research hypothesis for child labour

Advertisement

Child labour and health: a systematic review

• Published: 20 January 2018
• Volume 63 , pages 663–672, ( 2018 )

Cite this article

• Brice Lionel Batomen Kuimi   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5772-120X 1 ,
• Oduro Oppong-Nkrumah 1 , 2 ,
• Jay Kaufman 1 , 2 ,
• Jose Ignacio Nazif-Munoz 1 , 2 &
• Arijit Nandi 1 , 2  

3115 Accesses

19 Citations

4 Altmetric

Explore all metrics

This study aimed to synthesise the available knowledge, identify unexplored areas and discuss general limits of the published evidence. We focused on outcomes commonly hypothesised to be affected by child labour: nutritional status, harmful exposures and injuries.

Four electronic databases (EMBASE, MEDLINE, Scopus, ISI Web of Science) were searched in November 2017. All articles published since 1996, without restrictions on language, were considered for inclusion.

Out of the 1090 abstracts initially identified by the search, 78 articles were selected for inclusion and reviewed. Most of the studies were conducted in Asia and South America, and only a third of them compared working children to a control group of non-working children. Child labour appears to be associated with poor nutritional status, diseases due to harmful exposures, and a higher prevalence of injuries.

Conclusions

Despite evidence for a negative relation between child work and health, the cross-sectional design of most studies limits the causal interpretation of existing findings. More rigorous observational studies are needed to confirm and better quantify these associations.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price includes VAT (Russian Federation)

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Rent this article via DeepDyve

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Childbirth at home and associated factors in Ethiopia: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Asteray Assmie Ayenew, Azezu Asres Nigussie & Biruk Ferede Zewdu

What influences women’s movement and the use of different positions during labour and birth: a systematic review protocol

Helen L. Watson & Alison Cooke

Examining the Relationship Between Return to Work After Giving Birth and Maternal Mental Health: A Systematic Review

Rachel Elizabeth McCardel, Emily Hannah Loedding & Heather Marie Padilla

Ahmed S, Ray R (2014) Health consequences of child labour in Bangladesh. Demogr Res 30:111–150

Article   CAS   Google Scholar  

Aktas E, Esin MN (2016) Skin disease symptoms and related risk factors among young workers in high-risk jobs. Contact Dermat 75:96–105

Article   Google Scholar  

Ambadekar NN, Wahab SN, Zodpey SP, Khandait DW (1999) Effect of child labour on growth of children. Public Health 113:303–306. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0033-3506(99)00185-7

Article   PubMed   CAS   Google Scholar  

Amiri M, Ardeshir A, Zarandi MHF (2014) Risk-based analysis of construction accidents in Iran during 2007–2011-meta analyze study. Iran J Public Health 43:507–522

PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Amler RW, Smith L (2001) Achievements in children’s environmental health. (US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service), Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, Office of Children’s Health

Ansari H, Moghaddam AA, Mohammadi M, Peyvand M, Gorgij A, Sanavi FS (2015) Health status and life situtation of street chidren in zahedan southeast of Iran. Health Scope 4:e31077

Athanasiadou M, Cuadra SN, Marsh G, Bergman A, Jakobsson K (2008) Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and bioaccumulative hydroxylated PBDE metabolites in young humans from Managua. Nicaragua Environ Health Perspect 116:400–408. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.10713

Atuahene F (2011) Re-thinking the missing mission of higher education: an anatomy of the research challenge of African universities. J Asian African Studies 46:321–341. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021909611400017

Awan S, Nasrullah M, Cummings KJ (2010) Health hazards, injury problems, and workplace conditions of carpet-weaving children in three districts of Punjab. Pak Int J Occup Environ Health 16:115–121

Google Scholar  

Ayelo AP, Aguemon B, Santos A, Gounongbe F, Fourn L, Fayomi B (2013) Health aspects of child labour in the crushing of granite in central Benin African Newsletter on. Occup Health Saf 23:21–23

Baig LA, Shahida R, Mehwash Z (2005) Health and safety measures available for young labourers in the cottage industries of Karachi JCPSP. J Coll Phys Surg Pak 15:7–10

Banerjee SR, Bharati P, Vasulu TS, Chakrabarty S, Banerjee P (2008) Whole time domestic child labor in metropolitan city of Kolkata. Indian Pediatr 45:579–582

PubMed   CAS   Google Scholar  

Baron SL (2005) Injuries in child laborers in the informal sector in Mexico City, Mexico, 1997. Public Health Rep 120:598–600

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Basema S, Iman N, Williamson A, Black D (2003) Evidence of neurotoxicity in working children in Lebanon. NeuroToxicology 24:733–739

Beegle K, Dehejia R, Gatti R (2009) Why should we care about child labor? The education, labor market, and health consequences of child labor. J Human Resour 44:871–889

Blair SL (1992) Children’s participation in household labor: child socialization versus the need for household labor. J Youth Adolesc 21:241–258

Boothe P (2016) Goal 8: Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all Keeping Track: Measuring Progress Toward the UN Sustainable Development Goals:52. http://bccic.ca/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/SDG-REPORT-v6.1-WEB.pdf#page=52

Bose-O’Reilly S, Lettmeier B, Gothe RM, Beinhoff C, Siebert U, Drasch G (2008) Mercury as a serious health hazard for children in gold mining areas. Environ Res 107:89–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2008.01.009

Caglayan C, Hamzaoglu O, Yavuz CI, Yuksel S (2010) Working conditions and health status of child workers: cross-sectional study of the students at an apprenticeship school in Kocaeli. Pediatr Int 52:6–12. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1442-200X.2009.02881.x

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Calderón J et al (2001) Exposure to arsenic and lead and neuropsychological development in Mexican children. Environ Res 85:69–76. https://doi.org/10.1006/enrs.2000.4106

Carmen M, del M, Blanco V (2003) Trabajo y salud en ninos, ninas y adolescentes trabajadores del sector agricola. Salud trab. (Maracay) 11:5–20

Castro CL, Hunting K (2013) Measuring hazardous work and identifying risk factors for non-fatal injuries among children working in Philippine agriculture. Am J Ind Med 56:709–719. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajim.22185

Castro CL, Gormly S, Ritualo AR (2005) The SIMPOC Philippine survey of children 2001: a data source for analyzing occupational injuries to children. Public Health Reports 120:631–641

Center TWPA (2017) Child labor. https://www.worldpolicycenter.org/topics/child-labor/policies . Accessed 17 April 2017

Chandrashree L (2014) Nutritional and social constraints of child labourers: a study in Bhubaneswar. Asian J Home Sci 9:422–426

