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Committee on Physical Activity and Physical Education in the School Environment; Food and Nutrition Board; Institute of Medicine; Kohl HW III, Cook HD, editors. Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2013 Oct 30.
Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School.
- Hardcopy Version at National Academies Press
4 Physical Activity, Fitness, and Physical Education: Effects on Academic Performance
Key messages.
- Evidence suggests that increasing physical activity and physical fitness may improve academic performance and that time in the school day dedicated to recess, physical education class, and physical activity in the classroom may also facilitate academic performance.
- Available evidence suggests that mathematics and reading are the academic topics that are most influenced by physical activity. These topics depend on efficient and effective executive function, which has been linked to physical activity and physical fitness.
- Executive function and brain health underlie academic performance. Basic cognitive functions related to attention and memory facilitate learning, and these functions are enhanced by physical activity and higher aerobic fitness.
- Single sessions of and long-term participation in physical activity improve cognitive performance and brain health. Children who participate in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity benefit the most.
- Given the importance of time on task to learning, students should be provided with frequent physical activity breaks that are developmentally appropriate.
- Although presently understudied, physically active lessons offered in the classroom may increase time on task and attention to task in the classroom setting.
Although academic performance stems from a complex interaction between intellect and contextual variables, health is a vital moderating factor in a child's ability to learn. The idea that healthy children learn better is empirically supported and well accepted ( Basch, 2010 ), and multiple studies have confirmed that health benefits are associated with physical activity, including cardiovascular and muscular fitness, bone health, psychosocial outcomes, and cognitive and brain health ( Strong et al., 2005 ; see Chapter 3 ). The relationship of physical activity and physical fitness to cognitive and brain health and to academic performance is the subject of this chapter.
Given that the brain is responsible for both mental processes and physical actions of the human body, brain health is important across the life span. In adults, brain health, representing absence of disease and optimal structure and function, is measured in terms of quality of life and effective functioning in activities of daily living. In children, brain health can be measured in terms of successful development of attention, on-task behavior, memory, and academic performance in an educational setting. This chapter reviews the findings of recent research regarding the contribution of engagement in physical activity and the attainment of a health-enhancing level of physical fitness to cognitive and brain health in children. Correlational research examining the relationship among academic performance, physical fitness, and physical activity also is described. Because research in older adults has served as a model for understanding the effects of physical activity and fitness on the developing brain during childhood, the adult research is briefly discussed. The short- and long-term cognitive benefits of both a single session of and regular participation in physical activity are summarized.
Before outlining the health benefits of physical activity and fitness, it is important to note that many factors influence academic performance. Among these are socioeconomic status ( Sirin, 2005 ), parental involvement ( Fan and Chen, 2001 ), and a host of other demographic factors. A valuable predictor of student academic performance is a parent having clear expectations for the child's academic success. Attendance is another factor confirmed as having a significant impact on academic performance ( Stanca, 2006 ; Baxter et al., 2011 ). Because children must be present to learn the desired content, attendance should be measured in considering factors related to academic performance.
- PHYSICAL FITNESS AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITY: RELATION TO ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE
State-mandated academic achievement testing has had the unintended consequence of reducing opportunities for children to be physically active during the school day and beyond. In addition to a general shifting of time in school away from physical education to allow for more time on academic subjects, some children are withheld from physical education classes or recess to participate in remedial or enriched learning experiences designed to increase academic performance ( Pellegrini and Bohn, 2005 ; see Chapter 5 ). Yet little evidence supports the notion that more time allocated to subject matter will translate into better test scores. Indeed, 11 of 14 correlational studies of physical activity during the school day demonstrate a positive relationship to academic performance ( Rasberry et al., 2011 ). Overall, a rapidly growing body of work suggests that time spent engaged in physical activity is related not only to a healthier body but also to a healthier mind ( Hillman et al., 2008 ).
Children respond faster and with greater accuracy to a variety of cognitive tasks after participating in a session of physical activity ( Tomporowski, 2003 ; Budde et al., 2008 ; Hillman et al., 2009 ; Pesce et al., 2009 ; Ellemberg and St-Louis-Deschênes, 2010 ). A single bout of moderate-intensity physical activity has been found to increase neural and behavioral concomitants associated with the allocation of attention to a specific cognitive task ( Hillman et al., 2009 ; Pontifex et al., 2012 ). And when children who participated in 30 minutes of aerobic physical activity were compared with children who watched television for the same amount of time, the former children cognitively outperformed the latter ( Ellemberg and St-Louis-Desêhenes, 2010 ). Visual task switching data among 69 overweight and inactive children did not show differences between cognitive performance after treadmill walking and sitting ( Tomporowski et al., 2008b ).
When physical activity is used as a break from academic learning time, postengagement effects include better attention ( Grieco et al., 2009 ; Bartholomew and Jowers, 2011 ), increased on-task behaviors ( Mahar et al., 2006 ), and improved academic performance ( Donnelly and Lambourne, 2011 ). Comparisons between 1st-grade students housed in a classroom with stand-sit desks where the child could stand at his/her discretion and in classrooms containing traditional furniture showed that the former children were highly likely to stand, thus expending significantly more energy than those who were seated ( Benden et al., 2011 ). More important, teachers can offer physical activity breaks as part of a supplemental curriculum or simply as a way to reset student attention during a lesson ( Kibbe et al., 2011 ; see Chapter 6 ) and when provided with minimal training can efficaciously produce vigorous or moderate energy expenditure in students ( Stewart et al., 2004 ). Further, after-school physical activity programs have demonstrated the ability to improve cardiovascular endurance, and this increase in aerobic fitness has been shown to mediate improvements in academic performance ( Fredericks et al., 2006 ), as well as the allocation of neural resources underlying performance on a working memory task ( Kamijo et al., 2011 ).
Over the past three decades, several reviews and meta-analyses have described the relationship among physical fitness, physical activity, and cognition (broadly defined as all mental processes). The majority of these reviews have focused on the relationship between academic performance and physical fitness—a physiological trait commonly defined in terms of cardiorespiratory capacity (e.g., maximal oxygen consumption; see Chapter 3 ). More recently, reviews have attempted to describe the effects of an acute or single bout of physical activity, as a behavior, on academic performance. These reviews have focused on brain health in older adults ( Colcombe and Kramer, 2003 ), as well as the effects of acute physical activity on cognition in adults ( Tomporowski, 2003 ). Some have considered age as part of the analysis ( Etnier et al., 1997 , 2006 ). Reviews focusing on research conducted in children ( Sibley and Etnier, 2003 ) have examined the relationship among physical activity, participation in sports, and academic performance ( Trudeau and Shephard, 2008 , 2010 ; Singh et al., 2012 ); physical activity and mental and cognitive health ( Biddle and Asare, 2011 ); and physical activity, nutrition, and academic performance ( Burkhalter and Hillman, 2011 ). The findings of most of these reviews align with the conclusions presented in a meta-analytic review conducted by Fedewa and Ahn (2011) . The studies reviewed by Fedewa and Ahn include experimental/quasi-experimental as well as cross-sectional and correlational designs, with the experimental designs yielding the highest effect sizes. The strongest relationships were found between aerobic fitness and achievement in mathematics, followed by IQ and reading performance. The range of cognitive performance measures, participant characteristics, and types of research design all mediated the relationship among physical activity, fitness, and academic performance. With regard to physical activity interventions, which were carried out both within and beyond the school day, those involving small groups of peers (around 10 youth of a similar age) were associated with the greatest gains in academic performance.
The number of peer-reviewed publications on this topic is growing exponentially. Further evidence of the growth of this line of inquiry is its increased global presence. Positive relationships among physical activity, physical fitness, and academic performance have been found among students from the Netherlands ( Singh et al., 2012 ) and Taiwan ( Chih and Chen, 2011 ). Broadly speaking, however, many of these studies show small to moderate effects and suffer from poor research designs ( Biddle and Asare, 2011 ; Singh et al., 2012 ).
Basch (2010) conducted a comprehensive review of how children's health and health disparities influence academic performance and learning. The author's report draws on empirical evidence suggesting that education reform will be ineffective unless children's health is made a priority. Basch concludes that schools may be the only place where health inequities can be addressed and that, if children's basic health needs are not met, they will struggle to learn regardless of the effectiveness of the instructional materials used. More recently, Efrat (2011) conducted a review of physical activity, fitness, and academic performance to examine the achievement gap. He discovered that only seven studies had included socioeconomic status as a variable, despite its known relationship to education ( Sirin, 2005 ).
Physical Fitness as a Learning Outcome of Physical Education and Its Relation to Academic Performance
Achieving and maintaining a healthy level of aerobic fitness, as defined using criterion-referenced standards from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES; Welk et al., 2011 ), is a desired learning outcome of physical education programming. Regular participation in physical activity also is a national learning standard for physical education, a standard intended to facilitate the establishment of habitual and meaningful engagement in physical activity ( NASPE, 2004 ). Yet although physical fitness and participation in physical activity are established as learning outcomes in all 50 states, there is little evidence to suggest that children actually achieve and maintain these standards (see Chapter 2 ).
Statewide and national datasets containing data on youth physical fitness and academic performance have increased access to student-level data on this subject ( Grissom, 2005 ; Cottrell et al., 2007 ; Carlson et al., 2008 ; Chomitz et al., 2008 ; Wittberg et al., 2010 ; Van Dusen et al., 2011 ). Early research in South Australia focused on quantifying the benefits of physical activity and physical education during the school day; the benefits noted included increased physical fitness, decreased body fat, and reduced risk for cardiovascular disease ( Dwyer et al., 1979 , 1983 ). Even today, Dwyer and colleagues are among the few scholars who regularly include in their research measures of physical activity intensity in the school environment, which is believed to be a key reason why they are able to report differentiated effects of different intensities. A longitudinal study in Trois-Rivières, Québec, Canada, tracked how the academic performance of children from grades 1 through 6 was related to student health, motor skills, and time spent in physical education. The researchers concluded that additional time dedicated to physical education did not inhibit academic performance ( Shephard et al., 1984 ; Shephard, 1986 ; Trudeau and Shephard, 2008 ).
Longitudinal follow-up investigating the long-term benefits of enhanced physical education experiences is encouraging but largely inconclusive. In a study examining the effects of daily physical education during elementary school on physical activity during adulthood, 720 men and women completed the Québec Health Survey ( Trudeau et al., 1999 ). Findings suggest that physical education was associated with physical activity in later life for females but not males ( Trudeau et al., 1999 ); most of the associations were significant but weak ( Trudeau et al., 2004 ). Adult body mass index (BMI) at age 34 was related to childhood BMI at ages 10-12 in females but not males ( Trudeau et al., 2001 ). Longitudinal studies such as those conducted in Sweden and Finland also suggest that physical education experiences may be related to adult engagement in physical activity ( Glenmark, 1994 ; Telama et al., 1997 ). From an academic performance perspective, longitudinal data on men who enlisted for military service imply that cardiovascular fitness at age 18 predicted cognitive performance in later life (Aberg et al., 2009), thereby supporting the idea of offering physical education and physical activity opportunities well into emerging adulthood through secondary and postsecondary education.
Castelli and colleagues (2007) investigated younger children (in 3rd and 5th grades) and the differential contributions of the various subcomponents of the Fitnessgram ® . Specifically, they examined the individual contributions of aerobic capacity, muscle strength, muscle flexibility, and body composition to performance in mathematics and reading on the Illinois Standardized Achievement Test among a sample of 259 children. Their findings corroborate those of the California Department of Education ( Grissom, 2005 ), indicating a general relationship between fitness and achievement test performance. When the individual components of the Fitnessgram were decomposed, the researchers determined that only aerobic capacity was related to test performance. Muscle strength and flexibility showed no relationship, while an inverse association of BMI with test performance was observed, such that higher BMI was associated with lower test performance. Although Baxter and colleagues (2011) confirmed the importance of attending school in relation to academic performance through the use of 4th-grade student recall, correlations with BMI were not significant.
State-mandated implementation of the coordinated school health model requires all schools in Texas to conduct annual fitness testing using the Fitnessgram among students in grades 3-12. In a special issue of Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport (2010), multiple articles describe the current state of physical fitness among children in Texas; confirm the associations among school performance levels, academic achievement, and physical fitness ( Welk et al., 2010 ; Zhu et al., 2010 ); and demonstrate the ability of qualified physical education teachers to administer physical fitness tests ( Zhu et al., 2010 ). Also using data from Texas schools, Van Dusen and colleagues (2011) found that cardiovascular fitness had the strongest association with academic performance, particularly in mathematics over reading. Unlike previous research, which demonstrated a steady decline in fitness by developmental stage ( Duncan et al., 2007 ), this study found that cardiovascular fitness did decrease but not significantly ( Van Dusen et al., 2011 ). Aerobic fitness, then, may be important to academic performance, as there may be a dose-response relationship ( Van Dusen et al., 2011 ).
Using a large sample of students in grades 4-8, Chomitz and colleagues (2008) found that the likelihood of passing both mathematics and English achievement tests increased with the number of fitness tests passed during physical education class, and the odds of passing the mathematics achievement tests were inversely related to higher body weight. Similar to the findings of Castelli and colleagues (2007) , socioeconomic status and demographic factors explained little of the relationship between aerobic fitness and academic performance; however, socioeconomic status may be an explanatory variable for students of low fitness ( London and Castrechini, 2011 ).
In sum, numerous cross-sectional and correlational studies demonstrate small-to-moderate positive or null associations between physical fitness ( Grissom, 2005 ; Cottrell et al., 2007 ; Edwards et al., 2009; Eveland-Sayers et al., 2009 ; Cooper et al., 2010 ; Welk et al., 2010 ; Wittberg et al., 2010 ; Zhu et al., 2010 ; Van Dusen et al., 2011 ), particularly aerobic fitness, and academic performance ( Castelli et al, 2007 ; Chomitz et al., 2008 ; Roberts et al., 2010 ; Welk et al., 2010 ; Chih and Chen, 2011 ; London and Castrechini, 2011 ; Van Dusen et al., 2011 ). Moreover, the findings may support a dose-response association, suggesting that the more components of physical fitness (e.g., cardiovascular endurance, strength, muscle endurance) considered acceptable for the specific age and gender that are present, the greater the likelihood of successful academic performance. From a public health and policy standpoint, the conclusions these findings support are limited by few causal inferences, a lack of data confirmation, and inadequate reliability because the data were often collected by nonresearchers or through self-report methods. It may also be noted that this research includes no known longitudinal studies and few randomized controlled trials (examples are included later in this chapter in the discussion of the developing brain).
