• Privacy Policy
  • SignUp/Login

Research Method

Home » 500+ Criminal Justice Research Topics

500+ Criminal Justice Research Topics

Criminal Justice Research Topics

Criminal justice is a complex and critical field that encompasses various aspects of crime prevention, law enforcement, legal proceedings, and punishment. Research plays a crucial role in understanding and addressing the challenges and opportunities in this field. From studying the causes and consequences of crime to exploring the effectiveness of policies and interventions, there is a wide range of fascinating and important criminal justice research topics to explore. Whether you are a student, a scholar, a practitioner, or a curious citizen, delving into the world of criminal justice research can deepen your knowledge, sharpen your critical thinking skills, and contribute to creating a safer and fairer society. In this post, we will introduce some of the most compelling and relevant criminal justice research topics that you may find intriguing and informative.

Criminal Justice Research Topics

Criminal Justice Research Topics are as follows:

  • The effectiveness of community policing in reducing crime rates
  • The impact of body-worn cameras on police accountability and public trust
  • The causes and consequences of police use of excessive force
  • The role of race and ethnicity in police-citizen interactions and perceptions
  • The effectiveness of diversion programs in reducing recidivism among juvenile offenders
  • The impact of mandatory minimum sentencing on crime rates and prison populations
  • The challenges and opportunities of restorative justice as an alternative to punitive justice
  • The role of mental health and substance abuse treatment in reducing criminal behavior
  • The ethics and implications of using predictive policing algorithms
  • The impact of private prisons on the criminal justice system and society
  • The effectiveness of victim-offender mediation in reducing the harm of crime
  • The prevalence and causes of wrongful convictions and the implications for justice
  • The role of media in shaping public perceptions of crime and justice
  • The effectiveness and fairness of the death penalty as a form of punishment
  • The role of international law in addressing transnational crimes such as terrorism and human trafficking
  • The impact of the War on Drugs on drug use, drug-related crime, and public health
  • The effectiveness of gun control laws in reducing gun violence and crime rates
  • The role of technology in enhancing or challenging the criminal justice system, such as DNA analysis or facial recognition software
  • The prevalence and causes of domestic violence and the effectiveness of intervention programs
  • The impact of sentencing disparities based on race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status
  • The role of plea bargaining in the criminal justice system and the implications for justice
  • The effectiveness of sex offender registries and notification laws in reducing sex crimes
  • The impact of pretrial detention on defendants’ rights and outcomes
  • The role of community-based corrections in reducing recidivism and promoting reentry
  • The ethics and implications of using unmanned aerial vehicles (drones) for surveillance and law enforcement
  • The effectiveness and implications of using risk assessment tools in pretrial decision-making
  • The prevalence and impact of hate crimes and the challenges of prosecuting them
  • The role of eyewitness testimony in criminal trials and the reliability of memory
  • The effectiveness of drug courts in reducing drug-related crime and improving outcomes for offenders
  • The impact of race and ethnicity on the administration of the death penalty
  • The role of juries in the criminal justice system and the factors that affect their decisions
  • The effectiveness and ethics of using informants in criminal investigations and prosecutions
  • The prevalence and impact of cybercrime and the challenges of investigating and prosecuting it
  • The effectiveness of juvenile justice reforms in promoting rehabilitation and reducing recidivism
  • The impact of community-based policing on police-citizen relations and trust
  • The role of social media in shaping perceptions of crime and justice
  • The effectiveness of prison education and vocational training programs in promoting rehabilitation and reducing recidivism
  • The prevalence and impact of human rights abuses in the criminal justice system, such as torture or discrimination
  • The effectiveness of gang prevention and intervention programs in reducing gang-related crime
  • The role of implicit bias in the criminal justice system and its impact on outcomes
  • The impact of solitary confinement on mental health, behavior, and reentry outcomes
  • The impact of police body cameras on public trust and police accountability.
  • The effectiveness of diversion programs for juvenile offenders.
  • The impact of community policing on crime reduction
  • The use of predictive policing in law enforcement
  • The impact of decriminalizing marijuana on crime rates
  • The role of mental health professionals in the criminal justice system
  • The effectiveness of de-escalation training for police officers
  • The impact of technology on police surveillance practices
  • The relationship between gender and sentencing disparities in the criminal justice system
  • The relationship between poverty and crime
  • The effectiveness of restorative justice programs in reducing recidivism
  • The impact of the War on Drugs on mass incarceration
  • The use of cognitive-behavioral therapy in offender rehabilitation
  • The effectiveness of diversion programs for people with substance use disorders
  • The role of implicit bias in jury selection
  • The impact of police officer stress on use of force incidents
  • The use of big data in criminal investigations and decision-making
  • The effectiveness of restorative justice practices in school disciplinary policies
  • The relationship between mental illness and homelessness in the criminal justice system
  • The impact of mandatory minimum sentences on juvenile offenders
  • The role of drug courts in the criminal justice system
  • The effectiveness of offender reentry programs for people with disabilities
  • The impact of restorative justice programs on victims of crime
  • The use of therapeutic jurisprudence in the criminal justice system
  • The relationship between race and ethnicity and the use of force by private security personnel
  • The effectiveness of educational programs in correctional facilities
  • The impact of eyewitness identification procedures on wrongful convictions
  • The role of community-based policing in reducing crime rates
  • The use of predictive analytics in bail decisions
  • The effectiveness of correctional education programs on recidivism
  • The impact of immigration enforcement policies on immigrant communities’ trust in law enforcement
  • The relationship between mental health and juvenile detention
  • The use of biometrics in criminal investigations and identification
  • The effectiveness of mental health courts in reducing recidivism among people with co-occurring disorders
  • The impact of gender and sexuality on hate crime victimization and reporting
  • The role of cultural competence in police training
  • The use of risk assessment tools in pretrial detention decisions
  • The effectiveness of community supervision programs for people with substance use disorders
  • The impact of social and economic policies on criminal justice outcomes
  • The relationship between race and ethnicity and criminal case outcomes
  • The use of therapeutic communities in correctional facilities
  • The effectiveness of specialized courts for domestic violence cases
  • The impact of gun violence on public safety and crime rates
  • The role of eyewitness memory and recall in criminal investigations and trials
  • The use of DNA evidence in criminal investigations and exoneration
  • The effectiveness of probation and parole programs for people with disabilities
  • The impact of victim impact statements on sentencing decisions
  • The relationship between criminal justice policies and racial and ethnic disparities in incarceration rates
  • The use of unmanned aerial vehicles in law enforcement
  • The effectiveness of community-based restorative justice programs for juvenile offenders
  • The impact of public defender workload on criminal case outcomes
  • The role of community activism and advocacy in criminal justice reform
  • The use of risk assessment tools in school disciplinary policies
  • The effectiveness of family-focused interventions in reducing juvenile recidivism
  • The impact of police officer race and ethnicity on use of force incidents
  • The relationship between race and ethnicity and prosecutorial decision-making
  • The use of virtual reality simulations in police training
  • The effectiveness of mental health diversion programs for people with traumatic brain injuries
  • The impact of juvenile life without parole sentences on individuals and society.
  • The use of drones in criminal investigations
  • The effectiveness of community-based alternatives to incarceration for nonviolent offenders
  • The impact of wrongful convictions on the criminal justice system
  • The role of implicit bias in criminal justice decision-making
  • The use of risk assessment tools in child welfare investigations
  • The effectiveness of offender reentry programs in reducing recidivism
  • The impact of hate crimes on marginalized communities
  • The relationship between mental health and the use of force by police officers
  • The use of body language analysis in criminal interrogations
  • The effectiveness of community policing strategies in building trust between police and communities
  • The impact of race on police use of force and police brutality
  • The role of prosecutorial discretion in the criminal justice system
  • The use of algorithms in pretrial detention decisions
  • The effectiveness of victim-centered approaches to sexual assault investigations
  • The impact of domestic violence on child custody decisions
  • The relationship between social media and cybercrime
  • The use of facial recognition technology in law enforcement
  • The effectiveness of police officer training programs on cultural sensitivity and bias reduction
  • The impact of the school-to-prison pipeline on youth
  • The role of mental health courts in diversion programs
  • The use of virtual reality technology in criminal justice education and training
  • The effectiveness of crisis intervention teams in responding to mental health crises
  • The impact of immigration policies on crime reporting and victimization rates in immigrant communities
  • The relationship between police department size and use of force incidents
  • The use of predictive analytics in parole and probation supervision
  • The effectiveness of juvenile justice system diversion programs for LGBTQ+ youth
  • The impact of bail reform on pretrial detention rates and recidivism
  • The role of trauma-informed care in the criminal justice system
  • The use of artificial intelligence in forensic investigations
  • The effectiveness of prison entrepreneurship programs in reducing recidivism
  • The impact of COVID-19 on the criminal justice system
  • The relationship between mental health and incarceration rates
  • The use of social network analysis in criminal investigations
  • The effectiveness of drug testing and monitoring programs for probationers and parolees
  • The impact of mandatory minimum sentences on drug offenses
  • The role of the media in shaping public perceptions of crime and the criminal justice system
  • The use of body-worn cameras in courtroom proceedings
  • The effectiveness of mental health diversion programs for veterans involved in the criminal justice system
  • The impact of race and ethnicity on the plea bargaining process
  • The relationship between police department diversity and community trust
  • The use of crime mapping in law enforcement strategies
  • The effectiveness of animal therapy programs in correctional facilities
  • The impact of the death penalty on families of victims and offenders
  • The role of prosecutorial misconduct in wrongful convictions.
  • Racial disparities in the use of capital punishment
  • The effectiveness of electronic monitoring as an alternative to incarceration
  • The role of restorative justice in reducing recidivism
  • The relationship between mental illness and criminal behavior
  • The effectiveness of drug courts in reducing drug-related offenses
  • The impact of body-worn cameras on police behavior and citizen complaints
  • The use of risk assessment tools in sentencing and release decisions
  • The effectiveness of boot camp programs for juvenile offenders
  • The use of eyewitness testimony in criminal trials
  • The impact of victim-offender mediation on the criminal justice system
  • The relationship between education level and criminal behavior
  • The effectiveness of parole and probation in reducing recidivism
  • The use of artificial intelligence in criminal justice decision-making
  • The role of public defenders in the criminal justice system
  • The impact of mandatory minimum sentences on the prison population
  • The effectiveness of therapeutic courts for individuals with substance abuse disorders
  • The impact of social media on the reporting of crimes and public perception of crime
  • The effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy in reducing recidivism
  • The impact of mental health courts on the criminal justice system
  • The role of community service in reducing recidivism
  • The relationship between domestic violence and gun ownership
  • The effectiveness of diversion programs for individuals with mental illnesses
  • The impact of sentencing guidelines on judicial discretion
  • The use of police body language in detecting deception during interviews
  • The relationship between incarceration and employment opportunities post-release
  • The effectiveness of community-based supervision programs for released offenders
  • The impact of the war on drugs on the criminal justice system
  • The role of race and ethnicity in plea bargaining decisions
  • The use of risk assessment tools in juvenile justice
  • The effectiveness of animal-assisted therapy in correctional facilities
  • The impact of restorative justice on the victims of crime
  • The relationship between gun laws and gun violence rates
  • The effectiveness of pretrial diversion programs for individuals with mental illnesses
  • The role of reentry programs in reducing recidivism
  • The impact of mandatory arrest policies in domestic violence cases
  • The use of polygraph tests in criminal investigations
  • The relationship between gang membership and criminal behavior
  • The effectiveness of drug treatment courts in reducing recidivism
  • The impact of solitary confinement on mental health and behavior
  • The role of gun buyback programs in reducing gun violence
  • The relationship between substance abuse and child abuse
  • The effectiveness of victim impact panels in reducing drunk driving
  • The impact of juvenile detention on mental health and behavior
  • The use of forensic science in criminal investigations
  • The relationship between race and wrongful convictions
  • The effectiveness of prison education programs in reducing recidivism
  • The impact of police militarization on community trust and safety
  • The relationship between race, ethnicity, and police use of force.
  • The impact of mandatory minimum sentencing laws on incarceration rates.
  • The effectiveness of community policing in reducing crime rates.
  • The relationship between mental illness and criminal behavior.
  • The role of gender in criminal justice sentencing and outcomes.
  • The impact of the war on drugs on incarceration rates and drug use.
  • The effectiveness of restorative justice programs in reducing recidivism.
  • The impact of solitary confinement on mental health and rehabilitation.
  • The relationship between poverty and crime rates.
  • The role of technology in modern policing and criminal justice.
  • The effectiveness of drug courts in reducing drug-related crime.
  • The relationship between immigration and crime rates.
  • The impact of mandatory arrest policies in cases of domestic violence.
  • The effectiveness of victim-offender mediation in reducing recidivism.
  • The role of social media in modern crime and policing.
  • The impact of police militarization on community trust and safety.
  • The effectiveness of rehabilitation programs for incarcerated individuals.
  • The relationship between gun ownership and violent crime.
  • The impact of wrongful convictions on individuals and the criminal justice system.
  • The role of race and ethnicity in jury selection and decision-making.
  • The effectiveness of mental health courts in reducing recidivism.
  • The relationship between education and crime rates.
  • The impact of body-worn cameras on police officer behavior and decision-making.
  • The effectiveness of drug treatment programs in reducing recidivism.
  • The relationship between domestic violence and gun ownership.
  • The impact of the death penalty on deterrence and sentencing outcomes.
  • The role of implicit bias in policing and criminal justice decision-making.
  • The effectiveness of community-based reentry programs for formerly incarcerated individuals.
  • The relationship between crime rates and social inequality.
  • The impact of predictive policing on crime rates and community trust.
  • The effectiveness of probation and parole programs in reducing recidivism.
  • The relationship between mental health and policing.
  • The impact of police unions on police accountability and reform efforts.
  • The role of the media in shaping public perceptions of crime and justice.
  • The effectiveness of pretrial diversion programs in reducing incarceration rates.
  • The relationship between police use of force and police training.
  • The impact of mandatory minimum drug sentences on racial disparities in the criminal justice system.
  • The effectiveness of juvenile detention alternatives in reducing recidivism.
  • The relationship between mass incarceration and economic inequality.
  • The impact of police body language on civilian compliance.
  • The role of community organizations in crime prevention and intervention.
  • The effectiveness of reentry programs for people with disabilities.
  • The relationship between mental health and criminal justice reform.
  • The impact of immigration policies on community safety and trust.
  • The role of prosecutorial discretion in the criminal justice system.
  • The effectiveness of job training programs for formerly incarcerated individuals.
  • The relationship between race and drug policy.
  • The impact of pretrial detention on case outcomes and incarceration rates.
  • The effectiveness of diversion programs for offenders with mental health issues
  • The prevalence and impact of police corruption and the challenges of rooting it out
  • The role of victim impact statements in the criminal justice system and their impact on sentencing
  • The impact of social inequality on crime rates and the criminal justice system
  • The role of political ideology in shaping criminal justice policy and practice
  • The effectiveness of rehabilitation and reentry programs for adult offenders
  • The prevalence and impact of sexual harassment and assault within the criminal justice system
  • The role of the Fourth Amendment in regulating police searches and seizures
  • The effectiveness of restorative justice practices in addressing campus sexual assault
  • The impact of mass incarceration on families and communities
  • The ethics and implications of using artificial intelligence in criminal justice decision-making
  • The role of bail reform in promoting justice and reducing pretrial detention
  • The prevalence and impact of police misconduct and accountability mechanisms
  • The effectiveness of drug policy reform in reducing drug-related harm and promoting public health
  • The impact of globalization on transnational crimes and the challenges of international cooperation
  • The role of prosecutorial discretion in shaping criminal justice outcomes
  • The prevalence and impact of white-collar crime and the challenges of prosecution
  • The role of public defenders in ensuring access to justice for indigent defendants
  • The effectiveness of mental health courts in diverting mentally ill offenders from the criminal justice system
  • The impact of the criminal justice system on immigrant communities and the challenges of immigrant detention and deportation
  • The role of forgiveness in restorative justice and its implications for healing and reconciliation
  • The effectiveness of alternative dispute resolution in reducing court congestion and promoting justice
  • The prevalence and impact of hate speech and the challenges of regulating it
  • The role of public opinion in shaping criminal justice policy and practice
  • The effectiveness of community supervision in reducing recidivism and promoting reentry
  • The impact of the criminalization of homelessness on vulnerable populations
  • The role of community activism and advocacy in promoting criminal justice reform
  • The effectiveness of therapeutic jurisprudence in promoting rehabilitation and well-being
  • The prevalence and impact of police militarization and its implications for public safety and civil liberties
  • The role of eyewitness identification procedures in criminal investigations and the reliability of identification evidence
  • The effectiveness of harm reduction strategies in reducing drug-related harm and promoting public health
  • The impact of the criminal justice system on Indigenous communities and the challenges of decolonizing justice
  • The role of hate crime legislation in promoting justice and reducing hate-motivated violence
  • The effectiveness of police training programs in reducing racial and ethnic bias and promoting cultural competence
  • The prevalence and impact of gun violence and the challenges of gun control policy
  • The role of the Eighth Amendment in regulating cruel and unusual punishment
  • The effectiveness of problem-solving courts in addressing complex social issues and promoting justice
  • The impact of the criminal justice system on LGBTQ+ communities and the challenges of achieving equality and inclusivity
  • The role of victim services in promoting healing and well-being for crime victims
  • The effectiveness of drug testing and monitoring programs in promoting rehabilitation and reducing recidivism
  • The prevalence and impact of prison gangs and the challenges of managing them
  • The role of implicit bias in eyewitness identification and the implications for justice
  • The effectiveness of diversion programs for offenders with substance abuse issues
  • The impact of social media on crime reporting and law enforcement
  • The role of mental health diversion programs in reducing mass incarceration and promoting treatment
  • The prevalence and impact of wrongful convictions of innocent people and the challenges of exoneration
  • The relationship between immigration and crime rates
  • The impact of drug courts on drug-related offenses and recidivism rates
  • The use of restorative justice practices in the criminal justice system
  • The effectiveness of reentry programs for people released from prison
  • The use of polygraph tests in criminal investigations and court proceedings
  • The impact of bail amounts on pretrial detention and case outcomes
  • The relationship between gun ownership and crime rates
  • The effectiveness of mental health screening and assessment for individuals involved in the criminal justice system
  • The use of virtual courtrooms in criminal proceedings
  • The impact of juvenile detention on mental health and future criminal behavior
  • The relationship between poverty and crime rates
  • The use of eyewitness identification procedures in criminal investigations and court proceedings
  • The effectiveness of community service programs as a sentencing alternative
  • The role of racial profiling in law enforcement practices
  • The use of risk assessment tools in sentencing and parole decisions
  • The impact of mandatory reporting laws on child abuse and neglect cases
  • The relationship between parental incarceration and children’s wellbeing
  • The effectiveness of diversion programs for drug-related offenses
  • The use of cognitive-behavioral therapy in offender rehabilitation programs
  • The impact of solitary confinement on mental health and recidivism rates
  • The relationship between social capital and crime rates
  • The use of DNA evidence in criminal investigations and court proceedings
  • The effectiveness of crisis response teams in reducing police use of force incidents
  • The role of race and ethnicity in jury selection and decision-making
  • The impact of court fines and fees on individuals involved in the criminal justice system
  • The relationship between education and crime rates
  • The use of risk assessment tools in domestic violence cases
  • The effectiveness of reentry programs for individuals with substance use disorders
  • The impact of court-appointed attorneys on case outcomes and access to justice
  • The role of victim impact statements in sentencing decisions
  • The use of mental health courts for individuals with co-occurring disorders
  • The effectiveness of court-mandated treatment programs for drug offenders
  • The impact of gender on the sentencing and treatment of offenders
  • The relationship between drug policy and crime rates
  • The use of forensic psychology in criminal investigations and court proceedings
  • The effectiveness of cognitive interviewing techniques in witness testimony
  • The impact of the media on public perceptions of the criminal justice system
  • The relationship between neighborhood characteristics and crime rates
  • The use of body-worn cameras in police-community interactions
  • The effectiveness of reentry programs for individuals with intellectual disabilities
  • The impact of mandatory minimum sentences on sentencing disparities
  • The role of mental health providers in prisons and jails
  • The use of civil asset forfeiture in law enforcement practices
  • The effectiveness of diversion programs for individuals with mental illness involved in the criminal justice system
  • The impact of police militarization on community trust and police accountability
  • The relationship between unemployment and crime rates
  • The use of artificial intelligence in identifying and preventing human trafficking
  • The effectiveness of reentry programs for individuals with traumatic brain injuries
  • The impact of community-based alternatives to policing on public safety and crime rates.
  • The impact of the militarization of police on community relations
  • The effectiveness of restorative justice practices in reducing recidivism
  • The relationship between socioeconomic status and juvenile delinquency
  • The impact of police department culture on officer behavior
  • The role of community courts in addressing low-level offenses
  • The effectiveness of reentry programs for people who were formerly incarcerated
  • The impact of body-worn cameras on police officer behavior and community perceptions
  • The relationship between mental illness and police use of force
  • The use of neuroscience in criminal sentencing
  • The effectiveness of gun control policies in reducing gun violence
  • The role of alternative dispute resolution in the criminal justice system
  • The use of biometrics in criminal investigations
  • The effectiveness of gang prevention and intervention programs
  • The impact of domestic violence on employment and economic stability
  • The use of artificial intelligence in criminal investigations and sentencing
  • The role of implicit bias in eyewitness identification
  • The use of drug courts in addressing drug addiction and drug-related crimes
  • The effectiveness of reentry programs for juvenile offenders
  • The impact of social media on crime and victimization
  • The relationship between mental health and incarceration of women
  • The use of surveillance technologies in correctional facilities
  • The effectiveness of victim-offender mediation programs
  • The impact of prosecutorial discretion on plea bargaining outcomes
  • The role of mental health assessments in competency to stand trial determinations
  • The use of biographical information in criminal investigations
  • The effectiveness of diversion programs for people with mental illness
  • The impact of police body language on community perceptions
  • The relationship between criminal justice policies and racial disparities in healthcare
  • The use of geospatial analysis in predicting crime patterns
  • The effectiveness of community service programs in reducing recidivism
  • The impact of court fines and fees on people with low incomes
  • The role of neuroscience in detecting deception
  • The use of technology in victim advocacy and support services
  • The effectiveness of juvenile justice diversion programs for LGBTQ+ youth
  • The impact of parental incarceration on children and families
  • The relationship between race and juvenile justice system involvement
  • The use of facial recognition technology in correctional facilities
  • The effectiveness of community-based mental health services in reducing incarceration rates
  • The impact of prison labor on employment opportunities for formerly incarcerated people
  • The role of community-based restorative justice in addressing hate crimes
  • The use of predictive analytics in child welfare investigations
  • The effectiveness of alternative sentencing programs for drug-related offenses
  • The impact of immigration enforcement policies on crime reporting in immigrant communities
  • The relationship between implicit bias and jury decision-making
  • The use of technology in improving language access in the criminal justice system.
  • The impact of police body language on citizen perceptions and trust
  • The effectiveness of police academy training on officer decision-making in high-pressure situations
  • The role of technology in the spread of human trafficking
  • The relationship between mental health and probation and parole revocation rates
  • The use of community courts in addressing quality of life offenses
  • The effectiveness of prisoner reentry programs on family reunification and support systems
  • The impact of public defender caseloads on the quality of legal representation
  • The role of implicit bias in jury selection and decision-making
  • The use of diversion programs for juveniles involved in prostitution
  • The effectiveness of community supervision programs for offenders with serious mental illness
  • The impact of immigration enforcement policies on the criminal justice system
  • The relationship between recidivism rates and prison education and vocational programs
  • The use of body-worn cameras in prison settings
  • The effectiveness of alternative dispute resolution in reducing court congestion
  • The impact of prison labor on reentry and recidivism rates
  • The role of risk assessment tools in parole and probation decision-making
  • The effectiveness of drug courts in addressing substance abuse and recidivism
  • The impact of solitary confinement on mental health and behavior in prison
  • The relationship between domestic violence and firearm possession
  • The use of mental health diversion programs for veterans involved in the criminal justice system
  • The effectiveness of juvenile drug court programs on reducing recidivism
  • The impact of private prisons on inmate rehabilitation and public safety
  • The role of implicit bias in pretrial detention decisions
  • The use of GPS monitoring in pretrial release and probation supervision
  • The effectiveness of offender education and job training programs in reducing recidivism
  • The impact of collateral consequences on reentry and recidivism rates
  • The use of crisis intervention teams in responding to mental health emergencies
  • The effectiveness of community-based alternatives to detention for juveniles
  • The role of public opinion in shaping criminal justice policy
  • The effectiveness of police body-worn cameras in reducing police misconduct and excessive use of force
  • The impact of incarceration on family dynamics and relationships
  • The relationship between access to legal representation and case outcomes
  • The use of community supervision and support programs for individuals with substance use disorders
  • The impact of pretrial detention on case outcomes and recidivism rates
  • The role of prosecutorial discretion in plea bargaining and sentencing
  • The use of facial recognition technology in criminal investigations and surveillance
  • The effectiveness of problem-solving courts in addressing specialized criminal cases
  • The impact of prison privatization on inmate rights and access to services
  • The relationship between race, gender, and criminal justice outcomes
  • The use of mental health courts in diversion programs
  • The effectiveness of community policing strategies in building trust and reducing crime rates
  • The impact of police militarization on community perceptions and police-citizen interactions
  • The role of forensic evidence in criminal investigations and court proceedings
  • The use of artificial intelligence in predicting criminal behavior and recidivism.
  • The use of restorative justice in the criminal justice system
  • The impact of police militarization on community policing efforts
  • The effectiveness of diversion programs for individuals with substance use disorders
  • The relationship between economic inequality and crime rates
  • The use of artificial intelligence in pretrial risk assessment
  • The impact of mandatory minimum sentences on non-violent drug offenses
  • The impact of the War on Drugs on communities of color
  • The relationship between mental health and probation violations
  • The effectiveness of drug courts in reducing recidivism rates
  • The role of eyewitness testimony in wrongful convictions
  • The use of facial recognition technology in criminal investigations and prosecutions
  • The effectiveness of diversion programs for juvenile offenders
  • The impact of probation and parole supervision on recidivism rates
  • The relationship between police use of force and mental health disorders
  • The use of predictive analytics in criminal sentencing
  • The effectiveness of reentry programs for individuals with mental illness
  • The impact of bail systems on low-income individuals and communities
  • The role of implicit bias in sentencing decisions
  • The use of social media in criminal investigations
  • The impact of mandatory sentencing on judicial discretion
  • The relationship between drug addiction and property crime
  • The use of predictive analytics in risk assessment for pretrial release
  • The effectiveness of substance abuse treatment programs in correctional facilities
  • The impact of police body-worn cameras on police-citizen interactions
  • The role of forensic evidence in wrongful convictions
  • The use of drones in border patrol and immigration enforcement
  • The effectiveness of community supervision programs for individuals with mental illness
  • The impact of mandatory sentencing on the prison population and corrections costs
  • The relationship between gang activity and violent crime
  • The use of artificial intelligence in criminal investigations and evidence collection
  • The effectiveness of juvenile diversion programs for first-time offenders
  • The impact of prosecutorial misconduct on wrongful convictions
  • The role of implicit bias in police use of force incidents
  • The use of risk assessment tools in pretrial detention decisions for juvenile defendants
  • The effectiveness of prison education programs in reducing recidivism rates
  • The impact of racial profiling on policing practices and community trust
  • The relationship between homelessness and criminal behavior
  • The use of predictive analytics in identifying and preventing cybercrime
  • The effectiveness of mental health treatment programs for incarcerated individuals
  • The impact of the school-to-prison pipeline on students of color
  • The role of community-based programs in reducing crime rates and recidivism
  • The use of neuroscience in criminal investigations and sentencing decisions
  • The effectiveness of diversion programs for individuals with co-occurring disorders
  • The impact of solitary confinement on mental health and recidivism rates.
  • The effectiveness of diversion programs for offenders with substance use disorders
  • The impact of judicial discretion on sentencing outcomes
  • The relationship between access to legal representation and sentencing disparities
  • The use of body-worn cameras in reducing police misconduct and brutality
  • The impact of bail practices on pretrial detention and racial disparities
  • The relationship between police unions and police accountability
  • The effectiveness of community supervision in reducing recidivism
  • The impact of solitary confinement on mental health outcomes for inmates
  • The relationship between criminal justice policies and racial wealth inequality
  • The use of risk assessment tools in sentencing decisions
  • The effectiveness of mandatory minimum sentences in reducing crime rates
  • The impact of victim impact statements on sentencing outcomes
  • The relationship between criminal justice policies and environmental justice
  • The use of unmanned aerial vehicles (drones) in law enforcement
  • The effectiveness of juvenile justice diversion programs for at-risk youth
  • The impact of police militarization on community relations
  • The relationship between immigration enforcement and public safety
  • The use of artificial intelligence in predicting recidivism risk
  • The effectiveness of police training on de-escalation tactics
  • The relationship between the criminal justice system and income inequality
  • The use of geographic profiling in criminal investigations
  • The effectiveness of mental health courts in reducing incarceration rates
  • The impact of mandatory arrest policies on domestic violence victims
  • The relationship between criminal justice policies and public health outcomes
  • The use of body-worn cameras in reducing false accusations against police officers
  • The effectiveness of cognitive behavioral therapy in reducing domestic violence recidivism
  • The impact of race and ethnicity on police use of force during traffic stops
  • The use of predictive analytics in parole and probation revocation decisions
  • The effectiveness of offender treatment programs for intimate partner violence offenders
  • The impact of prison education programs on post-release employment and recidivism
  • The relationship between prison labor and modern-day slavery
  • The use of predictive modeling to prevent child abuse and neglect
  • The effectiveness of community courts in reducing recidivism rates
  • The impact of community-based organizations on crime prevention
  • The relationship between mental health and substance use disorders in the criminal justice system
  • The use of mobile forensic technology in criminal investigations
  • The effectiveness of gender-responsive programming in reducing female recidivism rates
  • The impact of anti-immigrant sentiment on policing in immigrant communities
  • The relationship between police legitimacy and public trust
  • The use of data analytics in law enforcement resource allocation
  • The effectiveness of reentry programs for people with disabilities
  • The impact of police misconduct on wrongful convictions
  • The relationship between restorative justice and school discipline
  • The use of location tracking technology in the criminal justice system
  • The effectiveness of anti-bias training for law enforcement officers
  • The impact of drug decriminalization on public safety and health.