Cigno A, Rosati FC (2005) The economics of child labour. Oxford University Press, Oxford (on Demand)

Book   Google Scholar  

Clinch J, Eccleston C (2009) Chronic musculoskeletal pain in children: assessment and management. Rheumatology 48:466–474. https://doi.org/10.1093/rheumatology/kep001

Convention ILO (2005) C182–worst forms of child labour convention, 1999. Public Health Rep 120:591–593

Cortez SAE, Barbieri MA, Saraiva M, Bettiol H, da Silva AA, Cardoso VC (2007) Does child labour affect final height? Occupat Med Oxford 57:118–125. https://doi.org/10.1093/occmed/kql155

Council UES (2016) Progress towards the sustainable development goals. Report of the secretary general. 2016 Session, 3. http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=E/2016/75&referer=/english/&Lang=E

Cuadra SN, Linderholm L, Athanasiadou M, Jakobsson K (2006) Persistent organochlorine pollutants in children working at a waste-disposal site and in young females with high fish consumption in Managua, Nicaragua. Ambio 35:109–116. https://doi.org/10.1579/0044-7447(2006)35[109:popicw]2.0.co;2

Cuadra S, Athanasiadou M, Bergman A, Jakobsson K (2007a) Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in serum from children working at a waste disposal site in Nicaragua. Epidemiology 18:S183

Cuadra S, Axmon A, Hernandez D, Jimenez M, Albin M, Jakobsson K (2007b) Work related injuries in children working at a waste disposal site in Nicaragua. Epidemiology 18:S186

Cuadra S, Lundh T, Jakobsson K (2009) Exposure to heavy metals in children working at a waste disposal site, and in reference children from managua, Nicaragua. Epidemiology 20:S95

Daga AS (2000) Relative risk and prevalence of illness related to child labor in a rural block. Indian Pediatr 37:1359–1360

Dalal K, Rahman F, Gifford M, Rahman A (2016) The magnitude of injury problems among child labourers in a rural community of Bangladesh: findings from an injury surveillance system. Int Health 8:73–76

PubMed   Google Scholar  

Das B, Ghosh T, Gangopadhyay S (2011) Peak expiratory flow rate among child labourers in West Bengal. India Indian Pediatr 48:487–488

Das B, Ghosh T, Gangopadhyay S (2013) Child work in agriculture in west bengal, India: assessment of musculoskeletal disorders and occupational health problems. J Occup Health 55:244–258

De Vasconcelos RBA, Gurgel RQ, Santos JCV, Araujo RF, Dantas RAA (2010) Occupational injuries in children and adolescents in emergency services of Aracaju. Brazil Child Care Health Dev 36:369–374. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2214.2010.01078.x

Dey I (2008) Working environment and morbidities of child laborers in an urban slum of kolkata. Indian J Commun Med 33:278–279

Doocy S, Crawford B, Boudreaux C, Wall E (2007) The risks and impacts of portering on the well-being of children in Nepal. J Trop Pediatr 53:165–170

Duyar I, Ozener B (2005) Growth and nutritional status of male adolescent laborers in Ankara, Turkey. Am J Phys Anthropol 128:693–698

Elci O, Yener G, Ucku R (2007) Working conditions and related neuropsychiatric problems among shoemakers in Turkey: do child workers differ from others? Indian J Occup Environ Med 11:9–14

El-Gilany AH, Khalil IAH, El-Wehady A (2007) Epidemiology and hazards of student labour in Mansoura, Egypt Eastern Mediterranean health journal = La revue de sante de la Mediterranee orientale = al-Majallah al-sihhiyah li-sharq al-mutawassit. East Mediterr Health J 13:347–363

Esin MN, Bulduk S, Ince H (2005) Workrelated risks and health problems of working children in urban Istanbul, Turkey. J Occup Health 47:431–436

Etiler N, Caglayan C, Cizmecioglu FM, Yavuz CI, Hatun S, Hamzaoglu O (2011) Effect of labour on child body: the comparison of two studies in Izmit Turk Pediatri Arsivi-Turkish. Archives Pediatr 46:111–117. https://doi.org/10.4274/tpa.46.56

Fan WY, Tong YY, Pan YL, Shang WL, Shen JY, Li W, Li LJ (2008) Traditional Chinese medical journals currently published in mainland China. J Altern Complement Med (New York) 14:595–609

Fassa AG, Facchini LA, Dall’Agnol MM, Christiani DC (2000) Child labor and health: problems and perspectives. Int J Occup Environ Health 6:55–62

Fassa AG, Facchini LA, Mor Dall’Agnol M, Christiani DC (2005) Child labor and musculoskeletal disorders: the pelotas (Brazil) epidemiological survey. Public Health Rep 120:665–674

Fischer FM, Martins IS, Oliveira DC, Teixeira LR, do Rosario DLM, Cooper SP (2003) Occupational accidents among middle and high school students of the state of Sao Paulo. Brazil Revista de Saude Publica 37:351–356

French JL (2010) Children’s Labor Market Involvement, household work, and welfare: a Brazilian case study. J Bus Ethics 92:63–78. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-009-0140-y

Furman A, Laleli M (2000) Semi-occupational exposure to lead: a case study of child and adolescent street vendors in Istanbul. Environ Res 83:41–45

Gargy L, Tania R, Hasan AKMM, Dutta AK, Arif M, Howlader ZH (2011) Assessment of impact on health of children working in the garbage dumping site in Dhaka, Bangladesh. J Trop Pediatr 57:472–475

Genicot G (2005) Malnutrition and child labor. Scand J Econ 107:83–102

Gol I (2016) Evaluation of working conditions and perceptions of health status and the importance of health in child and young workers in the industrial site. (Turkish) TAF Prev Med Bulletin 15:347–353

Graves JM, Ali MV, Gunn SE (2014) Occupational injuries among child labourers: Preliminary results from a study of the brick manufacturing industry in four countries 24th International Conference on Epidemiology in Occupational Health, EPICOH 2014: Challenges for Occupational Epidemiology in the 21st Century Chicago, IL United States Conference Start: 20140624 Conference End: 20140627 71:A54

Gross R, Landfried B, Herman S (1996) Height and weight as a reflection of the nutritional situation of school-aged children working and living in the streets of Jakarta. Soc Sci Med 43:453–458

Harari R, Forastiere F, Axelson O (1997) Unacceptable“occupational” exposure to toxic agents among children in Ecuador. Am J Ind Med 32:185–189

Hawamdeh H, Spencer N (2002) Growth of working boys in Jordan: a cross-sectional survey using non-working male siblings as comparisons child: care. Health Dev 28:47–49

Hawamdeh H, Spencer N (2003a) Effect of work related variables on growth among working boys in Jordan. J Epidemiol Commun Health 57:154–158