Physical Activity, Physical Education, and Academic Performance
In contrast with the correlational data presented above for physical fitness, more information is needed on the direct effects of participation in physical activity programming and physical education classes on academic performance.
In a meta-analysis, Sibley and Etnier (2003) found a positive relationship between physical activity and cognition in school-age youth (aged 4-18), suggesting that physical activity, as well as physical fitness, may be related to cognitive outcomes during development. Participation in physical activity was related to cognitive performance in eight measurement categories (perceptual skills, IQ, achievement, verbal tests, mathematics tests, memory, developmental level/academic readiness, and “other”), with results indicating a beneficial relationship of physical activity to all cognitive outcomes except memory ( Sibley and Etnier, 2003 ). Since that meta-analysis, however, several papers have reported robust relationships between aerobic fitness and different aspects of memory in children (e.g., Chaddock et al., 2010a , 2011 ; Kamijo et al., 2011 ; Monti et al., 2012 ). Regardless, the comprehensive review of Sibley and Etnier (2003) was important because it helped bring attention to an emerging literature suggesting that physical activity may benefit cognitive development even as it also demonstrated the need for further study to better understand the multifaceted relationship between physical activity and cognitive and brain health.
The regular engagement in physical activity achieved during physical education programming can also be related to academic performance, especially when the class is taught by a physical education teacher. The Sports, Play, and Active Recreation for Kids (SPARK) study examined the effects of a 2-year health-related physical education program on academic performance in children ( Sallis et al., 1999 ). In an experimental design, seven elementary schools were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: (1) a specialist condition in which certified physical education teachers delivered the SPARK curriculum, (2) a trained-teacher condition in which classroom teachers implemented the curriculum, and (3) a control condition in which classroom teachers implemented the local physical education curriculum. No significant differences by condition were found for mathematics testing; however, reading scores were significantly higher in the specialist condition relative to the control condition ( Sallis et al., 1999 ), while language scores were significantly lower in the specialist condition than in the other two conditions. The authors conclude that spending time in physical education with a specialist did not have a negative effect on academic performance. Shortcomings of this research include the amount of data loss from pre- to posttest, the use of results of 2nd-grade testing that exceeded the national average in performance as baseline data, and the use of norm-referenced rather than criterion-based testing.
In seminal research conducted by Gabbard and Barton (1979) , six different conditions of physical activity (no activity; 20, 30, 40, and 50 minutes; and posttest no activity) were completed by 106 2nd graders during physical education. Each physical activity session was followed by 5 minutes of rest and the completion of 36 math problems. The authors found a potential threshold effect whereby only the 50-minute condition improved mathematical performance, with no differences by gender.
A longitudinal study of the kindergarten class of 1998–1999, using data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, investigated the association between enrollment in physical education and academic achievement ( Carlson et al., 2008 ). Higher amounts of physical education were correlated with better academic performance in mathematics among females, but this finding did not hold true for males.
Ahamed and colleagues (2007) found in a cluster randomized trial that, after 16 months of a classroom-based physical activity intervention, there was no significant difference between the treatment and control groups in performance on the standardized Cognitive Abilities Test, Third Edition (CAT-3). Others have found, however, that coordinative exercise ( Budde et al., 2008 ) or bouts of vigorous physical activity during free time ( Coe et al., 2006 ) contribute to higher levels of academic performance. Specifically, Coe and colleagues examined the association of enrollment in physical education and self-reported vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity outside school with performance in core academic courses and on the Terra Nova Standardized Achievement Test among more than 200 6th-grade students. Their findings indicate that academic performance was unaffected by enrollment in physical education classes, which were found to average only 19 minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity. When time spent engaged in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity outside of school was considered, however, a significant positive relation to academic performance emerged, with more time engaged in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity being related to better grades but not test scores ( Coe et al., 2006 ).
Studies of participation in sports and academic achievement have found positive associations ( Mechanic and Hansell, 1987 ; Dexter, 1999 ; Crosnoe, 2002 ; Eitle and Eitle, 2002 ; Stephens and Schaben, 2002 ; Eitle, 2005 ; Miller et al., 2005 ; Fox et al., 2010 ; Ruiz et al., 2010 ); higher grade point averages (GPAs) in season than out of season ( Silliker and Quirk, 1997 ); a negative association between cheerleading and science performance ( Hanson and Kraus, 1998 ); and weak and negative associations between the amount of time spent participating in sports and performance in English-language class among 13-, 14-, and 16-year-old students ( Daley and Ryan, 2000 ). Other studies, however, have found no association between participation in sports and academic performance ( Fisher et al., 1996 ). The findings of these studies need to be interpreted with caution as many of their designs failed to account for the level of participation by individuals in the sport (e.g., amount of playing time, type and intensity of physical activity engagement by sport). Further, it is unclear whether policies required students to have higher GPAs to be eligible for participation. Offering sports opportunities is well justified regardless of the cognitive benefits, however, given that adolescents may be less likely to engage in risky behaviors when involved in sports or other extracurricular activities ( Page et al., 1998 ; Elder et al., 2000 ; Taliaferro et al., 2010 ), that participation in sports increases physical fitness, and that affiliation with sports enhances school connectedness.
Although a consensus on the relationship of physical activity to academic achievement has not been reached, the vast majority of available evidence suggests the relationship is either positive or neutral. The meta-analytic review by Fedewa and Ahn (2011) suggests that interventions entailing aerobic physical activity have the greatest impact on academic performance; however, all types of physical activity, except those involving flexibility alone, contribute to enhanced academic performance, as do interventions that use small groups (about 10 students) rather than individuals or large groups. Regardless of the strength of the findings, the literature indicates that time spent engaged in physical activity is beneficial to children because it has not been found to detract from academic performance, and in fact can improve overall health and function ( Sallis et al., 1999 ; Hillman et al., 2008 ; Tomporowski et al., 2008a ; Trudeau and Shephard, 2008 ; Rasberry et al., 2011 ).
Single Bouts of Physical Activity
Beyond formal physical education, evidence suggests that multi-component approaches are a viable means of providing physical activity opportunities for children across the school curriculum (see also Chapter 6 ). Although health-related fitness lessons taught by certified physical education teachers result in greater student fitness gains relative to such lessons taught by other teachers ( Sallis et al., 1999 ), non-physical education teachers are capable of providing opportunities to be physically active within the classroom ( Kibbe et al., 2011 ). Single sessions or bouts of physical activity have independent merit, offering immediate benefits that can enhance the learning experience. Studies have found that single bouts of physical activity result in improved attention ( Hillman et al., 2003 , 2009 ; Pontifex et al., 2012 ), better working memory ( Pontifex et al., 2009 ), and increased academic learning time and reduced off-task behaviors ( Mahar et al., 2006 ; Bartholomew and Jowers, 2011 ). Yet single bouts of physical activity have differential effects, as very vigorous exercise has been associated with cognitive fatigue and even cognitive decline in adults ( Tomporowski, 2003 ). As seen in Figure 4-1 , high levels of effort, arousal, or activation can influence perception, decision making, response preparation, and actual response. For discussion of the underlying constructs and differential effects of single bouts of physical activity on cognitive performance, see Tomporowski (2003) .
Information processing: Diagram of a simplified version of Sanders's (1983) cognitive-energetic model of human information processing (adapted from Jones and Hardy, 1989). SOURCE: Tomporowski, 2003. Reprinted with permission.
For children, classrooms are busy places where they must distinguish relevant information from distractions that emerge from many different sources occurring simultaneously. A student must listen to the teacher, adhere to classroom procedures, focus on a specific task, hold and retain information, and make connections between novel information and previous experiences. Hillman and colleagues (2009) demonstrated that a single bout of moderate-intensity walking (60 percent of maximum heart rate) resulted in significant improvements in performance on a task requiring attentional inhibition (e.g., the ability to focus on a single task). These findings were accompanied by changes in neuroelectric measures underlying the allocation of attention (see Figure 4-2 ) and significant improvements on the reading subtest of the Wide Range Achievement Test. No such effects were observed following a similar duration of quiet rest. These findings were later replicated and extended to demonstrate benefits for both mathematics and reading performance in healthy children and those diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ( Pontifex et al., 2013 ). Further replications of these findings demonstrated that a single bout of moderate-intensity exercise using a treadmill improved performance on a task of attention and inhibition, but similar benefits were not derived from moderate-intensity exercise that involved exergaming ( O'Leary et al., 2011 ). It was also found that such benefits were derived following cessation of, but not during, the bout of exercise ( Drollette et al., 2012 ). The applications of such empirical findings within the school setting remain unclear.
Effects of a single session of exercise in preadolescent children. SOURCE: Hillman et al., 2009. Reprinted with permission.
A randomized controlled trial entitled Physical Activity Across the Curriculum (PAAC) used cluster randomization among 24 schools to examine the effects of physically active classroom lessons on BMI and academic achievement ( Donnelly et al., 2009 ). The academically oriented physical activities were intended to be of vigorous or moderate intensity (3–6 metabolic equivalents [METs]) and to last approximately 10 minutes and were specifically designed to supplement content in mathematics, language arts, geography, history, spelling, science, and health. The study followed 665 boys and 677 girls for 3 years as they rose from 2nd or 3rd to 4th or 5th grades. Changes in academic achievement, fitness, and blood screening were considered secondary outcomes. During a 3-year period, students who engaged in physically active lessons, on average, improved their academic achievement by 6 percent, while the control groups exhibited a 1 percent decrease. In students who experienced at least 75 minutes of PAAC lessons per week, BMI remained stable (see Figure 4-3 ).
Change in academic scores from baseline after physically active classroom lessons in elementary schools in northeast Kansas (2003–2006). NOTE: All differences between the Physical Activity Across the Curriculum (PAAC) group ( N = 117) and control (more...)
It is important to note that cognitive tasks completed before, during, and after physical activity show varying effects, but the effects were always positive compared with sedentary behavior. In a study carried out by Drollette and colleagues (2012) , 36 preadolescent children completed two cognitive tasks—a flanker task to assess attention and inhibition and a spatial nback task to assess working memory—before, during, and after seated rest and treadmill walking conditions. The children sat or walked on different days for an average of 19 minutes. The results suggest that the physical activity enhanced cognitive performance for the attention task but not for the task requiring working memory. Accordingly, although more research is needed, the authors suggest that the acute effects of exercise may be selective to certain cognitive processes (i.e., attentional inhibition) while unrelated to others (e.g., working memory). Indeed, data collected using a task-switching paradigm (i.e., a task designed to assess multitasking and requiring the scheduling of attention to multiple aspects of the environment) among 69 overweight and inactive children did not show differences in cognitive performance following acute bouts of treadmill walking or sitting ( Tomporowski et al., 2008b ). Thus, findings to date indicate a robust relationship of acute exercise to transient improvements in attention but appear inconsistent for other aspects of cognition.
Academic Learning Time and On- and Off-Task Behaviors
Excessive time on task, inattention to task, off-task behavior, and delinquency are important considerations in the learning environment given the importance of academic learning time to academic performance. These behaviors are observable and of concern to teachers as they detract from the learning environment. Systematic observation by trained observers may yield important insight regarding the effects of short physical activity breaks on these behaviors. Indeed, systematic observations of student behavior have been used as an alternative means of measuring academic performance ( Mahar et al., 2006 ; Grieco et al., 2009 ).
After the development of classroom-based physical activities, called Energizers, teachers were trained in how to implement such activities in their lessons at least twice per week ( Mahar et al., 2006 ). Measurements of baseline physical activity and on-task behaviors were collected in two 3rd-grade and two 4th-grade classes, using pedometers and direct observation. The intervention included 243 students, while 108 served as controls by not engaging in the activities. A subgroup of 62 3rd and 4th graders was observed for on-task behavior in the classroom following the physical activity. Children who participated in Energizers took more steps during the school day than those who did not; they also increased their on-task behaviors by more than 20 percent over baseline measures.
A systematic review of a similar in-class, academically oriented, physical activity plan—Take 10!—was conducted to identify the effects of its implementation after it had been in use for 10 years ( Kibbe et al., 2011 ). The findings suggest that children who experienced Take 10! in the classroom engaged in moderate to vigorous physical activity (6.16 to 6.42 METs) and had lower BMIs than those who did not. Further, children in the Take 10! classrooms had better fluid intelligence ( Reed et al., 2010 ) and higher academic achievement scores ( Donnelly et al., 2009 ).
Some have expressed concern that introducing physical activity into the classroom setting may be distracting to students. Yet in one study it was sedentary students who demonstrated a decrease in time on task, while active students returned to the same level of on-task behavior after an active learning task ( Grieco et al., 2009 ). Among the 97 3rd-grade students in this study, a small but nonsignificant increase in on-task behaviors was seen immediately following these active lessons. Additionally, these improvements were not mediated by BMI.
In sum, although presently understudied, physically active lessons may increase time on task and attention to task in the classroom setting. Given the complexity of the typical classroom, the strategy of including content-specific lessons that incorporate physical activity may be justified.
It is recommended that every child have 20 minutes of recess each day and that this time be outdoors whenever possible, in a safe activity ( NASPE, 2006 ). Consistent engagement in recess can help students refine social skills, learn social mediation skills surrounding fair play, obtain additional minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity that contribute toward the recommend 60 minutes or more per day, and have an opportunity to express their imagination through free play ( Pellegrini and Bohn, 2005 ; see also Chapter 6 ). When children participate in recess before lunch, additional benefits accrue, such as less food waste, increased incidence of appropriate behavior in the cafeteria during lunch, and greater student readiness to learn upon returning to the classroom after lunch ( Getlinger et al., 1996 ; Wechsler et al., 2001 ).
To examine the effects of engagement in physical activity during recess on classroom behavior, Barros and colleagues (2009) examined data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study on 10,000 8- to 9-year-old children. Teachers provided the number of minutes of recess as well as a ranking of classroom behavior (ranging from “misbehaves frequently” to “behaves exceptionally well”). Results indicate that children who had at least 15 minutes of recess were more likely to exhibit appropriate behavior in the classroom ( Barros et al., 2009 ). In another study, 43 4th-grade students were randomly assigned to 1 or no days of recess to examine the effects on classroom behavior ( Jarrett et al., 1998 ). The researchers concluded that on-task behavior was better among the children who had recess. A moderate effect size (= 0.51) was observed. In a series of studies examining kindergartners' attention to task following a 20-minute recess, increased time on task was observed during learning centers and story reading ( Pellegrini et al., 1995 ). Despite these positive findings centered on improved attention, it is important to note that few of these studies actually measured the intensity of the physical activity during recess.
