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Reference Group: Types, Functions, Characteristics, Importance

The term reference group, originally coined by Hebert Hyman in his book The Psychology of Status  (1942), is used to describe any group that an individual uses as a point of comparison in the process of self-appraisal. The points of comparison (or reference) that an individual looks at could be the norms, attitudes, and values of the reference group members. For example, when a child joins a new school, they will look at the other older students of the school for reference so that they know how to dress, speak and behave in a manner accepted by the social group that is their new school. In this case, the older students of the school become the reference group. Thus, individuals get to choose from several existing social groups, which one they look at as a reference group. Therefore, reference groups provide individuals with a framework for social comparison.

It is not necessary that an individual only subscribes to a single reference group at any given point in time. Individuals may look up to several reference groups simultaneously, which can sometimes cause anomalies in their behaviour. Furthermore, reference groups do not have a set size and do not require individuals to identify with that group explicitly.

Most reference groups tend to be informal, i.e., they are unstructured and do not work towards achieving specific goals. Instead, group membership is primarily based on shared interests and values. Families and peer groups are examples of reference groups that are typically informal. Conversely, there are also formal reference groups wherein, unlike informal reference groups, the members of the collective are working towards certain goals and also have a rigid structure and hierarchy in place in order to achieve those goals. For example, labour unions and religious groups.

Functions of Reference Groups

  • Reference groups provide individuals with a basis for reference and evaluation of their attitudes and beliefs.
  • Setting a benchmark of measure allows people to determine their self-identity and their conduct in a social environment.
  • Additionally, they act as a source of inspiration or aspirations for people to live up to and work towards.
  • Reference groups also help shape our values in terms of what we think is right or wrong. This distinction is made when we decide which values we want to emulate and which ones we want to reject.
  • Finally, they allow us to immerse ourselves in a new environment by providing us with a standard to follow so that we may fit in better.

Types of Reference Groups

Harold Kelley (1952) recognised two distinct types of reference groups based on the functions that they perform –

  • Normative Reference Groups –

Normative reference groups serve as a source of an individual’s norms, values and attitudes. These are groups that people look up to so that they may understand how to conduct themselves in any given environment. For example, a new employee in an organisation will look to older employees to understand what the acceptable code of conduct is in that organisation.

  • Comparative Reference Groups –

Comparative reference groups are those which individuals use as a standard against which they compare themselves during the process of self-appraisal. For example, in a football team, junior players may compare themselves to their more experienced counterparts in terms of skill, technique and performance.

American social psychologist Theodore Newcomb further distinguished between two primary types of reference groups based on the nature of comparison –

  • Positive Reference Groups –

A positive reference group is one of which individuals aspire to become members. Individuals typically admire the socialisation and behaviour patterns and attitudes of this group and wish to emulate them.

  • Negative Reference Groups –

A negative reference group is one that individuals disapprove of and use their patterns of behaviour and opinions, and attitudes as a standard to avoid.

Characteristics of Reference Groups

  • Reference groups set ideals of behaviour and attitudes, values and ideologies for those who refer to them.
  • They are not organised groups of people who consciously or deliberately stand to represent specific social values. Instead, they may be understood as conceptual groups because they are non-membership groups.
  • In order to become a member of a reference group, individuals must adopt the lifestyle and values of the group. For example, immigrants in Western countries learn to incorporate Western culture into their own lifestyle so that they can cultivate a sense of acceptance and belonging. 
  • An individual’s reference group is in a constant state of flux. As we enter into novel social environments or new phases of life, we change the reference groups that we look up to for self-appraisal.

Also Read: Primary and Secondary Groups

Eminent social psychologist Muzafer Sherif suggested that human beings are the only species known to display reference group behaviour by modifying their conduct based on learnings from their social environment. This is done either by assimilating values from other individuals or groups or by acting in opposition to the social standards of other individuals or groups.

  • Thus, reference groups become sources of an individual’s understanding of self-identity and cognition and perception.
  • Furthermore, they allow individuals to evaluate their conduct and performance in any given social or professional situation.
  • Reference group behaviour exists in complex societies such as ours that pride themselves in their capitalist and industrialised fabric. In such communities, studying reference group behaviour may be a means to understanding social relationships and attitudes.
  • Reference groups may give rise to feelings of relative deprivation. For example, suppose an individual chooses to compare himself to a reference group representing a higher socio-economic class. In that case, they may feel inadequate because of unequal opportunity and access to resources.
  • The theory of reference group behaviour answers the question of why people behave in a particular manner in specific social situations. However, it does not offer any means of controlling or modifying such behaviour.
  • The reference group theory is also understood only unilaterally, i.e.; It only discusses how reference groups influence the behaviour of individuals who aspire to become members of the group, and not how the membership of the individual impacts the reference group.

As social beings, human beings are innately drawn towards one another and naturally possess the ability to emulate another’s behaviour. This knowledge forms the basis of the reference group theory. The workings of this theory seek to explain and analyse human behaviour in varying social environments and conditions and also understand how human beings evaluate themselves in order to arrive at a deeper understanding of their self-identity.

T, J. (2017, October 7). Sociology unit 13 Ref. Group . Medium. https://medium.com/@jacobthanni/sociology-unit-13-ref-group-b5cc7c0576f7.

Williams, Y. (2015). Reference Group in Sociology: Definition, Examples & Types . Study.com | Take Online Courses. Earn College Credit. Research Schools, Degrees & Careers. https://study.com/academy/lesson/reference-group-in-sociology-definition-examples-types.htm

Encyclopedia.com. (n.d.). .” International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. . Encyclopedia.com. 16 Jun. 2021 . Encyclopedia.com. https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences-and-law/sociology-and-social-reform/sociology-general-terms-and-concepts/reference.

Reference Groups: Meaning, Types, Primary and Secondary Reference Groups . iEduNote. (2021, June 13). https://www.iedunote.com/reference-groups.

Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia (2010, February 10). Social group. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/social-group

Reference Group – IResearchNet . Psychology. (2016, January 31). http://psychology.iresearchnet.com/social-psychology/social-influen/

negative reference group . Oxford Reference. (n.d.). https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110810105453735.

positive reference group . Oxford Reference. (n.d.). https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100339694#

reference group essay

Pragati Kalive

Pragati is an undergraduate student currently pursuing her BA/BSc in Psychology at Symbiosis School for Liberal Arts, Pune. She displays a keen interest in the social sciences and is passionate about writing. She wishes to apply her education in the domain of social work in the future. Reading, swimming and travelling are some activities that keep her going.

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6.1E: Reference Groups

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Learning Objectives

  • Explain the purpose of a reference group

Social comparison theory is centered on the belief that there is a drive within individuals to gain accurate self-evaluations. Individuals evaluate their own opinions and define the self by comparing themselves to others. One important concept in this theory is the reference group. A reference group refers to a group to which an individual or another group is compared. Sociologists call any group that individuals use as a standard for evaluating themselves and their own behavior a reference group.

Reference groups are used in order to evaluate and determine the nature of a given individual or other group’s characteristics and sociological attributes. It is the group to which the individual relates or aspires to relate himself or herself psychologically. Reference groups become the individual’s frame of reference and source for ordering his or her experiences, perceptions, cognition, and ideas of self. It is important for determining a person’s self-identity, attitudes, and social ties. These groups become the basis of reference in making comparisons or contrasts and in evaluating one’s appearance and performance.

Robert K. Merton hypothesized that individuals compare themselves with reference groups of people who occupy the social role to which the individual aspires. Reference groups act as a frame of reference to which people always refer to evaluate their achievements, their role performance, aspirations and ambitions. A reference group can either be from a membership group or non-membership group.

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An example of a reference group is a group of people who have a certain level of affluence. For example, an individual in the U.S. with an annual income of $80,000, may consider himself affluent if he compares himself to those in the middle of the income strata, who earn roughly $32,000 a year. If, however, the same person considers the relevant reference group to be those in the top 0.1% of households in the U.S., those making $1.6 million or more, then the individual’s income of $80,000 would make him or her seem rather poor.

  • Social comparison theory argues that individuals use comparisons with others to gain accurate self-evaluations and learn how to define the self. A reference group is a concept referring to a group to which an individual or another group is compared.
  • Reference groups provide the benchmarks and contrast needed for comparison and evaluation of group and personal characteristics.
  • Robert K. Merton hypothesized that individuals compare themselves with reference groups of people who occupy the social role to which the individual aspires.
  • self-identity : a multi-dimensional construct that refers to an individual’s perception of “self” in relation to any number of characteristics, such as academics and non academics, gender roles and sexuality, racial identity,and many others.
  • social role : it is a set of connected behaviors, rights, and obligations as conceptualized by actors in a social situation.
  • reference group : it is a concept referring to a group to which an individual or another group is compared.

What Is a Reference Group?