About the author

' src=

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

You may also like

Quantitative Research Topics

500+ Quantitative Research Titles and Topics

Qualitative_Research_Topics

500+ Qualitative Research Titles and Topics

Biology Research Topics

350+ Biology Research Topics

Google Scholar Research Topics

500+ Google Scholar Research Topics

AP Research Topic Ideas

300+ AP Research Topic Ideas

American History Research Paper Topics

300+ American History Research Paper Topics

StatAnalytica

135+ Amazing Criminal Justice Research Topics In 2023

criminal justice research topics

Are you a law student or enrolled in law college? Are you looking for criminal justice research topics? Here, in this blog, you can find your criminal justice research topics. Statanalytca.com explains the 135 amazing criminal research paper topic ideas for 2023 in this blog.

When we listen to the word criminal justice, many words come into our mind like “victim,” “enforcement,” “crimes,” “courts,” “prison,” and law sanctions. Criminal justice is a term that governments make to justice for people, reduce and make decisions to prevent crimes. Governments make law sanctions to reduce crimes. Every country has a different criminal justice system.

The criminal justice system in the United States is a complex system of federal, state, and local laws, with state and federal constitutions, international treaties, and customary law. Each layer of government shares responsibility for a different aspect of the process. Federal law enforcement agencies enforce laws that may be broken by people who are not in their jurisdiction.

For example : When an individual from New York City travels to Florida to commit a crime such as a robbery or murder they will be arrested by the Florida police and handed over to federal authorities.

A criminal justice research paper necessarily requires accuracy, attention, and patience. Sometimes students are confused about writing criminal research paper topics, or they have a shortage of time to complete research papers.

Most college students ask for assignments to write criminal justice research papers. If you want criminal justice research paper help, you can take our trusted  research paper assignment help .

How To Choose A Good Research Topics

Table of Contents

Choosing a research topic is a very challenging task. You should pick a topic that is both interesting and relevant to your audience. You should analyze the crime report before choosing the criminal justice research topics. Research the types of crimes in your country and where your country ranks in the global crime index.

Some research topics include the following:

  • The role of law enforcement, prosecutors, and public defenders.
  • Challenges with eyewitness identifications.
  • Different types of evidence are used in criminal cases.
  • The effect of jury selection on trials.
  • How criminal justice impacts mental health.

What Is a Research Paper in Criminal Justice?

A research paper in criminal justice is an academic paper presenting findings from research on a specific criminal justice topic. These papers typically require extensive research and analysis of primary and secondary sources, such as case studies, official reports, statistics, and academic literature. The research paper aims to contribute new knowledge to the criminal justice field, identify trends or patterns, or assess the effectiveness of interventions or policies.

Research papers in criminal justice typically follow a standard academic format, including an introduction that sets the context and research questions, a literature review that summarizes existing research, a methodology section that outlines the research design and data collection methods, a results section that presents findings, and a conclusion that summarizes the research’s significance and implications.

Criminal justice research papers may focus on various topics, including the legal system’s operations, law enforcement practices, corrections, crime prevention, and victimization. These papers may be used to inform policymakers, practitioners, and academics about the state of the criminal justice system and suggest evidence-based solutions to improve its effectiveness and fairness.

Let’s Discuss The Criminal Justice Research Topics-

Here in this section, we will tell you some of the best criminal justice research topics for 2023:-

Basic Criminology and Criminal Justice Research Topics

  • Basic criminal Research Topics.
  • History of Criminal Ethics.
  • Criminology as Social Science.
  • Criminology and Public Policy.
  • Advantages of Private Prisons.
  • Civil Crimes vs War Crimes.
  • Offenses Against Religion & Cultural Traits.
  • Causes of victimization.

Court Cases Criminal Justice Research Topics

  • Can victims of crime receive help?
  • How serious are shoplifting incidents?
  • When do felony disenfranchisement laws apply?
  • Is organized crime and corruption synonymous?
  • What is legal help available to victims of date rape?
  • What is the difference between civil and criminal cases?
  • Forensic science: how effective is it in modern criminal justice?
  • Is there a link between substance abuse, crime, and substance use?
  • Who is eligible for the protection program, and what protection is provided?
  • Prison rape and violence: What can be done to prevent sexual and domestic violence in prison?

Controversial Criminal Justice Research Topics

  • Gun control causes.
  • Struggle with mental health issues.
  • Police officers’ legal rights are limited.
  • College Violence Causes.
  • Gun violence and prevention policies.
  • Crimes Propaganda and Modern Music Culture.
  • Race and politics of criminal justice.
  • An investigation into victim services.
  • Eyewitness Evidence Importance.
  • Legal codes used in America.
  • Zero tolerance policy and crime rates.
  • Sexual assault.
  • culture, and gender equality.
  • What is the best way to reduce recidivism?
  • pros and cons of prisons in America.
  • Criminalization of poverty.
  • Gender and Punishment.
  • The effects of drugs on children’s development.
  • Effects of drug addiction on mental health.
  • Youth offenders and Bootcamps.

Debate Criminal Justice Research Topics

  • Failures in criminal justice.
  • Criminal justice system expectations.
  • Statistical analysis in criminal justice.
  • Debate on criminal justice act.
  • criminal justice trend evaluation.
  • Trends in the criminal justice system.
  • Criminal justice system corrections in the USA.
  • Find the solution to prevent crimes.

Criminology Research Topics On Theories

  • Is employment related to law violations?
  • What is the relationship between family status and legal violations?
  • Is gender related to the type of law violation?
  • What is the relationship between citizenship and law enforcement?
  • How does education relate to crime levels?
  • How does gun ownership relate to breaking the law?
  • Is there a link between immigration status and law violations?
  • What types of crimes are common at what ages?
  • How does the type of crime relate to the level of aggression?

Top 10 Hot Criminology Research Topics

  • Crime is explained culturally.
  • The media’s role in criminology.
  • The advantages of convict criminology.
  • The major issues in postmodern criminology.
  • Is politics influencing criminal behavior?
  • How does DAWN collect information?
  • The shortcomings of crime mapping.
  • Crime rates and community deterioration.
  • Certain personality traits trigger criminal behavior.
  • Does experimental criminology have an impact on social policy?

Criminal Justice Research Topics Based On Crime and Communities

  • The impact of community policing on crime prevention in urban areas.
  • The effectiveness of restorative justice programs in reducing recidivism rates.
  • The relationship between poverty and crime in urban communities.
  • The role of race and ethnicity in criminal justice outcomes and disparities.
  • The effectiveness of community-based interventions in reducing juvenile delinquency.
  • The impact of gun laws on violent crime in urban communities.
  • Social media’s role in spreading crime and its effects on communities.
  • The effectiveness of drug courts in reducing drug-related crimes and improving public safety.
  • The relationship between mental illness and criminal behavior in urban communities.
  • The impact of immigration policies on crime and public safety in urban areas.
  • The effectiveness of re-entry programs for ex-offenders in reducing recidivism and promoting successful reintegration into society.
  • The impact of community-based victim services on the criminal justice system and crime prevention.
  • The relationship between neighborhood social disorganization and crime rates.
  • The role of technology in improving crime prevention and solving crimes in urban communities.
  • The effectiveness of community-based diversion programs for non-violent offenders.
  • The impact of neighborhood watch programs on crime prevention and community safety.
  • The role of community involvement in addressing hate crimes and bias incidents.
  • The impact of domestic violence on communities and the criminal justice response.
  • The effectiveness of drug treatment programs in reducing drug-related crime and improving public health.
  • The criminal justice system’s impact on marginalized communities and efforts to promote equity and justice.

Criminal Justice Research Topics On Racism and Discrimination

  • Eliminating discrimination in the criminal justice system.
  • Gender Bias in Eyewitnesses.
  • African American Legislative Apartheid.
  • Racial Discrimination in College Campuses.
  • How criminal justice law is enacted on Migrants.
  • Inequality in the criminal justice system Research.

General Criminal Justice Research Topics

  • Police brutality and excessive force
  • Criminal profiling and investigation techniques
  • Restorative justice programs
  • Cybercrime and cyberterrorism
  • Gun control policies and their effectiveness
  • The impact of race and ethnicity on sentencing
  • Juvenile delinquency prevention and intervention
  • Wrongful convictions and the death penalty
  • Gender and crime
  • Drug policy and its impact on crime.
  • Community policing and trust-building strategies
  • The effectiveness of rehabilitation and reentry programs for offenders
  • Domestic violence and its impact on victims
  • Crime prevention through environmental design
  • Forensic science and the reliability of evidence in criminal investigations
  • Corruption in law enforcement and the criminal justice system
  • Mental health treatment for inmates and offenders
  • Human trafficking and modern-day slavery
  • The use of technology in criminal investigations and surveillance
  • The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the criminal justice system.

Types of Criminal Justice Research Topics  

  • Homicide, serial murders, and serial murder are the most popular topics in murder studies.
  • A case study of robbery crime, unusual daylight robbery in a news article.
  • Identity Theft and Ways to Protect, the prevalence of identity theft in the community, causes, and effects of cell phone theft.
  • Analysis and critique of Current fraud cases, Fraud and business ethics, fraud schemes, and investigation.

International Criminal Law Topics

  • Criminal ethics, criminal law research assignment paper.
  • Criminal courtroom observation reaction.
  • Childhood obesity.
  • Crime Prevention.
  • International crimes and their laws.
  • International criminal court.
  • Human Rights and Inequality.
  • Rape Cases.

Criminal Justice Research Topics For College Students

  • The Impact of Police Body Cameras on Law Enforcement Accountability
  • Violent Crime Reduction Effectiveness of Restorative Justice Programs
  • Racial Disparities in Sentencing and Their Implications for Justice
  • The Role of Mental Health Services in Diverting Offenders from the Criminal Justice System
  • Media Effects on Perceptions of Crime and Criminal Conduct
  • Examining the Use of Technology in Solving Crimes and Enhancing Investigations
  • Juvenile Justice Policies: Rehabilitation vs. Punishment
  • The Intersection of Immigration Policies and Criminal Justice Outcomes
  • Criminal Profiling and its Reliability in Solving Crimes
  • The Effect of Minimum Sentence Laws on Incarceration Rates and Public Safety.

Criminology Research Topics

  • Armed Crime Groups History Motives.
  • Cyber Criminology Correction Methods.
  • Art Fraud Cooperation.
  • Drunk Driving Prevention Ads.
  • Identity Theft & Social Media.
  • Topic on Child Abuse & TV Violence.
  • Aggression Against Homeless People.
  • Unemployment & Street Situation Analysis.
  • Forensic Research Identification Methods.
  • Crime Witnesses PTSD Rehabilitation.

Career With The Criminology Major

There are a variety of jobs you can get with a criminology degree. We sort listed the top 8 trending jobs that you can get with a criminology degree:

  • Criminologist.
  • Private investigator 
  • Forensic scientist .
  • Correction officer.
  • Jury consultant.
  • Loss prevention specialist 
  • Clinical social worker.

Tips On How To Write Criminal Justice Research Topics

A step-by-step guide on how to write criminal justice research topics:

research topics about the criminal justice system

  • Choose a particular topic.
  • Read the given materials and take some notes.
  • Come up with a thesis.
  • Create an outline for your project.
  • Write down all the information that you have collected.
  • Start with a cover page, and an intro.
  • List the technique you used and the results you got.
  • Include a discussion.
  • Always write a conclusion.
  • Don’t forget to correct your grammar mistakes.
  • Revise, proofread, and if it is incorrect then edit.

Importance of Criminal Justice Research Papers In 2023

Here are some important of criminal justice research papers in 2023: 

1. Informed Policy-Making

Criminal justice research papers provide valuable data and insights that policymakers use to develop effective laws and policies, enhancing the fairness and efficiency of the justice system.

2. Evidence-Based Practices

Research papers help identify evidence-based strategies for law enforcement, corrections, and crime prevention, leading to better outcomes and reduced rates of reoffending.

3. Transparency and Accountability

By revealing systemic issues and gaps, research papers push for greater transparency and accountability within the criminal justice system, fostering public trust.

4. Improved Decision-Making

Policymakers, law enforcement, and other stakeholders use research findings to make informed decisions on resource allocation and allocation of efforts.

5. Advancing Knowledge

Criminal justice research papers contribute to the body of knowledge in the field, allowing researchers and academics to build on existing findings and develop innovative approaches to understanding crime and justice.

6. Addressing Disparities

Research papers shed light on disparities in the justice system, such as racial or socioeconomic disparities, prompting efforts to address and rectify these inequalities.

7. Enhancing Public Awareness

Research papers raise public awareness about issues like wrongful convictions, mental health challenges, and the impact of crime on communities, spurring advocacy and societal change.

Get More Criminal Justice Research Topics At Statanalytica.com

Hope you choose criminal justice research topics for this blog. If you have any difficulty choosing criminal justice research topics, you can contact us at any time. Our professional writers are available to suggest criminal justice research topics ideas and research paper help.

Here are some of the benefits of taking criminal justice research topics that you can hire us.

  • Professional Guidance.
  • Improvement in Grades.
  • A Better Understanding of the Subject.
  • 24 Hours Availability.
  • On-time Delivery.
  • Free Corrections.
  • Money-Back Guarantee.
  • Affordable Deals.