From a slightly different perspective, survey data from 547 Virginia elementary school principals suggest that time dedicated to student participation in physical education, art, and music did not negatively influence academic performance ( Wilkins et al., 2003 ). Thus, the strategy of reducing time spent in physical education to increase academic performance may not have the desired effect. The evidence on in-school physical activity supports the provision of physical activity breaks during the school day as a way to increase fluid intelligence, time on task, and attention. However, it remains unclear what portion of these effects can be attributed to a break from academic time and what portion is a direct result of the specific demands/characteristics of the physical activity.
- THE DEVELOPING bRAIN, PHYSICAL ACTIVITY, AND BRAIN HEALTH
The study of brain health has grown beyond simply measuring behavioral outcomes such as task performance and reaction time (e.g., cognitive processing speed). New technology has emerged that has allowed scientists to understand the impact of lifestyle factors on the brain from the body systems level down to the molecular level. A greater understanding of the cognitive components that subserve academic performance and may be amenable to intervention has thereby been gained. Research conducted in both laboratory and field settings has helped define this line of inquiry and identify some preliminary underlying mechanisms.
The Evidence Base on the Relationship of Physical Activity to Brain Health and Cognition in Older Adults
Despite the current focus on the relationship of physical activity to cognitive development, the evidence base is larger on the association of physical activity with brain health and cognition during aging. Much can be learned about how physical activity affects childhood cognition and scholastic achievement through this work. Despite earlier investigations into the relationship of physical activity to cognitive aging (see Etnier et al., 1997 , for a review), the field was shaped by the findings of Kramer and colleagues (1999) , who examined the effects of aerobic fitness training on older adults using a randomized controlled design. Specifically, 124 older adults aged 60 and 75 were randomly assigned to a 6-month intervention of either walking (i.e., aerobic training) or flexibility (i.e., nonaerobic) training. The walking group but not the flexibility group showed improved cognitive performance, measured as a shorter response time to the presented stimulus. Results from a series of tasks that tapped different aspects of cognitive control indicated that engagement in physical activity is a beneficial means of combating cognitive aging ( Kramer et al., 1999 ).
Cognitive control, or executive control, is involved in the selection, scheduling, and coordination of computational processes underlying perception, memory, and goal-directed action. These processes allow for the optimization of behavioral interactions within the environment through flexible modulation of the ability to control attention ( MacDonald et al., 2000 ; Botvinick et al., 2001 ). Core cognitive processes that make up cognitive control or executive control include inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility ( Diamond, 2006 ), processes mediated by networks that involve the prefrontal cortex. Inhibition (or inhibitory control) refers to the ability to override a strong internal or external pull so as to act appropriately within the demands imposed by the environment ( Davidson et al., 2006 ). For example, one exerts inhibitory control when one stops speaking when the teacher begins lecturing. Working memory refers to the ability to represent information mentally, manipulate stored information, and act on the information ( Davidson et al., 2006 ). In solving a difficult mathematical problem, for example, one must often remember the remainder. Finally, cognitive flexibility refers to the ability to switch perspectives, focus attention, and adapt behavior quickly and flexibly for the purposes of goal-directed action ( Blair et al., 2005 ; Davidson et al., 2006 ; Diamond, 2006 ). For example, one must shift attention from the teacher who is teaching a lesson to one's notes to write down information for later study.
Based on their earlier findings on changes in cognitive control induced by aerobic training, Colcombe and Kramer (2003) conducted a meta-analysis to examine the relationship between aerobic training and cognition in older adults aged 55-80 using data from 18 randomized controlled exercise interventions. Their findings suggest that aerobic training is associated with general cognitive benefits that are selectively and disproportionately greater for tasks or task components requiring greater amounts of cognitive control. A second and more recent meta-analysis ( Smith et al., 2010 ) corroborates the findings of Colcombe and Kramer, indicating that aerobic exercise is related to attention, processing speed, memory, and cognitive control; however, it should be noted that smaller effect sizes were observed, likely a result of the studies included in the respective meta-analyses. In older adults, then, aerobic training selectively improves cognition.
Hillman and colleagues (2006) examined the relationship between physical activity and inhibition (one aspect of cognitive control) using a computer-based stimulus-response protocol in 241 individuals aged 15-71. Their results indicate that greater amounts of physical activity are related to decreased response speed across task conditions requiring variable amounts of inhibition, suggesting a generalized relationship between physical activity and response speed. In addition, the authors found physical activity to be related to better accuracy across conditions in older adults, while no such relationship was observed for younger adults. Of interest, this relationship was disproportionately larger for the condition requiring greater amounts of inhibition in the older adults, suggesting that physical activity has both a general and selective association with task performance ( Hillman et al., 2006 ).
With advances in neuroimaging techniques, understanding of the effects of physical activity and aerobic fitness on brain structure and function has advanced rapidly over the past decade. In particular, a series of studies ( Colcombe et al., 2003 , 2004 , 2006 ; Kramer and Erickson, 2007 ; Hillman et al., 2008 ) of older individuals has been conducted to elucidate the relation of aerobic fitness to the brain and cognition. Normal aging results in the loss of brain tissue ( Colcombe et al., 2003 ), with markedly larger loss evidenced in the frontal, temporal, and parietal regions ( Raz, 2000 ). Thus cognitive functions subserved by these brain regions (such as those involved in cognitive control and aspects of memory) are expected to decay more dramatically than other aspects of cognition.
Colcombe and colleagues (2003) investigated the relationship of aerobic fitness to gray and white matter tissue loss using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in 55 healthy older adults aged 55-79. They observed robust age-related decreases in tissue density in the frontal, temporal, and parietal regions using voxel-based morphometry, a technique used to assess brain volume. Reductions in the amount of tissue loss in these regions were observed as a function of fitness. Given that the brain structures most affected by aging also demonstrated the greatest fitness-related sparing, these initial findings provide a biological basis for fitness-related benefits to brain health during aging.
In a second study, Colcombe and colleagues (2006) examined the effects of aerobic fitness training on brain structure using a randomized controlled design with 59 sedentary healthy adults aged 60-79. The treatment group received a 6-month aerobic exercise (i.e., walking) intervention, while the control group received a stretching and toning intervention that did not include aerobic exercise. Results indicated that gray and white matter brain volume increased for those who received the aerobic fitness training intervention. No such results were observed for those assigned to the stretching and toning group. Specifically, those assigned to the aerobic training intervention demonstrated increased gray matter in the frontal lobes, including the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, the supplementary motor area, the middle frontal gyrus, the dorsolateral region of the right inferior frontal gyrus, and the left superior temporal lobe. White matter volume changes also were evidenced following the aerobic fitness intervention, with increases in white matter tracts being observed within the anterior third of the corpus callosum. These brain regions are important for cognition, as they have been implicated in the cognitive control of attention and memory processes. These findings suggest that aerobic training not only spares age-related loss of brain structures but also may in fact enhance the structural health of specific brain regions.
In addition to the structural changes noted above, research has investigated the relationship between aerobic fitness and changes in brain function. That is, aerobic fitness training has also been observed to induce changes in patterns of functional activation. Functional MRI (fMRI) measures, which make it possible to image activity in the brain while an individual is performing a cognitive task, have revealed that aerobic training induces changes in patterns of functional activation. This approach involves inferring changes in neuronal activity from alteration in blood flow or metabolic activity in the brain. In a seminal paper, Colcombe and colleagues (2004) examined the relationship of aerobic fitness to brain function and cognition across two studies with older adults. In the first study, 41 older adult participants (mean age ~66) were divided into higher- and lower-fit groups based on their performance on a maximal exercise test. In the second study, 29 participants (aged 58-77) were recruited and randomly assigned to either a fitness training (i.e., walking) or control (i.e., stretching and toning) intervention. In both studies, participants were given a task requiring variable amounts of attention and inhibition. Results indicated that fitness (study 1) and fitness training (study 2) were related to greater activation in the middle frontal gyrus and superior parietal cortex; these regions of the brain are involved in attentional control and inhibitory functioning, processes entailed in the regulation of attention and action. These changes in neural activation were related to significant improvements in performance on the cognitive control task of attention and inhibition.
Taken together, the findings across studies suggest that an increase in aerobic fitness, derived from physical activity, is related to improvements in the integrity of brain structure and function and may underlie improvements in cognition across tasks requiring cognitive control. Although developmental differences exist, the general paradigm of this research can be applied to early stages of the life span, and some early attempts to do so have been made, as described below. Given the focus of this chapter on childhood cognition, it should be noted that this section has provided only a brief and arguably narrow look at the research on physical activity and cognitive aging. Considerable work has detailed the relationship of physical activity to other aspects of adult cognition using behavioral and neuroimaging tools (e.g., Boecker, 2011 ). The interested reader is referred to a number of review papers and meta-analyses describing the relationship of physical activity to various aspects of cognitive and brain health ( Etnier et al., 1997 ; Colcombe and Kramer, 2003 ; Tomporowski, 2003 ; Thomas et al., 2012 ).
Child Development, Brain Structure, and Function
Certain aspects of development have been linked with experience, indicating an intricate interplay between genetic programming and environmental influences. Gray matter, and the organization of synaptic connections in particular, appears to be at least partially dependent on experience (NRC/IOM, 2000; Taylor, 2006 ), with the brain exhibiting a remarkable ability to reorganize itself in response to input from sensory systems, other cortical systems, or insult ( Huttenlocher and Dabholkar, 1997 ). During typical development, experience shapes the pruning process through the strengthening of neural networks that support relevant thoughts and actions and the elimination of unnecessary or redundant connections. Accordingly, the brain responds to experience in an adaptive or “plastic” manner, resulting in the efficient and effective adoption of thoughts, skills, and actions relevant to one's interactions within one's environmental surroundings. Examples of neural plasticity in response to unique environmental interaction have been demonstrated in human neuroimaging studies of participation in music ( Elbert et al., 1995 ; Chan et al., 1998 ; Münte et al., 2001 ) and sports ( Hatfield and Hillman, 2001 ; Aglioti et al., 2008 ), thus supporting the educational practice of providing music education and opportunities for physical activity to children.
Effects of Regular Engagement in Physical Activity and Physical Fitness on Brain Structure
Recent advances in neuroimaging techniques have rapidly advanced understanding of the role physical activity and aerobic fitness may have in brain structure. In children a growing body of correlational research suggests differential brain structure related to aerobic fitness. Chaddock and colleagues (2010a , b ) showed a relationship among aerobic fitness, brain volume, and aspects of cognition and memory. Specifically, Chaddock and colleagues (2010a) assigned 9- to 10-year-old preadolescent children to lower- and higher-fitness groups as a function of their scores on a maximal oxygen uptake (VO 2 max) test, which is considered the gold-standard measure of aerobic fitness. They observed larger bilateral hippocampal volume in higher-fit children using MRI, as well as better performance on a task of relational memory. It is important to note that relational memory has been shown to be mediated by the hippocampus ( Cohen and Eichenbaum, 1993 ; Cohen et al., 1999 ). Further, no differences emerged for a task condition requiring item memory, which is supported by structures outside the hippocampus, suggesting selectivity among the aspects of memory that benefit from higher amounts of fitness. Lastly, hippocampal volume was positively related to performance on the relational memory task but not the item memory task, and bilateral hippocampal volume was observed to mediate the relationship between fitness and relational memory ( Chaddock et al., 2010a ). Such findings are consistent with behavioral measures of relational memory in children ( Chaddock et al., 2011 ) and neuroimaging findings in older adults ( Erickson et al., 2009 , 2011 ) and support the robust nonhuman animal literature demonstrating the effects of exercise on cell proliferation ( Van Praag et al., 1999 ) and survival ( Neeper et al., 1995 ) in the hippocampus.
In a second investigation ( Chaddock et al., 2010b ), higher- and lower-fit children (aged 9-10) underwent an MRI to determine whether structural differences might be found that relate to performance on a cognitive control task that taps attention and inhibition. The authors observed differential findings in the basal ganglia, a subcortical structure involved in the interplay of cognition and willed action. Specifically, higher-fit children exhibited greater volume in the dorsal striatum (i.e., caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus) relative to lower-fit children, while no differences were observed in the ventral striatum. Such findings are not surprising given the role of the dorsal striatum in cognitive control and response resolution ( Casey et al., 2008 ; Aron et al., 2009 ), as well as the growing body of research in children and adults indicating that higher levels of fitness are associated with better control of attention, memory, and cognition ( Colcombe and Kramer, 2003 ; Hillman et al., 2008 ; Chang and Etnier, 2009 ). Chaddock and colleagues (2010b) further observed that higher-fit children exhibited increased inhibitory control and response resolution and that higher basal ganglia volume was related to better task performance. These findings indicate that the dorsal striatum is involved in these aspects of higher-order cognition and that fitness may influence cognitive control during preadolescent development. It should be noted that both studies described above were correlational in nature, leaving open the possibility that other factors related to fitness and/or the maturation of subcortical structures may account for the observed group differences.
Effects of Regular Engagement in Physical Activity and Physical Fitness on Brain Function
Other research has attempted to characterize fitness-related differences in brain function using fMRI and event-related brain potentials (ERPs), which are neuroelectric indices of functional brain activation in the electro-encephalographic time series. To date, few randomized controlled interventions have been conducted. Notably, Davis and colleagues (2011) conducted one such intervention lasting approximately 14 weeks that randomized 20 sedentary overweight preadolescent children into an after-school physical activity intervention or a nonactivity control group. The fMRI data collected during an antisaccade task, which requires inhibitory control, indicated increased bilateral activation of the prefrontal cortex and decreased bilateral activation of the posterior parietal cortex following the physical activity intervention relative to the control group. Such findings illustrate some of the neural substrates influenced by participation in physical activity. Two additional correlational studies ( Voss et al., 2011 ; Chaddock et al., 2012 ) compared higher- and lower-fit preadolescent children and found differential brain activation and superior task performance as a function of fitness. That is, Chaddock and colleagues (2012) observed increased activation in prefrontal and parietal brain regions during early task blocks and decreased activation during later task blocks in higher-fit relative to lower-fit children. Given that higher-fit children outperformed lower-fit children on the aspects of the task requiring the greatest amount of cognitive control, the authors reason that the higher-fit children were more capable of adapting neural activity to meet the demands imposed by tasks that tapped higher-order cognitive processes such as inhibition and goal maintenance. Voss and colleagues (2011) used a similar task to vary cognitive control requirements and found that higher-fit children outperformed their lower-fit counterparts and that such differences became more pronounced during task conditions requiring the upregulation of control. Further, several differences emerged across various brain regions that together make up the network associated with cognitive control. Collectively, these differences suggest that higher-fit children are more efficient in the allocation of resources in support of cognitive control operations.