Understanding One of Sociology's Basic Concepts

  • Key Concepts
  • Major Sociologists
  • News & Issues
  • Research, Samples, and Statistics
  • Recommended Reading
  • Archaeology

A reference group is a collection of people that we use as a standard of comparison for ourselves regardless of whether we are part of that group. We rely on reference groups to understand social norms , which then shape our values, ideas, behavior, and appearance. This means that we also use them to evaluate the relative worth, desirability, or appropriateness of these things.

How We Relate to and Embrace Norms

The concept of a reference group is one of the most basic of sociology. Sociologists believe that our relationship to groups and to society at large shapes our individual thoughts and behaviors. How we relate to reference groups is central to how social groups and society exert social force on us as individuals. By looking to reference groups — be they those of race, class, gender, sexuality, religion, region, ethnicity, age, or localized groups defined by neighborhood or school, among others-- we see norms and dominant values , and we choose to either embrace and reproduce them in our own thoughts, behavior, and interactions with others; or, we reject and refute them by thinking and acting in ways that break from them.

Embracing the norms of a reference group and expressing them ourselves is how we achieve important connections with others that lead to social acceptance —doing so is how we "fit in" and achieve a sense of belonging. Conversely, those of us who either can't or choose not to embrace and express the norms of reference groups that are expected of us might be seen as outcasts, criminals, or in other cases, revolutionaries or trendsetters.

Specific Types of Reference Group Norms

Expressing reference group norms and behavior through consumption is one of the most easily visible examples of this phenomenon. In choosing what clothing to buy and wear, for example, we typically refer to those around us, like friends or peer groups, colleagues, or to stylistic reference groups, like "preppy", "hipster", or "ratchet", among others. We gauge what is normal and expected by paying attention to our reference group, and then we reproduce those norms in our own consumer choices and appearance. In this way, the collective influences our values (of what is cool, nice, or appropriate) and our behavior (what we purchase and how we dress).

Gender norms are another clear example of how reference groups shape our thoughts and behavior. From a young age, boys and girls receive both explicit and implicit messages from those around them and from media that dictate norms of behavior and appearance. As we grow up, reference groups shape our grooming habits on the basis of gender (shaving and other hair-removal practices, hairstyle, etc.), how we interact with others based on their gender, how we physically carry ourselves and comport our bodies, and what roles we inhabit in our personal relationships with others (how to be a "good" wife or husband, or son or daughter, for example).

Whether we are conscious of it or not, we are looking to multiple reference groups which shape our thoughts and behavior on a daily basis.

  • What is a Norm? Why Does it Matter?
  • How Do Sociologists Define Consumption?
  • Understanding Socialization in Sociology
  • All About Marxist Sociology
  • The Concept of Collective Consciousness
  • Meaningful Life Lessons We Learn From Teachers at School
  • The Sociology of Race and Ethnicity
  • Introduction to Sociology
  • What Is the Meaning of Globalization in Sociology?
  • Hard Determinism Explained
  • The Challenges of Ethical Living in a Consumer Society
  • How to Tell If You've Been Unintentionally Racist
  • The Sociology of Gender
  • What Is Cultural Capital? Do I Have It?
  • The Importance of US Foreign Policy
  • Understanding the Gender Pay Gap and How It Affects Women

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Social Groups

Learning objectives.

  • Describe how a social group differs from a social category or social aggregate.
  • Distinguish a primary group from a secondary group.
  • Define a reference group and provide one example of such a group.
  • Explain the importance of networks in a modern society.

Most of us feel comfortable using the word “group” without giving it much thought. In everyday use, it can be a generic term, although it carries important clinical and scientific meanings. Moreover, the concept of a group is central to much of how we think about society and human interaction. Often, we might mean different things by using that word. We might say that a group of kids all saw the dog, and it could mean 250 students in a lecture hall or four siblings playing on a front lawn. In everyday conversation, there isn’t a clear distinguishing use. So how can we hone the meaning more precisely for sociological purposes?

Defining a Group

The term  group   is an amorphous one and can refer to a wide variety of gatherings, from just two people (think about a “group project” in school when you partner with another student), a club, a regular gathering of friends, or people who work together or share a hobby. In short, the term refers to any collection of at least two people who interact with some frequency and who share a sense that their identity is somehow aligned with the group. Of course, every time people are gathered it is not necessarily a group. A rally is usually a one-time event, for instance, and belonging to a political party doesn’t imply interaction with others. People who exist in the same place at the same time but who do not interact or share a sense of identity—such as a bunch of people standing in line at Starbucks—are considered an  aggregate , or a crowd. Another example of a nongroup is people who share similar characteristics but are not tied to one another in any way. These people are considered a  category , and as an example all children born from approximately 1980–2000 are referred to as “Millennials.” Why are Millennials a category and not a group? Because while some of them may share a sense of identity, they do not, as a whole, interact frequently with each other.

Interestingly, people within an aggregate or category can become a group. During disasters, people in a neighborhood (an aggregate) who did not know each other might become friendly and depend on each other at the local shelter. After the disaster ends and the people go back to simply living near each other, the feeling of cohesiveness may last since they have all shared an experience. They might remain a group, practicing emergency readiness, coordinating supplies for next time, or taking turns caring for neighbors who need extra help. Similarly, there may be many groups within a single category. Consider teachers, for example. Within this category, groups may exist like teachers’ unions, teachers who coach, or staff members who are involved with the PTA.

Types of Groups

Sociologist Charles Horton Cooley (1864–1929) suggested that groups can broadly be divided into two categories:  primary groups and  secondary groups  (Cooley 1909). According to Cooley, primary groups play the most critical role in our lives. The primary group is usually fairly small and is made up of individuals who generally engage face-to-face in long-term emotional ways. This group serves emotional needs:  expressive functions  rather than pragmatic ones. The primary group is usually made up of significant others, those individuals who have the most impact on our socialization. The best example of a primary group is the family.

Secondary groups are often larger and impersonal. They may also be task-focused and time-limited. These groups serve an  instrumental function  rather than an expressive one, meaning that their role is more goal- or task-oriented than emotional. A classroom or office can be an example of a secondary group. Neither primary nor secondary groups are bound by strict definitions or set limits. In fact, people can move from one group to another. A graduate seminar, for example, can start as a secondary group focused on the class at hand, but as the students work together throughout their program, they may find common interests and strong ties that transform them into a primary group.

SOCIOLOGY IN THE REAL WORLD

Best friends she’s never met.

Writer Allison Levy worked alone. While she liked the freedom and flexibility of working from home, she sometimes missed having a community of coworkers, both for the practical purpose of brainstorming and the more social “water cooler” aspect. Levy did what many do in the Internet age: she found a group of other writers online through a web forum. Over time, a group of approximately twenty writers, who all wrote for a similar audience, broke off from the larger forum and started a private invitation-only forum. While writers in general represent all genders, ages, and interests, it ended up being a collection of twenty- and thirty-something women who comprised the new forum; they all wrote fiction for children and young adults.

At first, the writers’ forum was clearly a secondary group united by the members’ professions and work situations. As Levy explained, “On the Internet, you can be present or absent as often as you want. No one is expecting you to show up.” It was a useful place to research information about different publishers and about who had recently sold what and to track industry trends. But as time passed, Levy found it served a different purpose. Since the group shared other characteristics beyond their writing (such as age and gender), the online conversation naturally turned to matters such as child-rearing, aging parents, health, and exercise. Levy found it was a sympathetic place to talk about any number of subjects, not just writing. Further, when people didn’t post for several days, others expressed concern, asking whether anyone had heard from the missing writers. It reached a point where most members would tell the group if they were traveling or needed to be offline for awhile.

The group continued to share. One member on the site who was going through a difficult family illness wrote, “I don’t know where I’d be without you women. It is so great to have a place to vent that I know isn’t hurting anyone.” Others shared similar sentiments.

So is this a primary group? Most of these people have never met each other. They live in Hawaii, Australia, Minnesota, and across the world. They may never meet. Levy wrote recently to the group, saying, “Most of my ‘real-life’ friends and even my husband don’t really get the writing thing. I don’t know what I’d do without you.” Despite the distance and the lack of physical contact, the group clearly fills an expressive need.

Students wearing bright orange and yellow construction vests are shown standing around an outdoor job site.

In-Groups and Out-Groups

One of the ways that groups can be powerful is through inclusion, and its inverse, exclusion. The feeling that we belong in an elite or select group is a heady one, while the feeling of not being allowed in, or of being in competition with a group, can be motivating in a different way. Sociologist William Sumner (1840–1910) developed the concepts of in-group  and  out-group to explain this phenomenon (Sumner 1906). In short, an in-group is the group that an individual feels she belongs to, and she believes it to be an integral part of who she is. An out-group , conversely, is a group someone doesn’t belong to; often we may feel disdain or competition in relationship to an out-group. Sports teams, unions, and sororities are examples of in-groups and out-groups; people may belong to, or be an outsider to, any of these. Primary groups consist of both in-groups and out-groups, as do secondary groups.