So, you can contact us for any type of paper writing service and impress your teacher or professor by choosing a good criminal justice research topic.

This is the end of this post about criminal justice research topics. However, diverse criminal justice research topics offer unique insights into various aspects of the criminal justice system. These research areas are crucial for policymakers, practitioners, and academics to comprehensively understand the system’s challenges and develop effective interventions that improve its fairness and effectiveness. 

On the other hand, we mentioned more than 135 criminal justice research topics based on different categories. So that it is easier for you to choose the best criminal justice research topics.

Frequently Asked Questions

Q1.what are some criminal justice research topics.

Research Topics in Criminal Justice System: 1. Capital Punishment. 2. Community Corrections. 3. Crime Prevention. 4. Criminal Courts. 5. Criminal Justice Ethics. 6. Criminal Law. 7. Criminal Specialisation. 8. Drug Courts.

Q2. How do I choose a research topic?

Two main ways to find a research topic: through your academic interests or by self-initiation. You can find a topic through your academic focus, talk to your professors and classmates about what they’re working on, and they can point you in the right direction and introduce you to the process of conducting research. The other option is to start with The idea that interests you.

Related Posts

best way to finance car

Step by Step Guide on The Best Way to Finance Car

how to get fund for business

The Best Way on How to Get Fund For Business to Grow it Efficiently

U.S. flag

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

  • Publications
  • Account settings
  • Advanced Search
  • Journal List
  • Springer Nature - PMC COVID-19 Collection

Logo of phenaturepg

Reflections on Criminal Justice Reform: Challenges and Opportunities

Pamela k. lattimore.

RTI International, 3040 East Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC 27703 USA

Associated Data

Data are cited from a variety of sources. Much of the BJS data cited are available from the National Archive of Criminal Justice Data, Interuniversity Consortium for Political and Social Research. The SVORI data and the Second Chance Act AORDP data are also available from NACJD.

Considerable efforts and resources have been expended to enact reforms to the criminal justice system over the last five decades. Concerns about dramatic increases in violent crime beginning in the late Sixties and accelerating into the 1980s led to the “War on Drugs” and the “War on Crime” that included implementation of more punitive policies and dramatic increases in incarceration and community supervision. More recent reform efforts have focused on strategies to reduce the negative impacts of policing, the disparate impacts of pretrial practices, and better strategies for reducing criminal behavior. Renewed interest in strategies and interventions to reduce criminal behavior has coincided with a focus on identifying “what works.” Recent increases in violence have shifted the national dialog from a focus on progressive reforms to reduce reliance on punitive measures and the disparate impact of the legal system on some groups to a focus on increased investment in “tough on crime” criminal justice approaches. This essay offers some reflections on the “Waged Wars” and the efforts to identify “What Works” based on nearly 40 years of work evaluating criminal justice reform efforts.

The last fifty-plus years have seen considerable efforts and resources expended to enact reforms to the criminal justice system. Some of the earliest reforms of this era were driven by dramatic increases in violence leading to more punitive policies. More recently, reform efforts have focused on strategies to reduce the negative impacts of policing, the disparate impacts of pretrial practices, and better strategies for reducing criminal behavior. Renewed interest in strategies and interventions to reduce criminal behavior has coincided with a focus on identifying “what works.” Recent increases in violence have shifted the national dialog about reform. The shift may be due to the disruptions caused by the COVID-19 epidemic or concerns about the United States returning to the escalating rise in violence and homicide in the 1980s and 1990s. Whichever proves true, the current rise of violence, at a minimum, has changed the tenor of policymaker discussions, from a focus on progressive reforms to reduce reliance on punitive measures and the disparate impact of the legal system on some groups to a focus on increased investment in “tough on crime” criminal justice approaches.

It is, then, an interesting time for those concerned about justice in America. Countervailing forces are at play that have generated a consistent call for reform, but with profound differences in views about what reform should entail. The impetus for reform is myriad: Concerns about the deaths of Black Americans by law enforcement agencies and officers who may employ excessive use of force with minorities; pressures to reduce pretrial incarceration that results in crowded jails and detention of those who have not been found guilty; prison incarcerations rates that remain the highest in the Western world; millions of individuals who live under community supervision and the burden of fees and fines that they will never be able to pay; and, in the aftermath of the worst pandemic in more than a century, increasing violence, particularly homicides and gun violence. This last change has led to fear and demands for action from communities under threat, but it exists alongside of other changes that point to the need for progressive changes rather than reversion to, or greater investment in, get-tough policies.

How did we get here? What have we learned from more than 50 years of efforts at reform? How can we do better? In this essay, I offer some reflections based on my nearly 40 years of evaluating criminal justice reform efforts. 1

Part I: Waging “War”

The landscape of criminal justice reform sits at the intersection of criminal behavior and legal system response. Perceptions of crime drive policy responses. Perceptions of those responsible for crime also drive responses. And perceptions of those responses result in demands for change. To establish context for the observations that follow, this section describes trends in crime, the population of justice-involved individuals, and the expenditures supporting the sprawling criminal justice enterprise in the United States since the mid-to-late twentieth century.

But first, my perspective: Over the last nearly 40 years, I have observed justice system reform efforts since working, while a first-year graduate student in 1983, on a National Institute of Justice (NIJ) grant that funded a randomized control trial of what would now be termed a reentry program (Lattimore et al., 1990 ). After graduate school, I spent 10 years at NIJ, where I was exposed to policy making and the relevance of research for both policy and practice. I taught for several years at a university. And, for most of my career, I have been in the trenches at a not-for-profit social science research firm. Throughout my career, I have conducted research and evaluation on a broad array of topics and have spent most of my time contemplating the challenges of reform. I’ve evaluated single programs, large federal initiatives, and efforts by philanthropies to effect reform. I’ve used administrative data to model criminal recidivism to address—to the degree statistical methods allow—various dimensions of recidivism (type, frequency, and seriousness). I’ve developed recidivism models for the practical purpose of assessing risk for those on community supervision and to explore the effects of covariates and interventions on recidivism and other outcomes. I’ve participated in research attempting to understand the shortcomings of and potential biases in justice data and the models that must necessarily use those data. While most of my work has focused on community corrections (e.g., probation and post-release interventions and behavior) and reentry, I have studied jail diversion programs, jail and pretrial reform, and efforts focused on criminal record expungement. These experiences have illuminated for me that punitiveness is built into the American criminal justice system—a punitiveness that traps many people from the time they are first arrested until they die.

Crime and Correctional Population Trends

The 1960s witnessed a dramatic rise in crime in the United States, and led to the so-called “War on Crime,” the “War on Drugs,” and a variety of policy responses, culminating with the passage of the Violent Offender Incarceration and Truth-in-Sentencing Act of 1994 (“The 1994 Crime Act”; Pub. L. 103–322). Figure  1 shows the violent crime rate in the United States from 1960 to 1994. 2 In 1960, the violent crime rate in the United States was 161 per 100,000 people; by 1994 the rate had increased more than four-fold to nearly 714 per 100,000. 3 As can be seen, the linear trend was highly explanatory (R-square = 0.96)—however, there were two obvious downturns in the trend line—between 1980 and 1985 and, perhaps, between 1991 and 1994.

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is 12103_2022_9713_Fig1_HTML.jpg

US Violent Crime Rate, 1960–1994

Homicides followed a similar pattern. Figure  2 shows the number of homicides each year between 1960 and 1994. In 12 years (1960 to 1972), the number of homicides doubled from 9,100 to 18,670. By 1994, the number had grown to 23,330—but it is worth noting that there were multiple downturns over this period, including a drop of more than 4,000 between 1980 and 1984. These figures show the backdrop to the “War on Drugs” and the “War on Crime” that led reformers to call for more punitive sentencing, including mandatory minimum sentences, “three-strikes laws” that mandated long sentences for repeat offenders, and truth-in-sentencing statutes that required individuals to serve most of their sentences before being eligible for release. This was also the period when the 1966 Bail Reform Act, which sought to reduce pretrial detention through the offer of money bond, was supplanted in 1984 by the Pretrial Reform Act, which once again led to increased reliance on pretrial detention.

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is 12103_2022_9713_Fig2_HTML.jpg

United States Murder and Non-negligent Manslaughter Rate, 1960–1994

The 1994 Crime Act, enacted during the Clinton Administration, continued the tough-on-crime era by enabling more incarceration and longer periods of incarceration that resulted in large increases in correctional populations. In particular, the Violent Offender Incarceration and Truth-in-Sentencing (VOI/TIS) Incentive Grant Program, funded by the Act, provided $3 billion to states to expand their jail and prisons capacities between FY1996 and FY2001 and to encourage states to eliminate indeterminate sentencing in favor of laws that required individuals to serve at least 85% of their imposed sentences.

Figure  3 shows the dramatic rise in the number of state and federal prisoners prior to passage of the 1994 Crime Act—the number of prisoners more than tripled between 1980 and 1994. 4 The increase in numbers of prisoners was not due to shifts from jail to prison or from probation to prison, given that all correctional populations increased dramatically over this 14-year period—jail populations increased 164% (183,988 to 486,474), probation increased 166% (1,118,097 to 2,981,022), and parole increased 213% (220,438 to 690,371).

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is 12103_2022_9713_Fig3_HTML.jpg

State and Federal Prisoners in the US, 1960–1994

So, what happened after passage of the 1994 Crime Act? Fig.  4 shows the violent crime rate from 1960 through 2020. As can be seen, the decrease in the violent crime rate that began prior to passage of the 1994 Crime Act continued. And, notably, it preceded the influx of federal funding to put more police on the streets, build more jails and prisons, and place more individuals into the custody of local, state, and federal correctional agencies. Even with a small increase between 2019 and 2020, the violent crime rate in 2020 was 398.5 per 100,000 individuals, well below its 1991 peak of 758.2. 5

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is 12103_2022_9713_Fig4_HTML.jpg

United States Violent Crime Rate (violent crimes per 100,000 population), 1960–2020

Figure  5 shows the US homicide rate from 1960 to 2020. Consistent with the overall violent crime rate, the homicide rate in 2020 remained well below the peak of 10.2 that occurred in 1981. (Rates also may have risen in 2021—as evidenced by reports of large increases in major U.S. cities—but an official report of the 2021 number and rate for the U.S. was not available as of the time of this writing.) The rise in this rate from 2019 to 2020 was more than 27%— worthy of attention and concern. It represents the largest year-over-year increase between 1960 and 2020. However, there have been other years where the rate increased about 10% (1966, 1967, 1968, 2015, and 2016), only then to drop back in subsequent years. Further, it is difficult to determine whether the COVID-19 pandemic, which has caused massive disruptions, is a factor in the increase in homicides or to know whether the homicide rate will abate as the pandemic ebbs. Finally, it bears emphasizing that during this 60-year period there have been years when the homicide rate fell by nearly 10% (e.g., 1996, 1999). From a policy perspective, it seems prudent to be responsive to increases in crime but also not to over-react to one or two years of data—particularly during times of considerable upheaval.

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is 12103_2022_9713_Fig5_HTML.jpg

United States Murder and Nonnegligent Manslaughter Rate, 1960–2020

The growth in correctional populations, including prisoners, that began in the 1970s continued well into the twenty-first century—in other words, long after the crime rate began to abate in 1992. Figure  6 shows the prison population and total correctional population (state and federal prison plus jail, probation, and parole populations summed) between 1980 and 2020. Both trends peaked in 2009 at 1,615,500 prisoners and 7,405,209 incarcerated or on supervision. Year-over-year decreases, however, have been modest (Fig.  7 ), averaging about 1% (ignoring the steep decline between 2019 and 2020). The impact of factors associated with COVID-19, including policy and practice responses, resulted in a 15% decrease in the numbers of state and federal prisoners and a 14% decrease in the total number of adults under correctional control. Based on ongoing projects in pretrial and probation, as well as anecdotal evidence related to court closures and subsequent backlogs, it is reasonable to assume that some, if not most, of the decline in populations in 2020 was due to releases that exceeded new admissions as individuals completed their sentences and delays in court processing reduced new admissions. To the extent that these factors played a role, it is likely that in the immediate near term, we will see numbers rebound to values closer to what prevailed in 2019.

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is 12103_2022_9713_Fig6_HTML.jpg

United States Prison and Total Correctional Populations, 1980–2020

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is 12103_2022_9713_Fig7_HTML.jpg

Year-over-Year Change in Prison and Total Correctional Populations, 2981–2020

Responding with Toughness (and Dollars)

The increase in crime beginning in the 1960s led to a political demand for a punitive response emphasized by Richard Nixon’s “War on Crime” and “War on Drugs.” In 1970, Congress passed four anticrime bills that revised Federal drug laws and penalties, addressed evidence gathering against organized crime, authorized preventive detention and “no-knock” warrants, and provided $3.5 billion to state and local law enforcement. 6 Subsequent administrations continued these efforts, punctuated by the Crime Act of 1994. As described by the U.S. Department of Justice:

The Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994 … is the largest crime bill in the history of the country and will provide for 100,000 new police officers, $9.7 billion in funding for prisons and $6.1 billion in funding for prevention programs …. The Crime Bill provides $2.6 billion in additional funding for the FBI, DEA, INS, United States Attorneys, and other Justice Department components, as well as the Federal courts and the Treasury Department. 7

Much of the funding went to state and local agencies to encourage the adoption of mandatory minimum sentences, “three strikes” laws, and to hire 100,000 police officers and build prisons and jails. This funding was intended to steer the highly decentralized United States criminal justice “system” towards a more punitive approach to crime; this system encompasses all levels of government (local, state, and federal) and all branches of government (executive, judicial, legislative).

The nation’s crime rate peaked in 1992. So, this “largest crime bill in the history of the country” began a dramatic increase in funding for justice expenditures just as crime had already begun to decline. Figure  8 shows that expenditures increased roughly 50% in real dollars between 1997 and 2017—from $188 billion to more than $300 billion dollars (Buehler,  2021 ). 8 More than half of that increase-—$65.4 billion additional—went to police protection. Roughly $50 billion additional went to the judiciary and corrections.

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is 12103_2022_9713_Fig8_HTML.jpg

United States Justice Expenditures, 1997–2017

So, what did these increases buy? Dramatically declining crime rates (Figs. ​ (Figs.4 4 and ​ and5) 5 ) suggest that numbers of crimes also declined. That can be seen in Fig.  9 , which shows offenses known and an estimate of offenses cleared for selected years between 1980 and 2019. 9 In 1991, there were 11,651,612 known property offenses and 1,682,487 known violent offenses—these numbers declined 47% and 34% by 2019.

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is 12103_2022_9713_Fig9_HTML.jpg

Offenses Known and Cleared in the US, Selected Years 1980–2019

Declining numbers of crimes and dramatic increases in expenditures on policing and justice system operation would suggest that there should have been improvements in offense clearance rates during this time. This did not happen. Crime clearance rates stayed roughly constant, which means that the numbers of offenses cleared declined by percentages like declines in the number of offenses over this period—49% for property offenses and 33% for violent offenses. More than 750,000 violent offenses and more than 2 million property offenses were cleared in 1991 compared to about 500,000 violent offenses and 1 million property offenses in 2019.

Presently, as violent crime ticks up, we are hearing renewed calls for “tough-on-crime” measures. Some opinion writers have compared 2022 to Nixon’s era. Kevin Boyle noted:

[Nixon] already had his core message set in the early days of his 1968 campaign. In a February speech in New Hampshire, he said: “When a nation with the greatest tradition of the rule of law is torn apart by lawlessness, when a nation which has been the symbol of equality of opportunity is torn apart by racial strife … then I say it’s time for new leadership in the United States of America.” There it is: the fusion of crime, race and fear that Nixon believed would carry him to the presidency. 10

Responding to the recent increase in violent crime, President Joseph Biden proposed the Safer America Plan to provide $37 billion “to support law enforcement and crime prevention.” 11 The Plan includes more than $12 billion in funds for 100,000 additional police officers through the Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS) program. This proposal echoes the “100,000 cops on the street” that was a centerpiece of the 1994 Crime Act, which created the COPS office and program. Unlike the 1994 Crime Act, however, the Safer America Plan does not include funding for prisons and jails. Both the 1994 Crime Act and the Safer America Plan address gun violence, strengthen penalties for drug offenses, and provide support for programs and interventions to make communities safer and to address criminal recidivism.

The previous 50 or 60 years witnessed reforms efforts other than these that largely focused on bolstering the justice system infrastructure. The 1966 Bail Reform Act sought to reduce pretrial detention through the offer of money bond, but subsequently was supplanted by the 1984 Pretrial Reform Act that once again promoted pretrial detention. 12 This century—as jail populations exceeded 700,000, with most held prior to conviction—there has been considerable attention to eliminate money bond, which disproportionately leads to pretrial detention for poor and marginalized individuals (and release for the “well-heeled”). Private philanthropy has led much of this focus on pretrial and bail reform. For example, the MacArthur Foundation has spent several hundred million dollars on their Safety and Justice Challenge since 2015 with a goal of reducing jail populations and eliminating racial and ethnic disparity. 13 The Laura and John Arnold Foundation (LJAF) took a different approach and has invested substantial sums in the development and validation of a pretrial assessment instrument (the Public Safety Assessment or PSA) that provides assessments of the likelihood an individual will fail to appear to court or be arrested for a new crime or new violent crime if released while awaiting trial. 14 Although assessment algorithms have been criticized for lack of transparency and for perpetuating racial bias, the PSA scoring algorithm is publicly available and has not shown evidence of racial bias in a series of local validations conducted by RTI for LJAF. New York and New Jersey are among the states that have attempted to reduce reliance on money bond. However, as violent crime has increased, these efforts have faced considerable pushback.

The bail bonds industry has been a vocal opponent of efforts to reduce or eliminate the use of money bond. This industry is not the only one that profits from the imposition of punishment. As Page and Soss ( 2021 ) recently reported, “Over the past 35 years, public and private actors have turned US criminal justice institutions into a vast network of revenue-generating operations. Today, practices such as fines, fees, forfeitures, prison charges, and bail premiums transfer billions of dollars from oppressed communities to governments and corporations.” Fines, fees, and forfeitures generally profit the governments and agencies that impose them—although supervision fees to private probation services benefit businesses, as do fees for electronic monitoring, and drug testing. The Prison Policy Institute reports that there are more than 4,000 companies that profit from mass incarceration. 15 Court and supervision fees can quickly add up to hundreds or even thousands of dollars, burdening people with crushing debt and the threat of jail if they don’t pay. 16 There can be other consequences as well. After Florida passed a constitutional amendment to restore voting rights to individuals once they had completed their carceral or community sentence, the State specified that the right to vote would not be restored until an individual had paid all outstanding fees and fines. In addition, mistakenly voting with outstanding fees and fines is a felony. 17

Other work to reform pretrial justice includes early provision of defense counsel, and implementation of diversion programs for individuals charged with low-level offenses or who have behavioral health issues. The sixth amendment to the United States Constitution guarantees criminal defendants in the United States a right to counsel. In some jurisdictions (and the Federal court system), this is the responsibility of an office of public defense. In others, private defense counsel is appointed by the Court. Regardless, public defense is widely understood to be poorly funded. As noted by Arnold Ventures, a philanthropy currently working to improve access to defense, “The resulting system is fragmented and underfunded; lacks quality control and oversight; and fails to safeguard the rights of the vast majority of people charged with crimes who are represented by public defenders or indigent counsel.” 18

Mental health problems are prevalent among individuals incarcerated in local jails and prisons. The Bureau of Justice Statistics, in a report by Bronson and Berzofsky ( 2017 ), reported that “prisoners and jail inmates were three to five times as likely to have met the threshold for SPD [serious psychological distress] as adults in the general U.S. population.” Bronson and Berzofsky further reported that 44% of individuals in jail reported being told they had a mental disorder. The Substance Abuse and Mental Health Administration’s GAINS Center has been at the forefront of efforts to implement jail diversion programs for individuals with mental health or substance use disorders and has also played a significant role in the establishment of treatment courts. 19 Crisis Intervention Training (CIT) for law enforcement to improve interaction outcomes between law enforcement and individuals in crisis. The National Alliance on Mental Illness (NAMI) notes that “The lack of mental health crisis services across the U.S. has resulted in law enforcement officers serving as first responders to most crises. A Crisis Intervention Team (CIT) program is an innovative, community-based approach to improve the outcomes of these encounters.” 20 Non-law enforcement responses—such as the CAHOOTS program that was developed in Eugene, Oregon—to certain calls for service are also being tested in multiple communities. 21 Despite multiple efforts to identify appropriate alternatives to jail, individuals with mental health disorders continue to disproportionately fill the nation’s jails.

A Recapitulation

The 1970 crime bills that passed early in Nixon’s presidency set the stage for the infusion of federal dollars that has provided billions of dollars in funding for police and prisons. Between 1970 and 1994, the number of adults in state and federal prisons in the United States increased from less than 200,000 to nearly 1 million. In 2019, that number stood at more than 1.4 million down from its peak in 2009. Another 734,500 individuals were in jail and more than 4.3 million were in the community on probation or parole. Although representing a dramatic decline since these populations peaked about 2009, this still means that more than 6 million adults were under the supervision of federal, state, and local corrections agencies in 2019.

Thus, it is important to recognize that we are at a very different place from the Nixon era. Today, the numbers (and rates) of individuals who are “justice-involved” remain at near record highs. As the progressive efforts of the twenty-first century encounter headwinds, it is worth waving a caution flag as the “remedies” of the twentieth century—more police, “stop and frisk,” increased pretrial detention—are once again being proposed to address violent crime.