Hawamdeh H, Spencer N (2003b) The effects of work on the growth of Jordanian boys Child: care. Health Dev 29:167–172

Hawamdeh H, Spencer N, Waterston T (2001) Work, family socioeconomic status, and growth among working boys in Jordan. Arch Dis Child 84:311–314

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   CAS   Google Scholar  

Hincapie D (2007) Child labor and the nutritional status of Colombian children. Desarrollo y Sociedad 59:63–115

Ide LS, Parker DL (2005) Hazardous child labor: lead and neurocognitive development. Public Health Rep (Washington DC:1974) 120:607–612

ILO (2011) Definition: What is meant by child labour?. http://www.ilo.org/moscow/areas-of-work/child-labour/WCMS_249004/lang–en/index.htm . Accessed 06 April 2017

International Labour Office ILO (2017) ILO Declaration on fundamental principles and rights at work. ILO. http://www.ilo.org/declaration/lang–en/index.htm . Accessed 17 Feb 2017

Javed S, Shah N, Memon MY (2013) Occupational hazards, illness and injuries faced by child labourers JPMA The. J Pak Med Assoc 63:139–142

Jildeh C, Abdeen Z, Al Sabbah H, Papandreou C, Ghannam I, Weller N, Philalithis A (2014) Labor and related injuries among schoolchildren in palestine: findings from the National Study of Palestinian Schoolchildren (HBSC-WBG2006). ISRN Pediatr 3:2014

Joshi SK, Sharma P, Sharma U, Sitaraman S, Pathak SS (1996) Peak expiratory flow rate of carpet weaving children. Indian Pediatr 33:105–108

Junaid M, Malik RN, Pei DS (2017) Health hazards of child labor in the leather products and surgical instrument manufacturing industries of Sialkot. Pak Environ Pollution 226:198–211

Kana M, Phoumin H, Seiichi F (2010) Does child labour have a negative impact on child education and health? A Case Study in Rural Cambodia. Oxford Dev Stud 38:357–382. https://doi.org/10.1080/13600818.2010.505682

Khan H, Hameed A, Afridi AK (2007) Study on child labour in autombile workshops of Peshawar. Pak East Mediterr Health J 13:1497–1502

Laraqui CH, Caubet A, Laraqui O, Belamallem I, Harourate K, Curies JP, Verger C (2000) Child labour in the handicraft sector of Morocco: causes and repercussions on health. (French) Sante Publique 12:31–43

Miquilin Ide O, Marin-Leon L, Luz VG, La-Rotta EI, Correa Filho HR (2015) Demographic, socioeconomic, and health profile of working and non-working Brazilian children and adolescents: an analysis of inequalities. Cad Saude Publica 31:1856–1870. https://doi.org/10.1590/0102-311x00142214

Mohan SM, Bharadwaj SK, Omre PK (2015) Physical and intellectual development of children (9–12 years) in child labour schools in relation to nutrition and labour with special reference to Durg district. Int J Trop Agric 33:1869–1874

Moher D, Liberati A, Tetzlaff J, Altman DG, Group P (2009) Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement. PLoS Med 6:e1000097

Nicolella AC, Kassouf AL, Barros ALMd (2008) O impacto do trabalho infantil no setor agrícola sobre a saúde. Revista de Economia e Sociologia Rural 46:673–701

Nishijima M, Souza AP, Sarti FM (2015) Trends in child labor and the impact on health in adulthood in Brazil from 1998 to 2008. Cadernos de saude publica 31:1071–1083

Nuwayhid IA, Usta J, Makarem M, Khudr A, El-Zein A (2005) Health of children working in small urban industrial shops. Occup Environ Med 62:86–94

O’Donnell O, Rosati FC, Van Doorslaer E (2005) Health effects of child work: evidence from rural Vietnam. J Popul Econ 18:437–467

Office IL (2011) Children in hazardous work: what we know, what we need to do. International Labour Office, Geneva

Omokhodion FO, Omokhodion SI (2004) Health status of working and non-working school children in Ibadan, Nigeria. Ann Trop Paediatr 24:175–178

Oviedo-Trespalacios O, Manjarrés R, Maestre-Meyer M, Peñabaena-Niebles R, Holgado D (2013) Study of hazardous work conditions prevalence in child labour: a survey of the colombian caribbean region. Soc Sci Edu 47:21–26

Parker DL (1997) Child labor: the impact of economic exploitation on the health and welfare of children. Minn Med 80(10–13):52–55

Pinzon-Rondon AM, Koblinsky SA, Hofferth SL, Pinzon-Florez CE, Briceno L (2009) Work-related injuries among child street-laborers in Latin America: prevalence and predictors, Revista Panamericana de Salud Publica/Pan. AM J Public Health 26:235–243

Roggero P, Mangiaterra V, Bustreo F, Rosati F (2007) The health impact of child labor in developing countries: evidence from cross-country data. Am J Public Health 97:271–275. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.2005.066829

Rothman KJ, Greenland S, Lash TL (2008) Modern epidemiology. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia

Saddik B, Williamson A, Nuwayhid I, Black D (2005) The effects of solvent exposure on memory and motor dexterity in working children. Public Health Rep 120:657–663

Saha A, Sadhu HG (2014) Occupational injury proneness in young workers: a survey in stone quarries. J Occup Health 55:333–339

Satpathy DM, Sahu T (2005) Socio-clinical profile of rabies cases in anti-rabies clinic, M.K.C.G Medical College, Berhampur, Orissa. Indian J Public Health 49:241–242

Schlick C, Joachin M, Briceno L, Moraga D, Radon K (2014) Occupational injuries among children and adolescents in Cusco Province: a cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health 14:766

Shendell DG, Noomnual S, Chishti S, Sorensen Allacci M, Madrigano J (2016) Exposures resulting in safety and health concerns for child laborers in less developed countries. J Environ Public Health 12:2016

Siddiqi MA, Laessig RH, Reed KD (2003) Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs): new pollutants-old diseases. Clin Med Res 1:281–290

Singhal S, Singhal A, Singh PN, Agarwal DK, Gulati R (2006) Peak expiratory flow rate of children working in lock factories. Indian J Public Health 50:47–48

Sughis M, Nawrot TS, Haufroid V, Nemery B (2012) Adverse health effects of child labor: high exposure to chromium and oxidative dna damage in children manufacturing surgical instruments. Environ Health Perspect 120:1469–1474. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1104678

Sughis M, Nawrot TS, Riaz A, Ikram-Dar U, Mahmood A, Haufroid V, Nemery B (2014) Metal exposure in schoolchildren and working children. A urinary biomonitoring study from Lahore, Pakistan. Int J Hyg Environ Health 217:669–677