Other imaging research has examined the neuroelectric system (i.e., ERPs) to investigate which cognitive processes occurring between stimulus engagement and response execution are influenced by fitness. Several studies ( Hillman et al., 2005 , 2009 ; Pontifex et al., 2011 ) have examined the P3 component of the stimulus-locked ERP and demonstrated that higher-fit children have larger-amplitude and shorter-latency ERPs relative to their lower-fit peers. Classical theory suggests that P3 relates to neuronal activity associated with revision of the mental representation of the previous event within the stimulus environment ( Donchin, 1981 ). P3 amplitude reflects the allocation of attentional resources when working memory is updated ( Donchin and Coles, 1988 ) such that P3 is sensitive to the amount of attentional resources allocated to a stimulus ( Polich, 1997 ; Polich and Heine, 2007 ). P3 latency generally is considered to represent stimulus evaluation and classification speed ( Kutas et al., 1977 ; Duncan-Johnson, 1981 ) and thus may be considered a measure of stimulus detection and evaluation time ( Magliero et al., 1984 ; Ila and Polich, 1999 ). Therefore the above findings suggest that higher-fit children allocate greater attentional resources and have faster cognitive processing speed relative to lower-fit children ( Hillman et al., 2005 , 2009 ), with additional research suggesting that higher-fit children also exhibit greater flexibility in the allocation of attentional resources, as indexed by greater modulation of P3 amplitude across tasks that vary in the amount of cognitive control required ( Pontifex et al., 2011 ). Given that higher-fit children also demonstrate better performance on cognitive control tasks, the P3 component appears to reflect the effectiveness of a subset of cognitive systems that support willed action ( Hillman et al., 2009 ; Pontifex et al., 2011 ).
Two ERP studies ( Hillman et al., 2009 ; Pontifex et al., 2011 ) have focused on aspects of cognition involved in action monitoring. That is, the error-related negativity (ERN) component was investigated in higher- and lower-fit children to determine whether differences in evaluation and regulation of cognitive control operations were influenced by fitness level. The ERN component is observed in response-locked ERP averages. It is often elicited by errors of commission during task performance and is believed to represent either the detection of errors during task performance ( Gehring et al., 1993 ; Holroyd and Coles, 2002 ) or more generally the detection of response conflict ( Botvinick et al., 2001 ; Yeung et al., 2004 ), which may be engendered by errors in response production. Several studies have reported that higher-fit children exhibit smaller ERN amplitude during rapid-response tasks (i.e., instructions emphasizing speed of responding; Hillman et al., 2009 ) and more flexibility in the allocation of these resources during tasks entailing variable cognitive control demands, as evidenced by changes in ERN amplitude for higher-fit children and no modulation of ERN in lower-fit children ( Pontifex et al., 2011 ). Collectively, this pattern of results suggests that children with lower levels of fitness allocate fewer attentional resources during stimulus engagement (P3 amplitude) and exhibit slower cognitive processing speed (P3 latency) but increased activation of neural resources involved in the monitoring of their actions (ERN amplitude). Alternatively, higher-fit children allocate greater resources to environmental stimuli and demonstrate less reliance on action monitoring (increasing resource allocation only to meet the demands of the task). Under more demanding task conditions, the strategy of lower-fit children appears to fail since they perform more poorly under conditions requiring the upregulation of cognitive control.
Finally, only one randomized controlled trial published to date has used ERPs to assess neurocognitive function in children. Kamijo and colleagues (2011) studied performance on a working memory task before and after a 9-month physical activity intervention compared with a wait-list control group. They observed better performance following the physical activity intervention during task conditions that required the upregulation of working memory relative to the task condition requiring lesser amounts of working memory. Further, increased activation of the contingent negative variation (CNV), an ERP component reflecting cognitive and motor preparation, was observed at posttest over frontal scalp sites in the physical activity intervention group. No differences in performance or brain activation were noted for the wait-list control group. These findings suggest an increase in cognitive preparation processes in support of a more effective working memory network resulting from prolonged participation in physical activity. For children in a school setting, regular participation in physical activity as part of an after-school program is particularly beneficial for tasks that require the use of working memory.
Adiposity and Risk for Metabolic Syndrome as It Relates to Cognitive Health
A related and emerging literature that has recently been popularized investigates the relationship of adiposity to cognitive and brain health and academic performance. Several reports ( Datar et al., 2004 ; Datar and Sturm, 2006 ; Judge and Jahns, 2007 ; Gable et al., 2012 ) on this relationship are based on large-scale datasets derived from the Early Child Longitudinal Study. Further, nonhuman animal research has been used to elucidate the relationships between health indices and cognitive and brain health (see Figure 4-4 for an overview of these relationships). Collectively, these studies observed poorer future academic performance among children who entered school overweight or moved from a healthy weight to overweight during the course of development. Corroborating evidence for a negative relationship between adiposity and academic performance may be found in smaller but more tightly controlled studies. As noted above, Castelli and colleagues (2007) observed poorer performance on the mathematics and reading portions of the Illinois Standardized Achievement Test in 3rd- and 5th-grade students as a function of higher BMI, and Donnelly and colleagues (2009) used a cluster randomized trial to demonstrate that physical activity in the classroom decreased BMI and improved academic achievement among pre-adolescent children.
Relationships between health indices and cognitive and brain health. NOTE: AD = Alzheimer's disease; PD = Parkinson's disease. SOURCE: Cotman et al., 2007. Reprinted with permission.
Recently published reports describe the relationship between adiposity and cognitive and brain health to advance understanding of the basic cognitive processes and neural substrates that may underlie the adiposity-achievement relationship. Bolstered by findings in adult populations (e.g., Debette et al., 2010 ; Raji et al., 2010 ; Carnell et al., 2011 ), researchers have begun to publish data on preadolescent populations indicating differences in brain function and cognitive performance related to adiposity (however, see Gunstad et al., 2008 , for an instance in which adiposity was unrelated to cognitive outcomes). Specifically, Kamijo and colleagues (2012a) examined the relationship of weight status to cognitive control and academic achievement in 126 children aged 7-9. The children completed a battery of cognitive control tasks, and their body composition was assessed using dual X-ray absorptiometry (DXA). The authors found that higher BMI and greater amounts of fat mass (particularly in the midsection) were related to poorer performance on cognitive control tasks involving inhibition, as well as lower academic achievement. In follow-up studies, Kamijo and colleagues (2012b) investigated whether neural markers of the relationship between adiposity and cognition may be found through examination of ERP data. These studies compared healthy-weight and obese children and found a differential distribution of the P3 potential (i.e., less frontally distributed) and larger N2 amplitude, as well as smaller ERN magnitude, in obese children during task conditions that required greater amounts of inhibitory control ( Kamijo et al., 2012c ). Taken together, the above results suggest that obesity is associated with less effective neural processes during stimulus capture and response execution. As a result, obese children perform tasks more slowly ( Kamijo et al., 2012a ) and are less accurate ( Kamijo et al., 2012b , c ) in response to tasks requiring variable amounts of cognitive control. Although these data are correlational, they provide a basis for further study using other neuroimaging tools (e.g., MRI, fMRI), as well as a rationale for the design and implementation of randomized controlled studies that would allow for causal interpretation of the relationship of adiposity to cognitive and brain health. The next decade should provide a great deal of information on this relationship.
- LIMITATIONS
Despite the promising findings described in this chapter, it should be noted that the study of the relationship of childhood physical activity, aerobic fitness, and adiposity to cognitive and brain health and academic performance is in its early stages. Accordingly, most studies have used designs that afford correlation rather than causation. To date, in fact, only two randomized controlled trials ( Davis et al., 2011 ; Kamijo et al., 2011 ) on this relationship have been published. However, several others are currently ongoing, and it was necessary to provide evidence through correlational studies before investing the effort, time, and funding required for more demanding causal studies. Given that the evidence base in this area has grown exponentially in the past 10 years through correlational studies and that causal evidence has accumulated through adult and nonhuman animal studies, the next step will be to increase the amount of causal evidence available on school-age children.
Accomplishing this will require further consideration of demographic factors that may moderate the physical activity–cognition relationship. For instance, socioeconomic status has a unique relationship with physical activity ( Estabrooks et al., 2003 ) and cognitive control ( Mezzacappa, 2004 ). Although many studies have attempted to control for socioeconomic status (see Hillman et al., 2009 ; Kamijo et al., 2011 , 2012a , b , c ; Pontifex et al., 2011 ), further inquiry into its relationship with physical activity, adiposity, and cognition is warranted to determine whether it may serve as a potential mediator or moderator for the observed relationships. A second demographic factor that warrants further consideration is gender. Most authors have failed to describe gender differences when reporting on the physical activity–cognition literature. However, studies of adiposity and cognition have suggested that such a relationship may exist (see Datar and Sturm, 2006 ). Additionally, further consideration of age is warranted. Most studies have examined a relatively narrow age range, consisting of a few years. Such an approach often is necessary because of maturation and the need to develop comprehensive assessment tools that suit the various stages of development. However, this approach has yielded little understanding of how the physical activity–cognition relationship may change throughout the course of maturation.
Finally, although a number of studies have described the relationship of physical activity, fitness, and adiposity to standardized measures of academic performance, few attempts have been made to observe the relationship within the context of the educational environment. Standardized tests, although necessary to gauge knowledge, may not be the most sensitive measures for (the process of) learning. Future research will need to do a better job of translating promising laboratory findings to the real world to determine the value of this relationship in ecologically valid settings.
From an authentic and practical to a mechanistic perspective, physically active and aerobically fit children consistently outperform their inactive and unfit peers academically on both a short- and a long-term basis. Time spent engaged in physical activity is related not only to a healthier body but also to enriched cognitive development and lifelong brain health. Collectively, the findings across the body of literature in this area suggest that increases in aerobic fitness, derived from physical activity, are related to improvements in the integrity of brain structure and function that underlie academic performance. The strongest relationships have been found between aerobic fitness and performance in mathematics, reading, and English. For children in a school setting, regular participation in physical activity is particularly beneficial with respect to tasks that require working memory and problem solving. These findings are corroborated by the results of both authentic correlational studies and experimental randomized controlled trials. Overall, the benefits of additional time dedicated to physical education and other physical activity opportunities before, during, and after school outweigh the benefits of exclusive utilization of school time for academic learning, as physical activity opportunities offered across the curriculum do not inhibit academic performance.
Both habitual and single bouts of physical activity contribute to enhanced academic performance. Findings indicate a robust relationship of acute exercise to increased attention, with evidence emerging for a relationship between participation in physical activity and disciplinary behaviors, time on task, and academic performance. Specifically, higher-fit children allocate greater resources to a given task and demonstrate less reliance on environmental cues or teacher prompting.
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- Cite this Page Committee on Physical Activity and Physical Education in the School Environment; Food and Nutrition Board; Institute of Medicine; Kohl HW III, Cook HD, editors. Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2013 Oct 30. 4, Physical Activity, Fitness, and Physical Education: Effects on Academic Performance.
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Vol 23 issue 2, february 2023.
