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Ari Prasetyaningrum https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5925-2232 English Department, Faculty of Arts and Humanities Education, HAMZANWADI UNIVERSITY, Indonesia Indonesia

English education study program as a lecturer

Maman Asrobi English Department, Faculty of Arts and Humanities Education, HAMZANWADI UNIVERSITY, Indonesia Indonesia

Siti Ayu Surayya English Department, Faculty of Arts and Humanities Education, HAMZANWADI UNIVERSITY, Indonesia Indonesia

Zahratul Fikni English Department, Faculty of Arts and Humanities Education, HAMZANWADI UNIVERSITY, Indonesia Indonesia

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What are the four types of grammatical cohesion?

This is the second of three chapters about Cohesive Devices . To complete this reader, read each chapter carefully and then unlock and complete our materials to check your understanding.   

– Review Lesson 1’s introduction to cohesive devices

– Explore the four grammatical categories that improve cohesion in an academic essay

– Study extensive examples that demonstrate cohesion

Chapter 1: Can lexical cohesion improve academic writing?

Chapter 2: What are the four types of grammatical cohesion?

Chapter 3: Which key cohesive devices improve coherence?

Before you begin reading...

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In Chapter 1 of this short reader on cohesive devices , we explored the concept of cohesion in a piece of academic writing and introduced four types of lexical cohesion: reference , substitution , collocation and semantic fields . In this next chapter, we turn our attention to the four grammatical   strategies that can be used to improve coherence in your writing. After completing this chapter, consider unlocking our Chapter 2 Worksheet to check your knowledge of this topic before moving on to our third and final chapter.

What did we learn in Chapter 1?

• cohesion improves coherence on a micro level
• there are eight strategies for improving cohesion
• cohesive writing should flow easily and be well structured
• cohesive writing should guide the reader through a clear argument
• cohesive writing should follow a logical pattern and have well-connected ideas

Strategy 5: Repetition

The first grammatical strategy is quite simple: repetition is when ideas or objects are repeated across a text. Particularly common in poetry (though less so in academic writing), a writer may repeat a word or phrase  or a more complex parallel structure such as a series of clauses  to form cohesion between ideas, as in the examples below:

The use of synonyms  is another method that a writer may call upon to show the repetition of ideas throughout a text, although this method is more lexical in nature:

Strategy 6: Ellipsis

Ellipsis, when words are elided (deleted) from an expression, is another method of increasing the cohesive bonds between expressions. Not only does ellipsis strengthen relations between ideas, but the reduction of an utterance is more economical, avoiding unnecessary repetition and therefore improving concision . As the following examples show however, this cohesive strategy should be far less commonly used in academic settings due to its more informal and verbal nature:

Regardless of the deleted phrases, it’s clear in expression (a) that ‘the second’ refers to the experiment, and in (b) that the arrival is related to the ‘final exam’. These two clauses and sentences can therefore be said to have strong cohesive links regardless of whether key words have been elided.

Strategy 7: Conjunction

Another strategy, one that’s much more commonly used in academic writing, is to include accurate coordinate and subordinate conjunctions (such as ‘and’, ‘so’, ‘because’ and ‘while’) and conjunctive adverbs  (like ‘however’ and ‘therefore’) in your writing. Not only are conjunctions very useful on a grammatical level for joining together words, phrases, clauses and sentences, but each conjunction contains lexical meaning that further indicates and specifies relationships between ideas. When used correctly and in a varied manner, such conjunctions can be one of the most successful ways of improving coherence in an academic essay .

While the topic of conjunction is explored more thoroughly in our third and final chapter, some of these semantic relations can be seen in action here through the following excerpt, taken from an essay introduction . This excerpt provides evidence of how ‘while’ is able to express comparison between two arguments, how ‘although’ introduces a concession (that ‘some benefits do exist’) and how ‘because’ exemplifies a cause for the students’ poor performance:

Strategy 8: Tense/Aspect Agreement

The final grammatical strategy for creating cohesion in a text relates to the correct use of tense and aspect . Much like how certain words go together (see Strategy 3: Collocation ), certain tenses (‘past’ and ‘present’) and aspects (‘simple’, ‘continuous’ and ‘perfect’) must also match grammatically. Consider the following examples:

• I realised then that the tutor… has been leaving  X  will leave  X   had left  ✔  the classroom.
• If you fail the exam… you would  X  you will  X   you will have  ✔  failed the course.
• Misunderstand the question and… risking  X  have risked  X   risk  ✔  losing significant marks.

