academic research and documented essay in the 21st century

Research and Publication: Importance in the 21st Century

• First Online: 03 March 2021

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• Amar Ranjan 2 ,
• Arshi Rizwan 3 ,
• Lawanya Ranjan 4 ,
• Harshita Dubey 5 &
• M. D. Ray 6  

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Through ages, India has been one of the first nations to start Medical research through Ayurveda but with the need of hour, Research gradually demanded more proof and reasons so as to know the mechanism and treatment of disease. With demanding times, India with the rest of the world started escalating in research based on more scientific proofs and know how; although it is still at par with the western world. Because of which, the Government of India is promoting Research & Development on a large scale. Earlier, research was thought to be associated with the domain of masters and PhD (Doctor of Philosophy) programs only, but with increasing need and for career progression, it is now being extended amongst individuals at faculty post along with their medical practice. Keeping in mind India still being a developing country and more than 13 billion people to supervise, medical aid is still the priority in majority parts of the country and research being the second. It is only the top Institutes of the country that offer strategic Research & Development. However, now that the imminence of Research is well known, we all must faith the need of educating its significance in children since childhood, and keeping that in mind there are strategies to incur R&D programs as early as a part of undergraduate study curriculum. Multiple organizations like Indian Council of Medical Research, Department of Science and Technology, Dept. Of Biotechnology, University Grants Commission, etc., in India are promoting such programs. Hitherto Research is also one of the highest paid services in our country. The importance of Research and publication is described below in brief.

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Ranjan, A., Rizwan, A., Ranjan, L., Dubey, H., Ray, M.D. (2021). Research and Publication: Importance in the 21st Century. In: Ray, M.D. (eds) Multidisciplinary Approach to Surgical Oncology Patients. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-7699-7_15

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Research for development in the 21st century

a CNRS, IRD, Institute of Ecology and Environmental Sciences - Paris, UMR (CNRS, IRD, INRA, Sorbonne University, UPEC), Paris, France

b Institute of Technology of Cambodia, Phnom Penh, Cambodia

c Institut National de Recherches en Génie Rural, Eaux et Forêts, Université de Carthage, Tunisia

M. Calabi Floody

d BIOREN, UFRO, Temuco, Chile

e Gachamaleh, lot 18, 1095 Djibouti, Djibouti

f Soils and Fertilizers Research Institute, Hanoi, Viet Nam

g School of Environmental Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, India

J.L. Janeau

P. podwojewski.

h Institute of Chemistry, VAST, Hanoi, Viet Nam

M. Sanaullah

i Institute of Soil and Environmental Sciences, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan

A recent discussion in Geoderma dealt with the occurrence of helicopter research in soil science, an unethical practice, characterized by little involvement of local researchers and Indigenous populations, and small benefits to local scientific communities ( Minasny et al., 2020 ). The topic is crucial and will, undoubtedly, cause vibrant discussions.

This paper was written by an international interdisciplinary team composed of researchers from 4 continents. We provide a historical perspective on soil research for development integrating the viewpoints of the developed and developing world. We critically assess the way in which countries tackle international research collaboration and provide a way forward towards fruitful partnerships in the 21 st century.

It has been pointed out that helicopter research can be identified by an international author list, including one or two local researchers at the end of the list ( Minasny et al., 2020 ). Research papers are the most visible result of international research collaboration and may reveal the individualism of our societies. However, such a view may be quite limited, because publications are the outcomes of scientific exchanges, which are only possible after the formulation of scientific questions and hypotheses, acquisition and analyses of data, the utilization of infrastructures such as laboratories and experimental or observatory fields, often after obtaining funding from projects. Since international research projects mainly originate from western countries (e.g. the European H2020 projects), a subtle dependency arises between soil scientists from the Global North (i.e., countries, whose gross domestic product (GDP) identifies them as developed) coming with their own research agenda and budgets and local scientists from the Global South (i.e., countries, whose GDP identifies them as developing countries) benefiting, directly or indirectly, from this cooperation. Inevitably, the risk of such a system is to create an unbalanced relationship, which may ignore local priorities. This typically occurs when tropical soils are used as models for doing fundamental research (e.g., the dynamics of carbon or the relationship between soil ecology and soil formation) by scientists from the Global North, while local scientists in developing countries could be more interested in applied aspects such as the relation between specific soil management practices and agricultural yield. Another mostly invisible aspect of helicopter research refers to the training of Master and PhD students from the Global South on topics which are undoubtedly priorities from the Global North but not necessarily those of their own countries. Similarly, the implementation of long term observatories (e.g., ecological field stations or Critical Zone Observatories) in developing countries, which are run with funds from developed countries are often not (yet) considered as a priority by local governments.