Art # 35 pp. 293 – 300 Dynamic stretching improves muscle activation and pain pressure threshold but not isometric hand strength when compared to static stretching SAMUEL MONTALVO1, DANIEL CONDE2, MICHAEL SANCHEZ3, PEDRO MARTINEZ4, RAUL TREVIZO5, GABRIEL IBARRA-MEJIA6. 1,2,3Wu Tsai Human Performance Alliance, Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 1,2,3,4,5,6,Bio-Ergonomics Laboratory, Public Health Sciences, The University of Texas at El Paso, UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Published online: February 28, 2023 (Accepted for publication February 15, 2023) DOI:10.7752/jpes.2023.02035
Art # 36 pp. 301 – 309 Effects of self-selected load-training intensity on resistance training within the season of amateur Rugby athletes MARÍLIA LEITE DOS SANTOS1 , RENAN FELIPE HARTMANN NUNES2 , EVELLINE DE SOUZA BEZERRA3, EWERTTON DE SOUZA BEZERRA4 1,4Laboratório de Estudo do Desempenho Humano, Universidade Federal do Amazonas, Manaus-AM, BRASIL. 2 Coritiba Football Clube, Curitiba, Paraná, BRASIL 3,4 Instituto Extremus, Manaus-AM, BRASIL. 4Programa de Pós Graduação Stricto Sensu em Ciências do Movimento Humano, Faculdade de Educação Física e Fisioterapia, Universidade Federal do Amazonas, Manaus-AM, BRASIL Published online: February 28, 2023 (Accepted for publication February 15, 2023) DOI:10.7752/jpes.2023.02036
Art # 37 pp. 310 – 318 The effectiveness of a practical half-time re-warm-up strategy in youth female basketball players DANIEL GONZÁLEZ-DEVESA1, ANTONIO J MOLINA2, CARLOS AYÁN3, DAVID SUÁREZ-IGLESIAS4, ALEJANDRO VAQUERA5 1Faculty of Physical Activity and Sports Sciences, University of León, León, SPAIN; 2Grupo de Investigación en Interacción Gen-Ambiente-Salud, (GIIGAS), IBIOMED, Universidad de León, León, SPAIN; 2,3CIBER. Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid; 3Departamento de Didácticas Especiais, Universidade de Vigo, Well-Move Research Group, Galicia Sur Health Research Institute (IIS Galicia Sur), SERGAS-UVIGO, Pontevedra, SPAIN; 4,5VALFIS Research Group, Institute of Biomedicine (IBIOMED), University of León, León, Spain; 5School of Sport & Exercise Science. University of Worcester, UK. Published online: February 28, 2023 (Accepted for publication February 15, 2023) DOI:10.7752/jpes.2023.02037
Art # 38 pp. 319 – 327 An updated look at physical exercise and its effect on overweight and obesity in children and adolescents with down syndrome: a comprehensive systematic review DANIEL MEDINA-REBOLLO1, JESÚS FERNÁNDEZ-GAVIRA3*, VIRGINIA ALCARAZ-RODRÍGUEZ2, EDUARDO JOSÉ FERNÁNDEZ-OZCORTA1 1. Department of Physical Activity and Sports, Center for University Studies Cardenal Spínola CEU, University of Seville Attached Centre-Spain, 41930 Bormujos, SPAIN. 2. Physical Education and Sports Department, University of Seville, 41013 Seville, SPAIN. 3. Faculty of Education Sciences, Valencia International University, 46002 Valencia, SPAIN. Published online: February 28, 2023 (Accepted for publication February 15, 2023) DOI:10.7752/jpes.2023.02038
Art # 39 pp. 328 – 334 Effect of short-term functional training intervention on athletic performance in elite male combat sambo athletes MIKHAIL KUDRYAVTSEV1, ALEKSANDER OSIPOV2, VLADIMIR GURALEV3, TATYANA RATMANSKAYA4, HAMZA ALDIABAT5, IBRAHIM ALDIABAT6, MIKHAIL KOLOKOLTSEV7, IVAN DAVIDENKO8, ANDREY GLUKHOV9, ELENA KARPENKO10 1,2,4,5,6 Siberian Federal University, Krasnoyarsk, RUSSIA 1,3 Siberian Law Institute of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Russia, Krasnoyarsk, RUSSIA 1,2,3 Reshetnev Siberian State University Science and Technology, Krasnoyarsk, RUSSIA 2,4 Voino-Yasenetsky Krasnoyarsk State Medical University, Krasnoyarsk, RUSSIA 5,6Yarmouk University, Irbid, Kingdom of JORDAN 7 Irkutsk National Research Technical University, RUSSIA 8 Saint-Petersburg State Agrarian University, St. Petersburg, RUSSIA 9 Immanuel Kant Baltic Federal University, Kaliningrad, RUSSIA 10 Altai State University, Barnaul, RUSSIA Published online: February 28, 2023 (Accepted for publication February 15, 2023) DOI:10.7752/jpes.2023.02039
Art # 40 pp. 335 – 341 Effect of specific balance training on balance performance and technical combat skills of male and female police cadets ALEKSANDER OSIPOV1, TATYANA RATMANSKAYA2, VLADIMIR GURALEV3, MIKHAIL KUDRYAVTSEV4, HAMZA ALDIABAT5, IBRAHIM ALDIABAT6, PAVEL LITASOV7, ANTON VOROZHEIKIN8, MIKHAIL KOLOKOLTSEV9 1,2,4,5,6 Siberian Federal University, Krasnoyarsk, RUSSIA 1 Voino-Yasenetsky Krasnoyarsk State Medical University, Krasnoyarsk, RUSSIA 1,3,4 Siberian Law Institute of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Russia, Krasnoyarsk, RUSSIA 4 Reshetnev Siberian State University Science and Technology, Krasnoyarsk, RUSSIA 5,6Yarmouk University, Irbid, Kingdom of JORDAN 7 Kaliningrad Brunch of the Saint-Petersburg University of the Ministry of the Interior of Russia, RUSSIA 8 Kaliningrad Institute of Management, RUSSIA 9Irkutsk National Research Technical University, Irkutsk, RUSSIA Published online: February 28, 2023 (Accepted for publication February 15, 2023) DOI:10.7752/jpes.2023.02040
Art # 41 pp. 342 – 348 Effects of unexpectedness on the risk of head injuries in judo novices and experts HIRONORI HAYASHI1, KENJI ANATA2, YOSHIHISA ISHIKAWA3, HIDEKAZU SHODA4 1 Faculty of Sport Study, Biwako Seikei Sport College, JAPAN 2 National Institute of Technology, Ishikawa College, JAPAN 3 Faculty of Education, Osaka kyoiku University, JAPAN 4 School of Physical Education, Osaka University of Health and Sport Sciences, JAPAN Published online: February 28, 2023 (Accepted for publication February 15, 2023) DOI:10.7752/jpes.2023.02041
Art # 42 pp. 349 – 359 Gender differentiation of self-regulating mental states of athletes with disabilities: comparative analysis LESІA PROKHORENKO1, IHOR POPOVYCH2, HANNA SOKOLOVA3, YULIIA CHUMAIEVA4, YURII KOSENKO5, TETIANA RAZUMOVSKA6, VІACHESLAV ZASENKO7 1,2,7Mykola Yarmachenko Institute of Special Pedagogy and Psychology, NAPS of Ukraine, UKRAINE 2Kherson State University, Kherson, UKRAINE 3South Ukrainian National Pedagogical University named after K. D. Ushynsky, Odesa, UKRAINE 4Odesa National Maritime University, Odesa, UKRAINE 5Anton Makarenko Sumy State Pedagogic University, Sumy, UKRAINE 6Volodymyr Vynnychenko Central Ukrainian State University, Kropyvnytskyi, UKRAINE Published online: February 28, 2023 (Accepted for publication February 15, 2023) DOI:10.7752/jpes.2023.02042
Art # 43 pp. 360 – 371 Effects of whole-body high-intensity interval training and different running-based high-intensity interval training protocols on aerobic capacity and strength endurance in young physical education students THOMAS BOSSMANN1, MALTE BICKMEYER2, ALEXANDER WOLL3, INGO WAGNER4 1 Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Department of Sport and Sport Science, Engler-Bunte-Ring 15, 76131 Karlsruhe, GERMANY 2 Grotefend-Gymnasium Münden, Mitscherlichstr. 1, 34346 Hann. Münden, GERMANY 3 Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Department of Sport and Sport Science, Engler-Bunte-Ring 15, 76131 Karlsruhe, GERMANY 4 Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Department of Sport Pedagogy, Kaiserstraße 12, 76131 Karlsruhe, GERMANY Published online: February 28, 2023 (Accepted for publication February 15, 2023) DOI:10.7752/jpes.2023.02043
Art # 44 pp. 372 – 378 Multivariate analysis by exploratory machine learning model indicates orienteering race as an immunometabolically safe stimulus, but with differences between age groups MARCELLE KARYELLE MONTALVÃO GOMES1, MARCIO VINÍCIUS DE ABREU VERLI2, LEONARDO DOS SANTOS MACEDO3, ANDREA SCHULZ GALVÃO4, NAIRANA CRISTINA SANTOS FREITAS5, ROBERTO LOHN NAHON6, ANÍBAL MONTEIRO DE MAGALHÃES NETO7, LUIS CARLOS OLIVEIRA GONÇALVES8 1,2,3,4,5,7,8Graduate Program in Physical Education, Federal University of Mato Grosso (UFMT), BRAZIL; 6,Physician and Titular Member of the Brazilian Society of Orthopedics (SBOT) Titular Member of the Brazilian Society of Exercise and Sports Medicine (SBME), BRAZIL; 7,8Graduate Program in Basic and Applied Immunology and Parasitology, Federal University of Mato Grosso (UFMT), BRAZIL; 4,8MBA in Data Science & Analytics, University of São Paulo (USP), BRAZIL; 5,8Undergraduate program in Statistics, Brazilian Institute of Medicine and Rehabilitation (IBMR), BRAZIL Published online: February 28, 2023 (Accepted for publication February 15, 2023) DOI:10.7752/jpes.2023.02044
Art # 45 pp. 379 – 384 Physical education in 17-19-year-old girls with different psychological gender MIKHAIL KOLOKOLTSEV1, RIMA AMBARTSUMYAN2, YURII VYAZOVICHENKO3, ELENA LUKASHEVICH4, ANTON VOROZHEIKIN5, GALINA SAMOYLOVA6, NATALYA BALASHKEVICH7, TSVETELINA PETROVA-GOTOVA8, NINA ARNST9, ANDREI TARASOV10 1,2 Irkutsk National Research Technical University, Irkutsk, RUSSIA 3Institute of Public Health named after F.F.Erisman, I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University (Sechenov University) , RUSSIA 4 Altai State University, Barnaul, RUSSIA 5 Kaliningrad Institute of Management, RUSSIA 6 Siberian Federal University, Krasnoyarsk, RUSSIA 7 Semey Medical University, Non-Commercial Joint-Stock Company, KAZAKHSTAN 8 Faculty of Public Health, Medical University – Sofia, BULGARIA 9Reshetnev Siberian State University Science and Technology, Krasnoyarsk, RUSSIA 10 Immanuel Kant Baltic Federal University, Kaliningrad, RUSSIA Published online: February 28, 2023 (Accepted for publication February 15, 2023) DOI:10.7752/jpes.2023.02045
Art # 46 pp. 385 – 390 Swimming as a way to correct vegetative disorders in students IVAN BOCHARIN1, MAKSIM GURYANOV2, ANDREW MARTUSEVICb, MIKHAIL KOLOKOLTSEV4, ALEXANDER BOLOTIN5, ALEKSANDR LIMARENKO 6, NIKOLAY TORCHINSKY7, ANDREY MUNGALOV8, SERGEY AGANOV9 1,3 Privolzhsky Research Medical University, Nizhny Novgorod, RUSSIA 1,2 Nizhny Novgorod State Agricultural Academy, RUSSIA 3 National Research Lobachevsky State University of Nizhny Novgorod, RUSSIA 4 Irkutsk National Research Technical University, Irkutsk, RUSSIA 5 Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, RUSSIA 6 Siberian Federal University, Krasnoyarsk, RUSSIA 7 Institute of Public Health named after F.F.Erisman, I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University (Sechenov University) , RUSSIA 8 Reshetnev Siberian State University Science and Technology, Krasnoyarsk, RUSSIA 9 GPS Emercom of Russia St. Petersburg University, RUSSIA Published online: February 28, 2023 (Accepted for publication February 15, 2023) DOI:10.7752/jpes.2023.02046
Art # 47 pp. 391 – 398 An ultrasound analysis of the influence of static stretching on fascicle length variation in the gastrocnemius muscle M.L. DINESH1, NABILAH AHMAD2, SITI AISHAH ABDULLAH SUHAIMI3, STANLEY TAN LIAN ENG4 1,3,4,Department of Medical Imaging, KPJ Healthcare University College, Kota Seriemas, Nilai, 71800, Negeri Sembilan, MALAYSIA 2Department of Physiotherapy, KPJ Healthcare University College, Kota Seriemas, Nilai, 71800, Negeri Sembilan, MALAYSIA Published online: February 28, 2023 (Accepted for publication February 15, 2023) DOI:10.7752/jpes.2023.02047
Art # 48 pp. 399 – 403 Digital survey to detect factors that determine successful implementation of cooperative learning in physical education CAROLIN SCHULZE1, MARCUS VON HUTH2 1Institute of Movement Science and Health, Chemnitz University of Technology, GERMANY 2Faculty of applied Sport Sciences & Personality, Business & Law School Berlin, GERMANY Published online: February 28, 2023 (Accepted for publication February 15, 2023) DOI:10.7752/jpes.2023.02048
Art # 49 pp. 404 – 409 The dependence of the academic performance of university students on the level of their physical activity ELENA ROMANOVA1, MIKHAIL KOLOKOLTSEV2, ANTON VOROZHEIKIN3, DENIS KONOVALOV4, TATIANA VRACHINSKAYA5, VALENTIN FEDOROV6, YELENA KONDRASHOVA7, SERGEY AGANOV8, SVETOSLAV GAROV9 1Altai State University, Barnaul, RUSSIA 2 Irkutsk National Research Technical University, Irkutsk, RUSSIA 3Kaliningrad Institute of Management, RUSSIA 4 Herzen State Pedagogical University of Russia, St. Petersburg, RUSSIA 5Immanuel Kant Baltic Federal University, Kaliningrad, RUSSIA 6Siberian Federal University, Krasnoyarsk, RUSSIA 7Reshetnev Siberian State University of Science and Technology, RUSSIA 8 GPS Emercom of Russia St. Petersburg University, RUSSIA 9 Faculty of Public Health, Medical University – Sofia, BULGARIA Published online: February 28, 2023 (Accepted for publication February 15, 2023) DOI:10.7752/jpes.2023.02049
Art # 50 pp. 410 – 418 The effect of aquarobics exercises on fibroblast growth factor 19 and 23 levels [FGF-19, 23] in young men SITI BAITUL MUKARROMAH1*, SOEGIYANTO2, MOHAMMAD ARIF ALI3, GUSTIANA MEGA ANGGITA4, IPANG SETIYAWAN5, RUMINI6, RONNY LESMANA7, AZIIZ MARDANARIAN ROSDIANTO8, KOMARUDIN9, YULINGGA NANDA HANIEF10, NGUNYEN TRA GIANG11, SHANGHEON HENRY PARK12 1,2,3,4 Department of Sport Science, Sports Science Faculty, Universitas Negeri Semarang, INDONESIA. 5,6 Department of Physical Education, Sport Science Faculty, Universitas Negeri Semarang, INDONESIA. 7,8Department of Anatomy, Physiology, and Biology of Cell, Faculty of Medicine, Universitas Padjadjaran, INDONESIA. 9 Department of Physical Education Health and Recreation, Sports Science Faculty, State University of Yogyakarta, INDONESIA. 10Department of Sport Coaching, Faculty of Sport Science, Universitas Negeri Malang, INDONESIA 11 Institute of Sports Science and Management, University of Management and Technology, Hochiminh City. VIETNAM 12Sports Biomechanics, Korea Institute of Sport Science, KOREA. Published online: February 28, 2023 (Accepted for publication February 15, 2023) DOI:10.7752/jpes.2023.02050