Great work on completing this second chapter on cohesive devices . Continue studying with our third and final chapter to learn about the key cohesive devices that improve cohesion, focussing in particular on Strategy 7: Conjunctions .

To reference this reader:

Academic Marker (2022)   Cohesive Devices. Available at: https://academicmarker.com/academic-guidance/vocabulary/cohesive-devices/ (Accessed: Date Month Year).

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Once you’ve completed all three chapters in this short reader about Cohesive Devices , you might then wish to download our Chapter Worksheets to check your progress or print for your students. These professional PDF worksheets can be easily accessed for only a few Academic Marks .

Chapter 1 explores the topic: Can lexical cohesion improve academic writing? Our Chapter 1 Worksheet (containing guidance, activities and answer keys) can be accessed here at the click of a button. 

Chapter 2 explores the topic: What are the four types of grammatical cohesion? Our Chapter 2 Worksheet (containing guidance, activities and answer keys) can be accessed here at the click of a button. 

Chapter 3 explores the topic: Which key cohesive devices improve coherence? Our Chapter 3 Worksheet (containing guidance, activities and answer keys) can be accessed here at the click of a button. 

To save yourself 2 Marks , click on the button below to gain unlimited access to all of our Cohesive Devices Chapter Worksheets. This  All-in-1 Pack includes every chapter , activity and answer key related to this topic in one handy and professional PDF.

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Lexical and Grammatical Cohesions in the Students' Essay Writing as the English Productive skills

Andi Tenri Ampa 1 and D Muhammad Basri 2

Published under licence by IOP Publishing Ltd Journal of Physics: Conference Series , Volume 1339 , International Conference Computer Science and Engineering (IC2SE) 26–27 April 2019, Padang, Indonesia Citation Andi Tenri Ampa and D Muhammad Basri 2019 J. Phys.: Conf. Ser. 1339 012072 DOI 10.1088/1742-6596/1339/1/012072

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1 Department of English Education, Faculty of Teachers Training and Education, Unismuh Makassar, South Sulawesi, Indonesia

2 Department of English, Faculty of Letters, UMI, Makassar, South Sulawesi, Indonesia

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For the purpose of achieving a good essay writing, the students need to have capability to use the lexical and grammatical cohesions. This research aimed to describe the lexical and grammatical cohesions used by the students in writing essays at Makassar Muhammadiyah University. The research samples consisted of 91 students' esssays from the English Education Department of FKIP Unismuh Makassar. The research used a writing test as an instrument to collect data. To achieve the aim of the research, a mixed method was used to describe the results of data analysis quatitatively and qualitatively. The results of the research revealed the use of lexical cohesion which included the use of repetition, synonym, hyponym, antonym, meronym, general noun, and collocation. From the seven kinds of lexical cohesion used by the students in writing essays, the general noun was mostly used by the students. Futhermore, grammatical cohesion revealed the use of reference, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction. Among them, the reference as a cohesion mark was mostly used by the students. The implication of the research results might be used significantly as the base for developing learning materials in teaching writing as one of the English productive skills.

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Content from this work may be used under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 licence . Any further distribution of this work must maintain attribution to the author(s) and the title of the work, journal citation and DOI.

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‘Soaked and muddy’: British Muslims tell their stories of prayer at school

Students speak out after a pupil lost her legal challenge against a top London school after it brought in a ban to promote social cohesion

It was in year nine when Hanzla started praying in the playground during lunchtime at his secondary school in Birmingham, despite restrictions from his teachers.

“I’d find anywhere in the playground and get my friends to kind of make a circle around me – those friends were Muslims and non-Muslims – so the teachers would not find out,” he said. “A lot of the time it used to be raining and sometimes even snowing and the weather was cold.”