However, even if international cooperation is often unbalanced and helicopter research remains an issue, a historical perspective offers some reasons for optimism. An example is the evolution of the French Institute of Research for Development (IRD). This institute was formerly called ORSTOM and has colonial origins. It comprises >2000 staff working in over 40 countries in a variety of disciplines concerning environmental, health and societal subjects. The French researchers and technical staff are hired to do research in developing countries. Their role evolved from doing colonial research in the interest of France towards a collaborative oriented research approach intended to make a lasting contribution to the economic, social and cultural progress of developing countries. Soil science researchers from IRD nowadays develop inclusive approaches emphasizing interdisciplinary sustainability research aligned with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Their mission is to do research, training and innovation in the Global South, with the Global South and for the Global South ( IRD, 2018 ). Partnership with researchers from developing countries is viewed as key. How do these institutional principles translate into the practical work of the French researchers working in developing countries? Firstly, it is important to mention that the researchers sent overseas (29% of the staff, IRD, 2018 ) are placed within partner institutions and are thus in close contact with local researchers. However, due to the fact that their placement in countries is more dictated by the geopolitical interest of France than by the local research agenda and demand, independent IRD researchers are in danger of becoming free-riders working on subjects of their own interest with funding from the North. This can indeed lead to helicopter research (e.g. Rumpel et al., 2006 ). However, due to their placement within the countries’ partner institutes instead of IRD owned research stations, this research most often still had an impact on the local research environment, as it focused on capacity building through training of Master and PhD students, and technical staff from their host institutions. In order to further equal the relationship between scientists from France and from developing countries, since a few years IRD has established new programs favoring co-construction of research projects giving funding and autonomy to associated young research teams (JEAI), Mixed International Laboratories (LMI), Mixed International Units (UMI), and International Research Laboratory Networks (GDRI) involving South-South collaborations. As a result of this new policy, co-authorship of scientific articles by authors from IRD and scientists from developing countries increased. For example, a bibliometric analysis showed that over 90% of the 62 IRD-involved articles published in Geoderma since 2005 with fieldwork in developing countries have also a co-author from the local country. This percentage increased to 95% in 2012, and to 100% in the last 4 years. The IRD has an open access policy for developing countries ( Rossi, 2017 ) with 7821 studies referring to soil science, largely accessed by researchers from the Global South. The IRD instruments and IRD interventions in developing countries have positive as well as negative aspects. Positive aspects relate to the funding of research and involvement of local groups and, in recent years, to the encouragement of South-South collaboration. But depending on the context, negative aspects in terms of loss of sovereignty and even competition with local groups are also occurring, especially in countries where language barriers exist and IRD researchers therefore are not completely integrated into the local research environment. In such a situation, little benefit of the research is to be expected for local stakeholders, who in the end do not care if published papers are “helicopter research” or “non-helicopter research”. When doing research for development intended to address local needs as well as global challenges, stakeholder involvement may thus be crucial ( Giller, 2020 ).

Initiatives to establish international collaboration are not limited to Northern Countries. An excellent example for successful establishment of South-North collaboration comes from Chile, which until recently was a developing country and could not afford to establish sophisticated soil research laboratories all over the nation. To overcome this limitation, the National Foundation for Science and Technology (CONICYT) launched several governmental funding programs to encourage South-North collaboration. One of their strategies is based on funding of research leaves for Chilean PhD students to spend several months overseas in international laboratories (CONICYT/Internship scholarships abroad). To favor international collaboration and exchange, Chilean research projects usually involve funding for one international expert per year, who is invited to visit a Chilean lab and to contribute to the science (FONDECYT/REGURAL/INICIACION). To further enhance international cooperation, CONICYT in 2000 developed the International Cooperation Program (PCI), to encourage establishment of global research networks. This program has specific funding opportunities to identify Northern partners to promote local research. An example of this is the ECOS-CONICYT program for Chilean-French collaboration established in 2005. Last year a joint call with the German Max Planck institutes, which also promotes South-North interactions, was launched. Through supporting such actions, the country makes sure that the foreign contribution is benefitting the local research agenda. Similarly, PERIDOT is the Franco-Pakistani collaborative Program, providing opportunities to Pakistani and French researchers to carry out joint research activities. The main agenda of this program is to develop new scientific and technological cooperation between French and Pakistani higher education institutions and research laboratories by supporting the mobility of researchers from both sides. Drawbacks of such programs include the fact that they provide travel support instead of research money, which would be necessary to ensure equality when common research projects are developed.

