy and fibre than those who eat alone.

Research suggests that people who eat alone have higher rates of obesity and are at higher risk of developing chronic diseases such as high blood pressure and diabetes. A 2010 study by the University of Bristol found that workers who eat alone at their desk are more likely to gain weight.

Studies suggest that people who eat alone have higher rates of depression. Those who eat regularly with others say they feel happier, are more trusting of the people around them and feel more engaged with their community. In fact, a recent study with the elderly revealed that one in five seniors report that they feel loneliest when eating by themselves.

In order to understand the problem at hand with seniors living in isolation, we have to first ask ourselves what the value of a shared meal is? What is the meaning of the meal? Across generations and cultures it has been proven that sharing a meal with loved ones is one of the best ways to engage in quality conversation, bonding time, and form healthy eating habits. From a young age, when we eat with our family, we are reminded of our meaningful role in our familial structure. This is where we build our sense of self and explore our food palette. It is a time for people to turn off the outside world of work, school, bills, and kids, and focus on each other. There are clear emotional and health benefits. And while sharing family meals is important especially for young children, we crave this connection with others even as we age.

For seniors, who are already predisposed to depression because of isolation, sharing a meal can be what they look forward to each day. Eating a meal alone, especially knowing that your children and their families are together, can be especially difficult. It can be even worse when family or friends don’t prioritize visiting, or live far away so as not to even be an option.

During a pandemic, all of the prior conventions of sharing meals have been thrown into the garbage disposal. Seniors are already a high-risk, compromised population. The act of sharing a meal as we once did with our grandparents is no longer simply hard to schedule, but it is dangerous. How can we let our grandparents or parents feel the love experienced when sharing a meal without risking their health and safety?

Source: https://www.amdietetics.com/articles/the-importance-of-eating-together

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  • How to Write a Thesis Statement | 4 Steps & Examples

How to Write a Thesis Statement | 4 Steps & Examples

Published on January 11, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on August 15, 2023 by Eoghan Ryan.

A thesis statement is a sentence that sums up the central point of your paper or essay . It usually comes near the end of your introduction .

Your thesis will look a bit different depending on the type of essay you’re writing. But the thesis statement should always clearly state the main idea you want to get across. Everything else in your essay should relate back to this idea.

You can write your thesis statement by following four simple steps:

  • Start with a question
  • Write your initial answer
  • Develop your answer
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What is a thesis statement, placement of the thesis statement, step 1: start with a question, step 2: write your initial answer, step 3: develop your answer, step 4: refine your thesis statement, types of thesis statements, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about thesis statements.

A thesis statement summarizes the central points of your essay. It is a signpost telling the reader what the essay will argue and why.

The best thesis statements are:

  • Concise: A good thesis statement is short and sweet—don’t use more words than necessary. State your point clearly and directly in one or two sentences.
  • Contentious: Your thesis shouldn’t be a simple statement of fact that everyone already knows. A good thesis statement is a claim that requires further evidence or analysis to back it up.
  • Coherent: Everything mentioned in your thesis statement must be supported and explained in the rest of your paper.

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The thesis statement generally appears at the end of your essay introduction or research paper introduction .

The spread of the internet has had a world-changing effect, not least on the world of education. The use of the internet in academic contexts and among young people more generally is hotly debated. For many who did not grow up with this technology, its effects seem alarming and potentially harmful. This concern, while understandable, is misguided. The negatives of internet use are outweighed by its many benefits for education: the internet facilitates easier access to information, exposure to different perspectives, and a flexible learning environment for both students and teachers.

You should come up with an initial thesis, sometimes called a working thesis , early in the writing process . As soon as you’ve decided on your essay topic , you need to work out what you want to say about it—a clear thesis will give your essay direction and structure.

You might already have a question in your assignment, but if not, try to come up with your own. What would you like to find out or decide about your topic?

For example, you might ask:

After some initial research, you can formulate a tentative answer to this question. At this stage it can be simple, and it should guide the research process and writing process .

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Now you need to consider why this is your answer and how you will convince your reader to agree with you. As you read more about your topic and begin writing, your answer should get more detailed.

In your essay about the internet and education, the thesis states your position and sketches out the key arguments you’ll use to support it.

The negatives of internet use are outweighed by its many benefits for education because it facilitates easier access to information.

In your essay about braille, the thesis statement summarizes the key historical development that you’ll explain.

The invention of braille in the 19th century transformed the lives of blind people, allowing them to participate more actively in public life.

A strong thesis statement should tell the reader:

  • Why you hold this position
  • What they’ll learn from your essay
  • The key points of your argument or narrative

The final thesis statement doesn’t just state your position, but summarizes your overall argument or the entire topic you’re going to explain. To strengthen a weak thesis statement, it can help to consider the broader context of your topic.

These examples are more specific and show that you’ll explore your topic in depth.

Your thesis statement should match the goals of your essay, which vary depending on the type of essay you’re writing:

  • In an argumentative essay , your thesis statement should take a strong position. Your aim in the essay is to convince your reader of this thesis based on evidence and logical reasoning.
  • In an expository essay , you’ll aim to explain the facts of a topic or process. Your thesis statement doesn’t have to include a strong opinion in this case, but it should clearly state the central point you want to make, and mention the key elements you’ll explain.

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

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A thesis statement is a sentence that sums up the central point of your paper or essay . Everything else you write should relate to this key idea.

The thesis statement is essential in any academic essay or research paper for two main reasons:

  • It gives your writing direction and focus.
  • It gives the reader a concise summary of your main point.

Without a clear thesis statement, an essay can end up rambling and unfocused, leaving your reader unsure of exactly what you want to say.

Follow these four steps to come up with a thesis statement :

  • Ask a question about your topic .
  • Write your initial answer.
  • Develop your answer by including reasons.
  • Refine your answer, adding more detail and nuance.

The thesis statement should be placed at the end of your essay introduction .

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family eating together thesis statement

  • Author: Deepa Srivastava

Growing up in a traditional Asian Indian household, home cooking was a part of the daily routine and a cultural practice. At the time, acquiring cooking knowledge and skills was an expectation and considered normal. When I moved to the United States, I added new knowledge about diverse cultural values and norms surrounding food and home cooking practices.