Tiwari RR (2013) Eyestrain in working children of footwear making units of Agra. India Indian Pediatr 50:411–413

Tiwari RR, Saha A, Parikh JR, Saiyed HN (2004) Injuries and injury care among child labourers in gem polishing industries in Jaipur. India J Occup Health 46:216–219

Tiwari RR, Saha A, Parikh JR (2009) Respiratory morbidities among working children of gem polishing industries. India Toxicol Indus Health 25:81–84

Wells G, Shea B, O’connell D, Peterson J, Welch V, Losos M, Tugwell P (2011) The Newcastle-Ottawa Scale (NOS) for assessing the quality of nonrandomised studies in meta-analyses. Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa

WorldBank (2016) Country Profiles. http://data.worldbank.org/data-catalog/country-profiles

Xia J, Wright J, Adams CE (2008) Five large Chinese biomedical bibliographic databases: accessibility and coverage. Health Inform Lib J 25:55–61. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-1842.2007.00734.x

Zainab S, Kadir M (2016) Nutritional status and physical abuse among the children involved in domestic labour in Karachi Pakistan: a cross-sectional survey. JPMA J Pak Med Assoc 66:1243–1248

Zaki A, El Shazly M, Abdel Fattah M, El Said K, Curtale F (1998) Lead toxicity among working children and adolescent in Alexandria, Egypt. East Mediterr Health J 4:520–529

Download references

This study was founded by the Canadian Institutes of Health Research Operating Grant, “Examining the impact of social policies on health equity” (ROH-115209), the Foundation Grant “Development epidemiology: identifying evidence-based interventions for improving population health and promoting health equity (FRN 148467), and the Canada Research Chairs program.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Department of Epidemiology, Biostatistics and Occupational Health, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, Purvis Hall 1020 Pine Avenue, West Montreal, QC, H3A 1A2, Canada

Brice Lionel Batomen Kuimi, Oduro Oppong-Nkrumah, Jay Kaufman, Jose Ignacio Nazif-Munoz & Arijit Nandi

Institute for Health and Social Policy, Meredith Charles House, 1130 Pine Avenue, West Montreal, QC, H3A 1A3, Canada

Oduro Oppong-Nkrumah, Jay Kaufman, Jose Ignacio Nazif-Munoz & Arijit Nandi

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Brice Lionel Batomen Kuimi .

Ethics declarations

Ethical approval.

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary material 1 (DOCX 190 kb)

Rights and permissions.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Batomen Kuimi, B.L., Oppong-Nkrumah, O., Kaufman, J. et al. Child labour and health: a systematic review. Int J Public Health 63 , 663–672 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00038-018-1075-9

Download citation

Received : 05 September 2017

Revised : 18 December 2017

Accepted : 09 January 2018

Published : 20 January 2018

Issue Date : June 2018

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s00038-018-1075-9

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Child labour
• Child employment
• Child welfare
• Underweight
• Harmful exposure
• Find a journal
• Publish with us
• Track your research

• Skip to main content

Advancing social justice, promoting decent work

Ilo is a specialized agency of the united nations.

Child labour

Global research on child labour measurement and policy development (MAP) Project

Development objective.

• Improved information on working children, child labor, and child labor in hazardous work in each target country or sector through data collection and in-depth analysis.
• Improved information about existing policy and programmatic frameworks to combat child labor at the national or sector level and priority areas for additional action.
• Increased capacity of national statistical to collect and analyze nationally-representative data on working children and child labor, including the worst forms of child labor.
• Improved access to up-to-date, public-use statistics on core child labor and education indicators.

We use cookies. Read more about them in our Privacy Policy.

• Accept site cookies
• Reject site cookies

Search results:

• Afghanistan
• Africa (African Union)
• African Union
• American Samoa
• Antigua and Barbuda
• Bolivia (Plurinational State of)
• Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba
• Bosnia and Herzegovina
• British Virgin Islands
• Brunei Darussalam
• Burkina Faso
• Cayman Islands
• Central Africa (African Union)
• Central African Republic
• Channel Islands
• China, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region
• China, Macao Special Administrative Region
• China, Taiwan Province of China
• Cook Islands
• Côte d'Ivoire
• Democratic People's Republic of Korea
• Democratic Republic of the Congo
• Dominican Republic
• Eastern Africa (African Union)
• El Salvador
• Equatorial Guinea
• Falkland Islands (Malvinas)
• Faroe Islands
• French Guiana
• French Polynesia
• Guinea-Bissau
• Humanitarian Action Countries
• Iran (Islamic Republic of)
• Isle of Man
• Kosovo (UNSCR 1244)
• Lao People's Democratic Republic
• Liechtenstein
• Marshall Islands
• Micronesia (Federated States of)
• Netherlands (Kingdom of the)
• New Caledonia
• New Zealand
• North Macedonia
• Northern Africa (African Union)
• Northern Mariana Islands
• OECD Fragile Contexts
• Papua New Guinea
• Philippines
• Puerto Rico
• Republic of Korea
• Republic of Moldova
• Russian Federation
• Saint Barthélemy
• Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha
• Saint Kitts and Nevis
• Saint Lucia
• Saint Martin (French part)
• Saint Pierre and Miquelon
• Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
• Sao Tome and Principe
• Saudi Arabia
• Sierra Leone
• Sint Maarten
• Solomon Islands
• South Africa
• South Sudan
• Southern Africa (African Union)
• State of Palestine
• Switzerland
• Syrian Arab Republic
• Timor-Leste
• Trinidad and Tobago
• Turkmenistan
• Turks and Caicos Islands
• United Arab Emirates
• United Kingdom
• United Republic of Tanzania
• United States
• Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)
• Virgin Islands U.S.
• Wallis and Futuna
• Western Africa (African Union)

Search countries

Search for data in 245 countries

• SDG Progress Data
• Child Marriage
• Immunization
• Benchmarking child-related SDGs
• Maternal and Newborn Health Disparities
• Continuity of essential health services
• Country profiles
• Interactive data visualizations
• Journal articles
• Publications
• Data Warehouse

Child Labour: Global estimates 2020, trends and the road forward

UNICEF/ILO joint publication

The latest global estimates indicate that the number of children in child labour has risen to 160 million worldwide – an increase of 8.4 million children in the last four years. 63 million girls and 97 million boys were in child labour globally at the beginning of 2020, accounting for almost 1 in 10 of all children worldwide. 