Part II: Finding “What Works”

The 1994 Crime Act and subsequent reauthorizations also included funding for a variety of programs, including drug courts, prison drug treatment programs, and other programs focused on facilitating reentry and reducing criminal recidivism. Subsequent legislation authorized other Federal investments that resurrected rehabilitation as a goal of correctional policy. The Serious and Violent Offender Reentry Initiative (SVORI) provided $100 million (and some limited supplements) to agencies to develop programs that began in prison and continued into the community and were intended to improve outcomes across a range of domains—community reintegration, employment, family, health (including mental health), housing, substance abuse, supervision compliance and, of course, recidivism (see Lattimore et al., 2005b ; Winterfield et al., 2006 ; Lattimore & Visher, 2013 , 2021 ; Visher et al., 2017 ). Congress did not reauthorize SVORI but instead authorized the Prisoner Reentry Initiative (PRI) managed by the U.S. Department of Labor; PRI (now the Reintegration of Ex-Offenders or RExO program) provides funding for employment-focused programs for non-violent offenders. In 2006, a third reentry-focused initiative was funded—the Marriage and Incarceration Initiative was managed by the Department of Health and Human Services and focused on strengthening marriage and families for male correctional populations. In 2008, Congress passed the Second Chance Act (SCA) to provide grants for prison and jail reentry programs. The SCA grant program administered by the Bureau of Justice Assistance (BJA) was reauthorized in 2018; it continues to provide reentry grants to state and local agencies (see Lindquist et al., 2021 ). These initiatives all primarily focused on supporting efforts at the state and local level. The First Step Act of 2018 focused on reforms for the federal prison system. These efforts signified a substantial increase in efforts aimed at determining “what works” to reduce criminal behavior—and provided an opportunity to rebut the “nothing works” in correctional programming that followed the publication of research by Lipton ( 1975 ).

Elsewhere, I have summarized some of the research into Federal initiatives that I have conducted over the years (Lattimore, 2020 ). These studies comprise work in dozens of states, involving thousands of individuals and have included studies of drug treatment, jail diversion, jail and prison reentry, and probation. Some involved evaluation of a substantial Federal investment, such as the multi-site evaluation of SVORI.

These evaluations, as has been largely true of those conducted by others, have produced mixed results. Systematic reviews and meta-analyses focusing on the effectiveness of adult correctional programming have yielded findings of modest or negligible effects (e.g., Aos et al., 2006 ; Bitney et al., 2017 ; Lipsey & Cullen, 2007 ; MacKenzie, 2006 ; Sherman, et al., 1997 ). In an updated inventory of research- and evidence-based adult programming, the Washington State Institute for Public Policy (Wanner, 2018 ) identified a variety of programs for which evidence suggests significant if modest effect sizes. As has been identified by others (e.g., MacKenzie, 2006 ), the most effective programs focused on individual change, including, for example, cognitive behavior therapy (estimated effect size of -0.11). Treatment-oriented intensive supervision programs were found to reduce recidivism by about 15%, while surveillance-oriented intensive supervision was found to have no demonstrated effects. Several types of work and educational programs (correctional industries, basic adult education, prison-based vocational education, and job training and assistance in the community) were found to reduce recidivism between 5 and 22%. Most non-zero treatment effect sizes were between about 5% and 15%. Lipsey and Cullen ( 2007 ) also suggest 14% to 22% reductions in recidivism for adult rehabilitation treatment programs.

Two thoughts about these small effects warrant consideration. The first, of course, is why reducing criminal behavior appears to be so difficult. Second, however, is that, in recognizing the first, perhaps we should adapt more realistic expectations about what can be achieved and acknowledge that even small effects can have a meaningful impact on public safety.

Challenges: Why Is Effective Criminal Justice Reform So Difficult?

One issue with most federal funding streams is “short timelines.” For example, typical of grant programs of this type, SVORI grantees were given three years of funding. During this time, they had to develop a programmatic strategy, establish interagency working arrangements, identify program and service providers, develop a strategy for identifying potential participants, and implement their programs. Three years is a very short time to develop a program that incorporates needs assessment, provides a multiplicity of services and programs within an institution, and creates a path for continuation of services as individuals are released to various communities across a state.

The “short timelines” problem underlies, and contributes to, a variety of other considerations that can plague efforts to identify “what works.” Based on my experiences, these considerations, which I discuss further below, include the following:

  • People: Justice-involved individuals have multiple needs and there is an emerging question as to whether addressing these needs is the best path to desistance.
  • Programs: Interventions often lack adequate logic models and are poorly implemented.
  • Methods: Evaluations frequently are underpowered and unlikely to scale the alpha 0.05 hurdle typically used to identify statistically significant effects.

First, it is important to recognize that justice-involved individuals face serious and complex challenges that are difficult to remedy. Many scholars have highlighted the myriad of challenges faced by individuals returning to the community from prison (e.g., see Petersilia, 2003 ; Travis, 2005 ; Travis & Visher, 2005 ). In interviews conducted with 1,697 men and 357 women who participated in the SVORI multisite evaluation, 95% of women and 94% of men said at the time of prison release that they needed more education. Nearly as many—86% of women and 82% of men—said they needed job training. More than two-thirds indicated that they needed help with their criminal thinking and three-quarters said they needed life skills training. They were somewhat less likely to report needing substance use disorder or mental health treatment but still—at the time of prison release—66% of the women and 37% of the men reported needing substance use treatment and 55% of the women and 22% of the men reported needing mental health treatment.

Half of these individuals had participated in SVORI programs while incarcerated and the proportions reported reflect their self-assessment of need after in-prison receipt of programming. Figure  10 shows the percentages of SVORI and non-SVORI groups who reported receiving a select set of services and programs during their incarceration. Several things standout: (1) The receipt of programs and services during incarceration was much less than the indicated need at the time of release; and (2) SVORI program participants were more likely to report receiving services than the comparison group members who were not in SVORI programs.

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is 12103_2022_9713_Fig10_HTML.jpg

Self-reported service receipt during incarceration for SVORI program evaluation participants. Note: * =  p  <  = 0.05. Educ = educational programming, EmplSrv = employment-related services, CrimAtt = programs for criminal attitudes including cognitive behavior therapy, LifeSk = life skills, AODTx = substance abuse treatment, and MHTx = mental health treatment. Sample sizes were SVORI men (863), non-SVORI men (834), SVORI women (153) and non-SVORI women (204).

Source: Lattimore & Visher (2009)

More recently, Lindquist et al. ( 2021 ) completed a seven-site evaluation of Second Chance Act reentry programs that were a mix of jail- and prison-based programs. About half of the study participants reported having received substance use disorder treatment and about one-third reported having received mental health treatment. At release, they reported limited-service receipt. For example, there was no significant difference between receipt of educational programming (23% of SCA program participants compared with 17% for comparison group members). SCA program participants were more likely to report receiving any employment services (60% versus 40%), which included job assistance, employment preparation, trade or job training programs, vocational or technical certifications, and transitional job placement or subsidized employment. SCA program participants were also more likely to report receiving cognitive behavioral services (58% versus 41%). But, again, not all program participants received services despite needing them and some comparison subjects received services.

Limited access to treatment by program participants and some access to treatment by comparison subjects were also observed in a multi-site study of pre- and post-booking jail diversion programs for individuals with co-occurring substance use disorder and serious mental illness (Broner et al., 2004 ; Lattimore et al., 2003 ). Across eight study sites, 971 diverted subjects and 995 non-diverted subjects were included in this evaluation; the research found only modest differences in the receipt of services and treatment at 3- and 12-months follow-up. For example, at the 3-month interview, 26% of both groups reported receiving substance abuse counseling, and at the 12-month interview, 0.7% of those diverted versus no non-diverted participant received two or more substance abuse counseling sessions. At 3 months, 38% of the diverted subjects and 30% of the non-diverted reported mental health counseling versus 41% and 38% at 12 months, respectively.

The service needs expressed by these individuals reflect their lack of education, job experience, vocational skills, and life skills, as well as the substance abuse and mental health issues identified among justice-involved individuals. The intervention response to these needs is reflected in the variety of services prescribed in the typical “reentry program bucket.” These involve the services and programs shown in Fig.  10 , as well as case management and reentry planning to coordinate services with respect to needs.

The identification of needs followed by efforts to meet those needs underlies the Risk-Needs-Responsivity (RNR) approach to addressing justice-involved populations (e.g., Andrews & Bonta, 1994 , 2006 ; Latessa, 2020 ). The RNR approach to addressing criminal behavior is premised on the assumption that if you address identified needs that are correlated with criminal behavior, that behavior will be reduced. In other words, recidivism can be addressed by providing individuals the education and job skills and treatment they need to find gainful employment, reduce substance use, and mitigate symptoms of mental illness. Latessa ( 2020 ) recently discussed the RNR approach, reiterating the importance of assessing individual criminogenic and non-criminogenic needs to improve reentry programs. He also reiterated the importance of focusing resources on those identified as high (or higher) risk by actuarial risk assessment instruments—pointing to important work he conducted with colleagues that found that interventions reduced recidivism among high-risk individuals and increased it among low-risk individuals (Lowenkamp & Latessa, 2002 ; Latessa et al., 2010 ). This approach to reentry programming is reflected in the requirements of most federal grants—like the SVORI and SCA—that require programs to incorporate reentry planning that includes needs assessment and services that address criminogenic and non-criminogenic needs.

As noted, most justice-involved individuals have limited education and few job skills, and many have behavioral health issues, anger management issues, and limited life skills. But if addressing these deficits is the key to successfully rehabilitating large numbers of individuals caught in the carceral and community justice system, the meager results of recent research suggests two possibilities. First, this is the right approach, but poor or incomplete implementation has so far impeded findings of substantial effects (a common conclusion since the Martinson report). Second, alternatively, this approach is wrong (or insufficient), and new thinking about the “what and how” of rehabilitative programming is needed. I address the second idea next and turn to the first idea shortly.

MacKenzie ( 2006 ) and others (e.g., Andrews and Bonta, 2006 ; Andrews et al., 1990 ; Aos et al., 2006 ; Lipsey, 1995 ; Lipsey & Cullen, 2007 ) have stressed that programs focused on individual change have been found to be effective more often than those providing practical services. The SVORI evaluation also found support for this conclusion. Services we classified as “practical” (e.g., case manager, employment services, life skills, needs assessment, reentry planning, and reentry program) were associated with either no or a deleterious impact on arrest chances—although few were statistically different from a null effect. Individual-change services (e.g., anger management, programs for criminal attitudes including cognitive behavior therapy, education, help with personal relationships, and substance abuse treatment) were associated with positive impacts on arrest. The original SVORI evaluation had a follow-up period of about 2 years and findings suggested that the overall impact of SVORI program participation on rearrest and reincarceration were positive but not statistically significant. In contrast to these findings, a longer follow-up that extended at least 56 months showed participation in SVORI programs was associated with longer times to arrest and fewer arrests after release for both men and women. For the men, SVORI program participation was associated with a longer time to reincarceration and fewer reincarcerations, although the latter result was not statistically significant ( p  = 0.18). For the women, the reincarceration results were mixed and not significant.

Support for positive impacts of programs focused on individual change are consistent with theories associated with identity transformation and desistance from criminal activity. Bushway ( 2020 ) has recently discussed two alternative views of desistance, contrasting the implications of desistance either as a process (i.e., the gradual withdrawal from criminal activity) or reflective of an identify shift towards a more prosocial identity. In examining these two ideas, Bushway posits that the second suggests that individuals with a history of a high rate of offending may simply stop (as opposed to reducing the frequency of criminal acts). If individuals do (or can or will) stop, the implication is clear: policies that focus on an individual’s criminal history (e.g., for employment or parole decisions) may fail to recognize that the individual has changed. This change may be evidenced by in-prison good behavior (e.g., completing programs and staying out of trouble) or positive steps following release (e.g., actively seeking meaningful employment or engaging in positive relationships). Tellingly, Bushway ( 2020 ) notes: “Individuals involved in crime get information about how they are perceived by others through their involvement in the criminal justice system. Formal labels of ‘criminal’ are assigned and maintained by the criminal justice system. As a result, identity models are much more consistent theoretically with an empirical approach that revolves around measures of criminal justice involvement rather than criminal offending per se.” He goes on to discuss the relationship of identity-based models of stark breaks and criminal career models. In short, reflecting insights that labeling theorists have long emphasized, the labels the criminal justice system and society place on individuals may impede the desistance process that is the supposed goal of the system.

The second consideration are concerns about program design and implementation—What is the underlying logic model or theory of change? Is there adequate time to develop the program and train staff to implement it appropriately? Is the resulting program implemented with fidelity? The two or three years usually provided to implement complex programs suggest that these goals are unlikely to be met. The “notorious” findings of Martinson (1975) that “nothing works” was more appropriately interpreted as “nothing was implemented.” Unfortunately, nearly 50 years later, we largely observe something similar—not “nothing” but “something” that is far short of what was intended.

As discussed in detail by Taxman (2020), the usual approach to program development and testing skips over important formative steps, doesn’t allow time for pilot testing, and provides little opportunity for staff training or for achievement and maintenance of program fidelity (if there is even a program logic model). From an evaluator’s perspective, this short timeline imposes multiple challenges. An evaluator must identify study participants (and control or comparison subjects), follow them largely while they are in the program, and hope to have at least one year of post-program follow-up—generally without being able to accommodate the impact of likely weak implementation on evaluation power to detect effects.

Thus, it may not be surprising that effects are generally small. However, these small effects may not be negligible from a public safety perspective. In a study of the effects of non-residential drug treatment for a cohort of probationers, Lattimore et al. ( 2005a ) found that treatment reduced the number of probationers with a felony arrest by 23% during the first year and 11% over the first two years. The total number of arrests was also reduced by 17% over 12 months and 14% over 24 months. “Back of the envelope” calculations suggested that if treatment cost $1,000 per individual, it would have been cost effective to provide treatment to all members of the cohort as long as the (average) cost of arrest (and all related criminal justice processing and corrections) exceeds about $6,463.

Another example is to consider that the impact of a treatment effect in the 10% range applied across all prison releases would imply the aversion of many crimes. For example, assuming 750,000 prison releases each year over a five-year period and a 66% rearrest rate within 3 years (and no additional arrests after 3 years), then 3.75 million prisoners will be released over the five years; of these individuals, 2.475 million will be arrested at least once during the three years following release. A 10% reduction in first-time rearrests would mean 247,500 fewer first-time rearrests. To the extent that many offenders are arrested multiple times, this figure represents a lower bound on the number of averted arrests. A similar analysis could be conducted assuming 2,000,000 probation admissions each year and a 39% rearrest rate within 3 years. In this case, there would be 10,000,000 probation admissions that would generate 3.9 million first-time arrests over the three years after admission to probation. A 10% reduction in first-time rearrests would mean 390,000 fewer arrests. In total, therefore, reducing recidivism—as measured by rearrest by 10% for these hypothetical correctional populations—would translate into 637,500 averted arrests. Extrapolating further and assuming that roughly 10% of the arrests were for violent crime and 90% for property crime, and applying the inverse of the crime clearance rates for these two types of crime to generate a “crimes averted” count, we find that a 10% reduction in recidivism for these two populations would translate into 140,110 violent and 3,519,939 property crimes averted. 22 Thus, “modest” improvements in recidivism may provide substantial public benefits—in crimes averted, and lower demands on law enforcement, prosecution, and correctional resources. 23

The third consideration is the adequacy of the evaluation methods we routinely apply to this complex problem of inadequate interventions that are partially and sometimes poorly implemented. At minimum, we need to explicitly recognize the impacts of the following:

  • Programs partially implemented and partially treated control conditions.
  • Recidivism outcomes conditioned on an intermediate outcome.
  • Follow-up periods too short to accommodate short-term failure followed by long-term success.
  • Focusing on a binary indicator of recidivism ignores frequency and seriousness of offending.

The impact of partial treatment of both treatment and control groups on effect sizes and the consequential impact on statistical power is seldom discussed—either in initial estimates of needed sample sizes or in subsequent discussions of findings. As shown earlier and is true for most justice evaluations, the control or comparison condition is almost never “nothing.” Instead, it is generally “business as usual” (BAU) that means whatever the current standard of treatment entails. Thus, the treatment group may receive some services that aren’t available to the control group, but in many cases both groups have access to specific services and programs although the treatment group may get priority.

As we saw in Fig.  10 , treatment was reported by some individuals in both the SVORI and non-SVORI groups. Table ​ Table1 1 shows the implications of partial treatment using data from the SVORI evaluation. 24 The percent treated for the SVORI and non-SVORI men are shown in columns three and four. Column 2 presents the effect sizes for four interventions as identified by Wanner ( 2018 ). If we assume that the recidivism rate without treatment is 20%, 25 the observed recidivism rate for the SVORI and non-SVORI men as a result of receiving each treatment is shown in columns four and five. Column six shows that the observed differences in recidivism between the two groups in this “thought experiment” are less than two percent—an effect size that would never be detected with typical correctional program evaluations. 26

Hypothetical treatment effects with incomplete treatment of the treatment group and partial treatment of the comparison group, assuming untreated recidivism rate is 20 percent

* Estimates from Wanner ( 2018 ).

Similar findings emerge when considering the effects on recidivism of interventions such as job training programs that are intended to improve outcomes intermediate to recidivism. Consider the hypothetical impact of a prison job training program on post-release employment and recidivism. The underlying theory of change is that training will increase post-release employment and having a job will reduce recidivism. 27 Suppose the job training program boosts post-release employment by 30% and that, without the program, 50% of released individuals will find a job. A 30% improvement means that 65% of program participants will find employment. Randomly assigning 100 of 200 individuals to receive the program would result in 50 of those in the control group and 65 of those in the treatment group to find employment. (This outcome assumes everyone in the treatment group receives treatment.) Table ​ Table2 2 shows the treatment effect on recidivism under various assumptions about the impact of employment on recidivism. The table assumes a 50% recidivism rate for the unemployed so, e.g., if the effect of a job is to reduce recidivism by 10% employed individuals will have a recidivism rate of 45%. If there is no effect—i.e., recidivism is independent of being employed—we observe 50% failure for both groups and there is no effect on recidivism rates even if the program is successful at increasing employment by 30%. On the other hand, if being employed eliminates recidivism, no one who is employed will be recidivists and 50% of those unemployed will be recidivists—or 25 of the control group and 17.5 of the treated group. The last column in Table ​ Table2 2 shows the conditional effect of job training on recidivism under the various effects of employment on recidivism shown in column 1. The effects shown in the last column are the same regardless of the assumption about the recidivism rate of the unemployed. So, employment must have a very substantial effect on the recidivism rate to result in a large effect on the observed recidivism rate when, as is reasonable to assume, some members of the control group who didn’t have the training will find employment. As before, this finding underscores the need to carefully consider the mechanism affecting recidivism and potential threats to effect sizes and statistical power.

Hypothetical effects of job training on employment and recidivism assuming job training increases employment by 30% and control (untreated) employment is 50%

A third concern is that follow-up periods which typically are 2 years or less may be too short to observe positive impacts of interventions (Lattimore & Visher, 2020). Although this may seem counterintuitive, it is what was observed for the SVORI multisite evaluation. The initial SVORI evaluation focused on the impact of participation with at least 21 months of follow-up following release from prison and showed positive but insignificant differences in rearrests for the SVORI and non-SVORI groups. A subsequent NIJ award provided funding for a long-term (at least 56 months) examination of recidivism for 11 of the 12 adult programs (Visher et al., 2017 ; also see Lattimore et al., 2012 ). In contrast to the findings in the original study, participation in SVORI programs was associated with longer times to arrest and fewer arrests after release for both men and women during the extended follow-up period of at least 56 months. Although untestable post hoc, one plausible hypothesis is that the early period following release is chaotic for many individuals leaving prison and failure is likely. Only after the initial “settling out period” are individuals in a position to take advantage of what was learned during program participation. In any event, these findings suggest the need to conduct more, longer-term evaluations of reentry programs.

A final consideration is the indicator of recidivism used to judge the success of a program. Recidivism, which is a return to criminal behavior, is almost never observed. Instead, researchers and practitioners rely on proxies that are measures of justice system indicators that a crime has occurred—arrest, conviction, and incarceration for new offenses—and, for those on supervision, violation of conditions and revocation of supervision. A recent National Academy of Sciences’ publication ( 2022 ) highlights some of the limitations of recidivism as a measure of post-release outcomes, arguing that indicators of success and measures that allow for the observation of desisting behavior (defined by the panel as a process—not the sharp break advanced by Bushway) should be used instead. These are valid points but certainly in the short run the funders of interventions and those responsible for public safety are unlikely to be willing to ignore new criminal activity as an outcome.

It is worth highlighting, however, some of the limitations of the binary indicator of any new event that is the usual measure adopted by many researchers (e.g., “any new arrest within x years”) and practitioners (e.g., “return to our Department within 3 years”). These simple measures ignore important dimensions of recidivism. These include type of offense (e.g., violent, property, drug), seriousness of offense (e.g., homicide, felony assault, misdemeanor assault), and frequency of offending (equivalent to time to the recidivism event). As a result, a typical recidivism outcome treats as identical minor acts committed, e.g., 20 months following release, and serious crimes committed immediately. Note too that this binary indicator fails in terms of being able to recognize desisting behavior, that is, where time between events increases or the seriousness of the offense decreases. Survival methods and count or event models address the frequency consideration. Competing hazard models allow one to examine differences between a few categories of offending (e.g., violent, property, drug, other). The only approach that appears to have tackled the seriousness dimension is the work by Sherman and colleagues (Sherman et al., 2016 ; also, see www.crim.cam.ac.uk/research/thecambridgecrimeharminde ) who have developed a Crime Harm Index that is based on potential sentences for non-victimless crimes. To date, statistical methods that can accommodate the three dimensions simultaneously do not, to my knowledge, exist. At a minimum, however, researchers should use the methods that are available to fully explore their recidivism outcomes. Logistic regression models are easy to estimate and the results are easily interpretable. But an intervention may be useful if it increases the time to a new offense or reduces the seriousness of new criminal behavior.