While group affiliations can be neutral or even positive, such as the case of a team sport competition, the concept of in-groups and out-groups can also explain some negative human behavior, such as white supremacist movements like the Ku Klux Klan, or the bullying of gay or lesbian students. By defining others as “not like us” and inferior, in-groups can end up practicing ethnocentrism, racism, sexism, ageism, and heterosexism—manners of judging others negatively based on their culture, race, sex, age, or sexuality. Often, in-groups can form within a secondary group. For instance, a workplace can have cliques of people, from senior executives who play golf together, to engineers who write code together, to young singles who socialize after hours. While these in-groups might show favoritism and affinity for other in-group members, the overall organization may be unable or unwilling to acknowledge it. Therefore, it pays to be wary of the politics of in-groups, since members may exclude others as a form of gaining status within the group.

BIG PICTURE

Bullying and cyberbullying: how technology has changed the game.

Most of us know that the old rhyme “sticks and stones may break my bones, but words will never hurt me” is inaccurate. Words can hurt, and never is that more apparent than in instances of bullying. Bullying has always existed and has often reached extreme levels of cruelty in children and young adults. People at these stages of life are especially vulnerable to others’ opinions of them, and they’re deeply invested in their peer groups. Today, technology has ushered in a new era of this dynamic. Cyberbullying is the use of interactive media by one person to torment another, and it is on the rise. Cyberbullying can mean sending threatening texts, harassing someone in a public forum (such as Facebook), hacking someone’s account and pretending to be him or her, posting embarrassing images online, and so on. A study by the Cyberbullying Research Center found that 20 percent of middle school students admitted to “seriously thinking about committing suicide” as a result of online bullying (Hinduja and Patchin 2010). Whereas bullying face-to-face requires willingness to interact with your victim, cyberbullying allows bullies to harass others from the privacy of their homes without witnessing the damage firsthand. This form of bullying is particularly dangerous because it’s widely accessible and therefore easier to accomplish.

Cyberbullying, and bullying in general, made international headlines in 2010 when a fifteen-year-old girl, Phoebe Prince, in South Hadley, Massachusetts, committed suicide after being relentlessly bullied by girls at her school. In the aftermath of her death, the bullies were prosecuted in the legal system and the state passed anti-bullying legislation. This marked a significant change in how bullying, including cyberbullying, is viewed in the United States. Now there are numerous resources for schools, families, and communities to provide education and prevention on this issue. The White House hosted a Bullying Prevention summit in March 2011, and President and First Lady Obama have used Facebook and other social media sites to discuss the importance of the issue.

According to a report released in 2013 by the National Center for Educational Statistics, close to 1 in every 3 (27.8 percent) students report being bullied by their school peers. Seventeen percent of students reported being the victims of cyberbullying.

Will legislation change the behavior of would-be cyberbullies? That remains to be seen. But we can hope communities will work to protect victims before they feel they must resort to extreme measures.

Reference Groups

This is a picture of the U.S. Naval Academy's football team in their locker room.

A  reference group is a group that people compare themselves to—it provides a standard of measurement. In U.S. society, peer groups are common reference groups. Kids and adults pay attention to what their peers wear, what music they like, what they do with their free time—and they compare themselves to what they see. Most people have more than one reference group, so a middle school boy might look not just at his classmates but also at his older brother’s friends and see a different set of norms. And he might observe the antics of his favorite athletes for yet another set of behaviors.

Some other examples of reference groups can be one’s cultural center, workplace, family gathering, and even parents. Often, reference groups convey competing messages. For instance, on television and in movies, young adults often have wonderful apartments and cars and lively social lives despite not holding a job. In music videos, young women might dance and sing in a sexually aggressive way that suggests experience beyond their years. At all ages, we use reference groups to help guide our behavior and show us social norms. So how important is it to surround yourself with positive reference groups? You may not recognize a reference group, but it still influences the way you act. Identifying your reference groups can help you understand the source of the social identities you aspire to or want to distance yourself from.

College: A World of In-Groups, Out-Groups, and Reference Groups

About a dozen young females are shown sitting in chairs at a sorority recruitment on campus.

For a student entering college, the sociological study of groups takes on an immediate and practical meaning. After all, when we arrive someplace new, most of us glance around to see how well we fit in or stand out in the ways we want. This is a natural response to a reference group, and on a large campus, there can be many competing groups. Say you are a strong athlete who wants to play intramural sports, and your favorite musicians are a local punk band. You may find yourself engaged with two very different reference groups.

These reference groups can also become your in-groups or out-groups. For instance, different groups on campus might solicit you to join. Are there fraternities and sororities at your school? If so, chances are they will try to convince students—that is, students they deem worthy—to join them. And if you love playing soccer and want to play on a campus team, but you’re wearing shredded jeans, combat boots, and a local band T-shirt, you might have a hard time convincing the soccer team to give you a chance. While most campus groups refrain from insulting competing groups, there is a definite sense of an in-group versus an out-group. “Them?” a member might say. “They’re all right, but their parties are nowhere near as cool as ours.” Or, “Only serious engineering geeks join that group.” This immediate categorization into in-groups and out-groups means that students must choose carefully, since whatever group they associate with won’t just define their friends—it may also define their enemies.

Social Networks

These days in the job world we often hear of “networking,” or taking advantage of your connections with people who have connections to other people who can help you land a job. You do not necessarily know these “other people” who ultimately can help you, but you do know the people who know them. Your ties to the other people are weak or nonexistent, but your involvement in this network may nonetheless help you find a job.

Modern life is increasingly characterized by such social networks , or the totality of relationships that link us to other people and groups and through them to still other people and groups. Some of these relationships involve strong bonds, while other relationships involve weak bonds (Granovetter, 1983). Facebook and other Web sites have made possible networks of a size unimaginable just a decade ago. Social networks are important for many things, including getting advice, borrowing small amounts of money, and finding a job. When you need advice or want to borrow $5 or $10, to whom do you turn? The answer is undoubtedly certain members of your social networks—your friends, family, and so forth.

The indirect links you have to people through your social networks can help you find a job or even receive better medical care. For example, if you come down with a serious condition such as cancer, you would probably first talk with your primary care physician, who would refer you to one or more specialists whom you do not know and who have no connections to you through other people you know. That is, they are not part of your social network. Because the specialists do not know you and do not know anyone else who knows you, they are likely to treat you very professionally, which means, for better or worse, impersonally.

Social networking apps on an iPhone

Gavin Llewellyn – My social networks – CC BY 2.0.

Now suppose you have some nearby friends or relatives who are physicians. Because of their connections with other nearby physicians, they can recommend certain specialists to you and perhaps even get you an earlier appointment than your primary physician could. Because these specialists realize you know physicians they know, they may treat you more personally than otherwise. In the long run, you may well get better medical care from your network through the physicians you know. People lucky enough to have such connections may thus be better off medically than people who do not.

But let’s look at this last sentence. What kinds of people have such connections? What kinds of people have friends or relatives who are physicians? All other things being equal, if you had two people standing before you, one employed as a vice president in a large corporation and the other working part time at a fast-food restaurant, which person do you think would be more likely to know a physician or two personally? Your answer is probably the corporate vice president. The point is that factors such as our social class and occupational status, our race and ethnicity, and our gender affect how likely we are to have social networks that can help us get jobs, good medical care, and other advantages. As just one example, a study of three working-class neighborhoods in New York City—one white, one African American, and one Latino—found that white youths were more involved through their parents and peers in job-referral networks than youths in the other two neighborhoods and thus were better able to find jobs, even if they had been arrested for delinquency (Sullivan, 1989). This study suggests that even if we look at people of different races and ethnicities in roughly the same social class, whites have an advantage over people of color in the employment world.

Gender also matters in the employment world. In many businesses, there still exists an “old boys’ network,” in which male executives with job openings hear about male applicants from male colleagues and friends. Male employees already on the job tend to spend more social time with their male bosses than do their female counterparts. These related processes make it more difficult for females than for males to be hired and promoted (Barreto, Ryan, & Schmitt, 2009). To counter these effects and to help support each other, some women form networks where they meet, talk about mutual problems, and discuss ways of dealing with these problems. An example of such a network is The Links, Inc., a community service group of 12,000 professional African American women whose name underscores the importance of networking ( http://www.linksinc.org/index.shtml ). Its members participate in 270 chapters in 42 states; Washington, DC; and the Bahamas. Every two years, more than 2,000 Links members convene for a national assembly at which they network, discuss the problems they face as professional women of color, and consider fund-raising strategies for the causes they support.