Today, with millions of people nationwide facing stay-at-home and social distancing guidelines, home cooking has found new meaning for many families. Navigating through this new normal, I feel blessed to have the cooking knowledge and skills that empower me to cook basic pantry food items into diverse cultural food recipes from across the world. Thanks to my family for keeping the passion of home cooking alive.

As the UC Cooperative Extension nutrition, family, and consumer sciences advisor and a researcher trying to understand and identify strategies to support healthy lifestyle habits among children and families, I feel this commitment has never been stronger than it is right now. I decided to meaningfully inform the ways families can work together with children in the kitchen. In this process, I examined the strategies used by UCCE nutrition education programs of Tulare and Kings counties in the past year, along with current research and best practices that promote home cooking, age-appropriate kitchen tasks, and meal preparation activities.

What is cooking and why it matters?

Cooking is a learned skill that is broadly defined as the ability and capacity to prepare meals. Cooking at home is a practice that encompasses a range of activities to include nutrition and age-appropriate kitchen tasks from food planning, preparation, safety, consumption and much more. Children can acquire cooking skills at home with adult guidance and supervision. There are many benefits of cooking at home.

Cooking at home improves health and well-being   

Families that prepare meals at home eat a healthier diet. Studies have reported more fruit and vegetable consumption and low consumption of convenience and processed foods among families who cook at home compared to families who cook irregularly or not at all. A study reported that adolescents with cooking ability indicated better nutritional and mental health and stronger family connections. Among adults, cooking at home has indicated improvements in health status, dietary intake, self-efficacy, self-esteem, mood and affect.

Cooking at home strengthens family resource management

Food resource management involves meal planning, shopping, and budgeting. Studies have shown preparing meals at home saves time and money and helps families eat healthy on a budget.

Cooking at home increases family mealtimes  

Having basic cooking skills set the foundation for family mealtimes. Research shows when families cook at home, they are more likely to eat at home most days of the week, make healthier food choices, and save money.

Cooking at home promotes family cultural tradition

Families pass on their cultural tradition when they include children in every aspect of the meal preparation, from choosing the food menu and ingredients, to setting the table to making the meal, talking and eating together. Research shows such practices may differ from family to family, however, it creates lifelong knowledge and memories.

Cooking at home contributes to lifelong healthy habits and life skills

Cooking together as a family helps children learn useful life skills of reading, teamwork, planning and organization, communication, problem-solving, creativity, imagination, cleanliness, and gratitude. Children can apply math, science, nutrition, culinary, and geography lessons to understand where the food comes from, how to read a recipe, how to measure ingredients, healthy vs. unhealthy foods, foods from around the world, seasonal foods, nutrition aspects of the food and much more.    

Promoting healthy families and communities through UC Cooperative Extension

The University of California Cooperative Extension administers CalFresh Healthy Living, UC and the Expanded Food & Nutrition Education Program  in Tulare and Kings counties

Funded by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, nutrition education is an integral component of these programs. Increasingly in recent years, there is a focus on improving lifelong practical skills using age-appropriate learning approaches.

In the past year, the UCCE nutrition programs in Tulare and Kings counties have empowered children, youth, adults, and families with knowledge and skills to make the healthy choice the easy choice.

Participants learned about handwashing and food safety, age-appropriate cooking basics, growing a vegetable garden, reading a recipe, eating healthy from five food groups, healthy and seasonal foods. Through food demonstrations and taste tests, participants enjoyed foods from all food groups, including new fruits and vegetables, and showed a willingness to try them at home.

Additionally, adult learning also included food planning and management, selection, preparation, cooking, and eating on a budget.

How can families engage children in age-appropriate home cooking activities?

Now is the time to create family home cooking memories with love and gratitude

Try a few of the activities listed below, and set goals to adopt small healthy living changes. Soon, you'll be proud and happy to see your children pick up these skills and habits.

Age-appropriate kitchen tasks.   Children are great helpers. Parents can delegate and guide children with Age-Appropriate Kitchen Tasks . Age-appropriate tasks are recommended based on what children can do at each age. Effective parental practices can help children stay healthy and safe ( Child Development Milestones & Parenting ).

Cooking appliances, tools and accessories. Be a kitchen tour guide to your children and help them get to know the kitchen layout and appliances. Show them cooking tools and accessories that you frequently use in the kitchen. Provide age-appropriate cooking tools to encourage children to get involved in the kitchen.

Handwashing. Help children understand the importance of washing hands before, during, and after handling food, cooking, and eating. Help children develop handwashing habits by following Five Steps to Handwashing . Handwashing can be a fun family activity . 

Food safety . Explain to children the science behind food handling, cooking, and storage using guidelines about Food Safety in Your Kitchen and Food Safety Fun Learning Family Activities . To get guidance on safe handling, preparation, and storage of food and beverage items, download Foodkeeper App .

Food menu planning. Involve children in Food Planning Activities & Resources . Create a  Sample Two-Week Menu to minimize trips to grocery stores. Ask children to help you create a family food menu. During grocery shopping, fill your cart with healthy options and consider shelf-stable and budget-friendly items from each food group with Food Groups Tip for Every Aisle .

Cooking with new foods, herbs and spices. Walk the talk about the importance of eating from five food groups and drinking water instead of sugar-sweetened beverages by doing so yourself. When creating a food menu and food recipes, include foods from five food groups - fruits, vegetables, proteins, grains and dairy from MyPlate and Seasonal Produce Guide . Add flavor to your food with Herbs & Spices . You can also Grow Your Own Herbs & Spices Indoors .

Food recipe cookbooks.  Involve children in creating healthy food recipe cookbooks for breakfast, snacks, lunch, appetizers, and dinner. Think about building traditional family food recipes, food recipes from around the world or by culture, quick and easy food recipes, cooking with herbs, slow-cooker recipes, and much more. Family friendly recipe ideas can be found at MyPlate Kitchen ,  Healthy Recipes from the Whitehouse to You , Meeting Your MyPlate Goals On A Budget , Healthy Eating on a Budget Cookbook .

Food demonstration and taste test. Food demonstration and taste test can be a fun family kitchen activity during weekends. Encourage children to create a fun recipe to cook, and ask them to use their five senses to describe the flavors, ingredients and the food used in the recipe. Try to blend the food from many cultures to create new recipes. Share family food stories with children to keep the family tradition alive.