The last forty years or so have seen strides at identifying interventions that are promising, but much work remains to be done to find programs that result in substantial, broad-based improvements. Challenges in program development and implementation, partial treatment of treatment groups and control groups, and limited focus on recidivism as a binary indicator of failure were highlighted as some of the issues confronting practitioners and evaluators. 28 There is reason for optimism—if expectations are realistic from both a programmatic and methodological perspective: Identify promising programs, apply best practices of implementation science, calculate reasonable statistical expectations, and build on what has been tried.

Conclusions

In the past several decades, dramatic increases in crime resulted in large-scale legislative changes and expenditures. Correctional populations dramatically increased even as crime rates plunged. In addition, despite large increases in funding to law enforcement and other justice agencies, the number of offenses cleared declined. During this time, there were multiple federal initiatives focused on reducing criminal recidivism. Some, such as the Residential Substance Abuse Treatment (RSAT) programs, focused singularly on reducing drug use, while others focused broadly on addressing the multi-faceted needs of justice-involved individuals.

These changes occurred in a context of a highly decentralized approach to criminal justice, one that creates a myriad of costs and incentives. For example, if a federally funded reentry program reduces crime, the immediate agency beneficiaries are local law enforcement (due to fewer crimes to solve), prosecution (due to fewer crimes to prosecute), and the courts (due to fewer cases to try). That can reduce admissions to prison. But for cost-savings to occur, agencies have to respond to reductions in crime by reducing costs. That tends to run counter to the natural inclination of administrators, especially if it means reducing staffing. And it runs counter to what happened as crime declined over the last roughly 30 years.

We increasingly have research evidence that some programs can reduce recidivism, but many challenges, such as underpowered research designs, sometimes undermines this evidence. Even so, it is important to note that even modest reductions in recidivism imply opportunities to avert substantial numbers of crimes and subsequent criminal justice system processing and costs.

This essay suggests that it is time to embrace the modest improvements in recidivism that have been forthcoming from programs that have been subjected to the most rigorous evaluations. And it suggests that it is time to downsize our expectations for a “silver bullet” and, instead, prepare for a long-term and sustained investment in programming that will improve, refine and augment programs and approaches that “work.” By using “what works” today as the basis for the successful adaptation of multi-faceted programs that address the multiplicity of offender needs, criminal justice policy and practice will develop the tools needed to help a heterogeneous population of prisoners successfully reenter their communities.

Finally, as policymakers grapple with a recent increase in violent crime, it is important to recognize that the “tough-on-crime” responses of the twentieth century led to a 252% increase in the number of citizens under legal system control—including a 312% increase in prison populations—between 1980 and 2000. Correctional populations peaked in 2008 but in 2019 remain 255% above 1980 levels with more than 6.5 million individuals in prisons, jails, or on probation or parole. 29 As the current administration proposes the Safer America Plan, it is important that proper attention be addressed to assure that the result of these expenditures is not to reinvigorate the mass incarceration and mass supervision that followed the adaptation of the as the 1984 Pretrial Reform Act and the Violent Offender Incarceration and Truth-in-Sentencing Act of 1994. And it is important that we attend to widespread support for high-quality implementation of programs that have been shown to reduce recidivism.

is a Principal Scientist with RTI International’s Justice Practice Area. She has more than 35 years of experience evaluating interventions, investigating the causes and correlates of criminal behavior, and developing approaches to improve criminal justice operations. She was principal investigator for multi-site, multi-method evaluations including the Multi-Site Evaluation of the Serious and Violent Offender Initiative, the Second Chase Act Adult Offender Reentry Demonstration Program Evaluation, and the HOPE Demonstration Field Experiment. She is principal investigator for research examining pretrial risk assessment, policy, and practice; state-level reforms for adult probation; implementation and impact of criminal record expungement; development and implementation of dynamic risk assessment algorithms for Georgia probation and parole; and the long-term impact of a three-state RCT of the 5-Key Reentry Program Model. She is a past Chair of the American Society of Criminology Division on Corrections and Sentencing, a Fellow of the Academy of Experimental Criminology, and a recipient of the American Correctional Association Peter P. Lejins Researcher Award, the American Society of Criminology Division on Corrections and Sentencing Distinguished Scholar Award, and the Academy of Experimental Criminology Joan McCord Award. Dr. Lattimore has published extensively, has served on the editorial boards of multiple journals, and was the inaugural co-editor of the annual series Handbook on Corrections and Sentencing published by Routledge Press.

Data Availability

1 Some of the ideas presented here were initially explored in Lattimore ( 2020 ) and Lattimore et al. ( 2021 ).

2 Data 1960 to 1984 are FBI, Uniform Crime Reports, prepared by the National Archive of Criminal Justice Data; downloaded March 5, 2006; data from 1985 to 2020 are from https://crime-data-explorer.app.cloud.gov/pages/explorer/crime/crime-trend , downloaded July 12, 2022.

3 Violent crime commands the most attention and hence is the focus here, but property crimes are much more prevalent—directly affecting many more individuals. Property crime rates also increased in the 1960s and 1970s. The property crime rate increased from 1,726.3 per 100,000 in 1960 to 4,660.2 in 1994—an 170% increase. The property crime rate peaked in 1980 at 5,353.3 per 100,000—a 210% increase over 1960.

4 Data for 1960 and 1970 prisoners are from Cahalan, M.W. and Parsons, L.A. ( 1986 ). Data from 1980–2014 are from Glaze, L., Minton, T., & West, H. (Date of version: 12/08/ 2009 ) and Kaeble, D., Glaze, L., Tsoutis, A., & Minton, T. ( 2015 ). Data from 2015–2020 are from Kluckow, DSW, & Zeng, Z. (Date of version: 3/31/ 2022 ).

5 As noted in footnote 3, property crime rates also rose between 1960 and 1980—peaking at 5,353.3 per 100,000. With some minor fluctuations, the property crime rate has declined steadily since the 1980s and was 1958.2 per 100,000 in 2020.

6 The Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970 (PL 91–513); the Organized Crime Control Act of 1970 (PL 91–452); the District of Columbia Court Reorganization and Criminal Procedure Act of 1970 (PL 91–358); and the Omnibus Crime Control Act of 1970.

7 https://www.ncjrs.gov/txtfiles/billfs.txt

8 The trend shown in Fig.  9 continued a trend. Between 1982 and 1997, total justice expenditures increased 125% from $84.1 billion to $189.5 billion (2007 dollars), Kyckelhahn, T. ( 2011 ).

9 Data are from the FBI Crime in the United States publications for 1980, 1991, 1995, 2000, 2010 and 2019 https://ucr.fbi.gov/crime-in-the-u.s/ . Numbers of offenses cleared were estimated by multiplying the offenses known by the offense clearance rates reported by the FBI.

10 https://www.nytimes.com/2022/07/31/opinion/richard-nixon-america-trump.html

11 https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2022/08/01/fact-sheet-president-bidens-safer-america-plan-2/

12 For some thoughts on recommendations for reforms for pretrial and sentencing see Lattimore, Spohn, & DeMichele ( 2021 ). This volume also has recommendations for reform across the justice system.

13 Safety and Justice Challenge.

14 https://www.arnoldventures.org/

15 https://www.prisonpolicy.org/research/economics_of_incarceration/

16 For an example of how a minor traffic offense can result in thousands of dollars in fines and fees for extensive terms of private probation see In Small-Town Georgia, A Broken Taillight Can Lead to Spiraling Debt—In These Times.

17 See for example, https://www.propublica.org/article/florida-felonies-voter-fraud

18 https://www.arnoldventures.org/work/public-defense

19 https://www.samhsa.gov/gains-center

20 https://www.nami.org/Advocacy/Crisis-Intervention/Crisis-Intervention-Team-(CIT)-Programs

21 https://www.eugene-or.gov/4508/CAHOOTS

22 In 2005, the Uniform Crime Reports reported 1,197,089 known violent offenses and 8,935,714 known property offenses or a ratio of about 1:9. Clearance rates were 45.5% for violent and 16.3% for property crimes known to police. The estimated total number of arrests for 2005 was 14,094, 186. Thus, the violent and property arrests account for about 72% of all arrests. Of course, these estimates rest on many assumptions—in some cases, these assumptions would imply that we are estimating the lower bound, since each member of our study population is allowed only one arrest while many will have many more than one. On the other hand, to the extent that individuals are arrested who have committed no offenses, the estimates would over represent the impact of a reduction in crime. The goal here was not to generate a precise estimate but to illustrate that a 10% reduction in recidivism translates into substantial reductions in crime.

23 A model-based estimate of the effect of non-residential drug treatment on 134,000 drug-involved individuals admitted to probation in Florida showed treatment reduced arrests by more than 20% (Lattimore et al., 2005a , 2005b ). This analysis was extended to a cost-effectiveness framework in which it was shown that it would be cost effective to spend $1000 treating all drug-involved probations as long as the average cost of an arrest averted (including arrest, and the costs of judicial processing and corrections) is at least $6,463.

where R = recidivism rate for the group, r = recidivism rate in the absence of treatment, T = percentage of group that is treated, and p = the percentage reduction in recidivism due to treatment (the treatment effect). Differences in outcomes are constant with respect to the assumed recidivism rate in the absence of treatment.

25 Differences in outcomes are constant with respect to the assumed recidivism rate without treatment.

26 Lipsey ( 1998 ) discusses the issue of underpowered evaluations.

27 A similar example was presented in Lattimore, Visher, & Steffey ( 2010 ).

28 Although not addressed here because of page limitations additional important methodological considerations include whether a comparison group exists for some interventions such as incarceration (see Lattimore & Visher 2021 for a brief discussion) and, even more challenging, whether replication is even possible given the heterogeneity of context and populations. For an interesting consideration of the implications of the latter for examining the impact of incarceration see Mears, Cochran & Cullen ( 2015 ).

29 Correctional populations dropped dramatically in 2020 as law enforcement and the criminal justice system adapted to COVID-19.

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

  • Andrews, D.A., & Bonta, J. (1994). The psychology of criminal conduct . Anderson.
  • Andrews DA, Bonta J. The psychology of criminal conduct. 4. Lexis/Nexis/Matthew Bende; 2006. [ Google Scholar ]
  • Andrews DA, Ziner I, Hoge RD, Bonta J, Gendreau P, Cullen FT. Does correctional treatment work: A clinically-relevant and psychologically-informed meta-analysis. Criminology. 1990; 28 :369–404. doi: 10.1111/j.1745-9125.1990.tb01330.x. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
  • Aos S, Miller M, Drake E. Evidence-based adult corrections programs: What works and what does not. Washington State Institute for Public Policy; 2006. [ Google Scholar ]
  • Bitney K, Drake E, Grice J, Hirsch M, Lee S. The effectiveness of reentry programs for incarcerated persons: Findings for the Washington Statewide Reentry Council (Document Number 17–05- 1901) Washington State Institute for Public Policy; 2017. [ Google Scholar ]
  • Broner N, Lattimore PK, Cowell AJ, Schlenger W. Effects of diversion on adults with mental illness co-occurring with substance use: Outcomes from a national multi-site study. Behavior Sciences and the Law. 2004; 22 :519–541. doi: 10.1002/bsl.605. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
  • Bronson, J., & Berzofsky, M. (2017). Indicators of mental health problems reported by prisoners and jail inmates, 2011–12. Bureau of Justice Statistics. NCJ 250612.
  • Buehler ED. Justice expenditures and employment in the United States, 2017 , available from the National Criminal Justice Reference Service, NCJ-256093. US Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics; 2021. [ Google Scholar ]
  • Bushway, S. (2020). What if people decide to desist? Implications for policy. (2020). In B. Orrell (Ed.), Rethinking reentry: An AEI working group summary (pp. 7–38). American Enterprise Institute.
  • Cahalan MW, Parsons LA. Historical corrections statistics in the United States, 1850–1984 , available from the National Criminal Justice Reference Service, NCJ-10529. US Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics; 1986. [ Google Scholar ]
  • Glaze, L., Minton, T., & West, H. (2009). Correctional populations in the United States . Date of version: 12/08/09, available from the National Criminal Justice Reference Service. US Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics.
  • Kaeble, D., Glaze, L., Tsoutis, A., & Minton, T. (2015). Correctional populations in the United States . Date of version December 2015. Available from the National Criminal Justice Reference Service, NCJ-249513. US Department of Justice.
  • Kluckow, D.S.W., & Zeng, Z. (2022). Correctional populations in the United States . Available from the National Criminal Justice Reference Service, NCJ-303184. Date of version: 3/31/2022. US Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics.
  • Kyckelhahn, T. (2011 ). Justice expenditures and employment, FY 1982–2007 Statistical tables, Appendix Table 1 . Bureau of Justice Statistics Criminal Justice Expenditure and Employment Extracts Program.
  • Latessa EJ. Triaging of services for individuals returning from prison. In: Orrell B, editor. Rethinking reentry: An AEI working group summary. American Enterprise Institute; 2020. pp. 7–38. [ Google Scholar ]
  • Latessa, E.J., Lovins, L.B., & Smith, P. (2010). Follow-up evaluation of Ohio’s community-based correctional facility and halfway house programs—Outcome study . University of Cincinnati. https://www.uc.edu/ccjr/reports.html .
  • Lattimore PK. Considering reentry program evaluation: Thoughts from the SVORI (and other) evaluations. In: Orrell B, editor. Rethinking reentry: An AEI working group summary. American Enterprise Institute; 2020. pp. 7–38. [ Google Scholar ]
  • Lattimore, P. K., Barrick, K., Cowell, A. J., Dawes, D., Steffey, D. M., Tueller, S. J., & Visher, C. (2012). Prisoner reentry services: What worked for SVORI evaluation participants? Prepared for NIJ.
  • Lattimore PK, Broner N, Sherman R, Frisman L, Shafer M. A comparison of pre-booking and post-booking diversion programs for mentally ill substance using individuals with justice involvement. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice. 2003; 19 (1):30–64. doi: 10.1177/1043986202239741. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
  • Lattimore PK, Krebs CP, Koetse W, Lindquist C, Cowell AJ. Predicting the effect of substance abuse treatment on probationer recidivism. Journal of Experimental Criminology. 2005; 1 :159–189. doi: 10.1007/s11292-005-1617-z. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
  • Lattimore, P.K., Spohn, C., & DeMichele, M. (2021) Reimagining Pretrial and Sentencing. In The Brookings-AEI Working Group on Criminal Justice Reform, A better path forward for criminal justice (pp. 16–27) . Brookings. https://www.brookings.edu/multi-chapter-report/a-better-path-forward-for-criminal-justice/ .
  • Lattimore PK, Visher C. The impact of prison reentry services on short-term outcomes: Evidence from a multi-site evaluation. Evaluation Review. 2013; 37 :274–313. doi: 10.1177/0193841X13519105. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
  • Lattimore, P. K., & Visher, C. A. (2021). Considerations on the multi-site evaluation of the Serious and Violent Offender Reentry Initiative. In. P. K. Lattimore, B. M. Huebner, & F. S. Taxman (Eds.), Handbook on moving corrections and sentencing forward: Building on the record (pp. 312–335). Routledge.
  • Lattimore PK, Visher CA, Brumbaugh S, Lindquist C, Winterfield L. Implementation of prisoner reentry programs: Findings from the Serious and Violent Offender Reentry Initiative multi-site evaluation. Justice Research and Policy. 2005; 7 (2):87–109. doi: 10.3818/JRP.7.2.2005.87. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
  • Lattimore PK, Visher C, Steffey DM. Prisoner reentry in the first decade of the 21st century. Victims and Offenders. 2010; 5 :253–267. doi: 10.1080/15564886.2010.485907. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
  • Lattimore PK, Witte AD, Baker JR. Experimental assessment of the effect of vocational training on youthful property offenders. Evaluation Review. 1990; 14 :115–133. doi: 10.1177/0193841X9001400201. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
  • Lindquist, C., Buck Willison, J., & Lattimore, P. K. (2021). Key findings and implications of the cross-site evaluation of the Bureau of Justice Assistance FY 2011 Second Chance Act Adult Offender Reentry Demonstration Projects. In. P. K. Lattimore, B. M. Huebner, & F. S. Taxman (Eds.), Handbook on moving corrections and sentencing forward: Building on the record (pp. 312–335). Routledge.
  • Lipsey MW. What do we learn from 400 research studies on the effectiveness of treatment with juvenile delinquency? In: McGuire J, editor. What works reducing reoffending: Guidelines from research and practice. Wiley; 1995. pp. 63–78. [ Google Scholar ]
  • Lipsey, M. W. (1998). Design sensitivity: Statistical power for applied experimental research. In: Bickman Leonard, Rog Debra J. (eds.) Handbook of applied social research methods (pp 39–68). Sage.
  • Lipsey MW, Cullen FT. The effectiveness of correctional rehabilitation: A review of systematic reviews. Annual Review of Law and Social Science. 2007; 3 :297–320. doi: 10.1146/annurev.lawsocsci.3.081806.112833. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
  • Lipton, D.S. (1975). The effectiveness of correctional treatment: a survey of treatment evaluation studies. Praeger Publishers.
  • Lowenkamp, C.T., & Latessa, E.J. (2002). Evaluation of Ohio’s community-based correctional facilities and halfway house program s. University of Cincinnati. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237720823 .
  • MacKenzie D. What works in corrections? Reducing the criminal activities of offenders and delinquents. Cambridge University Press; 2006. [ Google Scholar ]
  • Mears DP, Cochran JC, Cullen FT. Incarceration heterogeneity and its implications for assessing the effectiveness of imprisonment on recidivism. Criminal Justice Policy Review. 2015; 26 (7):691–712. doi: 10.1177/0887403414528950. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
  • National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (2022). The limits of recidivism: Measuring success after prison . The National Academies Press. 10.17226/26459.
  • Page, J., & Soss, J. (2021). Predatory dimensions of criminal justice. Science , 374(6565), 291–294 10.1126/science.abj7782. [ PubMed ]
  • Petersilia J. When prisoners come home: Parole and prisoner reentry. Oxford University Press; 2003. [ Google Scholar ]
  • Sherman L, Gottfredson D, MacKenzie D, Eck J, Reuter P, Bushway S. Preventing crime: What works, what doesn’t, what’s promising. US Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice; 1997. [ Google Scholar ]
  • Sherman, L., Neyroud, P.W. and Neyroud, E., 2016. The Cambridge crime harm index: Measuring total harm from crime based on sentencing guidelines. Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice , 10 (3 ), 171–183.
  • The Brookings-AEI Working Group on Criminal Justice Reform. (2021). A Better Path Forward for Criminal Justice . Brookings. https://www.brookings.edu/multi-chapter-report/a-better-path-forward-for-criminal-justice/ .
  • Travis J. But they all come back: Facing the challenges of prisoner Reentry. Urban Institute Press; 2005. [ Google Scholar ]
  • Travis, J., & Visher, C., eds. (2005). Prisoner reentry and crime in America . Cambridge University Press.
  • Visher C, Lattimore PK, Barrick K, Tueller SJ. Evaluating the long-term effects of prisoner reentry services on recidivism: What types of services matter? Justice Quarterly. 2017; 34 (1):136–165. doi: 10.1080/07418825.2015.1115539. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
  • Wanner P. Inventory of evidence-based, research-based, and promising programs for adult corrections (Document Number 18–02-1901) Washington State Institute for Public Policy; 2018. [ Google Scholar ]
  • Winterfield L, Lattimore PK, Steffey DM, Brumbaugh SM, Lindquist CH. The serious and violent offender reentry initiative: Measuring the effects on service delivery. Western Criminology Review. 2006; 7 (2):3–19. [ Google Scholar ]

Criminal Justice Resources

Articles and papers/reports, selected books and law-related material, statistics/data, organizations, other sources, 50-state surveys, historical archives/research, what is happening in criminal justice, getting help, introduction.

This guide is meant to serve as a starting place for people researching criminal justice and related criminal law issues.  It focuses primarly on issues related to the United States.  For more criminal law sources (particularly for 1L's), be sure to check out our guides for Criminal Law and Law and Public Policy  and the Kennedy School Library's Criminal Justice guide.

Subject Guide

Profile Photo

Indexing/abstracting resources focused on criminal justice

  • Crime and Delinquency Abstracts Covers 1963-1972. National Council on Crime and Delinquency and National Clearinghouse for Mental Health Information. Previously,
  • Criminal Justice Abstracts (Harvard Key Login) Criminal Justice Abstracts provides comprehensive coverage of U.S. and international criminal justice literature including scholarly journals, books, dissertations, governmental and non-governmental studies and reports, unpublished papers, magazines, newsletters and other materials. In addition to criminal justice and criminology, topics covered include criminal law and procedure, corrections and prisons, police and policing, criminal investigation, forensic sciences and investigation, history of crime, substance abuse and addiction, and probation and parole. 1968-current. more... less... Criminal Justice Abstracts provides comprehensive coverage of U.S. and international criminal justice literature including scholarly journals, books, dissertations, governmental and non-governmental studies and reports, unpublished papers, magazines, newsletters and other materials. In addition to criminal justice and criminology, topics covered include criminal law and procedure, corrections and prisons, police and policing, criminal investigation, forensic sciences and investigation, history of crime, substance abuse and addiction, and probation and parole.
  • NCJRS The National Criminal Justice Reference Service (NCJRS) is a federally funded resource offering justice and substance abuse information to support research, policy, and program development worldwide. The NCJRS Abstracts Database contains summaries of the more than 185,000 criminal justice publications housed in the NCJRS Library collection. Most documents published by NCJRS sponsoring agencies since 1995 are available in full-text online. A link is included with the abstract when the full-text is available. Use the Thesaurus Term Search to search for materials in the NCJRS Abstracts Database using an NCJRS controlled vocabulary. This controlled vocabulary is used to assign relevant indexing terms to the documents in the NCJRS collection.