Key Takeaways

  • Groups are a key building block of social life but can also have negative consequences.
  • Primary groups are generally small and include intimate relationships, while secondary groups are larger and more impersonal.
  • Reference groups provide a standard for guiding and evaluating our attitudes and behaviors.
  • Social networks are increasingly important in modern life, and involvement in such networks may have favorable consequences for many aspects of one’s life.

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Gosselin, D. K. (2010). Heavy hands: An introduction to the crimes of family violence (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Granovetter, M. (1983). The strength of weak ties: A network theory revisited. Sociological Theory, 1, 201–233.

Maimon, D., & Kuhl, D. C. (2008). Social control and youth suicidality: Situating Durkheim’s ideas in a multilevel framework. American Sociological Review, 73, 921–943.

Marks, S. R. (1994). Intimacy in the public realm: The case of co-workers. Social Forces, 72, 843–858.

Olzak, S. (1992). The dynamics of ethnic competition and conflict . Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

Stouffer, S. A., Suchman, E. A., DeVinney, L. C., Star, S. A., & Williams, R. M., Jr. (1949). The American soldier: Adjustment during army life (Studies in Social Psychology in World War II, Vol. 1). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Sullivan, M. (1989). Getting paid: Youth crime and work in the inner city . Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.

Introduction to Sociology: Understanding and Changing the Social World Copyright © 2016 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Reference Groups (Sociology): Definition and Types

reference group in sociology definition and examples, explained below

A reference group is a group of people whose norms influence a person’s behaviors. We use the group as a ‘frame of reference’ to make behavioral decisions.

Traditionally, we would refer to a reference group as the social group (and its norms) that we wish to belong to, and therefore, we use its norms as a reference for idealized behaviors.

However, Robert K Metron also notes that we also look at groups that we don’t want to belong to and use them as a frame of reference as well, aspiring to avoid the behaviors of the reference groups we want to avoid association with (Singer, 2017).

This theory was traditionally used in sociology to explain social behavior, but is now also used extensively in marketing and communications fields to explore how advertisements and branding can compel people to purchase certain products that can help them to fit into a reference group. For example, when all your favorite basketball stars wear Nike sheos, you’ll want to wear them as well to feel like you fit into the ‘cool’ basketballer reference group (Fernandes & Panda, 2019).

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Definition of Reference Groups

A reference group is a social group that an individual uses as a standard of comparison or point of reference in making evaluations and decisions.

The concept of reference groups gives us a lens through which we can understand how norms and values are transmitted within in-groups and out-groups , and how they influence our behaviors.

In simple terms, we tend to want to aspire toward the behaviors of the reference groups we identify with (our ‘in groups’), and avoid behaviors of the reference groups with which we do not identify (our ‘out groups’).

For some scholarly definitions, consult below:

“A reference group is a group that influences an individual’s thoughts or behaviors” (Berkowitz, 2021)
“…a group that an individual uses as a point of reference in determining their judgments, preferences, and behaviors.” (Borkowski & Meese, 2021)

Concept’s Origins

Reference groups was a term first introduced by American sociologist Herbert Hyman in 1941.

His research focused on reference groups as anchoring points where people can source their norms and values.

For example, a child’s family is their first point of reference for learning normative behaviors that will be rewarded, and which behaviors are not ‘for us’ (Lawler, 2015).

Later, Robert K. Merton extended the concept of reference groups by distinguishing between “in-groups” (groups an individual belongs to, or aspires toward) and “out-groups” (groups an individual does not belong to, or identifies as undesirable).

For Merton, a reference group may be a group an individual already belongs to (membership reference group), aspires to join (aspirational reference group), or even a group that an individual wishes to avoid (dissociative reference group).

The concept of reference groups helps us to better understand motivations behind human behavior (Fernandes & Panda, 2019). The notion reminds us that individuals are socialized into thinking and behaving in ways that are consistent with the reference groups with which they identify.

Types of Reference Groups

1. membership reference groups.

Membership reference groups are groups that an individual is currently a part of or identifies with. (Berkowitz, 2021)

The individual has a direct interaction and shared experiences with these groups. The connection can be either formal (like a registered club or society) or informal (like a group of friends or colleagues).

Because individuals are part of these groups, they often conform to the norms, behaviors, and attitudes of the group.

This influence can be quite strong, especially if the group’s social cohesion is high. The impact of these groups extends across various facets of life, from lifestyle choices to professional conduct.

Examples of Membership Reference Groups

  • Sports Teams: An individual who is a part of a local soccer team, for example, may adopt certain behaviors, such as regular exercise, diet habits, and team-oriented mindsets.
  • Religious Communities: If a person is a part of a church, mosque, temple, or other religious community, they may adopt specific values, behaviors, and attitudes consistent with that community.
  • Professional Associations: Being a member of professional associations or labor unions can influence an individual’s work ethic , professional standards, and attitudes toward workplace issues.

For 50 more examples, see my full article: Examples of Reference Groups

2. Aspirational Reference Groups

Aspirational reference groups consist of individuals or groups that a person aspires to join or be associated with (Berkowitz, 2021).

These groups represent the ideals and attributes that the person admires and hopes to emulate. They serve as a model or benchmark for personal goals and ambitions .

While the individual may not have direct interaction or a personal relationship with these groups, they can still exert considerable influence.

The individual may modify their behavior, attitudes, and preferences in a manner that aligns with the perceived norms of the aspirational reference group in order to try to gain closer proximity to the group and its values. This change in behavior prior to admittance to the group was defined by Merton as anticipatory socialization .

Examples of Aspirational Reference Groups

  • Celebrities and Public Figures: Many people aspire to have the lifestyle, success, or qualities of certain celebrities, athletes, or public figures. This admiration can influence their fashion, lifestyle choices, and even career aspirations .
  • Successful Professionals or Academics: Students or young professionals may look up to successful people in their field, seeing them as role models and aspiring to reach similar levels of success.
  • High-status Social Groups: Some people aspire to join high-status social groups, such as exclusive clubs or societies. The desire to join these groups can influence an individual’s behavior, tastes, and lifestyle choices.

3. Dissociative Reference Groups

Dissociative reference groups are social groups that an individual does not want to associate with, due to various reasons such as differing values, social status, or behavioral patterns (Berkowitz, 2021).

They represent what the individual does not want to be. The person deliberately distances themselves from these groups and often acts in ways to intentionally fit outside of the group’s norms and behaviors.

Just as individuals are influenced by who they aspire to be like, they are also impacted by who they do not want to be like.

As a result, dissociative reference groups play a crucial role in self-identity and behavior, helping to define what an individual is not or does not wish to be, and this can be a powerful motivator for behavior change.

While having a negative connotation, dissociative reference groups can contribute positively to an individual’s self-concept and behavior by providing clear examples of what they wish to avoid.

Examples of Dissociative Reference Groups

  • Criminal Groups: For most law-abiding individuals, groups involved in illegal activities such as organized crime syndicates or gangs serve as dissociative reference groups. People often make conscious efforts to distinguish themselves from such groups and avoid behaviors associated with them.
  • Political or Ideological Groups: If an individual strongly disagrees with the beliefs or actions of a particular political party or ideological group, they may consider that group as a dissociative reference group. They may actively oppose or reject the norms and values of that group.
  • Stereotypical Groups: Stereotypes often create dissociative reference groups. For example, someone might work hard to avoid being associated with negative stereotypes about their age, profession, nationality, or any other social category.

Primary vs Secondary Reference Groups

We can also divide reference groups into two types: primary and secondary. This distinction demonstrates two spheres of influence – one close, intimate, and highly influential, and the other more distant but nonetheless secondarily influential. Each is explained below.

1. Primary Reference Groups

Primary reference groups consist of small, intimate, and enduring social groups that individuals are directly a part of.

This group significantly impacts an individual’s behavior, identity, and core values because of the strong emotional ties, face-to-face interaction, and high degree of influence that characterize it (Lawler, 2015).

The relationships within primary reference groups are typically long-lasting and intrinsically valuable.

They are not just a means to an end, but valuable for their own sake. These groups play an essential role in the socialization process, influencing the development of self-concepts, attitudes, and behaviors.

Examples of Primary Reference Groups

  • Family: The family unit is one of the most influential primary reference groups. The norms, values, and behaviors learned in the family setting strongly shape an individual’s character and perspectives.
  • Close Friends: Close friendship groups are a primary reference group because of the strong emotional bonds that exist within them. They often influence an individual’s behaviors, attitudes, and choices, especially among younger people.
  • Work Teams or Colleagues: People spend a significant part of their day at work, and colleagues often serve as a primary reference group. They shape how an individual behaves in a professional setting and can influence attitudes towards work ethic, corporate culture, and more.

2. Secondary Reference Groups

Secondary reference groups are larger, more formal, and impersonal groups that individuals may or may not be directly a part of.

The relationships in these groups are usually more temporary, limited, and instrumental compared to primary reference groups (Lawler, 2015).