Family mealtimes. Family mealtime is an opportunity to eat, talk, connect, communicate, and learn. Visit MyPlatePlan to learn what and how much to eat within calorie allowance. Eating together as a family gives the children an opportunity to learn and practice their table manners, social and communication skills.

Reduce food waste. Family meal preparation time is a great opportunity to educate children about how to Recycle & Compost  food waste. Recycling food helps save money and reduces the amount of food going to waste.

Food- and k itchen-related COVID-19 informational resources. The USDA Food and Nutrition Service and the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics has useful nutrition and food safety tips and activities for families managing the challenging conditions of the COVID-19 outbreak. Find these organizations here:

  • USDA Food & Nutrition Service Information Link
  • Academy of Nutrition & Dietetics Link
  • Videos on Kitchen Topics  
  • Social Media Kitchen Related Topics for Families
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7. Argument/Research

4. argumentative essay sample.

Thanksgiving is truly one of those few special times we have to emphasize the importance of family. However, too many people in this hurried day and age are just way too busy to focus on giving extra time to their loved ones. They would much rather focus on their careers and other personal endeavors rather than spending a few traditional moments with the family. If nothing else can help bring the family back together, at least families should have their Thanksgiving family meal at the dinner table.

For one thing, a traditional sit-down meal enhances the significance of the meaning of Thanksgiving. The holiday has its roots embedded in the early years of the nation when settlers and natives were trying to find ways to live among one another peacefully. Sharing the autumn harvest was one way to trade weapons for forks and spoon and to share values and believes that they found to be not that uncommon. Using the traditional Thanksgiving setting today can promote those same kinds of values and believes, even within family members themselves. For my family, we seldom have time devoted to sitting down and sharing daily thoughts, but the Thanksgiving dinner provides that option. It reminds us of when the kids were young and we were always close and dependent upon one another.

According to Sarah Klein, contributor for  Health.com  website, eating with the family can reduce the stress that often adds burdens to people’s lives (Sec 8).  I believe this is a really good idea. In a 2008 research conducted by Brigham Young University, “sitting down to a family meal helped working moms reduce the tension and strain from long hours at the office,” (Sec. 8).

Sitting down to an extended Thanksgiving dinner provides family members with a chance to “Catch up” with everyone’s current activities. Siblings and parents often go days and even weeks without taking with one another. Having everyone face-to-face, especially with the extended layout of the Thanksgiving feast, forces members to talk with one another (otherwise they will suffer from the potential “over-stuffed belly” when eating the tasty fare too quickly). Family members who live away from home will be able to bring their loved ones up to date on issues in a way they just can’t do over the phone or via social media. And even kids who live at home will have a special opportunity to sit face-to-face with a mom and dad or siblings they may not have seen for more than a minute or two in the last month. Oftentimes, family members will use the holiday occasion to announce wedding engagements, job promotions or even the soon-to-arrive new member to the family.

“Eating alone can be alienating,” said Cody Delistraty in an article published online by The Atlantic. “The dinner table can act as a unifier, a place of community. Sharing a meal is an excuse to catch up and talk, one of the few times where people are happy to put aside their work. (Sec. 3)

Perhaps most importantly, the traditional Thanksgiving dinner can help to promote family values that have been acquired over a lifetime. Families with a strong religious background may take this time to say Grace, something they may not have done since last Christmas or even Thanksgiving. Parents and grandparents often use the moment to share with their family words of love and appreciation prior to kicking off the meal. And when chow-down time starts, the meal itself provides a wonderful opportunity for members to practice good manners and etiquette. How else are they going to ensure that everyone has an opportunity to taste the cranberry sauce, green bean casserole, oyster stuffing and other sides that make the meal so special. It also helps to enhance the experience of enjoying the wonderful food when everyone waits to dig in until everyone is served.

According to an article published online by Cornell Cooperative Extension, mealtime is one of the most significant opportunities for children to talk with their parents. The article suggests that parents turn off the TV and cell phones and to ask children about their daily activities (4).

Oftentimes, families feel a little hesitant to provide a traditional Thanksgiving dinner if loved ones don’t share the same viewpoints, such as when someone in the family is a vegetarian. Rather than forfeit the entire concept of Thanksgiving dinner, why not use this situation as a positive. Allow the vegetarian to provide a special dish to replace the turkey and other meat-based foods. Not only will that express how important this is to the family member, it will also allow other family members to “test” the uncommon dishes. If a few more members suddenly decide to try vegetarianism, that would not be a bad thing for our world in general. Most importantly, it will show how true love among family members provides for acceptance of differing views and values.

Health.com  also promotes the nutritional value of eating dinners as a family. Children who eat at the table ate more fruits and vegetables and less soda and fried foods. The setting also provides an opportunity for “discussions of nutrition and provision of healthful foods,” said Matthew W. Gillman, MD, (Klein, as quoted in Sec. 2).

Other people argue that such an archaic tradition as the Thanksgiving dinner does not promote individuality. I feel the opposite is true: seclusion, if everyone goes off and eats on his and her own time schedule, does nothing to promote individuality. Individuality is best highlighted among large groups of people. If ten people with tattoos get together to share their freedom of bodily expression, then there is little individuality involved in their gathering. But when they share their body artwork with one hundred tattoo-less people, they really do make a strong statement. If the family does not meet at the table for dinner, there is no audience to recognize the individual traits of each family member.

Sure, there are going to be cases when family members cannot attend the traditional Thanksgiving dinner. Some may have to work on that day (with the increase in holiday shopping on the holidays, for instance), and some may not be able to travel back home from their current location. But we can’t let those kinds of setbacks hurt the true meaning of family gatherings. A phone call during the height of the meal to someone who wasn’t able to make it may make that loved-one’s day just a little more bearable, especially with the promise that everyone will try to get together at the next big holiday to repeat the wonderful time they’ve had today.

A traditional meal can help to enhance the traditional holiday while offering families a chance to catch up with one another. It also acts as an opportunity for family members to emphasize their own personal values. Eating at the table may make the holiday that much more special. If you’ve ever experienced a time away from family during important events, then you know how important it is to take advantage of what few family opportunities we have available during these busy times.

Works Cited

Cook, Eliza and Rachel Dunifon, “Do Family Meals Really Make a Difference?” Cornell Cooperative Extension. Cornell University, 2912. Web.

Delistraty, Cody, “The Importance of Eating Together,”  The Atlantic.   July 18, 2014. Web.