Art # 51 pp. 419 – 423 Improving critical thinking ability using teaching game for understanding MEIRIZAL USRA1, WAHYU INDRA BAYU2*, SOLEH SOLAHUDDIN,3, KEVIN OCTARA4 1,2,4Sport Education, Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, Universitas Sriwijaya, INDONESIA 3Physical Education and Health, Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, Universitas Sriwijaya, INDONESIA 3Doctoral Program of Physical Education, Universitas Negeri Jakarta, INDONESIA Published online: February 28, 2023 (Accepted for publication February 15, 2023) DOI:10.7752/jpes.2023.02051
Art # 52 pp. 424 – 430 Predicting the volleyball spike jump height by the force-time curve variables of countermovement and volleyball spike jump LUKÁŠ SLOVÁK1, JAVAD SARVESTAN2, FATEMEH ALAEI3, DAVID ZAHRADNÍK4 1,2,4Human Motion Diagnostic Center, University of Ostrava, CZECH REPUBLIC. 2Transitional and Clinical Research Institute, Faculty of Medical Science, Newcastle University, Newcastle, UNITED KINGDOM. 3Department of Natural Sciences in Kinanthropology, Faculty of Physical Culture, Palacky University Olomouc, CZECH REPUBLIC. Published online: February 28, 2023 (Accepted for publication February 15, 2023) DOI:10.7752/jpes.2023.02052
Art # 53 pp. 431 – 439 Comparison of springboard diving scores between high school and club competitions: scoring analysis and correction method GABRIEL G. DOWNEY1, ZACHARY T. BERG2, DIMITRIJE CABARKAPA3, NICOLAS M. PHILIPP4, ANDREW C. FRY5 1,2,3,4,5,Jayhawk Athletic Performance Laboratory – Wu Tsai Human Performance Alliance, Department of Health, Sport and Exercise Science, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA Published online: February 28, 2023 (Accepted for publication February 15, 2023) DOI:10.7752/jpes.2023.02053
Art # 54 pp. 440 – 448 Analysis of the use of isometric exercises to prevent injuries in beach soccer players SAVA BRYNZAK1, SERGIY PUTROV2, OMELCHUK OLENA3, MYKOLA KOSTENKO4, VITALII MYROSHNICHENKO5 1,5,4 Department of Physical Education,National University of Life and Environmental sciences of Ukraine , Kyiv, UKRAINE 2Department of Physical Rehabilitation Faculty of Physical Education, Sports and Health, National Pedagogical Dragomanov University, Kyiv, UKRAINE 3Department of Biological Foundations of Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Physical Education, Sports and Health, National Pedagogical Dragomanov University, Kyiv, UKRAINE Published online: February 28, 2023 (Accepted for publication February 15, 2023) DOI:10.7752/jpes.2023.02054
Art # 55 pp. 449 – 456 The effectiveness of direct corners in high level soccer depending on the type and the zone of delivery SPYRIDON PLAKIAS1, CHRISTOS KOKKOTIS2, DIMITRIOS TSAOPOULOS3, SERAFEIM MOUSTAKIDIS4, MARINA PAPALEXI5, GIANNIS GIAKAS6, THEMISTOKLIS TSATALAS7 1,6,7,Department of Physical Education and Sport Science, University of Thessaly, 382 21, Trikala, GREECE; 2Department of Physical Education and Sport Science, Democritus University of Thrace, 69100, Komotini, GREECE; 3 Institute for Bio-Economy & Agri-Technology, Center for Research and Technology Hellas, 60361 Volos, GREECE; 4AIDEAS OÜ, Narva mnt 5, 10117, ESTONIA; 5Department of Operations, Technology, Events and Hospitality Management, Manchester Metropolitan University|Oxford Road|Manchester|M15 6BH, UK Published online: February 28, 2023 (Accepted for publication February 15, 2023) DOI:10.7752/jpes.2023.02055
Art # 56 pp. 457 – 462 Post-activation performance enhancement: Acute effected after activation in kayak sprint WATUNYOU KHAMROS1, PRASIT PEEPATHUM2, TANORMSAK SENAKHAM3, SONTHAYA SRIRAMATR4, KRIRKWIT PHONGSRI5 1,2,3,4,5 Department of Sports Science, Faculty of Physical Education, Srinakharinwirot University, Nakhon Nayok, THAILAND 1,3 The Rowing and Canoeing association of Thailand (RCAT), Bangkok, THAILAND Published online: February 28, 2023 (Accepted for publication February 15, 2023) DOI:10.7752/jpes.2023.02056
Art # 57 pp. 463 – 468 Career paths in sport management: trends, typology, and trajectories EKATERINA GLEBOVA1; FATEME ZARE2 1Université Paris-Saclay CIAMS, 91405, Orsay, FRANCE; 1Comenius University Bratislava, Faculty of Management, Bratislava, SLOVAKIA; 2Hungarian University of Sport Sciences, Department of Sports Management, Budapest, HUNGARY; Published online: February 28, 2023 (Accepted for publication February 15, 2023) DOI:10.7752/jpes.2023.02057
Art # 58 pp. 469 – 475 Comparison of winning and record tactics in elite-level male middle-distance running BENCE KELEMEN1, TAMAS CSANYI2, LASZLO REVESZ3, OTTO BENCZENLEITNER4, LASZLO TOTH5 1Doctoral School, Hungarian University of Sports Science, HUNGARY 2Department of Physical Education Theory and Methodology of Education, Hungarian University of Sports Science, HUNGARY 3Károly Eszterházy Catholic University, Institute of Sports Science, H-3300, Eger, HUNGARY 4-Department of Athletics, Hungarian University of Sports Science, HUNGARY 5 Department of Psychology and Sport Psychology, Hungarian University of Sports Science, HUNGARY 5Teacher Training Institute, Hungarian University of Sports Science, HUNGARY Published online: February 28, 2023 (Accepted for publication February 15, 2023) DOI:10.7752/jpes.2023.02058
Art # 59 pp. 476 – 481 Assessing physical activity in sports lessons – distance learning in secondary school RIHARDS LEJA1, INTA BULA-BITENIECE2, ROBERTS RADIČUKS3, RENĀRS LĪCIS4, RODRIGO LAVIŅŠ5 Department of Sport Games, Latvian Academy of Sport Education, Riga, LATVIA; Department of Sport and Training Theory, Latvian Academy of Sport Education, Riga, LATVIA Published online: February 28, 2023 (Accepted for publication February 15, 2023) DOI:10.7752/jpes.2023.02059
Art # 60 pp. 482 – 491 PE teachers’ perceptions of and experiences with using the TGFU model in teaching team games in elementary school DIONYSIOS PAPAGIANNOPOULOS1, NIKOLAOS DIGELIDIS2, IOANNIS SYRMPAS3 1,2,3, Department of Physical Education and Sport Science, University of Thessaly, GREECE Published online: February 28, 2023 (Accepted for publication February 15, 2023) DOI:10.7752/jpes.2023.02060
Art # 61 pp. 492 – 501 Possibilities of using combined kinesiotherapy in patients with coxarthrosis OLENA VOLOSHYNA1, IRYNA BALASHOVA2, OLHA DUKOVA3, IHOR LYSYI4, VIKTORIIA BUHERUK5, OLENA NAIDONOVA6, LARYSA KOVALCHUK7, VIKTORIIA ZBITNIEVA8, VIKTORIIA SAMORUKOVA9, KATERYNA UKRAINSKA10 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10Ministry of health of Ukraine,Odessa National Medical University, UKRAINE Published online: February 28, 2023 (Accepted for publication February 15, 2023) DOI:10.7752/jpes.2023.02061
Art # 62 pp. 502 – 509 Fitness training in functional preparedness of highly qualified football players GENNADII LISENCHUK1, VITALII LELEKA2,KONSTANTIN BOGATYREV3, SVITLANA KOKAREVA4, OKSANA ADAMENKO5, NATALIA SHCHEKOTYLINA6, SERHII ROMANENKO7, SVITLANA KRUPENYA8 1,2 Mykolaiv V.O. Sukhomlynskyi National University, Mykolaiv, UKRAINE 3,6,7 South Ukrainian National Pedagogical University named after K. D. Ushynsky, Odesa, UKRAINE 4 National University «Zaporizhzhia polytechnic», Zaporizhzhia, UKRAINE 5 Admiral Makarov National University of Shipbuilding, Mykolaiv, UKRAINE 8National University of the State Fiscal Service of Ukraine, Irpin, UKRAINE Published online: February 28, 2023 (Accepted for publication February 15, 2023) DOI:10.7752/jpes.2023.02062
Art # 63 pp. 510 – 516 Features of physical development and physical fitness of students from the Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, Babeș-Bolyai University VIKTORIIA KYRYCHENKO1, GRAŢIELA-FLAVIA DEAK2, NICOLAE HORAŢIU POP3, LEON GOMBOŞ4 1,2,3,4,Interdisciplinary Research Center in the Domain of Physical Education and Sport, Babeș-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, ROMANIA 2Department of Kinesiotherapy and Theoretical Disciplines, Babeș-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, ROMANIA 3Department of Individual Sports, Babeș-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, ROMANIA 4Department of Team Sports, Babeș-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, ROMANIA Published online: February 28, 2023 (Accepted for publication February 15, 2023) DOI:10.7752/jpes.2023.02063
Art # 64 pp. 517 – 524 Differences in nutritional status, risk factors for metabolic syndrome, physical fitness and physical activity according to hours of weekly physical education practice JOHANA SOTO-SÁNCHEZ1; BÁRBARA LEYTON-DINAMARCA2; PAZ FERNÁNDEZ-VALERO3; PAULA MAGNERE4; JUAN CARLOS CANTILLANA5; JAVIER VALENZUELA6. 1 Centro de estudios en Actividad Física, Ejercicio y Salud, Facultad de Medicina y Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Mayor, Santiago, CHILE. 1 Escuela de Kinesiología, Facultad de Medicina y Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Mayor, Santiago, CHILE. 2 Instituto de Nutrición y Tecnología de los Alimentos (INTA), Universidad de Chile, Santiago, CHILE. 3 Facultad de Ciencias Humanas, Escuela de Educación Física, Deporte y Recreación, Universidad Bernardo O'higgins, Santiago 4 Departamento de Ciencias de la Actividad Física, Facultad de Ciencias de la Actividad Física y del Deporte, Universidad de Playa Ancha, Valparaíso, CHILE. 5 Escuela de Ciencias del Deporte y Actividad Física, Facultad de Salud, Universidad Santo Tomás, CHILE. 6 Escuela de Medicina, Universidad de Valparaíso, Campus San Felipe, CHILE. Published online: February 28, 2023 (Accepted for publication February 15, 2023) DOI:10.7752/jpes.2023.02064
Art # 65 pp. 525 – 531 Dependencies between indicators of the speed-power and balance stability of figure skaters TATIANA YORDANOVA1, IRYNA MEDVEDEVA2, AGITA ABELE3 1Department of Technical and Ice Sports, National Sports Academy “Vassil Levski”, Sofia, BULGARIA 2Faculty of Physical Education and Sports, National Pedagogical Dragomanov University, Kyiv, UKRAINE 3 Department of Sport and Training Theory, Latvian Academy of Sport Education, Riga, LATVIA Published online: February 28, 2023 (Accepted for publication February 15, 2023) DOI:10.7752/jpes.2023.02065
Art # 66 pp. 532 – 537 Effect of training with fins on swimming performance in kids and young recreational swimmers SERGIO SELLÉS-PÉREZ1, HÉCTOR ARÉVALO2, *CESARE ALTAVILLA3, DOMINGO JAVIER GUERRERO4 ROBERTO CEJUELA5 1,2,4,5 Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Education, University of Alicante, Alicante, SPAIN 3 Department of Community Nursing, Preventive Medicine and Public Health and History of Science, University of Alicante, Alicante, SPAIN Published online: February 28, 2023 (Accepted for publication February 15, 2023) DOI:10.7752/jpes.2023.02066
Art # 67 pp. 538… - 544 Self-acceptance in pregnant and postpartum women: a comparative study JULIANA FERNANDES FILGUEIRAS MEIRELES1, MARCELA RODRIGUES DE SIQUEIRA2, LETICIA MARIA CUNHA DA CRUZ3, ISABELA SOUZA DE PAULA4, FABIANE FROTA DA ROCHA MORGADO5, CLARA MOCKDECE NEVES6, MARIA ELISA CAPUTO FERREIRA7 1,2,3,Department of Family & Community Medicine, University of Oklahoma, USA 4,7Laboratório de Estudos do Corpo, Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora, BRASIL 5Departamento de Educação Física e Desporto, Universidade Federal Rural do Rio de Janeiro, BRASIL 6Departamento de Educação Física, Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora, BRASIL Published online: February 28, 2023 (Accepted for publication February 15, 2023) DOI:10.7752/jpes.2023.02067
Art # 68 pp. 545 – 554 The effects of curriculum change programs in physical education according with the hours of teaching on the fitness level of children ARTAN R. KRYEZIU1, NAGIP LENJANI2, ASTRIT ISENI3, DANA BADAU4 1,2Department of Sport and Movement Science, University for Business and Technology, 10000, Pristina, KOSOVO; 1,3Center of Research, Studies in Physical Education, Sport and Health-CRSPES, Astrit Rrushi, 10000, Pristina KOSOVO; 3Faculty of Physical Education, University of Tetovo, 1300, Tetovo, NOARTH MACEDONIA; 4Petru Maior Faculty of Sciences and Letters, “George Emil Palade“ University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Sciences and Technology, Targu Mures 540142, ROMANIA; Published online: February 28, 2023 (Accepted for publication February 15, 2023) DOI:10.7752/jpes.2023.02068
Art # 69 pp. 555 - 563 The impact of Optojump training on the power of lower limbs in female triple jumpers ANDREEA RAPOTAN¹, LILIANA MIHĂILESCU², ILIE MIHAI³ 1, 2 Doctoral School of Sports Science and Physical Education, University of Pitesti, ROMANIA 3 Department of Physical Education and Sports, University of Pitesti, ROMANIA Published online: February 28, 2023 (Accepted for publication February 15, 2023) DOI:10.7752/jpes.2023.02069
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Journal of Teaching in Physical Education
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Full access Writing Quality Peer Reviews of Research Manuscripts Authors: Phillip Ward , Kim C. Graber , and Hans van der Mars
Volume 42 (2023): issue 1 (jan 2023).