This report warns that global progress to end child labour has stalled for the first time in 20 years. The number of children aged 5 to 17 years in hazardous work – defined as work that is likely to harm their health, safety or morals – has risen by 6.5 million to 79 million since 2016. In sub-Saharan Africa, population growth, extreme poverty, and inadequate social protection measures have led to an additional 16.6 million children in child labour over the past four years. 

Additional economic shocks and school closures caused by COVID-19 mean that children already in child labour may be working longer hours or under worsening conditions, while many more may be forced into the worst forms of child labour due to job and income losses among vulnerable families. The report warns that globally 9 million additional children are at risk of being pushed into child labour by the end of 2022 as a result of the pandemic.

Children in child labour are at risk of physical and mental harm. Child labour compromises children’s education, restricting their rights and limiting their future opportunities, and leads to vicious inter-generational cycles of poverty and child labour.

Download the Report

Download the Executive summary

Child labour

Related resources, child labour methodology report.

Impact of Unpaid Household Services on the Measurement of Child Labour

Child Labour data

Join our community

Receive the latest updates from the UNICEF Data team

• Don’t miss out on our latest data
• Get insights based on your interests

The dataset you are about to download is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 IGO license.

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• Ind Psychiatry J
• v.27(1); Jan-Jun 2018

Challenges and perspectives of child labor

Amir radfar.

College of Graduate Health Studies, A.T. Still University, Mesa, Arizona, USA

Seyed Ahmad Ahmadi Asgharzadeh

1 Faculty of Medicine, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran

Fernando Quesada

2 Department of Medicine, Universidad de El Salvador, San Salvador, El Salvador

Irina Filip

3 Department of Psychiatry, Kaiser Permanente, Fontana, California, USA

Child labor is one of the oldest problems in our society and still an ongoing issue. During the time, child labor evolved from working in agriculture or small handicraft workshops to being forced into work in factories in the urban setting as a result of the industrial revolution. Children were very profitable assets since their pay was very low, were less likely to strike, and were easy to be manipulated. Socioeconomic disparities and lack of access to education are among others contributing to the child labor. Religious and cultural beliefs can be misguiding and concealing in delineating the limits of child labor. Child labor prevents physical, intellectual, and emotional development of children. To date, there is no international agreement to fully enforced child labor. This public health issue demands a multidisciplinary approach from the education of children and their families to development of comprehensive child labor laws and regulations.

INTRODUCTION AND HISTORICAL FACTS

Child labor is an old problem well rooted in human history. Children were exploited to various extents during different periods of time. The problem was common in poor and developing countries. In the 1800's, child labor was part of economic life and industrial growth. Children less than 14 years old worked in agriculture, factories, mining, and as street vendors.[ 1 ] Children from poor families were expected to participate to the family income, and sometimes they worked in dangerous conditions in 12-hour shifts.[ 1 ]

In the 1900's, in England, more than a quarter of poor families lost their children to diseases and death, endangering their extra financial support.[ 1 ] Boys worked in glass factories in high heat in three shifts because the furnaces were kept fired all the time to increase productivity, while girls were forced into prostitution. In 1910, it was estimated that more than two million children in the United States were working.[ 1 ]

With the increase of education, economy, and the emergence of labor laws, child labor decreased. However, child labor is still a widespread problem in many parts of the world in developed and developing countries. With the development of agriculture, children were again forced to be employed mostly by the families rather than factories. The main cause of child labor is the lack of schools and poverty.[ 2 ]

Per International Labor Organization (ILO, 2002), in the world, there are 211 million children laborers, 73 million under 10 years of age, 126 million children work in the worst forms of child labor, and more than 8 million are kept as slaves for domestic work, in trafficking, armed conflict, prostitution, and pornography. More than 20,000 children die yearly due to work-related accidents. Nearly, one-third of the world's children work in Africa.[ 3 ] Countries such as India have made efforts to tackle the worst forms of child labor. Despite this, 56.4% of children aged 5–14 work in agriculture and 33.1% work in industry.[ 4 ] Indian children are forced into labor to pay family debt. They work sometimes in hazardous environments, being forced into commercial sexual exploitation, human trafficking, or forcibly recruited or kidnapped to be part of terrorist groups.[ 4 ]

Child labor is morally and ethically unacceptable. United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) was the first international body that signed in 1989 the Convention on the Rights of the Children. It is for the first time in history when children are seen as humans with rights rather than economic assets of their parents. Child labor was defined as labor that harms the health of the children and deprives them of education rights. This law does not exclude children that work for their families.

ETHICAL FACETS OF CHILD LABOR

Child labor has many facets from the ethical point of view. Autonomy, beneficence, justice, nonmaleficence, privacy, and veracity are endangered during child labor.[ 5 ] Utilitarianists would support the idea of child labor as long as they are the sole providers for the family and without their income, the family would not survive and as long as the labor is voluntarily provided. The ends justify the means. Forced child labor is unethical because it is against the autonomy of the children. The consent of the working child is mostly manipulated by the parents. To give consent, a child needs to understand the situation, the consequences, and voluntarily agree to work. Children of young age, who have a less than fully competent capacity, can assent to an action by getting involved in the decision-making process. Children fall easy victims to unfair job conditions, and they do not have the power to stand-up against mistreatments.[ 6 ] The maleficence of this act has long-term physical, psychological, behavioral, and societal consequences. Even if they are lacking the competency of making informed decisions, they are considered individuals with autonomy that should be protected and safeguarded.[ 6 ]

Child labor is more common in developing countries where more than 90% of children live.[ 3 ] Child labor in developing countries affects 211 million children.[ 3 ] The continent with the highest child employment rate is Asia with 61%, followed by Africa and Latin America. Nearly 41% of the children in Africa are below 14 years old, followed by Asia with 22% and Latin America 17%.[ 3 ] India has made progress in reducing the child labor. However, more than 4 million children in India between 5 and 14 years old work more than 6 hours a day, while about 2 million children aged 5–14 work 3–6 months in a year.[ 4 ]

CULTURAL BELIEFS AND CHILD LABOR

Cultural beliefs have an important role in encouraging child labor. In developing countries, people believe that work has a constructive effect on character building and increases skill development in children. There is a tradition in these families, where children follow the parents' footsteps and learn the job from an early age. Some cultural beliefs may contribute to the misguided concept that a girl's education is not as important as a boy's education, and therefore, girls are pushed into child labor as providers of domestic services.[ 7 ] In India, not putting a child to work means the family would not make enough income to sustain their living. Sociocultural aspects such as the cast system, discrimination, and cultural biases against girls contribute to child labor.[ 4 ]

RELIGION AND CHILD LABOR

It is generally accepted that parents have the fundamental right to educate and raise their children. Parents almost always try to act in the child's best interest at the best of their knowledge and beliefs. In doing so, they are reasonably motivated by their intellectual growth, social development, and at times by spiritual salvation. Oftentimes, parents seek guidance in religion to shape the upbringing of their children and to enhance their progress. Hard work is among others, an important religious value to instill from a young age.