Klein, Sarah, “8 Reasons to Make Time for Family Dinner.  Health.com.  Health Media Ventures, Inc. 2016. Web.

This is a simple topic- something most anyone has experienced. You don’t need to choose a complex or controversial issue to write a solid argumentative essay. Take a stand and support that stand using the basic structure of argument. Please note that added research is boldfaced in the essay- it was added after the argument itself had been written.

  • Authored by : Jeff Meyers. Provided by : Clinton Community College. License : CC BY: Attribution

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The Role of Family Relationships in Eating Disorders in Adolescents: A Narrative Review

Michela erriu.

1 Psychology and Medicine Faculty, Department of Dynamic and Clinical Psychology, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy; [email protected] (M.E.); [email protected] (S.C.)

Silvia Cimino

Luca cerniglia.

2 Psychology Faculty, Department of Psychology, International Telematic University Uninettuno, 00186 Rome, Italy

Background: Adolescents’ eating disorders have been explored through various conceptual and empirical models. Only recently, scientific literature in this area has more specifically investigated the role of relationships, with particular attention to family functioning. Objective: This paper reviews family relationships aspects of eating disorders in adolescence. Methods: A narrative literature review of relational issues in adolescents’ eating disorders was performed. Results: Empirical evidence of family relationships in adolescents’ eating disorders confirms the relevance of relational aspects in the development and maintenance of the pathology. In particular, the contribution of the relational-systemic approach is wide, suggesting the need to refer to the family context for a better understanding of adolescents’ sufferance. Additionally, the empirical contributions from the conceptual model of Developmental Psychopathology, highlighting the importance of risk and protection factors in family relationships, provides knowledge about the phenomenon of adolescents’ eating disorders in terms of complexity. Conclusions: An integrated relational model aimed to explore adolescents’ eating disorders is worthy of investigation to accomplish specific program of intervention.

1. Introduction: Eating Disorders in Adolescence

Eating disorders in adolescence are among the most important public health problems in the world [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 ], and they affect a predominantly female population of adolescent girls and young women, from 13 to 25/30 years of age, with a male/female ratio of about 1 out of 10 [ 6 , 7 , 8 ]. Regarding the adolescent population, epidemiological studies showed a high prevalence of disturbed eating behavior (14–22%), while Anorexia Nervosa, Bulimia Nervosa, and Binge Eating Disorder (BED) were found respectively in 0.3%, 0.9%, and 1.6% of the population [ 9 ]. Moreover, 5.7% of females and 1.2% of adolescent males in community samples showed eating disorders, confirming the higher prevalence of the disorder among girls [ 10 ].

Defined as body weight control disorders involving significant impairment of physical and psychological functioning, eating disorders represent a category of extremely complex clinical conditions, characterized by abnormal eating patterns, excessive concern for body shape, and abnormal body image perception [ 6 , 9 ]. Due to their complexity, eating disorders can be considered a psychiatric pathology with complex pathogenesis, associated with several individual and relational psychological factors, but also socio-cultural ones. The recent introduction of three specific diagnostic categories, anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, binge eating disorder, in DSM-5 [ 6 ] further increases the possibility of describing and understanding in depth the phenomenon of eating disorders. According to DSM-5 criteria, anorexia nervosa is characterized by the restriction in food intake and significantly low body weight, with the intense fear of gaining weight and alteration of the body image. Bulimia nervosa is instead characterized by high food intake in a short time and inappropriate compensatory conduct, such as vomiting, use of purges, and intense physical exercise. Binge Eating Disorder (BED) was included in the DSM-5 as a new nosographic entity, therefore gaining more relevance in the recent extensive revision of the classification of eating disorders. It is characterized by a high amount of food intake without inappropriate compensation behavior and lower interest in weight and body shape compared to Bulimia nervosa.

According to Treasure and colleagues [ 11 ], there is a great deal of uncertainty about etiopathogenesis, treatment, and management of eating disorders. It may therefore be useful to report the state of the art on studies on eating disorders in adolescence, mainly focusing on some aspects seemingly going through this type of pathology, although with specificity in different clinical categories.

It is widely posited that adolescence represents a relevant developmental stage during which important changes in social, behavioral, and emotional-motivational functioning occur [ 12 ]. For these characteristics, researchers indicate adolescence as a developmental phase at risk for the onset of eating disorders [ 13 , 14 ]. From a relationship point of view, since adolescence represents a period of the life cycle characterized by progressive independence from parents and family members, it may be particularly useful to investigate how family factors provide or do not provide a real basis for the behavioral and emotional wellbeing of the adolescent also with regard to risk conducts. In addition, as most adolescents still live with their parents, the quality of family functioning and the parent–child relationship deserve to be taken into account in relation to offspring’s adaptive development.

In general, the issue of eating disorders in adolescence has been investigated by several theoretical and empirical approaches, among which are psychodynamic models [ 15 ], models inspired by Infant Research [ 16 ], cognitive models [ 17 , 18 ], and neurobiological models [ 19 ]. The majority of these studies have paid much attention to the role of individual variables, whereas little attention has been given to relational aspects linked to the adolescents’ symptoms. In this regard, whether it is clear that eating disorders among adolescents seem to be linked to individual vulnerability, on the other hand, family influence should be recognized as an important element associated with the onset and maintenance of the pathology [ 20 , 21 , 22 ]. In particular, some relational aspects, such as family functioning and the characteristics and quality of relationships between family members, have gained increasing interest among clinicians and researchers [ 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 ].

Thus, the heightened scientific attention towards relational and family elements urges summarizing the state of the art of literature in this field.

Based on the above consideration, we intend to discuss the main theoretical frameworks centered upon eating disorders in adolescence from a relational perspective. Moreover, starting from the revision of the primary theoretical contributions on the subject, we also aim to review the empirical international literature on relationships in the family with adolescents with eating disorders. To achieve the purpose of this work, a traditional narrative review was conceived as the most appropriate survey. The narrative review consists of a type of interpretive-qualitative research that can permit descriptively summarizing the results from broad studies on a specific theme. In our opinion, this method is very useful because it can offer the opportunity to deal with different points of view on a relevant topic, increasing the scientific knowledge in a field of study.