Finding legal articles and papers

Restricted Access: HarvardKey or Harvard ID and PIN required

  • Index to Legal Periodicals and Books
  • Index to Legal Periodicals Retrospective: 1908-1981 (Law Login Required) covers back to 1908 more... less... This retrospective database indexes over 750 legal periodicals published in the United States, Canada, Great Britain, Ireland, Australia and New Zealand. Annual surveys of the laws of a jurisdiction, annual surveys of the federal courts, yearbooks, annual institutes, and annual reviews of the work in a given field or on a given topic will also be covered.
  • More resources for finding legal articles

Multidisciplinary databases

  • Academic Search Premier (Harvard Login) more... less... Academic Search Premier (ASP) is a multi-disciplinary database that includes citations and abstracts from over 4,700 scholarly publications (journals, magazines and newspapers). Full text is available for more than 3,600 of the publications and is searchable.
  • JSTOR more... less... Includes all titles in the JSTOR collection, excluding recent issues. JSTOR (www.jstor.org) is a not-for-profit organization with a dual mission to create and maintain a trusted archive of important scholarly journals, and to provide access to these journals as widely as possible. Content in JSTOR spans many disciplines, primarily in the humanities and social sciences. For complete lists of titles and collections, please refer to http://www.jstor.org/about/collection.list.html.

Other social science databases related to criminal justice

  • PAIS International (Harvard Login) provides access to materials about public policy, including academic journal articles, yearbooks, books, reports and pamphlets. Items indexed include works by academics, agencies, international organizations and federal, state and local governments from 1972 to the present. PAIS covers over 1,600 journals and roughly 8,000 books each year. PAIS is international in scope and contains items in many romance languages. more... less... PAIS International indexes the public and social policy literature of public administration, political science, economics, finance, international relations, law, and health care, International in scope, PAIS indexes publications in English, French, German, Italian, Portuguese, and Spanish. The database is comprised of abstracts of thousands of journal articles, books, directories, conference proceedings, government documents and statistical yearbooks.
  • More academic resources by field
  • Law and Public Policy Guide
  • Urban Studies Abstracts (Harvard Login) more... less... Electronic index and abstracts to the literature in the area of urban studies, including urban affairs, community development, and urban history. The backfile of this index has been digitized, providing coverage back to 1973.

Selected Journals and newsletters

Bloomberg Law ID and password required

  • Annual Review of Criminal Procedure (Georgetown) Latest issue available in print at Law School KF9619 .G46

Westlaw ID and password required

  • Federal Sentencing Reporter also on Lexis

Congressional publications/government reports

  • CRS reports
  • House and Senate Hearings, Congressional Record Permanent Digital Collection, and Digital US Bills and Resolutions
  • Federal Legislative History
  • US Department of Justice
  • PolicyFile (Harvard Login) Abstracts of and links to domestic and international public policy issue published by think tanks, university research programs, & research organizations. more... less... PolicyFile provides abstracts (more than half of the abstracts link to the full text documents) of domestic and international public policy issues. The public policy reports and studies are published by think tanks, university research programs, research organizations which include the OECD, IMF, World Bank, the Rand Corporation, and a number of federal agencies. The database search engine allows users to search by title, author, subject, organization and keyword.
  • Rutgers University Don M. Gottsfredson School of Criminal Justice Gray Literature Database

Rules of Criminal Procedure

  • Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure (Federal Rules of Practice & Procedure) Includes postings of proposed rule changes. From the uscourts.gov website.
  • Rulemaking (Pending Rules)(US Courts)

Model Penal Code

  • Criminal Law: Model Penal Code
  • Model Penal Code and Commentaries (official draft and revised comments) : with text of Model penal code as adopted at the 1962 Annual Meeting of the American Law Institute at Washington, D.C., May 24, 1962.
  • Model penal code : official draft and explanatory notes : complete text of Model penal code as adopted at the 1962 Annual Meeting of the American Law Institute at Washington, D.C., May 24, 1962.
  • Model Penal Code (ALI Library) Includes drafts

Selected Criminal Law Treatises, Basic Texts and Practice Manuals

Below are sources related to criminal law generally or focused on federal criminal law.  For a particular jurisdiction, look for secondary sources related to that particular state.  For constitutional issues, see also secondary sources related to constitutional law more generally.

Lexis ID and password required

  • United States Attorneys Manual
  • Legal Division Reference Book
  • United States Sentencing Commission, Guidelines Manual

Search and Seizure

  • Search and Seizure also on Lexis

Sources for criminal justice statistics generally

  • Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics Currently in transition (no longer funded by the Bureau of Justice Statistics), but still a good starting place. Data included as of 2013.
  • Bureau of Justice Statistics
  • FBI Uniform Crime Reports Annual report is Crime in the United States .
  • National Crime Victimization Survey See also NCVS Victimization Analysis Tool and National Crime Victimization Survey Resource Guide .
  • Justice Research and Statistics Association
  • National Archive of Criminal Justice Data
  • United States Sentencing Commission (USSC) Interactive Sourcebook
  • Sunlight Criminal Justice Project Its Hall of Justice provides a searchable inventory of publically available criminal justice data sets and research.
  • Arrest Data Analysis Tool underlying data from FBI's UCR (Uniform Crime Reports)
  • Measures for Justice
  • State Criminal Caseloads
  • United States Historical Corrections Statistics - 1850-1984 from BJS abstract: "The introductory chapter contains a brief history of Federal corrections data collection efforts. Summary information on capital punishment includes data on illegal lynchings by race and offense, regional comparisons of the number of persons executed, the number under the death sentence, the number of women executed, and the number of persons removed from the death sentence other than by execution. Prison statistics cover the number in Federal, State, and juvenile facilities; the average sentence by sex, region, race, and offense; length of sentence; and type of release. Statistics also cover facility staff, inmate-staff ratio, and jail inmates. Probation and parole statistics address the numbers under supervision (both adults and juveniles), average caseload, terminations by method of termination, the average length of parole and percent with favorable outcome, and probationer and parolee profiles. Implications are drawn for current data collection efforts, and the appendix contains limited information on military prisons."
  • Crime Solutions.gov

Crime Mapping

  • NIJ Mapping and Analysis for Public Safety

Harvard Law School affiliates only. HLS Me account and password required

Specialized sources of statistics/data

  • Death Penalty Information Center
  • Federal Sentencing Statistics
  • The Counted: People Killed by Police in the US (The Guardian)
  • Washington Post (People Shot Dead by Police)
  • Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Protection's (OJJDP's) Statistical Briefing Book
  • Stanford Open Policing Project Data on vehicle and pedestrian stops from law enforcement departments across the country.
  • Corporate Prosecution Registry
  • Police Crime Data
  • Monitoring of Federal Criminal Sentences Series
  • Citizen Police Data Project focused on Chicago
  • Chicago Data Collaborative "Collaborative members collect data from institutions at all points of contact in the Cook County criminal justice system, including the Chicago Police Department, the Illinois State Police, the Office of the State's Attorney, and the Cook County Jail."
  • Washington Post (Unsolved Homicide Database)
  • American Violence Run by the NYU Marron Institute of Urban Management, the initial iteration of this databases includes city-level figures on murder rates in more than 80 of the largest 100 U.S. cities. According to the website, the second iteration will feature neighborhood-level figures on violent crime in 30-50 cities with available data.
  • Police Data Initiative "This site provides a consolidated and interactive listing of open and soon-to-be-opened data sets that more than 130 local law enforcement agencies have identified as important to their communities, and provides critical and timely resources, including technical guidance and best practices, success stories, how-to articles and links to related efforts." See map of participating agencies" .

Other sources for statistics

  • American Fact Finder
  • See Judicial Workload, Jury Verdicts and Crime Statistics generally
  • Harvard Dataverse more... less... The Harvard-MIT Data Center is the principal repository of quantitative social science data at Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The majority of its holdings are available to Harvard and MIT affiliates directly via its web site through its search engine. Graduate students and faculty with a Harvard or MIT Library card can check out paper code books from libraries at either institution, under Harvard's and MIT's reciprocal borrowing agreement. In addition, the Data Center has negotiated a special agreement for undergraduates and summer graduate students, who are not covered by the standard agreement.
  • Proquest Statistical Insight (Harvard Login) more... less... Proquest Statistical Insight is a bibliographic database that indexes and abstracts the statistical content of selected United States government publications, state government publications, business and association publications, and intergovernmental publications. The abstracts may also contain a link to the full text of the table and/or a link to the agency's web site where the full text of the publication may be viewed and downloaded.
  • Data.gov Includes data from the Department of Justice and other agencies.
  • Data Citation Index (Web of Science)
  • Historical Statistics of the United States (Harvard Login) more... less... Presents the U.S. in statistics from Colonial times to the present. Included are statistics on U.S. population, including characteristics, vital statistics, internal and international migration. Statistics on work and welfare, economic structure and performance, economic sectors, and governance and international relations. Tables may be downloaded for use in spreadsheets and other applications. This electronic database is also in a five volume hard copy set.

Books, reports and articles about criminal justice statistics and records

  • Data and Civil Rights: Criminal Justice Primer Part of larger conference on Data and Civil Rights http://www.datacivilrights.org/ ; includes write-up from conference http://www.datacivilrights.org/pubs/2014-1030/CriminalJustice-Writeup.pdf
  • Ensuring the Quality, Credibility, and Relevance of U.S. Justice Statistics (2009)
  • Estimating the Incidence of Rape and Sexual Assault
  • Modernizing Crime Statistics: Report 1: Defining and Classifying Crime

research topics about the criminal justice system

Case Processing and Court Statistics

  • Federal Criminal Case Processing Statistics
  • State Court Caseload Statistics See also Data Collection: Court Statistics Project and CSP Data Viewer .
  • Statistics and Reports (Administrative Office of the U.S. Courts)

Criminal Records

sherlock holmes profile

  • Search Systems A mega search site with links to public records by state, county, city and also by record type. A great place to start your research. more... less... From the website: We've located, analyzed, described, and organized links to over 55,000 databases by type and location to help you find property, criminal, court, birth, death, marriage, divorce records, licenses, deeds, mortgages, corporate records, business registration, and many other public record resources quickly, easily, and for free.
  • BRB Publications BRB Publications maintains a page with links to more than 300 local, state and federal websites offering free access to public records.
  • National Sex Offender Public Registry From the US Department of Justice. This site also has links to all 50 states, District of Columbia, US territories, and tribal registry websites.
  • FBI's Sex Offender Database websites An alternate source for state level sex offender databases.
  • FBI's Bureau of Prisons Inmate Finder
  • VINELink VINELink is the online version of VINE (Victim Information and Notification Everyday), the National Victim Notification Network. This service allows crime victims to obtain timely and reliable information about criminal cases and the custody status of offenders 24 hours a day.

Research Organizations and Advocacy Groups

  • Vera Institute of Justice
  • Agencies, Think Tanks and Advocacy Groups
  • Urban Institute-Crime and Justice
  • National Center for State Courts
  • National Conference of State Legislatures
  • Innocence Project
  • Quattrone Center for the Fair Administration of Justice (UPenn Law)
  • Capital Jury Project

Professional Organizations

  • American Bar Association (Criminal Justice section)
  • National District Attorneys Association
  • American Correctional Association
  • National Association of Criminal Defense Lawyers

Research guides from other libraries

  • MSU Libraries, Criminal Justice Resources
  • Georgetown Law Criminal Law and Justice Guide
  • Harvard Kennedy School Library, Criminal Justice
  • Criminal Law Prof Blog
  • White Collar Crime Prof Blog

50-State-Surveys

  • ABA Collateral Consequences Database
  • National Conference of State Legislatures-Civil and Criminal Justice

HIstorical Archives/Projects

  • National Death Penalty Archives
  • ProQuest History Vault (Harvard Login)

Updates from popular criminal justice resources

New books in the library, new books in general.

  • New Books Received at Rutgers

Ask Us! Submit a question  or search the knowledge base.

Call  Reference Desk, 617-495-4516

Text  Ask a Librarian, 617-702-2728

Email  research @law.harvard.edu

Meet  Consult a Librarian

Classes View Training Calendar or Request an Insta-Class

Visit Us Library and Reference Hours

  • Last Updated: Sep 12, 2023 10:46 AM
  • URL: https://guides.library.harvard.edu/criminaljustice

Harvard University Digital Accessibility Policy

Top Trends in Criminal Justice Reform, 2022

Formerly incarcerated activists, lawmakers, and advocates achieved important changes in criminal justice policy in 2022 to challenge extreme sentencing, expand voting rights and advance youth justice. This briefing paper highlights top trends in criminal justice reform in 2022.

Related to: State Advocacy, Racial Justice, Sentencing Reform, Drug Policy, Youth Justice, Voting Rights

The United States continues to lead the world in incarceration.  More than five million people were under some form of correctional control in 2020 (the last year available) with nearly two million in prison or jail. Nationwide, an estimated 70-100 million persons have a criminal record, including at least 19 million persons living with a felony conviction.

Changes in policy and practice may help counter the impact of tough on crime rhetoric that reinforce mass incarceration policies. State lawmakers in at least 15 states and Washington D.C. adopted policy reforms in 2022 that may contribute to decarceration and addressing collateral consequences while promoting effective approaches to public safety. This briefing paper provides an overview of recent policy reforms in the areas of extreme sentencing and decarceration, drug policy, prison reform, probation and parole, guaranteeing voting rights, and youth justice.

Changes in criminal justice policy were realized for various reasons, including an interest in managing prison capacity. Lawmakers have demonstrated interest in enacting reforms that recognize that the nation’s scale of incarceration has produced diminishing returns for public safety. However, stakeholders working to reform adult and youth criminal legal system practices also encountered rhetoric on increases in violent crime which impacted the ability to adopt significant reforms like the repeal of mandatory minimum sentences and expansion of alternatives to incarceration for prison bound defendants. Consequently, legislators and other stakeholders have prioritized implementing policies that provide a more balanced approach to public safety. The evolving framework is rooted in reducing returns to prison for technical violations, expanding alternatives to prison for persons convicted of low level offenses and authorizing earned release for prisoners who complete certain rehabilitation programs.

Extreme Sentencing and Decarceration Reforms

Lawmakers enacted legal reforms to reduce prison admissions and to adjust penalties to criminal sentences that more fairly hold persons convicted of crimes accountable.

Washington D.C. council members unanimously approved B24–0416 , the Revised Criminal Code Act of 2022 (RCCA).  The bill was a major overhaul to modernize the city’s criminal code. Specifically, the comprehensive measure eliminated most mandatory minimum sentences, lowered maximum sentences to 45 years, eliminated accomplice liability for felony murder, and expanded judicial reconsideration for all persons serving long prison terms. The RCCA extends judicial reconsideration to all, allowing individuals convicted of offenses committed after their 25th birthday to submit a petition for resentencing after serving 20 years.  While local officials in the District approved the change it must survive a 60-day congressional review period as of December 2022.

Challenging Racial Disparity

Racial and ethnic disparities in the criminal justice system have been extensively documented.

California officials adopted Assembly Bill 256 , the Racial Justice Act for All. The measure allows persons with convictions or judgements prior to January 1, 2021 to petition the court and seek relief if racial bias was proven to be present in their case. AB 256 builds upon 2020 legislation (Assembly Bill 2542), which allowed individuals to challenge racial bias in criminal charges, convictions, and sentences but was limited to cases after January 1, 2021.

Drug Policy Reform

Lawmakers and advocates are revisiting policies adopted during the punitive War on Drugs era that resulted in dramatic growth in incarceration for drug offenses. Lawmakers considered sentencing alternatives for certain drug offenses while voters considered ballot measures to legalize or decriminalize certain drugs.

  • Kentucky officials adopted Senate Bill 90 which authorizes the establishment of pilot behavioral health conditional dismissal programs in at least 10 Kentucky counties selected by the Kentucky Supreme Court chief justice for persons charged with certain low-level drug offenses. The measure allows someone charged with certain non-violent crimes determined to have a mental health or substance use disorder to have their case put on hold and go into treatment instead, under certain conditions. The pilot program would include access to services like outpatient treatment, cognitive and behavioral therapies, educational and vocational services and housing assistance.
  • Voters in Maryland legalized recreational marijuana with 66% approval of Question 4 while Missouri authorized marijuana use with 53% support of Constitutional Amendment 3. Both ballot initiatives legalized possession of marijuana for persons 21 years of age or older. The approval of these ballot measures expands the number of states that legalize recreational marijuana use to 21 since 2012.  Voters did not approve ballot measures in Arkansas, North Dakota, or South Dakota. Nationally, these changes might reduce hundreds of thousands of marijuana arrests made every year.
  • In Colorado , 54% of voters approved Proposition 122 to decriminalize certain psychedelics, including psilocybin mushrooms — a substance that is decriminalized only in Oregon and a handful of cities. Oregon became the first state to legalize the supervised use of psilocybin in 2020.

Limiting Incarceration for Probation and Parole Violations

Too many persons are admitted to prison due to technical probation and parole violations. In 2022, lawmakers advanced policies that allowed early completion of probation and parole sentences. Two states enacted legislative measures that reduce time served requirements for successful participation in rehabilitation programs that include vocational training, education, and substance abuse treatment.

  • Florida officials enacted Senate Bill 752 which allows residents on probation to receive  education and workforce credits to reduce their probation terms. Individuals under this law can earn at least 30 days off their supervision terms during each six-month period they work at least an average of 30 hours per week. The measure also authorizes persons to earn 60 days off their probation term for each completed educational activity.
  • Oklahoma lawmakers adopted House Bill 4369 . The law modifies the administrative parole process by allowing consideration of early termination of probation and parole for persons within one calendar year of their discharge date. HB 4369 also allows for persons under parole supervision to earn compliance discharge credits every month to reduce the length of time supervised on parole.

Prison Reform: Abolishing Involuntary Servitude and Slavery

Four states – Alabama, Oregon, Tennessee, and Vermont – adopted ballot measures to remove language from their state constitutions allowing slavery and involuntary servitude as punishment for the conviction of a crime. Louisiana voters did not approve a related initiative. Similar ballot measures were passed in Colorado in 2018 and Nebraska and Utah in 2020.

  • Alabama voters approved the Alabama Recompiled Constitution Ratification Question by 77% to eliminate racist language from the state Constitution and delete an exemption that allows for involuntary servitude for certain crimes.
  • Voters in Oregon approved a Measure 112 with 56% support to remove “all language creating an exception” and make “the prohibition against slavery and involuntary servitude unequivocal.” The ballot initiative also amended the Oregon Constitution to allow “programs to be ordered as part of sentencing,” including programs for education, counseling, treatment and community service.
  • Tennessee voters approved Constitutional Amendment 3 by 79% to amend the state’s constitution to say slavery and indentured servitude shall be “forever prohibited.”
  • Voters in Vermont approved Proposition 2 by 89% to remove text from the state’s constitution that read “no person born in this country, or brought from oversea, ought to be holden by law, to serve any person as a servant, slave or apprentice, after arriving to the age of twenty-one years, unless bound by the person’s own consent, after arriving to such age, or bound by law for the payment of debts, damages, fines, costs, or the like.”

Expanding the Vote

In 2022, 4.6 million citizens were ineligible to vote because of a felony conviction although many residents with felony convictions had regained their voting rights since 1997 due to policy reforms. During 2022, officials in Massachusetts and Washington state  approved various efforts to guarantee ballot access for incarcerated voters.

  • Massachusetts Republican Governor Charlie Baker signed a comprehensive voting rights bill named the VOTES Act which included provisions guaranteeing ballot access for persons in jails. The law directs jails to “ensure the receipt, private voting, where possible, and return of mail ballots” for incarcerated people. The measure also requires sheriffs to track the number of people incarcerated in their jails who sought to vote, any complaints related to voting issues and the outcome of those requests.
  • Washington officials adopted a policy to support ballot access for jail based voting. The state’s 2022 budget allocated $628,000 to the Office of the Secretary of State to distribute to county jails to help improve voter awareness, registration and voting in jails. Grants were allocated prior to this year’s August primary with plans to continue funding through the November general elections.

Promoting Youth Justice

Lawmakers adopted policies that demonstrated a commitment to protecting young defendants and expanding release options for persons sentenced in their youth. These changes in policy continue a trend that seeks to change the response to juvenile crime.

  • Indiana lawmakers adopted House Bill 1359 , a comprehensive youth justice reform measure that included raising the age of detention to 12, instituting risk assessment to divert youth away from court involvement and improving data collection, among other policy changes.
  • Maryland lawmakers adopted several youth justice reforms with enactment of Senate Bill 691 including rais­ing the minimum age of juve­nile court juris­dic­tion to 13 (with some rare exceptions). The measure also largely prohibits the use of secure deten­tion or com­mit­ment to the Depart­ment of Juve­nile Ser­vices for tech­ni­cal vio­la­tions of pro­ba­tion and mis­de­meanor offens­es (with exceptions for hand­gun vio­la­tions and repeat­ed mis­de­meanor offenses). The law also removes bar­ri­ers to diver­sion, includ­ing allow­ing youth with non­vi­o­lent felonies to be divert­ed with­out pros­e­cu­tor or victim approval.
  • The Tennessee Supreme Court declared mandatory 51-life sentences for youth unconstitutional in Tennessee v. Booker . Tennessee is among several states where nearly 10% of the people serving a life sentence were under 18 at the time of their crime. The state supreme court ruling impacts all persons who were under 18 at the time of their offense and sentenced to mandatory life and de facto life sentences. In each of those cases, the opinion stated, the person sentenced should receive individualized parole hearings after serving a minimum of 25 years.
  • Wyoming officials enacted House Bill 37 to require the Department of Family Services to collect juvenile justice data from state and local governments to standardize juvenile justice information. Compiling these data will better track outcomes, including the use of detention and commitment, as well as the transfer of youth into adult courts.