Despite being less intimate, these groups still exert influence on individuals’ attitudes and behavior.

Interaction within secondary reference groups often revolves around a specific goal or activity, and the relationships may dissolve once the shared objective is achieved.

They are typically less emotionally engaging but provide a broader social network for individuals, serving as a crucial source of social comparison and competition.

Examples of Secondary Reference Groups

  • Professional Associations: Organizations like the American Medical Association or the National Education Association, for example, serve as secondary reference groups for doctors and teachers, respectively. The norms and standards of these groups influence professional behavior and attitudes.
  • Schools and Universities: These institutions serve as a secondary reference group for students. They influence students’ behaviors and attitudes towards learning, peer interaction, and a wide array of other aspects.
  • Social Media Communities: In the digital age, virtual communities on platforms like Facebook, Instagram, and LinkedIn have emerged as powerful secondary reference groups. They influence individuals’ perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors, despite the lack of face-to-face interaction.

Two ways Reference Groups Influence Behavior

Reference groups exert a significant influence over an individual’s behavior, beliefs, and attitudes.

According to social influence theory , this influence can primarily be categorized into two types: normative influence and informational influence.

1. Normative Influence

Normative social influence is the pressure exerted by a reference group to conform to the group’s accepted norms and behaviors.

It is typically driven by an individual’s desire to fit in with the group and gain acceptance and approval, or avoid disapproval (McDonald & Crandall, 2015).

This is the sort of social influence that compels people to follow trends, dress in socially desirable ways, and follow cultural norms that may not have clear logic underpinning them, except that they give people social status as a member of an in-group.

Examples of Normative Influence

  • Fashion and Trends: Reference groups heavily influence our choices in fashion and lifestyle trends. For instance, teenagers may adopt specific clothing styles or slang to fit in with their peers.
  • Professional Conduct: In a workplace, new employees often adapt their behaviors to match the existing norms and standards of the organization or their team, even when these behaviors are not explicitly stated.
  • Social Norms : In society, individuals often conform to unwritten social rules or norms, such as queuing in a line, to gain social acceptance and avoid conflict. These social norms are often influenced by reference groups.

2. Informational Influence

Informational social influence occurs when individuals look to the knowledge and wisdom of a reference group for information and guidance.

This influence is typically driven by the belief that the group possesses accurate knowledge or expertise (McDonald & Crandall, 2015).

Its essential difference from normative social influence is that a person makes their decision based on a rational assessment that the group holds the most accurate and valuable information for making decisions, rather than simply to cohere to norms to ‘fit in’.

It is nevertheless still highly influential, because if a person has come to a rational decision that their reference group (e.g. a religion, pseudoscience , pseudo-psychology , or political ideology) holds the bests answers to an issue, then you’ll follow its guidance.

Examples of Informational Influence

  • Product Reviews: In the realm of consumer behavior, people often rely on reviews and ratings from others (a form of reference group) before deciding to purchase a product or service.
  • Expert Opinions: In healthcare, for instance, patients often rely on the informational influence of doctors and other medical professionals when making health decisions.
  • Career Choices: People may look to successful professionals in their field (an aspirational reference group) for information and guidance when making career-related decisions, such as which skills to develop or what job opportunities to pursue.

The role of reference groups in sociology and social psychology is integral to our understanding of human behavior and social dynamics.

By influencing our aspirations, shaping our identities, and defining societal norms, these groups guide the trajectory of our lives. Understanding the impact of primary, secondary, aspirational, and dissociative reference groups can enhance our understanding of ourselves and the society we live in.

Recognizing the sway of these groups is not just academically fascinating – it’s a tool for introspection , societal analysis, and better decision-making .

Borkowski, N., & Meese, K. A. (2021). Organizational behavior, theory, and design in health care . New York: Jones & Bartlett Learning.

Berkowitz, E. N. (2021). Essentials of health care marketing . New York: Jones & Bartlett Learning.

Fernandes, S., & Panda, R. (2019). Influence of social reference groups on consumer buying behavior: A review.  Journal of management research ,  19 (2), 131-142.

Lawler, S. (2015).  Identity: sociological perspectives . New York: John Wiley & Sons.

McDonald, R. I., & Crandall, C. S. (2015). Social norms and social influence.  Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 3 , 147-151. doi:  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2015.04.006  

Singer, E. (2017). Reference groups and social evaluations.  Social psychology , 66-93.

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Reference Groups: College Students Essay

Introduction, various reference groups of college students, most important reference groups, college and high school students with regard to reference group, works cited.

Reference groups play a pertinent role in the make-up of college students’ behavior and attitude. The term reference group was coined by Hyman during the study of social standing when he required respondents with “which individuals or groups” they identified their selves. (Bearden and Etzel 183).

We mould our personalities through socialization. Family, school, society, peer groups etc are important agents in this process. We often tend to absorb certain things in our personalities which are considered to be more valuable in society. This paper presents some topics like various reference groups of college students, most important reference groups and the difference between high school students and college students having reference groups in moulding of one’s personality. Perhaps one of the most interesting aspects is that, “however, individuals who are considered to be “deviant” by one category of people may be seen as conformists by another group.” (Kendall 175).

Social scientists have acknowledged group membership as a precursor of conduct. The notion that people act in conformity within the “framework of reference” created by the groups in which they claim membership is a well accepted idea (Bearden and Etzel 183).

Reference group is a group that influences a student’s behavior and attitude. Family, education, peer group, media and religion are the main agents in the process of socialization of an individual. This process helps us become a human in the society, acquiring mental and physical skills which are essential to live in the society. It molds us how to think, act and talk in the society. Any regular “frame of reference” whether it matches social precepts or not, makes up the perceptive portion of an approach.” (Newcomb 225).

Children and adults need people who take care of them and they want groups with which they can interact. Looking-glass self theory is a sociological concept where one individual evaluates the other person’s view about evaluating individuals. If it is positive, it will enhance the personality and if it is negative it will diminish the self. Therefore, the society and socialization has a vital role in the molding of personality. There are reference groups for college students towards which they are more attracted and their personality is influenced by these reference groups. “Compared to older people, college students have less developed attitudes, lower molded self beliefs, but instead have robust recognition skills and faculties, and more ‘unstable peer-group relationships.” (Sears 515-530).

There are various reference groups among college students. Each one is attracted towards the reference group where one thinks that his or her own ideas and principles can be cherished. The different groups are associated with any of these groups such as sports, writers and intellectuals, films stars and models, singers and dancers and politicians. Film actors or singers serve as role models for teenagers, while for others, the fashionable school a group acts as “a reference group.” (Oskamp and Schultz 173). All college students have a role model on whose principles the personality is developed and socialized. Sports are crazy for college students such as football, basketball, cricket etc. Those who are interested in sports try to be identified with sports club members and sports stars. They continuously play games and sports. So also, students who are interested in dance, writing, politics, drama and singing are attracted by the same group and club. The college students have these kinds of reference groups. It certainly influences on their perception, identity, behavior and attitude.

After the school life student would be having a very different experience. Reference group they would be having in college would depend upon the character of the student.

The way we assess ourselves is determined by associations with social groups called “Reference groups”. (Egelman, et al 47). Sports and movies are the dream of most of the students. The media plays an important role in building up of such thoughts among college students. More students are mad after films and sports. They like to be identified in such labels. Such a student, who is crazy after these, joins sports clubs and film clubs in the college. These thoughts influence their personality, behavior and attitude. More often, it is found that boys in college are more attracted to sports when girls in colleges are crazy after film and modeling. It is visible from their appearance such as way of talking, dressing and walking.

Culture changes in the long run. The culture is expressed in a society through beliefs, values, customs, etc. We experience the change of culture with the advance of technologies. Today, there is a trend in the society to adore the film stars and sports stars. They are considered as precious in the society and people go after them. This attitude of the society makes the students think to become film stars and sport stars. Very few students are attracted to writings and some students cherish adventurous and risky objectives in life. It is seen that sports and film are the two important ways to become celebrity and to make money. That is why more college students are attracted to such reference groups.

College student will be having a different an entirely different reference group from high school. The shift from an atmosphere which consists of strict rules and regulations to more creative and free one would make them select different kinds of people. However these aspects would also depend upon whether the student population consists of cosmopolitans or locals. This is because “Certain differences were found between cosmopolitans and locals in terms of influence, participation, acceptance of organizational rules and informal relations.” (Gouldner).

There are differences between college students and high schools students with regard to reference group. There are only two reference groups among high school students. They are, reference groups who are interested in (1) film and models and (2) sports. But in college level, students start to think about revolutions and various philosophies. Students begin to criticize the existing social system and they think to build a new system. They become revolutionary, thinking that they can change the world. Therefore, college students are attracted to some of the philosophies and writings. So also, some are more interested in politics. These visions are molded at this time. Therefore even though it can be varied according to different culture and educational systems, there are more reference groups among college students comparing to high school children. These reference groups influence the personality, especially behavior and attitude of the students. Moreover, it is also evident that college seniors have more correct picture of “labor market realities” than their school counterparts. (Pascarella and Terenzini).