To carry out the narrative review, we proceeded as follows. The document search was conducted in the electronic databases of Pubmed and Psych INFO. Papers were selected based on the following criteria: Language in English; published in peer-reviewed journals; available abstract. The literature search was undertaken from January 2000 to December 2019. We searched for studies presenting physical, social, and psychological subjects in female adolescents with eating disorders (including anorexia nervosa (AN), bulimia nervosa (BN), and binge eating disorders (BED). The following combined search terms were applied: “eating disorders”, “adolescence”, “family relationships”, and “family functioning”. The title and the abstract of each identified document were examined based on the search strategies. Studies where authors included a sample of adolescents aged between 10 and 24 years of age have only been reported. Moreover, papers in which adolescents were diagnosed with AN, BN, or BED, according to DSM IV ore DSM-5 criteria, were considered. Finally, the thesis dissertations were excluded.

Originally, we identified a total of 1687 papers on the subject. With respect to preliminary selection of 92 abstracts concerning the above criteria, 22 full texts articles, published in the last 10 years (2009–2019) were selected based on their impact on scientific community (number of citations, impact factor of the publishing journal). The decision to include studies from this decade was based on the fact that our attempt was to collect information on family variables in eating disorders in adolescence through the most recent studies in the international scientific literature that had a focus as consistent as possible with the topic of this review. The flow chart of this narrative review is shown in Figure 1 .

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
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Flow chart.

3. Theoretical Frameworks on Eating Disorders in Adolescence: A Reflection on Relational Aspects

3.1. first theoretical and clinical contributions.

Originally, the relevance of relational aspects to adolescents’ eating disorders has been acknowledged by a large set of theories and conceptualizations referred to the theory of family systems [ 28 , 29 , 30 ] and the relational systemic approach [ 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 ].

3.1.1. The Theory of Family Systems: The Possible Influence of Family Environment on Offspring

The theory of family systems [ 29 , 30 ], which started from the more general theory of systems or systemic theory [ 36 ] applied to the study of human problems, conceptualizes the family as a system; that is, as a group of interconnected subjects, whose interactions constitute a "third" reality that does not correspond to the simple sum of the parts (the principle of non-summativity). This model of understanding the family system indicates that the behavior of an individual can be examined only by referring to the family context and therefore to the relationship that the subject establishes with the other members of the family, in particular with parents. According to theorists of family systems, within the family, each individual plays a precise role concerning the other members and for the family as a whole [ 29 ]. The central assumption of the theory is that interdependencies between family relationships are influenced by the implicit links and rules for access to resources, materials, and support in the family [ 29 , 33 ]. As a result, family structure can influence individual behavior over time. According to the systemic perspective, the object of study moves from the individual, or from the dyadic mother-child relationship, to the entire system of interactions in which the members of the family nucleus live [ 29 ]. Family studies thus oriented have shown that, rather than the individual characteristics or behavioral variables, the dynamic interaction between all the members of the family and the role that each plays in relation to the others can explain the adaptive or problematic development of the members [ 37 ]. More in particular, whereas the first theories and clinical research focused on emotional aspects and on the parents expressed affection towards their children, the most recent studies have been interested in the forces among family members that support or affect the offspring’s psychological development [ 25 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 ]. Through the notion of the boundary, which indicates the invisible set of expectations that determines the behavior of each member within the family system [ 41 ], the theory of family systems identifies the three known profiles related to family interactions (cohesion, disengagement, and entanglement).

In light of this conceptualization of the family system, relationships between family members play a crucial role in the context of the interactions in which the adolescent lives [ 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 ]. In fact, in a typical period of the family’s life cycle such as adolescence, family relationships between parents and children can have a significant influence on various aspects of everyday life, including the relationship with the weight and eating routines of offspring. In particular, regarding eating disorders, the theory of family systems identifies relationships between family members as the element that can play a crucial role in the genesis and maintenance of eating disorders [ 44 , 45 ]. As a result, over time, different models of family interactions have been developed, including the systemic-relational approach.

3.1.2. The Relational-Systemic Paradigm: Family Relationships in Eating Disorders

The long tradition of research on eating disorders in the relational systemic field, which begun more than 50 years ago with the pioneering clinical observations of the exponents of the Milan school [ 34 , 44 , 45 , 46 ], has highlighted the relationship between the psychopathological aspects of eating and the patient’s family dynamics. In the framework of the theoretical model of family therapy, the two fields represented by systemic relational theories [ 35 , 46 ] and psychosomatic or structural theories [ 33 ] have emphasized the transactional modalities of families with problems mainly related to the relationships between the subsystem of children and parents.

Historically, negative family dynamics have been indicated as a key element in the development and maintenance of eating disorders, with initial attention directed toward anorexia nervosa [ 33 , 34 ]. More precisely, the systemic approach postulates that certain types of family organizations are closely related to the development and maintenance of problems in children. In particular, in exploring the theme of dysfunctions in family functioning that can contribute to the onset of an eating disorder, the first systemic conceptualizations of anorexia nervosa in adolescence proposed by the models of psychosomatic families [ 33 ] or anorexia nervosa in adolescence [ 34 ] have suggested that at the origin of the disorder, there are specific patterns of family interaction and alterations in relationships that could also be determinants in the maintenance and development of the disease. These models essentially originate from clinical observations and lead to a unique description of anorexic families as typically rigid, united, and dedicated to self-sacrifice and loyalty to its members [ 46 ]. Mara Selvini Palazzoli, as early as 1963 and 1988 [ 34 , 45 ], focused on the styles and characteristics of the parental couple. The author describes a family organization characterized by an intrusive, intolerant, and hypercritical mother and by a father who is often brilliant but absent from the family. In this type of environment, where there is no real emotional support, the patient expresses her discomfort through an abnormal and provocative eating behavior, which on the one hand allows her to obtain a form of control and self-affirmation in her relationship with her family, but on the other hand leads her to a further confirmation of her position of dependence and loneliness [ 47 , 48 ].