Trends that Reinforce Mass Incarceration

Despite reforms, policies were adopted that might exacerbate mass incarceration and lengthen sentences. Indiana lawmakers adopted House Bill 1004 to reverse a 2014 reform that authorized incarceration in jails rather than prison for persons sentenced to low level felonies. Tennessee officials enacted a “truth-in-sentencing” framework with Senate Bill 2248 to require 85% time served requirements for certain criminal penalties. House Bill 215 was passed in Kentucky to increase minimum time served requirements to 85% time served from 50%time served for persons convicted of trafficking fentanyl. It also makes importing those drugs from another state or country a Class C felony, subject to five to 10 years in prison, and eliminates pretrial diversion for persons charged with this offense.

Recommendations to Challenge Mass Incarceration

In 2022 Lawmakers advanced policy reforms to decarcerate, challenge racial disparities in imprisonment, guarantee ballot access for justice impacted voters, and address youth justice. Most of these measures will have a modest impact on the scale of incarceration or its consequences, and while helpful, more comprehensive reforms are needed to transform the adult and youth legal systems to meaningfully challenge mass incarceration.

To end mass incarceration transformational changes are necessary:

  • Reform Extreme Sentencing Statutes : The Sentencing Project is part of a coalition of national and state-level organizations that work to end extreme sentencing practices in the United States. Recommended reforms include: limiting maximum prison terms to 20 years, except in unusual circumstances; repealing mandatory minimums; establishing “Second Look” sentencing review practices; ending Life-Without-Parole (LWOP) sentences and authorizing presumptive parole.
  • Advance Policy to Address Racial Disparities : The Sentencing Project  supports state, local and national partners in advancing racial impact statements. Racial impact statements offer a specific legislative solution to forecast potential impact of proposed sentencing laws on racial disparities in imprisonment; retroactive application of racial impact statements would allow lawmakers and other stakeholders to review current policies and practices. Responsible lawmaking increases when information about the consequences of harsh punishments is available. Additional policy reforms addressing racial disparity include reducing prison admissions and enacting presumptive release policies.
  • Expand Voting Rights to All Justice Involved Citizens : As of 2022, 4.6 million citizens with a felony conviction were disenfranchised from voting, most living in the community. While voter suppression laws have proliferated in recent years across the country, The Sentencing Project supports state, local and national partners in efforts to expand the franchise to justice-involved residents and guarantee ballot access for voters who are incarcerated. Much progress is being made, but millions are still denied the vote. Guaranteeing voting rights for persons completing their sentence inside and outside of prison or jail will ensure a stronger democracy for all.
  • Decarcerate Youth in Custody: The Sentencing Project works with groups at the national, state and local level to minimize all involvement by youth in both the adult and youth justice systems. Significant youth justice reforms continued this year and the number of states ending juvenile life without parole increased to 25. States should continue safeguards that prevent transfers to adult court and keep youth out of adult jails while continuing to shrink the footprint of the youth justice system by diverting youth from all forms of detention in favor of community-based interventions and supports.

Related Resources

Proposed maryland legislation would harm children and threaten progress on juvenile justice reform.

Today, Maryland’s legislative leadership released a bill that would reverse reforms passed in 2022 under the Juvenile Justice Reform Act (JJRA), a bill that limited young children’s involvement with the justice system, avoided detention and commitment of youth except for the most serious cases, and limited their terms of probation.

January 31, 2024

State Legislators and Advocates Urge Restoration of Voting Rights to Residents with Felonies

The Sentencing Project’s newest brief on Massachusetts voting rights laws expose racial inequality in the state criminal-legal system.

January 29, 2024

Massachusetts Should Restore Voting Rights to Over 7,700 Citizens

Massachusetts should strengthen its democracy and advance racial justice by restoring the vote to its entire voting-age population.

By Rachel Jollie and Kristen M. Budd, Ph.D. on January 29, 2024

Stay involved & informed

Thanks for subscribing.

By submitting your cell phone number, you are agreeing to receive text messages from The Sentencing Project. Messages may include fundraising. 4 msgs/month. Message and data rates may apply. Text HELP for more information. Text STOP to stop receiving messages. Terms & Conditions . Privacy Policy .

One more thing, !

Please click the link in the email we sent to . Otherwise, we won't be able to contact you.

In the meantime, get social with us! Join our community of over 100,000 followers on Twitter , Facebook , and Instagram .

research topics about the criminal justice system

Explore your training options in 10 minutes Get Started

  • Graduate Stories
  • Partner Spotlights
  • Bootcamp Prep
  • Bootcamp Admissions
  • University Bootcamps
  • Coding Tools
  • Software Engineering
  • Web Development
  • Data Science
  • Tech Guides
  • Tech Resources
  • Career Advice
  • Online Learning
  • Internships
  • Apprenticeships
  • Tech Salaries
  • Associate Degree
  • Bachelor's Degree
  • Master's Degree
  • University Admissions
  • Best Schools
  • Certifications
  • Bootcamp Financing
  • Higher Ed Financing
  • Scholarships
  • Financial Aid
  • Best Coding Bootcamps
  • Best Online Bootcamps
  • Best Web Design Bootcamps
  • Best Data Science Bootcamps
  • Best Technology Sales Bootcamps
  • Best Data Analytics Bootcamps
  • Best Cybersecurity Bootcamps
  • Best Digital Marketing Bootcamps
  • Los Angeles
  • San Francisco
  • Browse All Locations
  • Digital Marketing
  • Machine Learning
  • See All Subjects
  • Bootcamps 101
  • Full-Stack Development
  • Career Changes
  • View all Career Discussions
  • Mobile App Development
  • Cybersecurity
  • Product Management
  • UX/UI Design
  • What is a Coding Bootcamp?
  • Are Coding Bootcamps Worth It?
  • How to Choose a Coding Bootcamp
  • Best Online Coding Bootcamps and Courses
  • Best Free Bootcamps and Coding Training
  • Coding Bootcamp vs. Community College
  • Coding Bootcamp vs. Self-Learning
  • Bootcamps vs. Certifications: Compared
  • What Is a Coding Bootcamp Job Guarantee?
  • How to Pay for Coding Bootcamp
  • Ultimate Guide to Coding Bootcamp Loans
  • Best Coding Bootcamp Scholarships and Grants
  • Education Stipends for Coding Bootcamps
  • Get Your Coding Bootcamp Sponsored by Your Employer
  • GI Bill and Coding Bootcamps
  • Tech Intevriews
  • Our Enterprise Solution
  • Connect With Us
  • Publication
  • Reskill America
  • Partner With Us

Career Karma

  • Resource Center
  • Bachelor’s Degree
  • Master’s Degree

The Top 10 Most Interesting Criminal Justice Research Topics

Are you writing a research paper and having a hard time finding good criminal justice research topics? Thankfully, we have compiled a list of 10 of the best criminal justice research paper topic ideas. We’ve also included several criminal justice research questions and examples of criminal justice research topics to help you write your best paper.

Criminal justice is a great field for both those wanting a greater understanding of the US justice system and those who want to know what it is like to be a lawyer . If you want to write the best criminal justice paper you can, this article is for you.

Find your bootcamp match

What makes a strong criminal justice research topic.

Strong criminal justice research papers consist of a focused question to answer and a specific area of criminal justice like forensic science, serial killers, substance abuse, sexual offenders, cyber criminology, corporate crime, juvenile justice, or criminal behavior. Most educational institutions have guidelines that must be followed for picking criminal justice topics for your criminology research paper, and this list will give you a great place to start researching.

Tips for Choosing a Criminal Justice Research Topic

  • Follow the guidelines of your institution. If you are studying criminal justice at any university like Loyola University, Cornell University, Walden University, or even Harvard University, your professor has probably given you guidelines to stick to.
  • Keep it focused. When you’re writing a criminal justice research paper it is best to keep a tight focus on your topic. Keep your research focused and remember to stay on task by using study tips, taking breaks, and improving on and practicing your writing skills daily.
  • Choose a narrow topic. When choosing your topic the scope of your criminal justice research paper mustn’t be too broad. Ask and answer one question or use one thesis statement that is clear and well-defined.
  • Choose a topic that is well-researched. When writing a paper on criminal justice, many topics are too new to have solid research. Pick a topic that has many cases related to it, or is focused on a common issue.
  • Choose a topic you are passionate about. There is nothing worse than being stuck writing about a topic you have no interest in. That’s why you should make sure your topic is something that you want to write about. If it ignites your passion, write about it.

What’s the Difference Between a Research Topic and a Research Question?

The difference between a research topic and a research question is that research topics are the broad area of study and research that is used to answer the research question. Research questions are what you are attempting to answer by researching your criminal justice topic.

Criminology topics can encompass areas of study like crime mapping, crime rates, crime prevention, female crimes, experimental criminology, homegrown crimes, or even criminal psychology. Research questions should be very narrow and like do certain criminal justice laws reduce crime? Do criminal justice practitioners engage in critical criminology? Does education in prison reduce reincarnation?

How to Create Strong Criminal Justice Research Questions

When writing a strong criminal justice research question you should ask three questions. Does this question have sufficient research to reference? Is the question narrow and focused? Am I passionate about this topic? If you ask these questions and use our guide to help you get started, you’ll be well on your way to writing a great criminal justice research paper.

Top 10 Criminal Justice Research Paper Topics

1. bad living conditions and access to justice.

In the criminal justice system, sometimes where you live may have an impact on your access to justice. In 2011, the American Civil Liberties Union filed a lawsuit against the City of Chicago alleging that the Chicago police department had slower response times in areas of the city with poor living conditions. The case was settled in 2021 with a plan to improve.

2. White-Collar Crimes Compared to Working-Class Criminals Punishments

White-collar crimes are generally finance-related crimes such as fraud, embezzlement, or money laundering. According to Cornell University School of Law, white-collar crime costs over $300 billion annually in the US. However, white-collar criminals are prosecuted less severely than their working-class counterparts.

3. False Accusation, False Confessions, and Plea Bargaining

This area of criminal behavior is interesting, as our justice system actually allows for admissions of guilt even if the party did not commit the crime. Sometimes sentences can be reduced if a guilty plea is entered even if the party did not commit the crime.

4. Restorative Justice Efforts on Youthful Offenders

Juvenile and youth offenders have many different rules and avenues for justice. One of these unique approaches to keeping young people from their delinquent behavior employed by problem-solving courts is the concept of restorative justice. Restorative justice is a process that helps offenders make amends with the person or community they hurt with their deviant behaviors.

5. Criminal Justice Reform in Hate Crimes

Hate crimes are crimes that are motivated by hatred of someone or a group of people’s immutable characteristics. In recent years, many states have adopted the federal bias categories as outlined by the Department of Justice. These categories are not adopted by every state, which creates several directions for research questions.

6. Organized Crime and the Social Class Criminal Behavior of Members

Organized crime has been around for centuries, but can be prevalent in communities that see crime as a way of life and family. It can be a robust topic to try and understand the influences that family and community have on organized crime.

7. Criminal Justice Agencies and International Crime Investigation Efforts

One thing that is not often talked about is the relationship between criminal justice agencies that work together across countries. Many agencies work together, and many are made jointly. The most notable agency that does this is Interpol which, in 2021, arrested 1,003 alleged criminals and closed 1,660 cases in just one investigation .

8. Impacts of Wildlife Crime and Environmental Crime

Two little written about criminal justice topics in this scientific field are the topics of environmental and wildlife crime. Pollution, littering, dumping, poaching, and wildfire started by humans are all areas that could be a great place to use your analytical skills and nab a decent grade.

9. Relationship Between Crime and Eyewitness Testimony

Eyewitness testimonies are a staple of modern justice. Many violent crime convictions hinge on the ability of eyewitness testimony to convince a jury of what occurred. Sometimes eyewitness testimony can be unreliable, or the multiple witnesses can testify something different from one another resulting in a wrongful conviction. Many crimes like drunk driving or theft can rest on this method of testimony.

10. Relationship Between Law Enforcement and Racial Profiling

Racial profiling is a topic that has received a lot of coverage and is one of the major criminal justice issues of today. Human rights careers deal with the impact of racial and social issues in the US. There are many areas in which law enforcement has to improve in the area of social science. This is a broad topic with many implications for criminal justice ethics and the area of distributive justice.

Other Examples of Criminal Justice Research Topics & Questions

Criminal justice research topics.

  • Jury nullification
  • Online predators
  • Drunk drivers
  • Gun control
  • Campus crime

Criminal Justice Research Questions

  • Does restorative justice reduce incarceration rates in juveniles?
  • Do drug courts engage with racial profiling in the criminal justice system?
  • Are environmental crimes underreported in the criminal justice field?
  • Can organized criminal behavior be reduced by new crime control measures?
  • Does mental illness cause more false confessions?

Choosing the Right Criminal Justice Research Topic

If you take these criminal justice research topic ideas and start researching, you’ll find a topic that strikes your creativity and deals with current justice issues. If college courses seem like they may not be for you, you can always use your knowledge to get a job in criminal justice without a degree .

As we stated earlier, two important parts to finding a great topic for criminology studies or criminal justice is to follow your institution’s guidelines and find a topic that you’re passionate about. Difficult topics like child abuse, victim services, jury selection, sexual violence, or any other of the wide range of topics are important and you can do them real justice and care in your paper.

Criminal Justice Research Topics FAQ

A good criminal research topic should be a broad area with lots of research and case studies behind it. It follows your institutional guidelines and that you are passionate about.

Controversial topics in criminal justice include issues that the court is not settled on or ones that disrupt long-standing positions in the courts. Issues like private prisons, gun control, reproductive rights, and criminal court reform could all be considered controversial.

Feminist criminology started in the late 60s and early 70s to bring attention to both female criminals and victims. The movement started because of the male-focused approach to criminal psychology with little to no regard for how a woman may be psychologically different.

Current issues in the criminal justice system include topics like racial justice, social justice, police reform, reproductive rights, and LGBTQ+ discrimination. Many of these topics are being discussed in both state and federal courts.

About us: Career Karma is a platform designed to help job seekers find, research, and connect with job training programs to advance their careers. Learn about the CK publication .

What's Next?

icon_10

Get matched with top bootcamps

Ask a question to our community, take our careers quiz.

Joseph Taglavore

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Apply to top tech training programs in one click

  • Skip to main content
  • Skip to primary sidebar

Criminal Justice

IResearchNet

Academic Writing Services

Criminal justice research topics.

This collection provides overviews of   nearly 100 key criminal justice research topics comprising traditional criminology and its more modern interdisciplinary outgrowths. These topics are divided into six thematic parts:

  • Criminology
  • Correlates of Crime
  • Criminology Theories
  • Crime Research
  • Types of Crime
  • Criminal Justice System

Criminology and Criminal Justice Research Topics

Research topics in criminology:.

  • Criminology as Social Science .
  • Criminology and Public Policy .
  • History of Criminology .

Research Topics in Crime and Victimization:

  • Age and Crime .
  • Aggression and Crime .
  • Citizenship and Crime .
  • Education and Crime .
  • Employment and Crime .
  • Families and Crime .
  • Gender and Crime .
  • Guns and Crime .
  • Immigration and Crime .
  • Intelligence and Crime .
  • Mental Illness and Crime .
  • Neighborhoods and Crime .
  • Peers and Crime .
  • Race and Crime .
  • Religion and Crime .
  • Social Class and Crime .
  • Victimization .
  • Weather and Crime .

Research Topics in Criminology Theories:

  • Biological Theori es.
  • Classical Criminology .
  • Convict Criminology .
  • Criminal Justice Theories .
  • Critical Criminology .
  • Cultural Criminology .
  • Cultural Transmission Theory .
  • Deterrence and Rational Choice Theory .
  • Feminist Criminology .
  • Labeling and Symbolic Interaction Theories .
  • Life Course Criminology .
  • Psychological Theories of Crime .
  • Routine Activities Theory .
  • Self-Control Theory .
  • Social Construction of Crime .
  • Social Control Theory .
  • Social Disorganization Theory .
  • Social Learning Theory .
  • Strain Theories .
  • Theoretical Integration.

Research Topics in Criminology Research and Measurement:

  • Citation and Content Analysis .
  • Crime Classification Systems .
  • Crime Mapping .
  • Crime Reports and Statistics .
  • Drug Abuse Warning Network (DAWN) and Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring (ADAM) .
  • Edge Ethnography .
  • Experimental Criminology .
  • Fieldwork in Criminology .
  • Program Evaluation .
  • Quantitative Criminology .

Research Topics in Types of Crime:

  • Campus Crime .
  • Child Abuse .
  • Cybercrime .
  • Domestic Violence .
  • Elder Abuse .
  • Environmental Crime .
  • Hate Crime .
  • Human Trafficking .
  • Identity Theft .
  • Juvenile Delinquency .
  • Organizational Crime .
  • Prostitution .
  • Sex Offenses .
  • Terrorism .
  • Theft and Shoplifting .
  • White-Collar Crime .
  • Wildlife Crime .

Research Topics in Criminal Justice System:

  • Capital Punishment .
  • Community Corrections .
  • Crime Prevention .
  • Criminal Courts .
  • Criminal Justice Ethics .
  • Criminal Law .
  • Criminal Specialization .
  • Drug Courts .
  • Drugs and the Criminal Justice System .
  • Felon Disenfranchisement .
  • Forensic Science .
  • Juvenile Court .
  • Juvenile Justice .
  • Mass Media, Crime, and Justice .
  • Offender Classification .
  • Offender Reentry .
  • Police–Community Relations .
  • Prison System .
  • Problem-Solving Courts .
  • Public Health and Criminal Justice .
  • Racial Profiling .
  • Restorative Justice .
  • Sentencing .
  • The Police .
  • Victim Services .
  • Wrongful Convictions .
  • Youth Gangs .

Because just listing suggestions for criminal justice research topics will be of limited value we have included short topical overviews and suggestions for narrowing those topics and divided them into 6 parts as in the list above. If you’re interested in some topic in the list follow the links below for more information.

Example   criminal justice research papers   on these topics have been designed to serve as sources of model papers for most criminological topics. These research papers were written by several well-known discipline figures and emerging younger scholars who provide authoritative overviews coupled with insightful discussion that will quickly familiarize researchers and students alike with fundamental and detailed information for each criminal justice topic.

This collection begins by defining the discipline of criminology and observing its historical development (Part I: Criminology ). The various social (e.g., poverty, neighborhood, and peer/family influences), personal (e.g., intelligence, mental illness), and demographic (e.g., age, race, gender, and immigration) realities that cause, confound, and mitigate crime and crime control are featured in   Part II: Correlates of Crime . The research papers in this section consider each correlate’s impact, both independently and in a broader social ecological context. The sociological origins of theoretical criminology are observed across several research papers that stress classical, environmental, and cultural influences on crime and highlight peer group, social support, and learning processes. Examination of these criminological theory research papers quickly confirms the aforementioned interdisciplinary nature of the field, with research papers presenting biological, psychological, and biosocial explanations and solutions for crime (Part III: Criminology Theories ).

Part IV: Criminology Research provides example research papers on various quantitative and qualitative designs and techniques employed in criminology research. Comparison of the purposes and application of these research methods across various criminal justice topics illustrates the role of criminologists as social scientists engaged in research enterprises wherein single studies fluctuate in focus along a pure–applied research continuum. This section also addresses the measurement of crimes with attention to major crime reporting and recording systems.

Having established a theoretical–methodological symmetry as the scientific foundation of criminology, and increasingly the field of criminal justice,   Part V: Types of Crime   considers a wide range of criminal offenses. Each research paper in this section thoroughly defines its focal offense and considers the related theories that frame practices and policies used to address various leading violent, property, and morality crimes. These research papers also present and critically evaluate the varying level of empirical evidence, that is, research confirmation, for competing theoretical explanations and criminal justice system response alternatives that are conventionally identified as best practices.

Ostensibly, an accurate and thorough social science knowledge base stands to render social betterment in terms of reduced crime and victimization through the development of research–based practices. This science–practitioner relationship is featured, advocated, and critiqued in the research papers of the final section,   Part VI: Criminal Justice System . Here, the central components of criminal justice research paper topics (law enforcement, courts, and corrections) are presented from a criminology–criminal justice outlook that increasingly purports to leverage theory and research (in particular, program evaluation results) toward realizing criminal justice and related social policy objectives. Beyond the main system, several research papers consider the role and effectiveness of several popular justice system and wrap-around component initiatives (e.g., specialty courts, restorative justice, and victim services).

See also: Domestic Violence Research Topics and School Violence Research Topics .

Put a stop to deadline pressure, and have your homework done by an expert.

100 Amazing Criminal Justice Research Topics 2023

criminal justice research topics

To score the top grades, students must choose the right criminal justice research topics for their papers and essays. Writing assignments in this academic field deal with justice and crime. However, the study field of a learner can be limited to specific academic barriers and choices. Criminal justice is a science. Nevertheless, criminal justice is generally a science that focuses on the study, analysis of the occurrence, and prevention of illegal acts.

But, what are some criminal justice topics that learners can consider? Well, students can select criminal justice topics for their papers by focusing on definite issues.

Criminal justice topics are limited and flexible because they offer hypotheses. However, criminal justice paper topics should be based on case studies or legislative acts. Additionally, students should be confident in terms of their ability to research and write about their chosen topics.

So, are still asking, what are some good criminal justice research topics? If yes, here are some of the great criminal justice research paper topics to consider.

Basic Criminal Justice Research Topics

Perhaps, your educator asked you to write an original paper. In that case, consider standard or basic research topics in criminal justice. Here are examples of such topics.

  • What are the major problems in prison systems?
  • What are the major crime prevention principles?
  • Discuss the deterrence and rational option theory
  • How does the law punish workplace and school sexual offenders?
  • Why is capital punishment common among men than women?
  • What are the most common features for ransom and kidnapping cases- Consider behavior style and motifs
  • Explain the cybercrime’s legal perspective
  • Crime prevention- What are the major principles?
  • How to determine whether a person fired off accidentally or deliberately
  • How are crime, justice, and mass media related?
  • What is experimental criminology?
  • Discuss Miranda vs. Arizona and its effect today
  • What are victim services?
  • Discuss juvenile recidivism
  • A review of parental abduction laws
  • How to prevent wildlife crime
  • What is felon disenfranchisement?
  • Describe the functions of forensic science
  • How effective are witness protection programs?
  • How do criminal cases differ from civil cases?