International research collaboration is thus strongly context dependent. Sovereignty should be one of the guiding principles. It is therefore important to respect (1) ethical rules in terms of interest of local research communities and Indigenous people, and (2) regulations, such as the protocol of Nagoya on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization ( UN, 2011 ) and others for the sampling and sending soil samples to a laboratory in the North when there are no analytical possibilities in their country of origin. This is especially important in developing countries with a colonial history.

The grand challenges of our time require rapid, profound transformations in soil management practices and in our approach to research and training. The Covid-19 crisis has proven to be a pressure cooker for more inclusive approaches to teaching and international exchange through virtual lecturing, webinars and even free conferences including participants from developed and developing countries. We should take advantage of this crisis to adopt such technologies for more inclusiveness in global research collaboration.

As radical transformations are needed to adapt to global threats, lessons are also to be learned from developing countries. A typically example is the highly efficient management of the Covid-19 epidemic crisis in Asia as compared to Europe and America. Therefore, international collaborations, in particular South-South collaboration and South-North collaboration are extremely important ( Lal, 2019 ). Researchers from the Global North should acknowledge that since the establishment of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), all nations can be considered as developing countries, as a country may be rich in terms of GDP, but may fail to reach environment-related SDGs ( Gore, 2015 ). In the 21st century, a global focus on development is tempting as it offers opportunities for addressing universal issues such as climate change, food security, etc. holistically ( Horner, 2019 ). For soils, which are important for multiple development issues, international collaboration is required, which needs to take into account locally specific pedoclimatic and socio-economic conditions. To guarantee equality in the relationship between researchers from North and South, and to encourage sovereignty of South-South collaboration, global funding programs are urgently needed.

Finally, helicopter research may be universal, unintended and related to human nature with American researchers publishing results from France without French contributors ( Hupy and Schaetzl, 2008 ) or researchers from developing countries publishing research carried out with researchers from developed countries but without including them as co-authors. Regulations such as the Nagoya protocol and publication ethics are thus necessary and need to be respected in soil science research to make sure that research is a source of global solutions, equal collaboration and sharing of common findings rather than creating tension and exclusion.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Handling Editor: Jan Willem Van Groenigen

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Academia in the 21st century: An analysis of trends and perspectives in higher education and research

2002, Boer, H. de, J. Huisman, A. Klemperer, B. van der Meulen, G. Neave, H. Theisens, M. van der Wende (2002), Academia in the 21st century. Den Haag: AWT

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Book Reviews

Defining a Discipline: Archival Research and Practice in the Twenty-First Century, Essays in Honor of Richard J. Cox . Jeanette A. Bastian and Elizabeth Yakel, eds. Chicago, IL: Society of American Archivists, 2020. Paper, $103.20 (ISBN 978-1945246272).

While the act of defining typically underscores features that establish limits and exclusivity, this book honoring Richard J. Cox, a celebrated scholar, educator, mentor, and contributor to the archival discipline in the United States, does the opposite. Instead, this volume offers expanded and more inclusive meanings and values to archival scholarship, praxis, and pedagogy through the insightful essays written by Cox’s former students and colleagues. The essays, according to Bastian and Yakel, “seek to carry his vision of an archival discipline and the transformational power of scholarship forward. At the same time, push this vision into new, related directions” (ix). Indeed, this book pushes beyond the limits of archiving traditions that for many years have defined the discipline and how archivists understand why they do what they do.

The essays are categorized into four themes: accountability and evidence, ethics and education, archival history, and memory . The themes reflect the areas that define Cox’s major influence and resonate with the issues central to archives and records in the United States and in the global context. Each section has three or four articles, ending with a brief commentary that thoughtfully brings together the views and ideas of the authors in relation to each section’s theme.

The first section, accountability and evidence , presents different cases that interrogate records as evidence and as sites of manipulation, politics, and power. The discussion begins with the case of war crimes in Vietnam, wherein David Wallace raises the need to revisit archives and recordkeeping as truthful mechanisms that will establish reality different from what the official records reflect. Wendy Duff and Jefferson Sporn examine the concept of archival evidence by putting forward a collaborative model of creation of testimonies as valid and powerful tools for emancipatory purposes. To further expound the concept of accountability while engaging more human elements and the affective impact of archives, Michelle Caswell, Joyce Gabiola, Gracen Brilmyer, and Jimmy Zavala reframe accountability from legal to ethical perspectives. Ethics and responsibility are also at the center of Luciana Duranti’s essay as she analyzes the concepts of truth, evidence, and trust, urging the archives and recordkeeping profession to rebuild their authority through various infrastructures. Heather Soyka ends this section with a commentary summarizing the essays’ essential points with respect to the archivists’ obligation to do more work to tackle the evolving concerns on accountability, power, and authority.