Selvini Palazzoli [ 35 ] also takes into consideration the communicative styles and interactive models of families with anorexic daughters, through a constant work of redefining emotions from the outside, which are not only denied, but disconfirmed. According to these relational patterns, each member of the family acts in relation to the needs of others and for the good of someone else. The author speaks of a “three-way marriage” where it is as if each member is married to two people: The father with the mother and daughter, and the daughter with her father and mother. All this will not allow the daughter to acquire real independence and to live an autonomous life. In the same years as the studies of the exponents of the school of Milan, Minuchin and colleagues [ 33 ] introduced the role of the family in eating disorders by conceptualizing a new model of anorexia nervosa, called the “psychosomatic family”. The author speaks of anorexia as a psychosomatic syndrome, characterized by symptoms of both a physical and psychological nature, which develops in certain family organizational contexts. The daughter who suffers from anorexia nervosa is the bearer of a malaise that is not only personal, but also of the family and, in a broader sense, social. Symptoms play an important role in the maintenance of family homeostasis, since on the one hand, they represent the protest of the daughter against the family system, configuring itself as an attempt to break up the status-quo and pseudo-individuation, but on the other hand they result in keeping the daughter in a condition of dependence on her parents and therefore of the impossibility of change. In this context, eating disorders are seen as part of and the result of a pathological pattern of interaction between the subject and family [ 41 ]: According to this perspective, we talk about “family psychosomatic”.

4. Empirical Evidence of the Family Relationship in Eating Disorders: Synthesizing the Contributions

The narrative review we propose will analyze the documents published in the most recent databases that have been taken into account family relational issues in adolescents’ eating disorders. As suggested by previous literature [ 48 , 49 ], in Table 1 , we report the main characteristics of included studies.

Characteristics of included studies.

Notes: Design: L = Longitudinal study; C = Cross-sectional study; P = Prospective. Type of sample: R = Representative; CL = Clinical; HR = High Risk.

4.1. Results

4.1.1. contemporary approaches.

The descriptions of eating disorders in the family with adolescents given by clinicians and pioneers of family therapy have contributed to providing a general model of this pathology [ 68 ]. Yet, as Dare and colleagues point out in their contribution [ 69 ], the first systemic theories were primarily based on subjective clinical observations and not empirically founded. The analysis of the articles shows that only in the last decades the researchers have been investigating the relationships in families with eating disorders more systematically. Consistently, some authors have focused on family interactions in families with children with eating disorders, compared to families with children without a diagnosis of eating disorders [ 50 , 69 ]. On the other hand, some authors have tried to identify specific family interactional patterns related to the diagnosis of eating disorders [ 50 , 51 ]. More specifically, some studies have examined the differences in family functioning between families with eating disorders and non-clinical families. These studies have reported that by considering only family functioning, in general, the family functioning in the clinical groups is lower than in the control groups [ 70 , 71 ]. In contrast, when the different components of family functioning, such as emotional involvement, communication, and organization are considered, the results are variable and in some samples contradictory [ 71 ]. Additionally, with regard to conflict, while some studies have reported high levels of conflict in clinical samples [ 72 ], other studies have indicated no significant differences between clinical groups and control groups, and other papers have shown lower levels of conflict in clinical samples [ 73 ]. This early empirical evidence is very interesting because they provide a complex picture of family relationships in eating disorders that are difficult to delineate univocally. Indeed, although the reported worse family functioning is a crucial element in families with eating disorders, compared to control families, there is no empirical evidence of a specific dysfunctional pattern for families with eating disorders, even more so when referring to the different diagnostic categories of eating disorders [ 25 ]. Even in the most recent studies, results concerning the evaluation of family functioning among the different diagnostic categories of eating disorders are divergent. Some studies have shown no significant differences between the diagnostic categories of eating disorders [ 74 , 75 ]. Other studies have found significant differences between the types of eating disorders in relation to different elements of family functioning: For example, cohesion and orientation to achievement were found to be worse in families with anorexia, compared to bulimic families [ 73 ]. Still, other empirical evidence from studies based on the hypotheses of the pioneers of family therapy has highlighted that families with eating disorders may show excessive cohesion and lack of flexibility, with a profound lack of emotional expression [ 76 ]. Furthermore, recent studies have partly confirmed the clinical observations of family therapists, highlighting that parents and adolescent daughters with eating disorders show conflicting interactions, characterized by little reciprocity and little emotional harmony [ 77 ]. These patterns of interaction are consistent with recent empirical evidence on the poor quality of child interactions during childhood, as reported by some authors [ 39 , 52 ]. In this regard, Hayaki [ 78 ] highlights that parental intrusiveness and/or withdrawal in exchanges with children in the first five years of life can facilitate the onset of eating disorders of daughters during adolescence, especially when parents have experienced traumatic events and physical and psychological abuse in their own lives [ 39 ]. Since many studies have shown an association between the family context in general and eating disorders, conclusions about the causal role of family environment in eating pathology cannot be drawn.

It may be noted that nowadays, current international scientific literature rejects the “causal family notion”, that is to say, the idea that family is the only cause (in etiological terms or the main risk factor) of eating disorders [ 40 ]. In support of this, the Academy for Eating Disorders [ 79 ], states that any generalized model of an eating disorder that includes the family as the primary cause must be rejected since it inevitably implies blaming the parents for the disease of their children. According to this position, the directions from complexity theories [ 36 ] and from Developmental Psychopathology [ 80 ] suggest the etiopathogenesis of eating disorders should be considered a multifactorial cause, linked to genetic, psychological, neuro-endocrine, sociocultural, and family factors [ 81 ]. Yet, the effort of empirical research in the field of family processes and adolescents’ psychopathology continues. In particular, international literature has focused on the role of family factors in the development and maintenance of eating disorders in offspring. In this respect, there is a general agreement about the important role of family environment on children’s eating, particularly in terms of organizing physical activities and managing behaviors related to wellbeing or weight control, such as diets and restrictive diets [ 82 ]. Research has shown that, together with parental behavior, family functioning is linked to the wellbeing of adolescent children [ 53 ]. At the same time, however, only a few studies have investigated the influence of family factors such as family functioning or the quality of the adolescent parental relationship on problematic behavior and eating disorders in offspring [ 83 ].