- Open access Tribute to Professor Michael W. Metzler Co-Founder of the Journal of Teaching in Physical Education By: Mark S. Freedman , Jackie Lund , Hans van der Mars , and Phillip Ward
- Open access Teaching for Immigrant Girls’ Inclusion: Social Justice Physical Education Teachers’ Involvement With School Stakeholders By: Carolina Nieva Boza and Teresa Lleixà Arribas
- Restricted access Understanding How Preservice Teachers Interpret Early Field Experiences at the Secondary Level By: Nicholas S. Washburn , Karen Lux Gaudreault , Christopher Mellor , Caitlin R. Olive , and Adriana Lucero
- Restricted access Predicting Changes in Physical Education Teachers’ Behaviors Promoting Physical Activity During the COVID-19 Pandemic Using an Integrated Motivational Model By: Silvio Maltagliati , Attilio Carraro , Géraldine Escriva-Boulley , Maurizio Bertollo , Damien Tessier , Alessandra Colangelo , Athanasios Papaioannou , Selenia di Fronso , Boris Cheval , Erica Gobbi , and Philippe Sarrazin
- Restricted access Generalization of Participation in Fitness Activities From Physical Education to Lunch Recess by Gender and Skill Level By: Peter Iserbyt , Hans van der Mars , Hannelore Drijvers , and Jan Seghers
- Restricted access A Systematic Review of Correlates of the Moderate-to-Vigorous Physical Activity of Students in Elementary School Physical Education By: Lijuan Wang and Yulan Zhou
- Restricted access Examining the Culturally Responsive Teaching Self-Efficacy in Physical Education Teacher Education Alumni By: Sara B. Flory , Rebecca C. Wylie , and Craigory V. Nieman
- Restricted access Promoting Health-Related Cardiorespiratory Fitness in Physical Education: The Role of Lesson Context and Teacher Behavior in an Observational Longitudinal Study By: Miguel Peralta , Élvio Rúbio Gouveia , Gerson Ferrari , Ricardo Catunda , Duarte Heriques-Neto , and Adilson Marques
- Restricted access The Psychological Impact of Fitness Testing in Physical Education: A Pilot Experimental Study Among Australian Adolescents By: Zali Yager , Laura Alfrey , and Lisa Young
- Restricted access Physical Activity Leadership Development Through a Physical Education Teacher Education Service-Learning Course By: Cate A. Egan , Christopher B. Merica , Grace Goc Karp , Karie Orendorff , and Hayley Beth McKown
- Restricted access The Secondary School Curriculum: Teachers’ and Students’ Perspectives By: Dominique Banville , Risto Marttinen , and Alba Rodrigues
- Restricted access “My Methods Courses Feel Like Walmart”: Influence of Secondary Organizational Socialization on Early Career Faculty Members’ Implementation of PETE By: Jamie Jacob Brunsdon and Matthew D. Curtner-Smith
- Open access Achievement Emotions, Intention to Be Physically Active, and Academic Achievement in Physical Education: Gender Differences By: Sebastián Fierro-Suero , Pedro Sáenz-López , José Carmona-Márquez , and Bartolomé J. Almagro
- Restricted access Physical Education Teacher Experiences Through the Lens of a Pandemic: Putting a Spotlight on Teacher Beliefs, Practices, Emotional Fragility, and Well-Being By: Kelly L. Simonton , Todd E. Layne , Boone Brown , and Keith Loupe
- Restricted access Navigating Emotional and Structural Influences While Implementing the Teaching Personal and Social Responsibility Model: A Case Study By: Victoria N. Shiver and Kelly L. Simonton
- Restricted access Social–Ecological Considerations in Sustaining Comprehensive School Physical Activity Programs: A Follow-Up Study By: Kahyun Nam , Pamela H. Kulinna , Shannon C. Mulhearn , Hyeonho Yu , Janelle M. Griffo , and Aaron J. Mason
- Restricted access Constructing Health and Physical Activity Knowledge in Practice: Teachers’ and Students’ Experiences By: Emine Busra Yılmaz and Deniz Hunuk
- Restricted access Cognitive Load and Energy Balance Knowledge in High-School Physical Education By: Anqi Deng and Ang Chen
- Restricted access Physical Activity and Fitness Markers of Male Campers Participating in a Fitness-Based Sport Education Season By: Zachary Wahl-Alexander and Clay Camic
- Restricted access Associations of Physical Activity Enjoyment and Physical Education Enjoyment With Segmented Daily Physical Activity in Children: Exploring Tenets of the Trans-Contextual Model of Motivation By: Ryan D. Burns , Yang Bai , Leslie W. Podlog , Timothy A. Brusseau , and Gregory J. Welk
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The purpose of the Journal of Teaching in Physical Education is to communicate national and international research and stimulate discussion, study, and critique of teaching, teacher education, and curriculum as these fields relate to physical activity in schools, communities, higher education, and sport. The journal publishes original reports of empirical studies in physical education together with integrative reviews and analyses of educational and methodological issues in the field. Research using a variety of methodological approaches is acceptable for publication. Well-designed replication of previous research is also strongly encouraged. Brief research notes also will be reviewed for possible publication. The coeditors and editorial board encourage the submission of manuscripts that extend knowledge within the focus of the journal.
Specific questions about the appropriateness of any individual paper to enter the JTPE peer-review process should be directed to one of the coeditors. Except for occasional invited manuscripts, all published articles are refereed by members of the editorial board, or by other referees invited by the coeditors. The final decision on whether a paper merits publication is made by the coeditor coordinating the review process.
Additional Content
Honoring Daryl Siedentop's contributions to JTPE: https://journals.humankinetics.com/page/Tribute-Daryl-Siedentop
Interested in being a reviewer for JTPE? Please fill out the JTPE Online Reviewer Form .
Editor-in-Chief
Heather Erwin University of Kentucky, USA
Incoming Editor
Kevin Andrew Richards University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, USA
Editors-in-Chief Emeriti
Michael W. Metzler (Founding Editor: 1981–1987) Mark Freedman (Founding Editor: 1981–1984) Thomas J. Templin (1984–1988) David Griffey (1986–1989) Thomas J. Martinek (1988–1991) Judith Rink (1989–1992) Stephen Silverman (1991–1994) Mary O’Sullivan (1993–1996) Nell Faucette (1994–1998) Patt Dodds (1996–2000) Hans van der Mars (1998–2002) Deborah Tannehill (2000–2004) Bonnie Tjeerdsma Blankenship (2002–2006) Melinda Solmon (2004–2008) Ron McBride (2006–2010) Ping Xiang (2008–2012) Pamela Hodges Kulinna (2010–2014) Ben Dyson (2012–2016) Weidong Li (2014-2018) Mark Byra (2019-2020) Bryan McCullick (2021-2022)
Associate Editors
Erin E. Centeio University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa, USA
Sara Flory University of South Florida, USA
Karen Gaudreault University of New Mexico, USA
Risto Marttinen George Mason University, USA
Collin Webster University of Birmingham, Dubai, UAE
Tao Zhang University of North Texas, USA
Editorial Board
Laura Azzarito, Columbia University, USA
Dominique Banville, George Mason University, USA
Eve Bernstein, Queens College - CUNY , USA
Timothy A. Brusseau, Jr., University of Utah, USA
Antonio Calderón, University of Limerick, Ireland
Weiyun Chen, University of Michigan, USA
Donetta Cothran, Indiana University, USA
Matthew Curtner-Smith, University of Alabama, USA
Ben Dyson, University of North Carolina, Greensboro, USA
Eimear Enright, University of Queensland, Australia
Tim Fletcher, Brock University, Canada
Alex Garn, Louisiana State University, USA
Tan Leng Goh, Central Connecticut State University, USA
Barrie Gordon, Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand
Peter A. Hastie, Auburn University, USA
Michael Hemphill, University of North Carolina-Greensboro, USA
Pamela Hodges Kulinna, Arizona State University, USA
Peter Iserbyt, KU Leuven, Belgium
Weidong Li, Ohio State University, USA
Ken Lodewyk, Brock University, Canada
Scott McNamara, University of New Hampshire, USA
Geoff Meek, Bowling Green State University, USA
Fernando Santos, Polytechnic Institute of Porto, School of Higher Education, Portugal
Bo Shen, Wayne State University, USA
Victoria (Tori) Shiver, University of New Mexico, USA
Mara Simon, Springfield College, USA
Kelly Simonton, University of Wyoming, USA
Oleg Sinelnikov, University of Alabama, USA
Suzan F. Smith-Ayers, Western Michigan University, USA
Melinda Solmon, Louisiana State University, USA
Haichun Sun, University of South Florida, USA
Sue Sutherland, The Ohio State University, USA
Tristan Wallhead, University of Wyoming, USA
Jennifer Walton-Fisette, Kent State University, USA
Yubing Wang, University of Wisconsin-Whitewater, USA
Phillip Ward, The Ohio State University, USA
John Williams, University of Canberra, Australia
Wesley Wilson, University of Utah, USA
Ping Xiang, Texas A&M University, USA
Xihe Zhu, Old Dominion University, USA
Social Media Manager
Fabian Correia, University of Kentucky, USA
Human Kinetics Staff Tammy Miller, Senior Journals Managing Editor Elizabeth Eagen-Jones, Editorial Assistant
Prior to submission, please carefully read and follow the submission guidelines detailed below. Authors must submit their manuscripts through the journal’s ScholarOne online submission system. To submit, click the button below:
Authorship Guidelines
The Journals Division at Human Kinetics adheres to the criteria for authorship as outlined by the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors*:
Each author should have participated sufficiently in the work to take public responsibility for the content. Authorship credit should be based only on substantial contributions to:
a. Substantial contributions to the conception or design of the work; or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the work; AND b. Drafting the work or revising it critically for important intellectual content; AND c. Final approval of the version to be published; AND d. Agreement to be accountable for all aspects of the work in ensuring that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work are appropriately investigated and resolved.
Conditions a, b, c, and d must all be met. Individuals who do not meet the above criteria may be listed in the acknowledgments section of the manuscript. * http://www.icmje.org/recommendations/browse/roles-and-responsibilities/defining-the-role-of-authors-and-contributors.html
Open Access
Human Kinetics is pleased to allow our authors the option of having their articles published Open Access. In order for an article to be published Open Access, authors must complete and return the Request for Open Access form and provide payment for this option. To learn more and request Open Access, click here .
Manuscript Guidelines
In preparing articles for submission to the Journal of Teaching in Physical Education , authors must follow the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed., 2020).
All articles must include an abstract of 100–150 words typed on a separate page along with three to six key words not used in the title. When submitting, you will be prompted to fill in the abstract in a specific box. Please also include the abstract in the manuscript file that is uploaded. JTPE editorial personnel request that a structured abstract format is used that includes labeling the following sections within the abstract paragraph: Purpose, Method, Results, and Discussion/Conclusion. Non-traditional papers (e.g., photovoice, reviews, position papers) may use other labeling systems. The entire manuscript must be double-spaced. Line numbers should be inserted, continuous throughout the text, to facilitate the review process. Tables must be prepared using Microsoft Word’s table-formatting functions. Manuscript length should not exceed 28 pages, including references, tables, and figures. Special attention should be given to the accuracy of the references and APA style. Figures must be crisp, clear, and properly labeled. Do not submit low-resolution electronic files. Manuscripts should not be submitted to another journal at the same time. All quantitative studies must report effect sizes. To facilitate blind review, the first page of the manuscript should include only the title of the manuscript and the date of submission. The manuscript itself should contain no clues as to the author’s identity. A separate cover sheet with contact information is no longer required because the necessary identifying information is entered when registering with the online submission system.
Manuscripts will be acknowledged upon receipt and will be sent to two reviewers for blind review; the review process normally takes two to three months for an initial decision. Once the manuscript has been accepted, it will be published in the first available space after the final revision has been received. There are no page charges to authors.
Manuscript Submission Template
Authors are welcome to make use of this manuscript template to help ensure that their submission is consistent with JTPE 's formatting and author guidelines. However, this is not a requirement and authors are free not to use the template if that is preferred.
Guidelines for Replication Studies
Makel and Plucker (2014) proposed that replication is a powerful avenue to accumulate understanding by checking the validity of knowledge from previous research and enables questions concerning generalization across populations or contexts. Schmidt (2009) suggests that there are two primary forms of replication studies. The first includes "operational" replications that test the validity of the original data using similar procedures and research designs. The second are "constructive" replications, which attempt to replicate a research finding with different situations and different subjects, to determine if the basic findings of the original study can be applied to other participants and circumstances and is therefore linked to the wider notion of replication. In addition to the Manuscript Guidelines listed above, any Replication study submitted to JTPE must fall into one of these two categories.
Makel, M.C., & Plucker, J.A. (2014). Facts are more important than novelty: Replication of the education sciences. Educational Researcher , 43 , 304–316. Schmidt, S. (2009). Shall we really do it again? The powerful concept of replication is neglected in the social sciences. Review of General Psychology , 13 , 90–100.
Guidelines for Research Notes
Research Notes submitted to JTPE should meet the following guidelines:
Research Notes may consist of replication studies, data re-analyses studies, validation studies of existing instruments, and comments and dialogues on previously published papers. Manuscripts should use 12-point Times New Roman font and should be double-spaced (as per APA guidelines), with length not exceeding 14 pages, including text, references, tables, and figures. Consecutive line numbers should be inserted throughout the text to facilitate the review process. Submissions must include an abstract of 150 words or less. Research Notes should conform to the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed., 2020).
Review and Publishing Process
Research Notes follow the same review and publishing process as regular manuscripts.
Submitting a Manuscript
Manuscripts must be submitted through ScholarOne, the online submission system for the Journal of Teaching in Physical Education (see submission button at the top of this page). ScholarOne manages the electronic transfer of manuscripts throughout the article review process, providing systematic instructions and a user-friendly design. Please access the site and follow the directions for authors submitting manuscripts.
Any problems that might be encountered can be easily resolved by selecting “Help" in the upper-right corner of any ScholarOne screen. Authors of manuscripts accepted for publication must transfer copyright to Human Kinetics, Inc. This copyright agreement can be viewed by visiting the ScholarOne site and selecting "Instructions & Forms" in the upper-right corner.
JTPE is committed to mentoring young scholars to be able to conduct high-quality, timely peer reviews. We use a reviewer onboarding system in which reviewers may invite a graduate student or young scholar to review a manuscript to provide them with valuable training experience. Authors will have the option during manuscript subscription to decline to have their manuscript be part of this process.
Receiving a Decision
Effective July 1, 2019, JTPE has implemented new decision categories for submitted manuscripts. To review these categories, see the document below.
- JTPE Decision Categories
Guidelines for Monographs
Monograph proposals to JTPE should meet the following guidelines:
Manuscripts must use 12-point Times New Roman font (as per APA guidelines) and should be single-spaced, with length not exceeding 10 pages (including the overview but excluding the Appendix). Proposals should start with an overview chapter (Chapter 1), which clearly identifies the theme, scope, and need for the monograph. An overarching theoretical framework should inform the monograph. Individual chapters may also have additional/different theories that inform the work. Proposals should provide the abstracts for all chapters (6-10 chapters). Each chapter’s abstract should consist of the following elements: Title, Background, Purpose, Method, Data Analysis, Results, and Discussion/ Conclusions. Data should have already been collected at the time the proposal is submitted and results should be present in the proposal. Proposals should conform to the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed., 2020), except that the text should be single-spaced. Guest editors should be identified in the Appendix and serve as liaisons between chapter lead authors and JTPE coeditors. An Appendix should be submitted separately that provides the contact information of guest editors and the title of each of the chapters and its contributing authors with lead author contact information, along with an abbreviated CV (two pages) for each of the guest editors and lead authors. Proposals are due by July 31 of each year.