Discussions about ethics, integrity, and responsibilities of archivists continue in the following section, ethics and education . This section presents ways that archivists actively participate in changing the traditional archival mindsets while highlighting the need for transparency in archival decisions and actions, as well as the importance of a commitment to translate archival theories to more pluralized pedagogical approaches and imaginative activities. Heather MacNeil questions the notions of integrity and accountability of records, arguing that it is the ethical duty of archivists to treat care records of children as unheard voices that must be included and made accessible in the archives. Eleanor Mattern examines Hillary Clinton’s case of using her private email, maintaining that NARA should continuously monitor and improve its regulatory requirements and be more transparent with the processes. Moving away from conventional ways of teaching based on standards, Anne J. Gilliland and Kathy Carbone focus on how to design and implement their archival courses using the fourth dimension of the records continuum as the framework, another approach on how archives can be used as a space for imagination and creation of new artworks, records, and experiences. In her commentary, Alison Langmead recaps the ideas presented and remarks that archivists possess power and must take responsibility for their choices.

Looking into the past and future of archives, the third section, archival history , focuses on the historical study of records and recordkeeping in different contexts and topographies. Donghee Sinn investigates the dynamics of the No Gun Ri community and how the members want their marginalized stories to be told, remembered, and understood. Lindsay Kistler Mattock presents how archives become important sites of making, imagination, and empowerment, especially with the use of new media. Patricia Galloway narrates the story of how professional networks operate, particularly the activities done by Camp Pitt in assisting the members of their community of practice. Robert B. Riter provides the commentary in the end, underlining Cox’s optimism on the continuous advancement and maturity of the archival discipline and its history.

The dynamic relationship between memory and archives has occupied a significant place in the contemporary archival discourses. In the final section, memory , the authors share how social memory can be created and performed in ways different from what have been conventionally observed. Janet Ceja Alcalá details how commissioned fiesta videos of a small Mexican town construct social memory and identity of the community members. Using the case of African American land ownership, Tonia Sutherland attests the need to recognize the value of orality and not only the traditional textual records in protecting the memory and rights of the marginalized. Jeannette A. Bastian presents the changing role and performance of memory in various contexts, especially in this era in which various technologies can easily create instant and individual memories. In his commentary, Joel Blanco-Rivera stresses the need for archivists to accept new views and reconceptualizations of archival concepts and practices, mainly those concerning the creation of memories. Finally, as the discipline moves forward, James O’Toole recounts the contributions of Cox and his generation.

The book stays true to its overall intent: to honor Cox and to define the archival discipline by responding to his call and vision toward the emergence of new and progressive ideas and discovering the role and potential of archives within and outside the field. The essays are particularly helpful for those who are planning to join and stay in the archives and recordkeeping profession, as they contemplate the social, cultural, and ethical dimensions of their responsibilities. Aside from the writings, the inclusion of Cox’s paintings that were outcomes of his hobby adds a human touch to the book and its themes. The entire constitution of this volume therefore echoes an important invitation: to continuously define, explore, and humanize the archival discipline.— Iyra S. Buenrostro, School of Library and Information Studies, University of the Philippines Diliman

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Defining a Discipline: Archival Research and Practice in the Twenty-First Century, Essays in Honor of Richard J. Cox

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Bastian Jeannette A. Yakel Elizabeth Defining a Discipline: Archival Research and Practice in the Twenty-First Century, Essays in Honor of Richard J. Cox. Chicago Society of American Archivists 2020 322 p. $55.00. 978-1945246272.

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Articles in the same issue.

Academic Research in the 21st Century: Maintaining Scientific Integrity in a Climate of Perverse Incentives and Hypercompetition

Affiliation.

• 1 Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Tech , Blacksburg, Virginia.
• PMID: 28115824
• PMCID: PMC5206685
• DOI: 10.1089/ees.2016.0223

Over the last 50 years, we argue that incentives for academic scientists have become increasingly perverse in terms of competition for research funding, development of quantitative metrics to measure performance, and a changing business model for higher education itself. Furthermore, decreased discretionary funding at the federal and state level is creating a hypercompetitive environment between government agencies (e.g., EPA, NIH, CDC), for scientists in these agencies, and for academics seeking funding from all sources-the combination of perverse incentives and decreased funding increases pressures that can lead to unethical behavior. If a critical mass of scientists become untrustworthy, a tipping point is possible in which the scientific enterprise itself becomes inherently corrupt and public trust is lost, risking a new dark age with devastating consequences to humanity. Academia and federal agencies should better support science as a public good, and incentivize altruistic and ethical outcomes, while de-emphasizing output.

Keywords: academic research; funding; misconduct; perverse incentives; scientific integrity.