Krolikowski found that Christian children were the least likely to work, while Muslim children, children with no religion, and children affiliated with a traditional African religion were more likely to work than Christians.[ 8 ] The 40% higher incidence of child labor among Indian Muslims compared with Indian Hindus is due perhaps to the impoverishment of Muslim community.[ 4 ] Amish people's life is also regulated by religious values. They believe that work and faith bring people closer to God.[ 9 ] Amish children are initiated from childhood into apprenticeship to learn the trade, and beyond eighth grade, they have to provide like an adult for the community. Education of children beyond eighth grade is considered a threat to the community values. The U. S. labor laws forbid children less than 16 years of age to work in hazardous places such as sawmill or woodworking. However, in 2004 an exception was made by the United States Department of Labor, who approved an amendment that allows Amish children between 14 and 18 years old to work.[ 10 ]

POLICIES AND CHILD LABOR

Child labor is rooted in poverty, income insecurity, social injustice, lack of public services, and lack of political will.[ 7 ] Working children are deprived from a proper physical and mental development. The millennium development goals (MDGs), issued in 2001 to implement the Millennium Declaration, set up commitments for poverty reduction, education, and women's empowerment. Persistence of poverty is the major cause of labor. However, child labor also causes poverty because it deprives the children from education and from a normal physical and mental development hampering a prosperous life as adults. The first MDG in addressing poverty is the elimination of child labor.[ 11 ]

The International Program on the Elimination of Child Labor (IPEC) was created by ILO in 1992 to progressively eliminate child labor. The priority addresses the worst forms of child labor such as slavery, prostitution, drug trafficking, and recruitment of children in armed conflicts.[ 12 ] IPEC is working with stakeholders from many countries to increase strengths and promote the fight against child labor. IPEC engage with multiple organizations, international and governmental bodies, community-based organizations, religious groups, private plural form businesses, children and their families.

Policy reform was promoted through country-based programs. The capacity building of institutions has been increased to better understand the obstacles and increase the ability of obtaining sustainable measures. These measures were meant to decrease child labor and bring children back in schools. In all these processes, statistical data were collected at the worldwide level, methodologies were set in place, and guidelines were created.

The Child Labor Platform was created as a business-led initiative by ILO in 2012, to identify the obstacles of the implementation of ILO conventions at the community level and to come up with solutions. This platform is a win-win situation for all parties involved: stakeholders as well children and their families. This platform offers training, research, and specialized tools to member companies, so they can carry out activities against child labor. Eliminating child labor is part of the corporates' social responsibility in line with their values and is what the society expects from them. This platform provides information how to get involved and how to find businesses that work collaboratively with the communities to solve the problem. Training and knowledge is a real value added for companies.[ 12 ] The Indian Government implemented a national project deemed to assist population to eradicate child labor, and set in place enforcements of criminal and labor law.[ 4 ]

ARGUMENTS FAVORING CHILD LABOR

Despite all these international and national measures against child labor, there are arguments in favor of child labor. Some argue that poor families would be even poorer without the supplemental financial contribution of children. Lack of money will deprive them of the basic needs of food and shelter which will decrease their survival rate. In addition, an increase in poverty would make children even more susceptible to exploitation.

The supporters of these ideas argue that the benefit of creating a safe workplace and allowing children to work is helpful in certain situations. They also emphasize that child work is not child labor as long as it does not interfere with schooling and children have safe workplace conditions with a limited number of hours per day.[ 13 ]

STAKEHOLDERS’ ROLE AND CHILD LABOR

The stakeholders most directly affected are the children and their families. Children are working at the expense of their education and normal mental development. Education is important not only for the intellectual development but also for the empowerment and acquisition of new skills for adult life. The health of children is endangered by work in hazardous conditions, abuse, exhaustion, malnutrition, or exposure to toxic materials. The psychological harm leads to behavioral problems later on in life.[ 14 ]

Despite the implementation of laws and measurements at the international level, child labor still persists, and it is caused by the same factors as 100 years ago. There is a need to address poverty and access to education. To date, there is no international agreement to define child labor. Every country has different laws and regulations regarding the minimum age for starting working based on the type of labor. The lack of international consensus on child labor makes the limits of child labor very unclear.[ 15 ]

Therefore, it is mandatory to create international policies that adopt a holistic approach to free quality education for all children, including labor children from poor families. Education should be continued beyond the primary school level and should be done in a formal setting. Studies show that nonformal education is a necessary but not a sufficient prerequisite for permanently withdrawing children from work.[ 15 ] The public educational system should be expanded to accommodate laborer children who still do not have access to school. More schools should be built, more teachers should be trained, and more educational materials should be available. A special attention should be given to children living in exceptional geographical conditions and mobility should be provided at the cost of the community. Children who dropped out of school should receive adequate guidance and support, and a smooth reentry should be facilitated. The development of schools in the rural areas would decrease the load of children in urban schools. This will allow parents to accommodate children's needs without having to migrate in big cities.

Another phenomenon that should be addressed is the social exclusion. Children engaged in the worst forms of child labor come from the lowest strata of the society. International Labor Organization launched a project on Indigen and tribal people, who are the most targeted by social exclusion. This project promotes their rights and encourages building capacity among their community.[ 15 ] Proper enforcement of child labor policies and the focus on education can break the cycle of poverty that drives the children into labor.

Child labor is a public health issue with negative outcomes that demands special attention. A multidisciplinary approach is needed to tackle child labor issues. Per ILO, poverty is a major single cause behind child labor. Lack of affordable schools and affordable education is another major factor to force children to work. Certain cultural beliefs rationalize this practice and encourage child labor as character building and skill development for children. Some cultural traditions encourage child labor as footsteps to their parents' jobs. Socioeconomic disparities, poor governance, and poor implementation of international agreements are among major causes of child labor. Macroeconomic factors also encourage child labor by the growth of low pay informal economy. Child labor prevents the normal well-being including physical, intellectual, and emotional psychosocial development of children. This public health issue cannot be eliminated by only enforcement of child labor laws and regulations. Any comprehensive policies should engulf a holistic approach on the education of children and their families, investment in early childhood development programs, establishing public education task forces in rural areas, implementing policies with focus on increasing adult wages, and discouraging consumers to buy products made by forced child labor. As such, ethical practice requires protection of all rights of children and protective policies and procedures which support the provisions of ILO's standards.

Financial support and sponsorship

Conflicts of interest.