The important role models for college students are writers, politicians, film stars, models, sport stars, musicians etc. They are always attracted towards such reference groups. Though most of the students are crazy after film and sports, some people are interested in politics, music, writing etc. But in the case of a high school student, everyone is attracted only to film and sports.

Bearden, William O and Etzel, Michael J. “Reference Group Influence on Product and Brand Purchase Decisions.” Journal of Consumer Research 9 (1982): 183-194. Web.

Egelman, William, et al. The Best Test Preparation for the CLEP College-Level Examination Program in Introductory Sociology . Research & Education Assoc., 1995. Print.

Gouldner, Alvin W. Cosmopolitans and Locals: Toward an Analysis of Latent Social Roles – II . JSTOR, Johnson Graduate School of Management . 1958.

Kendall, Diana. Sociology in Our Times: The Essentials . 7 th ed. Cengage Learning. 2008.

Newcomb, Theodore Mead. Social Psychology . Dryden Press, 1950. Print.

Oskamp, Stuart and Schultz, P. Wesley. Attitudes and Opinions . 3 rd ed. Routledge, 2005. Print.

Pascarella, Ernest T and Terenzini, Patrick T. How College Effects Students: A Third Decade of Research . John Wiley & Sons. 2005. Web.

Sears, David O. “College Sophomores in the Laboratory: Influences of a Narrow Data Base on Social Psychology’s View of Human Nature.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 51 (3) (1986): 515-530. Web.

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Sociology Optional Mains Paper 1 for UPSC | Year 2023 | Is reference group theory a universally applicable model? Elucidate. | Triumph IAS

Exploring the Applicability and Limitations of R.K. Merton's Reference Group Theory in Diverse Societal Contexts, Best Sociology Optional Coaching, Sociology Optional Syllabus.

Table of Contents

Is reference group theory a universally applicable model? Elucidate.

Section: A Sociology Paper 2023 Analysis (Relevant Paper 1: Unit-4 Sociological Thinkers )

Question: 1 (D) Is reference group theory a universally applicable model? Elucidate.

(1 0 Marks)

Introduction:

R. K. Merton build on the reference group theory on the basis of Samuel Stouffer’s findings that soldiers’ feelings of relative deprivation were more related to the living standards of the groups they compared themselves to than their actual hardships.

  • R eference group refers to group to which the individuals refer to evaluate their status, role performance, ambitions, achievement. Individuals belong to multiple groups in society. The group to which individual belong referred as membership group , the group to which individuals does not belong to referred as non-membership group. People generally consider the non- membership groups as reference group , they feel relatively deprived and goes for anticipatory socialization .and depending upon whether the reference group is open or closed anticipatory socialization leads to mobility or marginalisation respectively .

Application of reference group model

  • T he reference group theory helps us to understand in detail  the society in context of its openness and closeness and hence the scope of mobility in society can be understood.
  • For example Louis Dumont has referred the Indian society as homo hierarchicus and called Indian caste system as closed . Whereas the concept of Sanskritization given by M N Srinivas used reference group theory to explain the chances of mobility in closed society.
  • Reference group theory provides the mechanisms of mobility and growth in society . It can help providing aspirations to people to go for anticipatory socialization and achieve mobility.
  • Reference groups contribute to individuals’ socialization processes and help shape their identities . By comparing themselves to their reference groups, individuals develop a sense of self and learn appropriate behaviours, values, and norms.
  • Reference groups can also influence individuals to engage in deviant or delinquent behaviour . Understanding the dynamics of reference groups can help in developing interventions and programs to prevent or address such behaviours.
  • Reference group theory is applied in the field of information studies to understand how individuals seek, evaluate, and use information based on the standards and norms of their reference group. This understanding can help in designing more effective information services and resources.

Reference group theory: not universally applicable

Reference group theory is not universally applicable but it’s relevance is limited in its scope depending upon various contexts.

  • Variability in individuals’ psychological and social traits has a significant impact on how they engage with reference groups. The extent to which reference groups influence individuals varies based on their personality, values, and life experiences. This diversity among individuals challenges the universality of reference group theory.
  • The reference group theory can- not be applied in terms of people who does not feel relative deprivation or the societies which are isolated. For example the isolated tribes in many areas are not even aware about the non- membership groups due to limited or no interaction.
  • The application of reference theory becomes limited in application if resources are not well placed for anticipatory socialization. In such scenarios the relative deprivation does not conclude in anticipatory socialization. The theory of culture of poverty by Oscar Lewis explain such behaviour where anticipatory socialization is not applicable.  
  • Even the concept of Sanskritization as anticipatory socialization is limited in its scope and it is criticised for the same reason .

Conclusion:

Merton himself gave the concept of middle range theories and rejected the universal aspect of classical functionalism and shifted the paradigm towards limited application of any concept or theory. The relevance and impact of reference groups is also context-dependent . The theory’s applicability may differ depending on the specific situation or decisions being considered.

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Reference Group Theory, Sociological Theories, Relative Deprivation, R.K. Merton, Anticipatory Socialization, Social Mobility, Homo Hierarchicus, Sanskritization, Culture of Poverty, Social Structure, Social Identity, Behavioral Influence, Social Influence, Psychological Traits, Social Traits, Membership Group, Non-membership Group, Socialization, Social Dynamics, Middle Range Theory, Societal Openness, Social Interventions, Deviant Behavior, Information Studies, Social Comparison, Social Norms, Social Values, Individual Behaviors.

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Reference groups: meaning, types, factors and application | consumer.

reference group essay

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Read this article to learn about the meaning, types, factors and application of reference groups.

Meaning and Nature:

“Reference Group is a group that serves as a reference point for an individual in the formation of his/her beliefs, attitudes and behaviour.” Marketers frequently advertise their products in a group setting- the family eating breakfast cereals, the neighbor admiring the paint of the house.

The purpose of these examples is to demonstrate the influence that friends and relatives have on consum­ers. Advertisers use celebrities to mirror group influences and sometimes typical consumers as spokesperson’s as they reflect the purchaser’s norms and values and act as a representative of the consumer’s reference group. For example – In Vim bar ad, only the next door house wives are shown.

Reference groups provide points of comparison by which to evaluate attitudes and behaviour. A consumer can either be a member of a reference group (like family) or aspire to belong to a group. In first case, the individual is said to be in a membership group and in the second, the individual is part of an aspiration group.

When an individual joins a group and then rejects the group’s values this type of group is a dis-claimant group for the individual. If an individual avoids the membership of a certain group, this type is called as dissociative group. This means reference groups can also be viewed negatively.

Types of Reference Groups:

These four types of reference groups are shown in the Fig 8.1. Advertisers use only positive attitude appeals in their ads.

Types of Reference Groups

Membership Groups:

As marketers are interested only in the positive type of membership group, let us further break down membership and aspiration group. Membership group can be further divided into primary or secondary and informal or formal. If a person has regular contact with certain individuals such as family, friends etc., those individuals form a primary group. If the group members have less frequent contact amongst themselves, they from a secondary group like shopping groups, sports club etc.

Marketers are interested in studying the primary group as they help in developing product beliefs, tastes and preferences and also directly influence the purchasing behaviour of an individual. It is seen through research that members of groups with the greatest contact in a variety of situations are more likely to buy the same brands.

Informal/Formal Groups

Groups can also be divided by whether they have a formal structure with specific roles or an informal structure. This classification produces four types of membership groups as shown in the Fig 8.2. The family/peer groups represent primary informal groups which is important because of the frequency of contact and the closeness between the individual and group members. Advertisers frequently portray consumption among friends and family.

Primary formal groups have a more formal structure. These are groups with which the consumer frequently comes into contact. For example – business executive’s who-are assigned the project together. Advertisers show membership in such groups as a means of winning product approval.

Secondary formal groups are not important to the consumer, as they meet infrequently, are structured, and are closely knit. For example-alumni Groups, business clubs etc. This group is of least interest to the marketer.

Aspiration Groups:

There are two types of aspiration groups. These are:

(a) Anticipatory aspiration groups are those groups, in which an individual plans to join at a future time and also in most cases he/she has direct contact. For example- when an individual aspires for a group higher in the organizational hierarchy, this is basically for rewards like power, status, prestige and money. Marketers specially of clothing and cosmetic industry’s appeal to the desire to enhance one’s position by climbing to a higher aspiration group.

(b) Symbolic aspiration groups are those groups, in which an individual is not likely to belong, despite acceptance of the group’s beliefs and attitudes. Marketers appeal to symbolic aspirations by using celebrities to advertise certain products.