4.1.2. An Empirical Relational-Systemic Perspective of Family Functioning

If, as we have seen, systemic studies have only highlighted the role played by family in eating disorders in adolescence from a clinical point of view, recently, thanks to the studies of Olson and colleagues [ 54 , 84 , 85 , 86 , 87 ], an empirical approach to the theme of family functioning takes form, with the aim to operationalize the notions already known in clinical practice. In recent years, in particular, empirical research in the systemic-relational field has sought to further explore family functioning as a possible variable in the onset and maintenance of the disorder [ 55 , 88 ]. It is necessary to remark that the Olson Circumflex Model of Conjugal and Family Systems [ 84 ] represents one of the most widely used international models for assessing family functioning (as it is perceived by the members of the system) and it is based on the three dimensions of cohesion, adaptability, and communication. Recent studies focused on risk factors in the development of eating disorders have confirmed that family functioning plays an important role in the assumption and maintenance of dysfunctional eating behaviors in adolescence [ 56 , 74 , 89 ]. An important point in this regard is that the development of eating disorders in adolescence seems to be influenced by the perceptions of family members regarding family functioning, particularly concerning family cohesion, adaptability, and communication [ 56 , 90 ]. Some empirical piece of evidence has indicated, in particular, that families with poor cohesion, low affective expression, and excessive interpersonal dependence among members were found to have a higher risk of developing pathological eating behavior [ 56 , 57 , 90 , 91 ]. In addition, research has shown that adolescents with an eating disorder report high levels of family dissatisfaction [ 92 , 93 ]. In particular, adolescents with eating disorders were found to experience unsatisfactory family relationships, characterized by poor parental acceptance (family warmth, empathy, emotional support) and limited independence among members [ 58 ]. On the contrary, adolescents who report emotional support by their parents seem less likely to develop an excessive concern about weight, body dissatisfaction and high ideals of thinness, and to assume bulimic behavior [ 59 ]. Thus, in general, high family unity protects adolescents from emotional stress and is associated with adaptive behavior [ 94 ]. The research, in this sense, well documents the relationship between positive family functioning and healthy eating behavior, identifying the positive perception of family relations as an important protective factor for the risk of developing disturbed eating behavior [ 60 , 95 ].

The development of eating disorders seems to also be influenced by the assumption of binding and unfavorable family rules [ 73 ]. Families with eating disorders were found to have special rules regarding the restriction of thoughts, feelings, and self: Family rules related to the prohibition to discuss, solve problems, and talk about circumstances that could cause discomfort in the family, represent an index of family rigidity; rules related to mutual support, sharing of decisions to be taken, and emotional ties, however, would facilitate family cohesion [ 96 ]. In particular, families with strict family rules that hinder or restrict the expression of thoughts, feelings, and self (prohibition to configure and talk about situations that can cause discomfort) are exposed to a risk for the development of eating disorders, especially in cases where restrictive rules concern food [ 73 ]. Also, a critical attitude and family pressures regarding the body and physical form constitute indices of involvement and family rigidity, which strongly affect the development of the disease, facilitating the assumption of inadequate eating habits [ 97 , 98 , 99 ]. Also, weight concerns and stereotypes of female beauty portrayed in the media and the uptake of diets predict an increased risk of developing a binge eating disorder in the adolescent and pre-adolescent girls [ 100 ].

In Italy, several studies using the recent version IV of FACES questionnaire [ 87 ] for the evaluation of family functioning and communication in families with eating disorders have confirmed the main structural and functional characteristics of the anorexic family indicated by Minuchin [ 61 , 101 ]. Visani and colleagues [ 88 ] have investigated the differences in family styles among families with anorexic and bulimic eating disorders, highlighting the heterogeneity in development pathways; the authors have reported that families with anorexia nervosa show problematic scales of FACES IV but also discrete protective factors, unlike families with bulimia nervosa, characterized by low levels of protective factors of cohesion and flexibility and a high level in disorganization and disengagement. In general, compared to families with children without eating disorders, families with patients with eating disorders report worse family functioning, although it is still unclear whether there are specific differences in relation to the different diagnostic typologies [ 25 ]. For example, studies on the evaluation of the representations of family functioning by adolescent females with eating disorders, using semi-clinical tools (such as interviews), have confirmed that bulimic subjects tend to describe their families as highly conflictual, while anorexic patients report their families as cohesive and well organized, but with little tolerance to conflict [ 24 ]. As for the perception of family functioning in binge eating disorder, adolescents with this diagnosis report a negative perception of family functioning in terms of dysfunctional family interactions, characterized by a poor expression, problematic communication, poor cohesion and affectivity, and greater expression of conflict [ 102 ].

With regard to perceived family functioning between different family members, many studies have shown disagreement among family members. In particular, some studies have found significant differences between the views of patients with eating disorders and those of one or both parents [ 62 ]. Parents of patients with eating disorders, moreover, particularly those with anorexia nervosa, have reported increased family conflicts and feelings of stress and depression [ 51 ]. It remains unclear whether and how the perceptions of mothers differ specifically from those of fathers [ 24 ]. However, patients were found to perceive worse family functioning than their parents. In addition, when family functioning perceived by both parents was considered, parents reported their family as significantly more cohesive and with high emotional expression, while patients reported their family as highly conflictual [ 103 , 104 ]. Still, considering the assessments of mothers and fathers separately, some studies have shown that children describe their family as problematic in terms of general functioning, communication, and problem-solving, compared to both parents [ 105 ]. Moreover, some studies have shown that anorexic patients describe their family as more dysfunctional than mothers do [ 7 ], and other studies have highlighted the difference in family perception among all members concerning adaptability [ 106 ].

Finally, comparing the perspective of mothers with that of fathers, in anorexic families, mothers and children are more dissatisfied with their family than fathers [ 106 ] while other studies have shown a significant difference between the point of view of mothers and fathers in relation to emotional responses and problem-solving [ 72 , 73 ]. In an interesting recent study, in which children diagnosed with eating disorders and their parents completed the version IV of the FACES tool, Fisher and Bushlow [ 103 ] have found that most patients and parents represent their families as connected/very connected and flexible/very flexible, with moderately low levels of entanglement, rigidity, chaos, moderate levels of communication, and low levels of satisfaction.

4.1.3. A Possible Integrate Perspective for Understanding Eating Disorders: Developmental Psychopathology and Relational Systemic Approach

As seen until now thanks to the contribution of empirical studies on family factors in eating disorders, in particular, those that have used the FACES-IV instrument [ 85 , 86 , 87 ] family models multi-determined and contextual psychopathological processes in developmental age is gaining ground. All the results of the studies indicate a shift from a focus on family deficits towards family resources, which is a gradual encouragement of family skills and positive connections between members [ 74 ].