There are no conflicts of interest.

Acknowledgment

The authors wish to thank the University Writing Center at A.T. Still University for assistance with this manuscript.

• My Shodhganga
• Receive email updates
• Edit Profile

Shodhganga : a reservoir of Indian theses @ INFLIBNET

• Shodhganga@INFLIBNET
• University of Mysore
• Department of Law

Items in Shodhganga are licensed under Creative Commons Licence Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0).

• International edition
• Australia edition
• Europe edition

Labour urged to end two-child benefits cap as research reveals policy pushing families into poverty

New data shows families with disabled children, and single parents with offspring under the age of three facing financial hardship

Keir Starmer is facing new calls to end the controversial two-child limit on benefits if Labour comes to power – as new data shows it is pushing large numbers of families with disabled children, and single parents with offspring under the age of three, into poverty.

The limit restricts child tax credit and universal credit to the first two children in most households and means families cannot claim benefits worth well over £3,000 a year per extra child after the second.

The policy was introduced by the Conservative government led by David Cameron and George Osborne as part of their drive to cut welfare spending. It had been promoted by Iain Duncan Smith , the then work and pensions secretary, who believed it would discourage people struggling with their finances from having more children. But new data uncovered by the End Child Poverty Coalition (ECPC) shows that it is hitting single parents with very young children, as well as many parents with at least one disabled child.

Analysis of official data by the ECPC reveals that 25% of all households affected by the two-child limit are currently single-parent households with a child under three years old. About 106,000 families fall into this category. The ECPC says these are parents who would not be required to work under universal credit rules.

The analysis also shows that 20% of households affected by the policy have at least one disabled child. While there are exceptions if the third or subsequent children are disabled, there are no provisions in place for the disability of other children. About 87,500 families with a disabled child are affected.

The findings will place particular pressure on Starmer to end the cap, if and when his party comes to power. The vast majority of constituencies with very high numbers of children in poverty and children affected by the cap are held by Labour MPs.

Over recent years, several shadow cabinet ministers have been severely critical of the cap. Jonathan Ashworth, when shadow work and pensions secretary, said last year: “We are very, very aware that this is one of the single most heinous elements of the system which is pushing children and families into poverty today.”

Labour’s deputy leader, Angela Rayner, described it as “obscene and inhumane”, while in 2020 Starmer himself tweeted: “We must … scrap punitive sanctions, two-child limit and benefit caps.”

But in a BBC interview last summer, Starmer said he was “not changing that policy” if Labour won power. After a backlash from the party he defended his position, saying “we have to take the tough decisions”.

Some Labour MPs with high number of constituents affected are growing increasingly impatient.

The former minister Liam Byrne, the MP for Birmingham Hodge Hill, which has the third highest proportion of children affected by the cap (26%), said: “If we want to make food banks history, then bluntly, some way, somehow, we have to end the ­appalling two-child cap – or risk losing an entire generation to the horror of child poverty.”

Clive Efford, the Labour MP for Eltham, added: “I fully understand that we can’t make commitments on financial priorities until we see the full state of the country’s finances but it is inconceivable that a Labour government would not want to address something that is such a roadblock to tackling child poverty.”

Joseph Howes, chair of the ECPC, said: “These new figures clearly show that the two-child limit is a policy which pushes single parents, and families with disabled children, into poverty – the very families that our benefit system should be helping. In this election year, scrapping this cruel policy should be the top priority for every political party.”

Across the UK, about 422,000 households who claim benefits have them reduced by the cap. One in 10 children – 1.5 million – live in a household affected by the policy. Removing the cap is widely recognised by economists and thinktanks as the most effective way to reduce child poverty. To do so would cost well under £2bn, according to most estimates. The ECPC says doing so would lift 300,000 children out of poverty and mean 800,000 would be in less deep poverty.

A government spokesperson said: “The two-child policy is about fairness, asking families on benefits to make the same financial decisions as families supporting themselves solely through work, and safeguards are in place to protect people in the most vulnerable circumstances.

“We know work is the best route out of poverty, and with over 4 million more people in work and 100,000 fewer children in absolute poverty since 2010 it’s clear our plan is working.”

• The Observer
• Keir Starmer
• Child benefits
• Conservatives
• Iain Duncan Smith
• Tax credits

Most viewed

DPHS Research Highlights Long-Term Care Insurance's Impact on Caregivers and the Economy in Presidential Report

According to research highlighted in the recent  2024 Economic Report of the President , long-term care insurance (LTCI) and other policies can indirectly affect the livelihoods and mobility of adult-children caregivers, resulting in impacts to the U.S. labor market.

These insights are found in Box 3-6 Long-Term Care of Chapter 3: Population, Aging, and the Economy, which examines how trends in fertility and mortality are shaping the U.S. population and labor force. The highlight combines the expertise of researchers to emphasize the increasing demand for long-term care due to an aging U.S. population, the need for better access to affordable care, the role of Medicaid, and the impact of caregiving on labor market participation. The highlight also advocates for continued federal investment in caregiving.

"This section, where our project was cited, makes the point that long-term care improvements are important not just for older adults and their loved ones, but also the labor market," said Courtney Van Houtven, PhD, professor in the Duke Department of Population Health Sciences. "Different policies, programs, and consumer products, such as LTCI, do impact the ability of younger generations to work."

That impact was the subject of  Family spillovers and long-term care insurance , published in July 2023 in the Journal of Health Economics by Van Houtven, Norma B. Coe of the University of Pennsylvania, and Gopi Shah Goda at Stanford University. Their research is one of the first to examine insurance design and policy levers affecting unpaid caregivers. It found that LTCI does not significantly reduce the use of informal care among insured individuals over approximately eight years. However, it does influence family dynamics, leading to a decrease in parents' expectations of their children's willingness to provide future care and a lower likelihood of adult children co-residing with their parents, coupled with a stronger attachment to the labor market.

LTCI is an additional form of insurance coverage individuals may opt to purchase to help cover the costs of nursing home, home health, or other personal care often encountered by older adults or those with chronic or disabling conditions. For LTCI to take effect, policyholders must maintain the insurance over decades. This additional, long-term expense is financially prohibitive for many Americans. Lack of coverage often leads adult children, particularly women, to make the difficult choice of reducing their working hours, or leaving the labor market, potentially risking their own long-term economic security.

"Women are the default caregivers and tend to be the most intensive caregivers," said Van Houtven. "This is really a gender equity issue, considering our long-term care system relies on unpaid and informal caregivers. Similarly, people with marginalized identities are also bearing the brunt of this due to lack of generational wealth. Addressing universal long-term care insurance at the federal level would be more equitable."