Types of Aspirations Groups

Nature of Reference Groups :

Reference groups have certain characteristics that affect their influence on consumers. They establish norms, roles, socialization, status and power.

Norms are the rules and standards of conduct established by a group. This means group members are expected to conform to these norms and they may relate to eating habits, makes of cars, clothes or cosmetics etc.

(ii) Roles:

Roles are the functions that the group assigns to an individual to attain group objectives. Various roles that have been identified in family decision making are the influences, the gatekeeper, decision maker, the purchaser and the consumer.

(iii) Status:

Status refers to the position an individual enjoys within the group. High status implies greater power and influence. A person may enjoy a highest status in the organization but may be the weakest member in the tennis club.

(iv) Consumers sometimes purchase products to demonstrate status in a broader societal sense so that the message is one of wealth and implied superiority.

(v) Socialization:

Socialization is a process by which an individual learns the group’s norms and role expectations.

Consumer socialization is the process by which consumers acquire the knowledge and skills neces­sary to operate in the marketplace.

(vi) Power:

The influence that a group has on an individual is closely related to the group’s power.

Three sources of group influence which are relevant for marketing strategy are:

(a) Expert Power:

For this an individual or group must have knowledge and experience.

(b) Reference Power:

Reference power depends on the individual’s identification with mem­bers of the group. The greater the similarity between the individual’s beliefs and attitudes and those of group members, the greater the reference power of the group. Either the individual is the member of the group or he/ she aspires to belong to a group.

(c) Reward Power:

It is based on the group’s ability to reward the individual. An employer rewards an employee with money and status, family rewards the child with praise and approval.

Factors That Affect Reference Group Influence:

Reference Groups affect consumer choice because of following factors:

(1) Normative Influence:

When reference groups affect behaviour and attitudes through pres­sures for conformity, then this is known as normative influence. According to Park and Lessig, a consumer is motivated to conform to the norms and behaviour of the group if:

(a) The group provides significant rewards for compliance and punishment for lack of compliance and

(b) The individual’s behaviour in conforming is visible to members of the group.

Conformity pressures become most potent when there is both positive motivation to maintain group identity and the motivation of threats of sanctioning power in the form of rewards and punish­ments. Normative influence can occur even when others do not control tangible outcomes because people are concerned with their perceptions of what other think of them.

This means, it may also occur for items such as mouthwash and denture adhesive, even if these items are not visible. Market­ing studies reveal that conformity pressures do impact is buying decisions and this is true when the product is conspicuous in its purchase and use and when group social acceptance is a strong motiva­tor. For example- fashion conscious women receives clear signals from their peers which product to buy so that their choices were socially correct.

(2) Informational influence:

A consumer will accept information from a group if he or she considers the group a credible source of information and expertise and if he/she believes the infor­mation will enhance knowledge about product choices. The information can be collected directly from knowledgeable persons or by observing the behaviour.

Consumer may consider the marketer’s claim with suspicion because of the company’s vested interest in promoting the product. Consumers usually seek expert advice from personal sources such as friends and neighbors than from commercial sources.

Table 1 explains the nature of informational influence by describing the consumer’s objectives as obtaining knowledge, the information is accepted because the credibility of source, the source of power as expertise and the final behaviour as acceptance of influence.

Informational influence is likely to be most important in two conditions. First, when there is social, financial performance risk in buying the product. Second, if the individual has limited knowledge or experience regarding the product. For example, products like car, computer, cellular phones, fax machines etc are likely to be purchased after seeking expert’s advice.

Nature of Informational Influence

Types of Influence Exerted by Reference Groups :

Comparative Influence:

Comparative influence means comparing oneself to other members of the group and also judging whether groups would be supportive. Consumers constantly compare their attitudes to those of members of important groups. They try to associate themselves with groups with which they agree and by dissociating themselves from groups with which they disagree.

In Table comparative influence is a process of self maintenance and enrichment. Individual looks forward to enhance his/her self concept by associating with groups that will provide reinforce­ment and ego gratifications. Individual’s behaviour toward the group is similar and the source of power is referent power.

Comparative influence implies that those being influenced should have characteristics similar to one who is influencing. A study reveals that consumers seek information from those whose view is similar to themselves. The study says that advertisers should use spokespersons to whom con­sumers perceive as being similar to themselves.

This sometimes gives the feeling to an individual that the purchase of a particular brand helps show others what he/she is or would like to be, for example a successful business person, a perfect housewife, athlete etc.

Consumer conforms with Reference Group:

Marketers are basically more interested in the ability of reference groups to change consumer attitudes and behaviour (i.e. to encourage confor­mity).

Factors on which group membership affects brand choice are:

(a) The nature of the product, (example-burger versus toothpaste).

(b) The type of social relationship (example-friends, etc.).

(c) The social structure of the group. This means the extent of personal ties between group members.

Through research it was observed, members of close-knit groups were more likely to reveal a preference for the same brands.

To encourage conformity, a reference group must:

1. Inform about a product or brand.

2. give an opportunity to an individual to compare his/her own thinking with the attitudes and behaviour of the group.

3. Influence an individual to adopt norms of the group.

4. Legitimize him/her to use the same products as the group.

Application of Reference Group Concept:

Marketers and advertisers use reference group appeals very effectively to communicate with their customers. They use three types of group influence informational, comparative and normative to develop advertising and personal selling strategies.

Informational Influence:

Advertising strategies have portrayed informational influence through expert spokespersons, comparative influence by using typical consumers and normative influence by showing the rewards of using a product or the risks of not using it.

Marketers use expert spokesperson to convey informational influence through advertising. They are used then to communicate product features and performance. For example – doctor is used for a medical product, an engineer for a technical product. Marketers usually use two approaches to portray expert spokespersons. One is to portray the role the expert plays as in the example above.

A second approach is to show a celebrity who has expertise in the product area. For example-using a cricket star’s testimonial for a cricket bat. The second approach uses celebrities to provide product testimonials. Such testimonials are accepted only to the degree that consumers view the spokesper­son as being an expert on the product.

For example – when for Nike athlete shoes some sports star like P.T. Usha is used as an expert consumer are likely to view a testimonial from P.T. Usha for the product category as credible.

Advertisers use a “typical consumer” approach to persuade consumers that people like them­selves have chosen the advertised product. This is used to portray comparative influence and here typical consumer is referent because, by citing common needs and problems, he or she is portrayed as similar to the prospective purchase. For example – in Dove, “typical consumer” approach is used i.e. those ladies who don’t have time to spend hours for looking beautiful. A consumer in the market for soap could easily identify with these individuals.

Another way advertisers convey comparative influence is to use a celebrity as a referent. This approach is effective if a segment of consumers wants to identify with the referent because he or she is likable and/or attractive.

Normative Influence:

Marketers convey this type of influence by showing group approval in advertising. For ex- ample- in ads like shampoo, car, floor cleaner etc. In all these ads glorious and shiny hair, smooth and comfortable ride, shiny and clean floor are used as advertising’s simulation of social approval. In all the above cases, an individual who is important to-the consumers (i.e. a friend, neighbour, spouse etc.) has expressed approval of the consumer’s choice. For example, in Green Label’ a liquor ad shows reward power by associating the product with the rewards for achievement in the organization.

Personal Selling Strategies:

Marketers also use the three types of reference group influences to develop sales strategies to influence.

Sales strategy implications of informational and comparative influence.

Applications of Informational and Comparative Influence Suggest Two General Approaches to Customers-sales Person Interactions:

(a) The salesperson can be a objective source of information that is he/she acts as an expert.

(b)The salesperson can attempt to reinforce the customer’s ego and social needs by demonstrating similar needs, concerns and predispositions. In this he/she acts as a referent.

Conditions in which salespersons should establish expertise rather than similarity are:

(a) If salesperson has the knowledge and credentials to be seen as an expert.

(b) If customers is engaged in a high risk, complex buying task requiring expertise.

(c) If the salesperson does not regularly sell to the buyer.

Similarity, it is well established that when the salesperson is in fact similar, the buying task is simple and low risk and the salesperson regularly sells to the buyer.

The above findings show that expertise is more important in a problem-solving approach specially for complex goods such as personal computers or C.D. system, Television etc. due to their greater complexity and variety. Some consumer services also comes under this category like financial offerings, insurance agents, etc.

It is ultimately the role of a salesperson to develop a proper impression of the customer and to formulate a sales strategy whether to be based on expertise or similarity.

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  • 3 External Factors that Influences Consumer Behavior

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Reference groups relevant to the purchase decision, norms of the social groups, possibility of using asch-type situation, summary and conclusions.