Review Process
All proposals are reviewed by a four-person review committee comprised of the two JTPE coeditors and two members of the JTPE editorial board.
Selection Process
The selection process is based on the following criteria: (a) relevance of topic and (2) quality of proposals, as determined by the four-person committee. Guest editors will be notified regarding the selection of monographs by September 15 of each year. If selected, guest editors must submit a complete monograph for further consideration in JTPE .
Publishing Process
The complete monograph is due three months after notification of selection (by December 15). Once received, the monograph will be reviewed by the four-person review committee through the online review process, with reviews sent only to the monograph guest editors. Henceforth, the review process continues following the standard JTPE format until the monograph is considered ready for publication or the monograph is rejected.
Guidelines for Special Issues
The following guidelines are intended to help scholars prepare a special issue proposal. Proposals on time-sensitive topics may be considered for publication as a special series at the Editor-in-Chief’s discretion. In no more than four pages, author(s) should address the following questions using the headings provided.
Synopsis In 150 words or less, what is your special issue about? Important: Be sure to include its main themes and objectives. Rationale What are you proposing to do differently/more innovatively/better than has already been done on the topic (in JTPE specifically, as well as in the field more generally)? Why is now the time for a special issue on this topic? Why is JTPE the most appropriate venue for this topic? What are the main competing works on the topic (e.g., edited books, other special issues)? List up to five articles recently published on the topic that show breadth of scope and authorship in the topic. Qualifications Are you proposing to serve as Guest Editor for this special issue? If so, Please provide your vitae. Have you edited/co-edited a special issue before? If yes, please give the citation(s). Do you currently serve on any journal editorial boards? If yes, please list. If not, who do you suggest for a potential Guest Editor? Timeline Given that it takes approximately 12 months to complete a special issue, please provide a detailed timeline including estimated dates or time frames for the following steps: (a) Call for papers (b) Submission deadline (c) Review process (averages 4 months) (d) Revision process (averages 3 months) (e) Final editing and approval from JTPE editor (f) Completion and submission to Human Kinetics (must be at least 3 months prior to the issue cover month; e.g., completion by January 1 for the April issue)
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Individuals may purchase online-only subscriptions directly from this website. To order, click on an article and select the subscription option you desire for the journal of interest (individual or student, 1-year or 2-year), and then click Buy. Those purchasing student subscriptions must be prepared to provide proof of student status as a degree-seeking candidate at an accredited institution. Online-only subscriptions purchased via this website provide immediate access to all the journal's content, including all archives and Ahead of Print. Note that a subscription does not allow access to all the articles on this website, but only to those articles published in the journal you subscribe to. For step-by-step instructions to purchase online, click here .
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Institution subscriptions must be placed directly with our customer service team. To review format options and pricing, visit our Librarian Resource Center . To place your order, contact us .
JTPE Editors and Reviewers Resource Center
Eligibility criteria and responsibilities of jtpe co-editors.
JTPE co-editors are selected from the members of the editorial board. Upon selection, they serve as junior co-editor for a specified term of two years. Upon completion of this period, they serve as senior co-editor for another two-year term.
Eligibility Criteria Eligibility for JTPE co-editor appointments is based on the following criteria:
1. Co-editor candidates have published three manuscripts in the last five years in tier one journals (requirements: one publication in JTPE and one first authorship publication). 2. Co-editor candidates have demonstrated high-quality reviews in a timely manner while on the JTPE editorial board (a minimum of six reviews per year during the three-year term). 3. Co-editor candidates have served as JTPE editorial board members for six years (i.e., two terms) before selection.
Responsibilities The JTPE co-editor responsibilities include, but are not limited to, the following:
1. Co-editors ensure the validity of the double-blinded review process. 2. Co-editors maintain confidentiality and objectivity regarding manuscripts and the review process. 3. The senior co-editor submits manuscripts to at least two reviewers expert in the specific area who can be objective and do not have conflicts of interest. In the case that the manuscript content or focus is inappropriate for JTPE , the coeditors contact the author(s) rather than sending it out for review. 4. Co-editors correspond with authors and reviewers. 5. Co-editors make decisions regarding acceptance/rejection and resubmission/rejection of manuscripts based on reviewers’ feedback/recommendations.
To review more information on the duties of editors, including ethical responsibilities, click here .
Nomination Process
Nominations for the co-editor positions originate from existing editorial board members and are submitted in writing to the senior co-editor who is responsible for contacting the nominees for their curriculum vitae and letter of interest, as well as for making arrangements for the selection process.
Co-editors are selected by current co-editors from the pool of JTPE editorial board members who meet the eligibility criteria and are interested in the position. The co-editors’ selection is ratified by the majority vote of the JTPE editorial board.
Co-Editor Publication Process
In the case a co-editor submits a manuscript for publication to JTPE , the other co-editor assigns a guest co-editor to select reviewers and monitor the review process.
Editorial Board Members
Eligibility criteria and responsibilities for jtpe editorial board membership.
Editorial board members are appointed by the senior co-editor upon consensus of the editorial council (senior and junior co-editors).
Eligibility Criteria Eligibility for new board member appointments is based on the following criteria:
1. Potential editorial board member has obtained a doctoral degree specializing in sport pedagogy or related fields at least five years before serving on the JTPE editorial board. 2. Potential editorial board member has published three manuscripts in the last five years in tier one journals (initial membership requirements: one publication in JTPE and one first authorship publication). 3. Potential editorial board member has served as a guest reviewer for JTPE for one year and completed an adequate number of high-quality, non-biased reviews. 4. Potential editorial board member has demonstrated expertise in areas needed on the board. 5. Potential editorial board member is committed to attending the annual JTPE editorial board meetings when possible and to contributing to the mission of JTPE .
Responsibilities The members of the JTPE editorial board are appointed for three years and are directly accountable to the editors of JTPE . In turn, the senior editor of JTPE is responsible to Human Kinetics, Inc. The JTPE editorial board members’ responsibilities include, but are not limited to, the following:
1. JTPE editorial board members complete a minimum of six reviews per year in a timely manner. 2. JTPE editorial board members provide respectful and constructive reviews for authors that avoid hurtful language and contribute to providing high-quality papers. 3. JTPE editorial board members demonstrate confidentiality and objectivity regarding the manuscripts and the review process. 4. JTPE editorial board members participate in the evaluation of the quality and effectiveness of JTPE to help maintain high standards.
Editorial board membership nominations are requested from existing JTPE editorial board members. Board members whose term has been completed and who wish to continue on the board can also nominate themselves as a self-nomination (through a letter of intent only). Nominations should be submitted in writing (preferably via electronic mail) to the senior editor, who is responsible for arranging the review/selection process. Nominees are then asked to submit a curriculum vita to the senior editor, along with a statement expressing their interest in the position and explaining their suitability.
The co-editors of JTPE will consider nominees who meet the eligibility criteria and have provided requested materials as potential JTPE editorial board members. The JTPE editorial board can consist of up to 32 members at a time.
Renewal of JTPE Editorial Board Membership
The co-editors determine the renewal of JTPE editorial board membership. Board members, upon completion of their term of service, are invited to continue to serve on the board if they have successfully fulfilled all their responsibilities during their three-year term. This will be determined by the eligibility criteria and their ability to fulfill appropriate responsibilities for JTPE editorial board membership.
Reviewer Guidelines
A. guidelines for the review of research-based manuscripts.
I. Appropriateness of Manuscript for JTPE : The reviewer should comment on the appropriateness of the manuscript (refer to editorial policy of JTPE ) based on the guidelines below (when they apply). Co-editors make final decisions about the appropriateness of manuscripts.
II. Relevance/Significance of the Study:
1. Is there a theoretical framework and/or is the study and the related construct(s) situated in the existing literature? 2. Is the theoretical framework logically explained or are the constructs tied together to explain how the research project was conceived? 3. Is the rationale for the study clear? 4. Does the literature review provide the most relevant and current scholarship on the topic that enriches an understanding of the theoretical framework or related constructs? 5. Are the purpose and the research questions derived from the literature review and are they consistent with the theoretical framework and/or the related constructs and rationale presented in the introduction? 6. Have the data been published elsewhere? 7. Are the interpretations based on valid, reliable, or trustworthy data/materials? 8. Has the work been sufficiently thorough to warrant publication? 9. What significant, unique, or valuable knowledge will readers learn from the study? 10. Overall, does the study add new knowledge and/or make a significant and/or a unique contribution to the existing literature base?
III. Methodology and Presentation of Results:
General Guidelines
1. Are the research questions specific enough so that the theoretical framework/construct logically leads to the selection of appropriate variables/phenomena for the investigation? 2. Is the research design explicitly explained? 3. Are participants clearly described? 4. Is information offered with regard to having obtained institutional approval and participants’ consent? 5. Are key characteristics of the participants provided? 6. Is the sequence of research procedure logical? 7. Are there sufficient data sources to address the research question(s)?
Guidelines for Quantitative Methods
1. Are variables operationally defined for data collection? 2. Is information about the validity and reliability of the measures reported? 3. Do the validity and reliability of the measures meet acceptable criteria? 4. Are control procedures described in experimental/quasi-experimental designs? 5. Are effective procedures used to minimize the threats to the validity and reliability of the measures? 6. Are statistical analyses compatible with or appropriate to the research questions? 7. Are advantages and disadvantages of using the analyses explained? 8. Were adequate assumptions for the statistical analyses examined and results reported? 9. Were descriptive statistics for the variables (dependent variables in particular) reported? 10. Are the parameters/indexes chosen to report results appropriate (especially in multivariate analyses)? 11. Were results for tests of statistical significance accompanied by effect size indices? 12. Are there any indications of calculation errors? 13. When using single-subject designs, were data paths interpreted appropriately according to accepted visual analysis tactics?
Guidelines for Qualitative Methods
1. Is the type of inquiry and its associated paradigm/perspective specified? 2. Does the author reveal sufficient personal/professional subjectivity for readers to assess the degree of the researcher’s role in the study and influence on the data presented? 3. Is the description of context detailed so that readers can situate the study within its social and educational environment? 4. Are detailed descriptions of key informants provided? 5. Are data collection protocols described? 6. Are sufficient data sources used for an effective triangulation to make the case that the data are trustworthy and credible? 7. If limited data sources were used, were additional efforts made to gather sufficient in-depth information from the sources to address the research questions adequately? 8. Are approaches to establishing trustworthiness appropriate? 9. Are data analysis protocols carefully described to show that the themes/grounded theories have been derived in a logical way?
IV. Discussion and Interpretation:
1. Has the discussion/interpretation of results been linked to the theoretical framework and/or constructs and rationale presented in the introduction? 2. To what extent do the findings make unique contributions to the body of knowledge? 3. Are interpretations of the results based on the data and related to the literature? 4. Are there any indications of over- or under-generalization of the results? 5. To what extent have the results answered the research questions (completely, partially, or not at all)? 6. If there are any critical limitations of the study in any section (e.g., theoretical foundation, methodology, results, and/or discussion), how well has the author addressed them? 7. Are practical implications of the findings presented when appropriate? 8. Are similarities and differences with previous findings noted and discussed? 9. Are unexpected results acknowledged and discussed?
V. Clarity of Information Presentation and Writing:
1. Does the writing allow a clear, accurate, and concise presentation of information? Are the sections coherently connected? 2. Does the writing avoid redundancy? 3. Are concepts clearly defined and explained when they first appear in the manuscript? 4. Has technical jargon been avoided or kept to a minimum? 5. Is the general arrangement of the sections logical? 6. Is it a finished piece of work? 7. Are there inappropriate or missing sections/headers? 8. Does the manuscript conform to the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed., 2010)? 9. Does the abstract present all key components in the manuscript in a very concise manner? 10. Are tables and figures accurate, clear, and concise? 11. Do tables and figures present necessary information that contributes to the understanding of the text, rather than redundant information which duplicates what is already in the text? 12. Is the reference list accurate and do citations in the manuscript accurately match those in the references section? 13. Is the tone of reporting academically appropriate? 14. Is an overly emotional tone avoided? 15. Is the length of the manuscript reasonable? 16. If longer than 28 pages (8.5 x 11, size 12 font), can any part be condensed or omitted without jeopardizing the significance of the manuscript?
B. Guidelines for the Review of Manuscripts Pertaining to Theoretical, Philosophical, and/or Applied Issues of Professional Practice
I. Contribution to the Body of Knowledge/Professional Practice:
1. Does the author address a significant issue that is relevant to the scope of the journal (teaching/learning in physical education)? 2. Is the most current relevant literature included in the review? 3. Are the arguments based on solid theoretical frameworks, philosophical foundations, and/or empirical evidence? 4. To what extent does the manuscript advance our understanding of the issue? 5. Has the work been sufficiently thorough to warrant publication? 6. Is the quality of the content sufficient to warrant publication?
II. Quality of Information Presentation:
1. Are themes and/or philosophical positions stated clearly? 2. Are appropriate transitions used between/among themes to build logical and compelling arguments? 3. Does the presentation help readers conceptualize issues and arguments effectively? 4. Is the manuscript logically organized to achieve a clearly stated purpose that is suited to this journal? 5. Is the information conceptually integrated and coherently presented?
III. Discussion or Interpretation of Ideas and Information:
1. Has the author built constructive arguments that advance theory, knowledge, and/or applications related to the scope of the journal (teaching/learning in physical education)? 2. Is relevant literature adequately critiqued and integrated into the arguments? 3. Are the arguments based on well-reasoned thoughts, rather than emotions? 4. Does the reasoning throughout the manuscript seem to be sound? 5. Are the conclusions consistent with the arguments developed or the empirical evidence reviewed? 6. Are practical implications of the arguments and/or ideas emphasized?
C. Guidelines for Reviewing Manuscripts the Second or Third Time:
1. All major concerns by reviewers and editors should be addressed in the first revision of a manuscript. 2. New major revisions should not be requested during the second or third revision of a manuscript unless a major change (e.g., new theoretical framework or revised analyses) requires further recommendations for changes. 3. Original reviewers should be employed in subsequent reviews unless the co-editor’s decision for the original manuscript is reject.
Guest Reviewers
Guest reviewers must have an earned doctoral degree specializing in sport pedagogy or related fields. Doctoral students (in the third year of their programs or beyond) may also participate as a JTPE guest reviewer under the supervision of their doctoral mentors.
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