Hanzla, now a 20-year-old university student, said he began praying at the school the year before in the classroom of a Muslim teacher. However, once other members of staff became aware, Hanzla said this was later “banned”, leading him to take his prayer to the playground.

“Normally we tried to find a quiet corner on the playground so in between buildings or in the corner of the playground,” he said. “My prayer mat was getting soaked and muddy because obviously it would have been raining that day so I used to come home and say: look it’s all drenched. It was, almost, a very stressful situation because every lunch break I’d have to try [to] find a place to pray when I would not get caught.”

In April, a Muslim student lost her legal challenge against the Michaela community school in north-west London after its founder, thought to be Britain’s strictest headteacher, introduced a prayer ban.

The student argued the ban was discriminatory but the head, Katharine Birbalsingh, claimed the prayers undermined social cohesion and inclusion, contributing to “segregation between religious groups and intimidation within the group of Muslim pupils”, the court was told.

Mr Justice Linden, in his 83-page written judgment for the high court, ruled in favour of Birbalsingh and said the prayer ban was a “proportionate means of achieving the legitimate aims” of the school, adding: “The claimant at the very least impliedly accepted, when she enrolled at the school, that she would be subject to restrictions on her ability to manifest her religion.”

For Hanzla, who was told he could face detention due to his prayer rituals at school, the recent legal challenge was a potent reminder of his own experience. “I was quite shocked,” he said. “I would assume that the girl should have won the case.”

There is no legal requirement for schools in the UK to allow pupils time or a place to pray, with some schools making provisions for this and others not.

Prayers are one of the five pillars of Islam and Muslims are required to perform the prayers at specific times during the day. For most Muslim pupils, afternoon prayers coincide with school hours during the winter months.

Muddathir Quraishi, an 18-year-old sixth form student at the Altrincham grammar school for boys, explained how his school’s Islamic society has facilitated space for Muslim students to participate in a 15-minute prayer at lunchtime.

“As Muslims it’s a spiritual experience, praying within congregation with people that I know, and when you pray it makes you feel better,” he said. “It’s made me feel more included in my school, the Islamic society is not only a society in my eyes. I see it more as a community.”

Quraishi and his mother, Saima Alvi, who is the vice-chair of the British Muslim Heritage Centre in Manchester, said the school’s policy around prayer had greatly influenced his decision to join the school.

“The main two important aspects of my life are my religion and my academics,” Quraishi said. “That’s what I was focusing on especially when joining the secondary school.”

Responding to the ruling in thehigh court, Saima said: “British values, two of them are tolerance and mutual respect. Where’s the tolerance and mutual respect when you’re not allowing people to perform a mandatory duty that’s in their lunchtime, that’s not affecting anybody? I just can’t understand any logic in that.”

Birbalsingh wrote the Michaela community school expects “all religions and all races to make the necessary sacrifices to enable our school to thrive. The vast majority do so without complaint”, in a statement released after the ruling.

The founder added half of the school’s intake is Muslim and emphasised: “If our families did not like the school, they would not repeatedly choose to send their children to Michaela.”

Bushra Nasir CBE, one of Britain’s first female Muslim headteachers, said she had introduced a multi-faith prayer room at the Plashet secondary school for girls in Newham, east London, in 1993, which was well received by staff, parents and pupils.

“It came from the student council, they wanted a prayer room. We spoke to staff, we found a very nice area in the school that was quite near washing facilities … and it was very well used.”

Nasir said the prayer room provided children with a “sense of belonging”, adding: “You don’t have to leave your identity at the door. You’re bringing your whole self.”

Reacting to the ruling at the Michaela school, Nasir said: “I was really saddened, I just felt that the progress that schools have made over the years to be inclusive, to meet the needs of students from all faiths and none, actually has been undermined by this.”

The student who brought forward the legal challenge said in a statement that she was “disappointed” by the outcome at the high court, adding: “As is set out in the judgment, I do not agree that it would be too hard for the school to accommodate pupils who wished to pray in the lunch break.”

Birbalsingh, however, said the ruling was a “victory for all schools”, adding any educational institution “should be free to do what is right for the pupils it serves”.

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