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  • Solanki, P. (2018). 4 Key Factors That Influence the Buying Decisions of Consumers. Retrieved from: https://marketingwit.com/factors-that-influence-buying-decisions-of-consumers

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reference group essay

Write a short essay on Reference Groups in sociology

reference group essay

Man is an imitative animal. The desire to imitate other individuals or groups is instinctive in him. When one finds another person progressing in life, he also desires to progress like them in order to reach their status and position. Such behavior after comparison with others is called reference behavior. Under such behavior, one relates one self to the other individuals or groups and tries to adopt their values of standards. The individuals or groups whose behavior is imitated by him are known as reference groups. Such imitation of behavior is found in both the individual and group levels.

In Sociology the concept of reference group behavior was given by Hayman. Later, Turner, Merton and Sheriff further elaborated this concept.

According to Hayman, there are some particular individuals in a society whose standards or values become the ideals for other people and are imitated by them. Sheriff provided a psychological explanation of reference behavior. According to him an individual, in a group situation accepts the group norm but lie sometimes also begins to imitate the behavior of the distinguished people.

According to Lention, in every society, there are some roles and statuses which every individual seeks to achieve. There are two reasons for reference group behaviors. On the social and economic situation, second, the psychological level of the individual or group. It has been generally observed that a poor person gives more prestige to the behavior of rich, prosperous persons. Similarly, people with low mental level are more influenced by other people.

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Sheriff has defined reference groups as “these groups to which individual relates himself as a part or to which he relates himself psychologically”.

According to Merton, “Reference group behavior theory aims to systematize the determinants and consequences of these process of evaluation and sub-appraisal, in which the individual takes the values, or standards of other individuals and groups, as a comparative frame of reference.” Reference group behavior, according to Sheriff grows on account of psychological relations.

In the context of reference group behavior, there are three kinds of members: aspiring members, potential members and actual members. There are some individuals who aspire to enter a reference group but lack the ability or capacity to enter. Their position is one of non-member. There are some individuals who do not have any desire to enter a reference group but cannot enter it on account of some personal ideas. When persons possessed of capacity and ability to enter the other group fail to do so enter it is called negative membership. Such persons suffer from mental tension.

The following characteristics of Reference Group Behavior may be pointed out:

(1) The individual or group considers the behavior of the other individual or group as ideal behavior and imitates it.

(2) The individual or group compares himself or itself with the other individual or group,

(3) In reference group behavior the individual or group desires to rise higher in the social scale and as such, the group or individual comes to feel its or his defects or weaknesses.

(4) The feeling of relative weaknesses or defects leads to the feeling of relative deprivation in the individual or group. Thus on account of the feeling of relative deprivation and individual takes the values or standards of other individuals, which leads to change in his behavior. According to Sheriff, man is the only animal capable of reference group behaviour. He can change his behavior by assimilating the values and standards of the other individual or group. This, condition, in the words of Sheriff, stems from man’s psychological capacity to relate himself to groups, values and goods beyond the limits of immediate surroundings within his perceptual range and beyond the limits of the living present into the future.

It may also be mentioned that when an individual enters from his group to the other it takes some time to his assimilation in the other group. During this intermediate period, he feels stresses and strains. Such a situation may be given the name of grouplessness, which is created by separation from his own group while on the one hand he gets separated from his group. On the other, he does not get assimilated with the other group. He is thereby faced with a situation, which may be called de-grouped situation.

In an open society marked by vertical mobility the consequences of reference group behavior are functional but in a closed society marked by horizontal mobility, the consequences are dis-functional.

The concept of Reference Group Behavior has been criticized on the following grounds.

(1) This theory does not propound any new fact.

(2) It only explains the behavior but does not suggest any means to control it.

(3) It only explains how an individual is influenced by a reference group, but it does not explain how the reference group is influenced by his entry on the group.

However, the importance of this theory is in the fact that it tells us about group behavior of society.

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Reimagining Design with Nature: ecological urbanism in Moscow

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The twenty-first century is the era when populations of cities will exceed rural communities for the first time in human history. The population growth of cities in many countries, including those in transition from planned to market economies, is putting considerable strain on ecological and natural resources. This paper examines four central issues: (a) the challenges and opportunities presented through working in jurisdictions where there are no official or established methods in place to guide regional, ecological and landscape planning and design; (b) the experience of the author’s practice—Gillespies LLP—in addressing these challenges using techniques and methods inspired by McHarg in Design with Nature in the Russian Federation in the first decade of the twenty-first century; (c) the augmentation of methods derived from Design with Nature in reference to innovations in technology since its publication and the contribution that the art of landscape painters can make to landscape analysis and interpretation; and (d) the application of this experience to the international competition and colloquium for the expansion of Moscow. The text concludes with a comment on how the application of this learning and methodological development to landscape and ecological planning and design was judged to be a central tenant of the winning design. Finally, a concluding section reflects on lessons learned and conclusions drawn.

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  1. Reference Group: Types, Functions, Characteristics, Importance

    July 23, 2021 by Pragati Kalive The term reference group, originally coined by Hebert Hyman in his book The Psychology of Status (1942), is used to describe any group that an individual uses as a point of comparison in the process of self-appraisal.

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    A reference group is a social group that an individual uses as a standard of comparison or point of reference in making evaluations and decisions. The concept of reference groups gives us a lens through which we can understand how norms and values are transmitted within in-groups and out-groups, and how they influence our behaviors. In simple ...

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    vestigation of reference groups can be in-terpolated into a systematic analysis of the functioning of a society. Among the ques-tions concerning reference groups, we will emphasize three which seem important. First, there is the problem of the relation of the reference groups chosen by an indi-vidual to the institutional structure of the society.

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    Reference group is a group that influences a student's behavior and attitude. Family, education, peer group, media and religion are the main agents in the process of socialization of an individual. This process helps us become a human in the society, acquiring mental and physical skills which are essential to live in the society.

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    Get Access Reference Groups: The National Rifle Association Of America Reference groups are actual or imaginary individual or group that significantly influences an individual's evaluations, aspirations, or behavior. Reference group influences us in three ways: informational, utilitarian, and value-expressive.

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    Dive into the profound insights into R.K. Merton's Reference Group Theory, exploring its practical applications and limitations across various social, economic, and cultural landscapes. This analysis navigates through the utility and hindrances of implementing the theory universally, providing detailed scenarios and applications in different societal and individual contexts.

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    A reference group is a group of people that we compare ourselves to and base what we do, how we do it and how we behave. A reference group is any group that a person uses as a standard such as athletes, musicians, church, military and business organizations.

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    "Reference Group is a group that serves as a reference point for an individual in the formation of his/her beliefs, attitudes and behaviour." Marketers frequently advertise their products in a group setting- the family eating breakfast cereals, the neighbor admiring the paint of the house.

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    The Importance of Reference Groups in Purchase Decisions. 1. Shoes. culture is a factor that influences a consumer's buying decisions. This is the preferences, values, and ideologies of a community. This influences buyer's decision depending on acceptable behavior and choices when buying shoes (Solanki, 2018).

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    Reference Groups: The National Rifle Association Of America. Reference groups are actual or imaginary individual or group that significantly influences an individual's evaluations, aspirations, or behavior. Reference group influences us in three ways: informational, utilitarian, and value-expressive. The National Rifle Association of America ...

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    Reference groups are actual or imaginary individual or group that significantly influences an individual's evaluations, aspirations, or behavior. Reference group influences us in three ways: informational, utilitarian, and value-expressive. The National Rifle Association of America (NRA) is an American non-profit organization, which backs for ...

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    A reference group is "A person or group of people that significantly influences an individual's behaviour" (Bearden and Etzel 1982). There are lots of different types of reference groups and each individual can belong to more than one. An example of one is an aspirational reference group.

  18. Write a short essay on Reference Groups in sociology

    Write a short essay on Reference Groups in sociology Article shared by: Man is an imitative animal. The desire to imitate other individuals or groups is instinctive in him. When one finds another person progressing in life, he also desires to progress like them in order to reach their status and position.

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    Essay on Reference Groups - The term 'reference group' was introduced into the literature on small groups by Muzafer Sherifm his text book "An Outline of Social Psychology"—1948. He used the term in contrast to the term membership group.

  20. Moscow

    Moscow (/ ˈ m ɒ s k oʊ / MOS-koh, US chiefly / ˈ m ɒ s k aʊ / MOS-kow; Russian: Москва, tr. Moskva, IPA: ⓘ) is the capital and largest city of Russia.The city stands on the Moskva River in Central Russia, with a population estimated at 13.0 million residents within the city limits, over 18.8 million residents in the urban area, and over 21.5 million residents in the metropolitan ...

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  22. Reimagining Design with Nature: ecological urbanism in Moscow

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  23. History of Moscow

    Early history (1147-1283) The first reference to Moscow dates from 1147 as a meeting place of Sviatoslav Olgovich and Yuri Dolgorukiy. At the time it was a minor town on the western border of Vladimir-Suzdal Principality. In 1156, Kniaz Yury Dolgoruky fortified the town with a timber fence and a moat.