According to Cook-Darzens and colleagues [ 72 ], rather than talking in terms of dysfunctional families, it is more appropriate to consider the families with eating disorders as a system trying to function with different styles and levels of adaptation (fit) in relation to specific modes of internal organization and coping strategies. Thus, the already innovative suggestions in the study of dysfunctional family functioning proposed by the systemic-relational approach can be further enriched by referring to the Developmental Psychopathology [ 104 ], a new discipline that places relationship among its crucial principles, overcoming the idea of mental disorder as an individual problem and emphasizing the importance of risk factors within family relationships. With regard to family relationships, studies in the area of Developmental Psychopathology have shown that a lack of parental sensitivity can interfere with the ability of adolescents to regulate their behavior and emotions [ 63 , 107 , 108 , 109 ]. In addition, other studies have indicated that experimenting problematic family relationships and inadequate parenting behavior (such as undemocratic parenting, lack of interest in children’s lives, poor promotion of autonomy, poor emotional involvement) can influence the appearance of body dissatisfaction in adolescents [ 64 ] and the assumption of problematic eating behavior [ 110 ]. Several recent studies have also shown an association between eating disorders in female adolescents, maternal psychopathology and/or psychopathological risk (anxious and depressive symptoms, eating disorders) [ 111 ], and problematic family functioning (poor quality of relationships between family members). An important aspect to underline is that, generally, the international scientific literature referred to Developmental Psychopathology has indicated maternal psychopathology as the main risk factor for the development of emotional–behavioral problems in children [ 112 , 113 , 114 , 115 ]. For instance, recent studies have found that poor maternal emotional regulation can lead to problems in family functioning due to distancing or excessive responsiveness. In particular, difficulties in maternal emotional regulation in families with adolescents could lead to increased risk for children in this particular stage of development [ 65 , 66 ]. Moreover, a recent study has pointed out that difficulties between parents and children involve negative psychological consequences for adolescents [ 43 ].

Little scientific attention to paternal psychopathological profiles has been given. This gap in the international literature on the family dynamic in eating disorders seems to be very relevant since fathers can represent an important risk factor or protection/mitigation for offspring’s wellbeing. Only recently have some authors have paid attention to the father figure in offspring’s eating disorder, offering important elements for a systemic interpretation of adolescents’ psychopathological functioning [ 67 , 116 , 117 , 118 ].

5. Conclusions

The present review aimed to provide a summary of the scientific research findings on relationships in adolescents’ eating disorders. The analysis of the literature we performed found that, originally, the relevance of relational aspects to adolescents’ eating disorders has been acknowledged from a clinical perspective and different theoretical framework was adopted to explain the family dynamics in adolescents’ disease [ 29 , 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 ]. Afterward, the role of family functioning in eating disorders has been empirically supported in greater depth [ 69 , 71 , 73 , 106 ]. Finally, more recently, theoretical and empirical research has begun to converge towards integrated multifactorial models of the family with eating disorders, in which the relationship between parents and adolescents results as crucial [ 118 ]. Moreover, even though the interest of clinical and researchers in the area of adolescents’ psychopathology has turned to the role of parental profiles, only a few studies, to our knowledge, have investigated the father figure [ 27 , 67 , 116 ].

In general, it is important to note that, although a great deal of studies has generally highlighted the relevance of family relationships in the offspring disease, results concerning the role of family factors are so divergent that, nowadays, definitive statements about direct causation cannot be drawn [ 40 , 119 ]. Our review has found that some but not all results of the studies on families with eating disorders members support the notion of the psychosomatic family described by Minuchin (entangled hyper-protective, rigid, conflict-avoiding, and with poor problem-solving capacity). Thus, nowadays, no substantial data confirm an empirical model of psychosomatic families, as conceptualized by the pioneers of family therapy [ 33 , 34 , 35 ].

In support of the difficulty to empirically confirm the theories of the pioneers of family therapy, some studies show that even patients with psychiatric diagnoses different from eating disorders, such as obsessive-compulsive disorder and anxiety disorder [ 117 ], and their families report a problematic family functioning, which can therefore not be indicated as a unique and peculiar feature of eating disorders [ 116 ]. Furthermore, the empirical evidence reported shows that families with eating disorders vary in their family functioning, presenting strong discrepancies in the representation of relationships by its members. In brief, the areas of family malfunctioning identified are so varied that it is not possible to identify, with certainty, either the family structure or, above all, the dysfunctional patterns typical for the populations of the different eating disorders. In our opinion, the integration of the relational systemic approach and Developmental Psychopathology sheds light on a promising research scenario. We strongly believe that an integrated approach may be the appropriate survey to conceptualize human functioning in systemic terms, as promoted by the pioneers of family therapy. Indeed, the results of this review, together with other studies in the literature, point out the need to refer to human functioning through a key lecture of complexity and multi-determination. Considering the contribution of different factors of vulnerability, both individual and environmental, in the investigation of the development of pathological trajectories, is crucial [ 80 ].

As a whole, this review highlights the relevance of family factors in the onset and maintenance of eating disorders. In particular, the presence among family member of general positive affective relationships represents a central aspect for the emotional wellbeing of the subjects, especially in adolescence [ 82 ]. Understanding the role of relational elements, particularly communicative ones, between parents and adolescents can greatly help to investigate such an important period of life as the adolescence. In this sense, this study provided information about the factors of resilience and vulnerability of adolescents, with respect to eating behavior but also to the general adolescents’ emotional adaptive psychological functioning. Thus, our findings can be used not only to understand the adolescents’ disease, but also to support all families that deal with difficulties with their offspring.

Some limitations of this review warrant further attention in future studies. In particular, our results should be viewed in the light of several methodological limitations. For example, possible differences in the relation between family functioning and eating disorders in function of the age of the offspring have been not deepened. Moreover, this study did not consider possible differences according to the family structure (e.g., single parents) or the relevance that relationships with peers and romantic partners may have during adolescence. Hence, in order to have a more complete understanding of eating disorders, future studies should continue investigation of these aspects.

With this work, we hope to contribute to ponder over the complexity of the pathology in developmental age and to improve the knowledge of all the aspects that must be taken into consideration when dealing with adolescents’ sufferance. Multiple parts in adolescents’ problems are involved, such as clinical, researchers, and overall familiars, so that an integrated relational model for exploring adolescents’ eating disorders is worthy of attention, not only to understand, but also to carry out specific programs of intervention.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization and writing—original draft preparation, M.E.; writing—review and editing, S.C.; writing—original draft preparation and supervision, L.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

This research received no external funding.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest

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