Van Houtven continues to research how other policies, like the Affordable Care Act Medicaid expansion and Earned Income Tax Credit Program, impact unpaid caregivers. Future work will analyze these spillover effects.

Support 110 years of independent journalism.

• Spotlight on Policy
• Economic Growth
• Regional Development

What role would mayors play under a Labour government?

The opposition has promised a wave of devolution in England.

By Jack Shaw

In Gordon Brown’s recent report of his Commission on the UK’s Future, the former prime minister suggested that a democratic second chamber – a so-called assembly of the nations and regions – should be established by the Labour Party if it wins the general election.

According to the proposals, mayors should be able to participate in a reformed House of Lords – though in what form remains unclear. Constitutional questions have already been raised over whether mayors should be rooted in both the sub-regions they’re elected to serve and in Westminster.

Brown’s recommendations also suggest the assembly should be complemented by a council of the nations and regions to promote coordination between the respective tiers of government within the UK. But while the Lords requires reform, and a Labour government would need to work more closely with mayors, having the latter join the upper house solves neither of those challenges. 

Labour already has a reasonable track record on reform of a House that was, until the House of Lords Act 1999, home to hundreds of hereditary peers. The act reduced their number to 92. The House of Lords Appointments Commission was established to vet candidates, though its efficacy has been called into question on more than one occasion, not least following the peerage for the Russian-British newspaper owner Evgeny Lebedev. Labour has also flirted with electing – rather than appointing – Lords in the past, with a published white paper on reform in 2007 overtaken by the global financial crisis.  

Labour’s emerging plans on Lords reform – to strengthen the House of Lords Appointments Commission, introduce a mandatory retirement age, and abolish hereditary peerages – today are arguably less ambitious than in the Noughties. In the preface of the 2007 white paper, Jack Straw, then leader of the House of Commons, wrote that “ending this anomaly” of hereditary peers “does not go far enough to ensure that Britain’s second chamber is fit to meet the demands and expectations of this century”.

The Saturday Read

Morning call, events and offers, the green transition.

• Administration / Office
• Arts and Culture
• Board Member
• Business / Corporate Services
• Client / Customer Services
• Communications
• Construction, Works, Engineering
• Education, Curriculum and Teaching
• Environment, Conservation and NRM
• Facility / Grounds Management and Maintenance
• Finance Management
• Health - Medical and Nursing Management
• HR, Training and Organisational Development
• Information and Communications Technology
• Information Services, Statistics, Records, Archives
• Infrastructure Management - Transport, Utilities
• Legal Officers and Practitioners
• Librarians and Library Management
• OH&S, Risk Management
• Operations Management
• Planning, Policy, Strategy
• Printing, Design, Publishing, Web
• Projects, Programs and Advisors
• Property, Assets and Fleet Management
• Public Relations and Media
• Purchasing and Procurement
• Quality Management
• Science and Technical Research and Development
• Security and Law Enforcement
• Service Delivery
• Sport and Recreation
• Travel, Accommodation, Tourism
• Wellbeing, Community / Social Services

But Labour’s proposals for Lords reform, at least in the immediate term, are sufficient. Instead of using up considerable governing capacity to push for more wholesale changes, Labour should focus on the second question raised by Brown: coordination between tiers of governance – and specifically the role of mayors. 

[Read more: How radical will Keir Starmer be on constitutional reform? ]

While Labour has rightly placed improving the long-term performance of the economy at the centre of its missions, its capacity to boost growth is contingent on circumstances partially outside its direct control. This is because combined and local authorities will have to implement many policies: and mayors can play an important role in promoting economic growth in their sub-regions.

Labour mayors currently oversee many of England’s core cities – not least Bristol, Manchester, Leeds, Liverpool and Cambridge. They will, in theory, be tasked with delivering the growth policies Labour has envisioned, including its green prosperity plan.

For this reason, Labour will need to establish productive relationships with mayors and a wider coalition of actors whose actions Labour does not directly control. Unlike the Conservatives, Labour does formally acknowledge sub-regional governance within its party structures by having a local government representative on its shadow cabinet, but neither Labour nor the Conservatives have mayors in their cabinet teams – or anything approaching the formalised relationships that have been established with local authorities over the decades. 

History suggests that strong or charismatic individuals have wielded significant power in driving devolution forward: Michael Heseltine, John Prescott, George Osborne, Michael Gove. While there is a sense that Labour acknowledges the role mayors can play in a Labour government, there isn’t a senior party figure in the shadow cabinet this priority coalesces around. The Centre for Cities think tank suggests that Ed Balls can be “Labour’s Michael Heseltine” – the former shadow chancellor has, like the former Thatcher-era environment secretary, worked extensively on the cause of narrowing regional inequalities. But Balls isn’t in parliament. Nor does he currently hold any elected office. In the absence of such a figure, Labour will need to govern through institutions instead.  

The establishment of a codified forum through which differences can be articulated and resolved is in the interest of both a Labour government and its mayors. This forum – which the Times columnist Patrick Maguire dubs a “ super-cabinet ” of mayors – can add value to Labour’s policymaking, foster goodwill, promote collaboration, address political differences and support Labour in delivering its missions.

A more responsive centre requires pluralism, and voices from actors outside Westminster. There is precedent for this in the UK: figures from the devolved administrations in the Senned and Holyrood already sit on a joint ministerial committee with the UK government. But a similar vehicle does not exist for English sub-regional governance. 

In turn, Labour must give mayors their backing and build a relationship with them that is based on parity. Labour must respect, for example, the fact that mayors have their own democratic mandate and will on occasion adopt positions at odds with the leadership. If Labour were to only support devolution on the condition that mayors agreed with ministers, then that is no devolution at all. 

Labour equally cannot take the electoral success of its mayors for granted. In 2025, the seats occupied by Labour’s most vulnerable mayors – in the West of England, and Cambridgeshire and Peterborough, respectively – will be contested. On top of that, four new mayoral combined authorities will be created for the first time – in Norfolk, Suffolk, Hull and East Yorkshire, and Greater Lincolnshire. It is likely that new Conservative mayors will become important political forces and potential electoral assets for the Tory party in their regions. 

Building relationships with mayors is essential if the next government is to capitalise on local governments’ ability to shape their economies. That will require building relationships that outlast individuals, and institutions that are well placed to take advantage of the new politics of devolution. 

[Read more: Does devolution boost growth? ]

Content from our partners

Unlocking the potential of a national asset, St Pancras International

Time for Labour to turn the tide on children’s health

How can we deliver better rail journeys for customers?

Nearly two thirds of social workers say children live in homes with “excessive levels of mould”

The Research Brief: the private rental sector is extortionate

• OH&S, Risk Management