If you wish to write a simple paper, consider some ideas from this list of basic criminal justice topics. Nevertheless, make sure that you’re comfortable researching and writing about the topic that you choose.

Controversial Topics in Criminal Justice

Maybe you want to write a paper on a controversial topic. In that case, consider any of these criminal justice controversial topics.

  • Major causes of college violence
  • Biased investigations of African Americans
  • Punishment versus reform- Which one is more beneficial?
  • How good is a restorative justice model as a tool for criminal justice
  • Should an insane person be exempted from liability?
  • Is school-based drug testing ideal for colleges and high schools
  • Is the current judicial system racial?
  • What is the correlation between crime and race?
  • How is juvenile delinquency related to bad parenting?
  • Can prisons be decongested by restrictive housing?
  • How can people protect themselves from false accusations?
  • Should the names of sex offenders be included in public records?
  • What causes controversy about prostitution legalization?
  • How is crime linked to the social class of a person?
  • Selective incapacitation- Is it effective as a crime reduction policy?
  • How can eyewitness testimony facilitate crime investigation?
  • How effective is community policing as a program for reducing homegrown crimes?
  • How effective are youthful offenders’ boot camps?
  • Should pornography be categorized as a form of sexual violence?
  • How can the state enhance gun control?

This category has some of the best argumentative topics. That’s because somebody can argue from different angles when discussing some of these topics. Nevertheless, extensive research is required to compose solid papers on these topics.

Criminal Justice Debate Topics

Maybe you want to write about a debate topic. This category has some of the best topics to talk about in criminal justice. That’s because they mostly involve current issues that concern most people. Some of them are about problems whose solutions have not been found yet. Here are examples of topics in this category.

  • How effective and fair is the death penalty as a way of deterring crime?
  • How fair is the extradition law?
  • Should deceit and trickery be used for interrogations and investigations?
  • Should cooperation with informants in prisons be acceptable?
  • Death penalty for juveniles- Should it be used?
  • How effective are super-max prisons?
  • Super-max prisons are cruel
  • How can police shootings be justified?
  • Drunk drivers’ punishment- Should it be severe?
  • How effective e is zero-tolerance when it comes to crime reduction?
  • Should criminal charges attract mandatory imprisonment without a possibility for parole?
  • Should shaming become an element of criminal punishment?
  • How are civil liberties threatened by the Patriot Act?
  • Should the Rights Amendment for a victim be added to the constitution?
  • Should plea bargaining be considered an acceptable means of settling criminal cases?
  • American society needs more laws to prevent the cruelty meted on animals
  • How humane is the U.S society?
  • Discuss the Susan Wright trial
  • What is political corruption?
  • Discuss the Marbury versus Madison Case

Criminal Justice Research Proposal Topics

What are some good research topics for criminal justice that will get you the necessary funding? You’re likely to ask this question when writing a proposal for your research. Here are some of the best research proposal topics to consider in criminal justice.

  • How does crime relate to aggression?
  • Mental health problems like depression and the internet
  • How mental health relate to violence
  • Use of violence and torture towards criminals
  • Invalidity or validity of Rational Choice theory
  • Crime and violence- Are they nurtured or products of nature?
  • Major trends in criminology
  • Crime and dysfunctional families
  • Basis, theories, and limitations of feminist criminology
  • How crime occurrence can be reduced by the examination of criminal behavior

Juvenile Justice Paper Topics

Perhaps, you need juvenile topics in criminal justice for your academic papers. In that case, consider criminal justice paper topics, prepared by our writing professionals.

  • Do children deserve the same trial with adults?
  • Rehabilitation of children involved in violent crimes
  • Should children and adults have the same prisons?
  • Can juveniles be socio-paths?
  • Should house arrest be granted to juvenile offenders that do not engage in violent crimes?
  • What are the best solutions for teens that keep committing crimes?
  • How can the criminal justice system deal with frequent juvenile offenders?
  • Is punitive juvenile justice effective?
  • How rampant is juvenile victimization?
  • How effective are school-based juvenile programs for preventing crime?

International Topics Dealing with Criminal Justice

Several criminal justice issue topics can be addressed at an international level. Here are examples of such topics.

  • How are international offenders treated currently?
  • NATO ethics in Afghanistan and Iraq
  • Violations of human rights in Uganda
  • International intervention- When is it acceptable?
  • Information accessibility and police cooperation at an international level
  • Methods used by criminals to traffic drugs
  • Analysis of an international criminal justice tribunal
  • What the appeal process for the international criminal court?
  • Discuss the issue of child soldiers during the Israel-Palestine conflict
  • Discuss the XYZ Corporation’s transnational crimes

Criminal Justice Thesis Topics

A thesis topic should be interesting and relevant. If struggling to come up with a topic for your thesis, consider these samples for inspiration.

  • Why do some offenders become criminals after servicing their sentences?
  • How can legislation change the delinquency and violence levels in the U.S concerning drug use?
  • How can wrong convictions be prevented?
  • How do people influence the making of decisions of public policies about the criminal justice system?
  • How accurately do television, novels, and movies depict a country’s criminal justice system?
  • Does a criminal deserve cruel treatment and unlawful use of force by law enforcers?
  • How effective are strategies for stopping or determining criminal behavior?
  • How can the reentry of an offender to society be made seamless?
  • Should law enforcers wear cameras?
  • How effective and accessible is the judicial system?

In addition to these ideas, you can choose criminal justice reform topics or criminal justice ethic topics. Nevertheless, choose only topics you find interesting and comfortable working on.

human sexuality topics

Get on top of your homework.

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Criminal Justice System Research Paper Topics

Academic Writing Service

This page provides a comprehensive list of criminal justice system research paper topics , organized into 10 categories. It also offers expert advice on how to choose a topic, as well as tips on how to write a successful research paper. In addition, iResearchNet provides custom writing services tailored to the specific needs of students, offering top-quality papers written by expert degree-holding writers with experience in the criminal justice field. With flexible pricing options, timely delivery, and 24/7 support, iResearchNet is the perfect solution for students looking to excel in their academic pursuits.

Criminal Justice System Research Guide

The criminal justice system is a crucial aspect of society that aims to maintain law and order while providing fair and impartial justice for all. As a result, research on the criminal justice system covers a wide range of topics, from the agencies and processes involved in criminal justice to the legal principles and ethical concerns that underpin the system.

Academic Writing, Editing, Proofreading, And Problem Solving Services

Get 10% off with 24start discount code.

Criminal Justice System Research Paper Topics

In this guide, we will explore various categories of criminal justice research paper topics, providing an overview of the key issues and debates in each area. We will also offer expert advice on how to select a topic and write a successful research paper, as well as introduce iResearchNet’s writing services for students who require assistance in their academic pursuits.

The criminal justice system is a complex network of institutions, policies, and practices designed to maintain social order and uphold the law. Studying the criminal justice system can be fascinating and thought-provoking, as it involves the examination of the ways in which society seeks to prevent and respond to criminal behavior. In this section, we will explore ten categories of criminal justice system research paper topics, each with ten topics, that will help students to dive into this fascinating field and develop a deeper understanding of its workings.

Corrections

  • The effectiveness of rehabilitation programs in reducing recidivism
  • The impact of solitary confinement on mental health and behavior of inmates
  • The use of private prisons and their impact on the criminal justice system
  • The ethics of for-profit prisons and their impact on prisoners’ rights
  • The impact of restorative justice practices on offenders and victims
  • The use of alternative sentencing programs as an alternative to incarceration
  • The impact of parole and probation on recidivism rates
  • The effectiveness of drug treatment programs in reducing substance abuse among inmates
  • The relationship between prison overcrowding and inmate violence
  • The impact of technology on the future of corrections, such as electronic monitoring and virtual reality rehabilitation programs

Criminal Investigation

  • Forensic science techniques in criminal investigations
  • The role of eyewitness testimony in criminal investigations
  • Interviewing techniques for obtaining information from suspects and witnesses
  • The use of surveillance technology in criminal investigations
  • The challenges of investigating digital and cybercrime
  • The use of informants and undercover operations in criminal investigations
  • The role of DNA evidence in criminal investigations
  • Cold case investigations and the use of new technology and techniques
  • Investigating organized crime and criminal networks
  • The impact of community policing on criminal investigations

Criminal Justice Administration

  • Leadership and management in criminal justice organizations
  • Budgeting and resource allocation in criminal justice agencies
  • Ethics and integrity in criminal justice administration
  • Personnel and human resource management in criminal justice organizations
  • Public relations and community outreach in criminal justice agencies
  • Policies and procedures in criminal justice administration
  • Organizational change and adaptation in criminal justice agencies
  • Accountability and performance measurement in criminal justice
  • Information technology and criminal justice administration
  • Interagency collaboration and coordination in criminal justice

Criminal Justice Ethics

  • Use of force by law enforcement officers
  • Racial profiling and discrimination in the criminal justice system
  • Police misconduct and accountability
  • Capital punishment and the ethics of the death penalty
  • The ethics of plea bargaining
  • Confidentiality and privacy concerns in criminal investigations
  • The ethics of surveillance and monitoring in criminal justice
  • Ethics of punishment and rehabilitation
  • The use of informants and witness protection programs
  • Professional ethics and conflicts of interest in the criminal justice system

Criminal Law and Procedure

  • The right to counsel and its implications for criminal defendants
  • The role of plea bargaining in the criminal justice system
  • The use of eyewitness testimony in criminal trials
  • The effectiveness of the insanity defense in criminal cases
  • The impact of the Fourth Amendment on search and seizure procedures
  • The use of technology in criminal investigations and trials
  • The role of juries in criminal trials
  • The impact of mandatory minimum sentencing laws on the criminal justice system
  • The impact of race and ethnicity on criminal law and procedure
  • The implications of wrongful convictions for criminal law and procedure

Forensic Science

  • The use of DNA evidence in criminal investigations
  • The effectiveness of forensic psychology in criminal investigations
  • The application of ballistics in solving crimes
  • The role of forensic anthropology in identifying human remains
  • The use of toxicology in determining cause of death in homicides
  • The reliability of fingerprint evidence in criminal cases
  • The use of digital forensics in modern criminal investigations
  • The challenges and limitations of arson investigation
  • The role of forensic entomology in determining time of death
  • The accuracy and admissibility of bite mark evidence in criminal trials

Court System

  • The role of judges in the court system
  • The impact of jury selection on trial outcomes
  • The use of plea bargaining in the court system
  • The role of defense attorneys in the court system
  • The impact of race and ethnicity on court proceedings
  • The use of expert witnesses in court proceedings
  • The effectiveness of alternative dispute resolution methods in the court system
  • The impact of technology on court procedures
  • The role of court administrators in the court system
  • The future of the court system in light of changing societal needs and values

Juvenile Justice

  • The effectiveness of rehabilitation programs for juvenile offenders
  • The impact of the juvenile justice system on minority youth
  • The role of the family in preventing juvenile delinquency
  • Juvenile waiver and transfer laws
  • The impact of the age of criminal responsibility on the juvenile justice system
  • The relationship between child abuse and juvenile delinquency
  • The use of restorative justice practices in juvenile justice
  • The impact of school discipline policies on juvenile justice involvement
  • The effectiveness of juvenile diversion programs
  • The role of mental health services in addressing juvenile delinquency

Law Enforcement

  • Community policing and its effectiveness
  • Use of force by law enforcement and its impact on communities
  • Racial profiling and its effect on police-community relations
  • Police accountability and transparency
  • Law enforcement response to domestic violence
  • The role of technology in modern policing
  • Police training and its impact on officers’ use of force
  • Challenges of policing in a diverse society
  • The impact of mental health on police work
  • Policing and immigration enforcement
  • Use of force policies in policing
  • Police training and its impact on behavior
  • Community-oriented policing strategies
  • Racial profiling in law enforcement
  • The role of technology in policing
  • Challenges in recruiting and retaining diverse police officers
  • The impact of police unions on accountability and reform efforts
  • The militarization of police and its effects on community relations
  • The history and evolution of modern policing

The criminal justice system is a multifaceted and complex field that encompasses a wide range of topics and issues. From law enforcement and corrections to the court system and juvenile justice, there is no shortage of research paper topics for students studying criminal justice. By selecting a topic that aligns with their personal interests and adheres to assignment guidelines, students can successfully craft a well-researched and thought-provoking paper. iResearchNet offers expert writing services to assist students in achieving their academic goals and producing high-quality research papers. With our team of experienced writers, reliable sources, and flexible pricing options, students can rest assured that their paper will be completed with precision and excellence.

Choosing a Criminal Justice System Research Paper Topic

Choosing a topic in the multitude of criminal justice system research paper topics can be a daunting task, given the vast range of issues and concerns in this field. However, with careful consideration of your interests, current events, and the assignment guidelines, you can identify a topic that is both relevant and engaging. Here are some expert tips to help you choose a topic for your criminal justice research paper:

  • Understand the assignment requirements and guidelines : The first step in choosing a research paper topic is to read and understand the assignment requirements and guidelines provided by your instructor. This will help you to identify the scope, length, and focus of your paper.
  • Consider your personal interests and passions : It is important to choose a topic that you are interested in and passionate about. This will keep you motivated throughout the research and writing process, and help you to produce a more engaging and insightful paper.
  • Look for current and relevant topics in the field : Criminal justice is a dynamic field that is constantly evolving. Look for current and relevant topics in the news or academic journals that interest you.
  • Focus on a specific aspect or issue within a broader topic : Choose a specific aspect or issue within a broader topic to make your research more manageable and focused. For example, rather than writing a paper on “crime prevention,” you could focus on “the effectiveness of community policing in crime prevention.”
  • Conduct preliminary research to ensure there is enough information available : Before finalizing your topic, conduct some preliminary research to ensure that there is enough information available on your chosen topic. This will help you to avoid frustration and ensure that you can write a well-supported research paper.
  • Consult with your instructor or a librarian for topic suggestions and resources : Don’t hesitate to consult with your instructor or a librarian for suggestions and resources on criminal justice research paper topics. They can provide valuable guidance and insights to help you choose a topic that is appropriate and engaging.
  • Stay organized and keep track of sources and notes : As you conduct your research, make sure to stay organized and keep track of your sources and notes. This will make it easier to write your paper and ensure that you can properly cite your sources.
  • Narrow down your topic and develop a thesis statement : Once you have chosen a topic, narrow it down to a specific research question or thesis statement. This will help you to focus your research and ensure that your paper has a clear and concise argument.
  • Brainstorm and outline your paper before writing : Before diving into writing, take the time to brainstorm and outline your paper. This will help you to organize your thoughts and ensure that your paper flows logically and coherently.
  • Revise and edit your paper multiple times before submitting : Finally, be sure to revise and edit your paper multiple times before submitting it. This will help you to catch any errors or inconsistencies and ensure that your paper is polished and professional.

By following these expert tips, you can choose a criminal justice system research paper topic that is engaging, informative, and well-supported by research.

How to Write a Criminal Justice System Research Paper

Writing a criminal justice system research paper can be a daunting task for many students, but with proper guidance and preparation, it can become a manageable and rewarding experience. In this section, we will provide an in-depth guide on how to write a criminal justice system research paper, including the necessary steps and tips for success.

  • Choose a topic : The first step in writing a criminal justice system research paper is to select a topic. Your topic should be focused and relevant to the criminal justice system, and should be interesting and engaging to both you and your audience. It is important to choose a topic that is neither too broad nor too narrow, and that can be adequately researched within the scope of your assignment.
  • Conduct research : Once you have chosen your topic, it is time to conduct research. This involves gathering information and data related to your topic from a variety of sources, including books, academic articles, government reports, and other credible sources. It is important to ensure that your sources are reliable, up-to-date, and relevant to your topic.
  • Develop a thesis statement : A thesis statement is a one-sentence statement that summarizes the main argument or point of your paper. Your thesis statement should be clear, concise, and specific, and should be based on the research and evidence you have gathered.
  • Create an outline : Before you start writing your paper, it is helpful to create an outline. An outline is a structured plan that outlines the main points and sections of your paper, and helps you organize your thoughts and ideas. Your outline should include an introduction, body, and conclusion, as well as specific sections for each of the main points you want to make in your paper.
  • Write your paper : With your research, thesis statement, and outline in hand, it is time to start writing your paper. Your paper should be structured, clear, and concise, with a clear introduction, well-supported arguments in the body, and a strong conclusion that summarizes your main points and reinforces your thesis.
  • Edit and revise : Once you have written your paper, it is important to edit and revise it carefully. This involves checking for errors in grammar, spelling, and punctuation, as well as ensuring that your arguments are clear, concise, and well-supported by your research.
  • Cite your sources : Finally, it is important to properly cite your sources using the appropriate citation style (APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.). This involves including in-text citations in your paper and a list of references or bibliography at the end of your paper.

By following these steps and tips, you can write a successful criminal justice system research paper that is well-researched, well-organized, and well-supported. Remember to give yourself enough time to complete each step thoroughly, and to seek help from your instructor or a writing center if you need it.

Custom Writing Services by iResearchNet

At iResearchNet, we understand that crafting a high-quality criminal justice research paper can be a daunting task. Our team of expert writers is here to assist you with any aspect of the writing process, from selecting a topic to polishing your final draft. Here are some of the benefits of using our writing services for your criminal justice research paper:

  • Custom written works tailored to your specific needs and requirements: Our writers are experienced in the field of criminal justice and can provide customized solutions that meet your academic requirements.
  • Expert degree-holding writers with experience in the criminal justice field: Our writers hold advanced degrees in criminal justice, and have years of experience in researching and writing on topics related to the criminal justice system.
  • In-depth research using credible sources: Our writers conduct thorough research using reliable sources to ensure that your paper is well-supported and informative.
  • Custom formatting (APA, MLA, Chicago/Turabian, Harvard): We offer custom formatting to fit any citation style requirements and ensure that your paper meets the highest academic standards.
  • Top quality work with customized solutions : Our writers provide high-quality work with customized solutions that meet your specific needs and requirements.
  • Flexible pricing options to fit any budget: We offer flexible pricing options to fit any budget, and can provide quotes based on your specific needs.
  • Short deadlines of up to 3 hours: We understand that deadlines can be tight, which is why we offer short turnaround times of up to 3 hours for urgent orders.
  • Timely delivery of your completed paper: We are committed to delivering your completed paper on time, every time.
  • 24/7 customer support for any questions or concerns: Our customer support team is available 24/7 to answer any questions or concerns you may have about our services.
  • Absolute privacy and confidentiality of your personal and academic information: We take your privacy and confidentiality seriously, and will never share your personal or academic information with anyone.
  • Easy order tracking and updates: Our user-friendly platform allows you to track your order status and receive updates on your paper’s progress.
  • Money-back guarantee if you are not satisfied with the final product: We are committed to your satisfaction, and offer a money-back guarantee if you are not completely satisfied with the final product.

At iResearchNet, we pride ourselves on providing high-quality, customized writing services to students in need of assistance with their criminal justice research papers. Contact us today to learn more about how we can help you achieve your academic goals.

Buy Your Custom Research Paper Today!

The criminal justice system is a vast and complex field that offers a multitude of research paper topics. Choosing a topic requires careful consideration of personal interests and the assignment guidelines, as well as the availability of credible sources. Proper research, organization, and writing skills are essential for crafting a successful criminal justice research paper. At iResearchNet, we offer expert writing services to assist students in achieving their academic goals and producing high-quality research papers. Our team of degree-holding writers has extensive experience in the criminal justice field and can provide custom-written works tailored to your specific needs and requirements. We conduct in-depth research using reliable sources and provide custom formatting options to fit any citation style. We offer flexible pricing options to fit any budget and can accommodate short deadlines of up to 3 hours. Our 24/7 customer support is available for any questions or concerns, and we guarantee absolute privacy and confidentiality of your personal and academic information. With our easy order tracking and updates, you can stay informed throughout the writing process, and our money-back guarantee ensures your satisfaction with the final product.

ORDER HIGH QUALITY CUSTOM PAPER

research topics about the criminal justice system

research topics about the criminal justice system

60+ Criminal Justice Research Topics

research topics about the criminal justice system

Criminal Justice Research Paper: Definition

Whether you've been assigned crime research topics by your professor or you simply enjoy exploring exciting topics in criminology, we guarantee you'll read through this article in one fell swoop. Not only will you find out some intriguing criminal justice research topics, but you will also learn the meaning behind the criminal justice system, the purpose of writing about the concept, and, finally, learn some tricks and tips for creating such a paper.

First, let's ease your understanding of criminal justice which primarily attempts to ensure the peaceful coexistence of the civil population through law regulations and judicial studies. Basically, criminal justice is often thought of as a discipline that teaches people how to stop, examine, and evaluate criminal behavior. With this in mind, most college students studying criminal law and justice have to deal with a pile of assignments on criminal cases.

Our expert essay writers suggest that you may be required to study specific situations or even provide your own solutions for a criminology research paper. Additionally, your writing should be based on applicable laws to back up your claims. So, the process of writing a criminal justice research paper usually involves a thorough understanding of the selected problem.

With that said, let's move to our next point, clarifying the purpose of writing about criminal justice issues and finding out more together!

Purpose of Writing Criminal Justice Topics

You might be asking yourself - 'why should I write about criminal justice topics?'; and that's a fair point. Out of myriads of research paper topics, especially if you're not studying law or civil and criminal cases, what's the purpose of conducting criminal investigations? Well, we've got some valid points in response to your inquiry below.

Why Write about Criminal Justice

  • It's fun and interesting - Criminal justice is an ever-changing discipline with many fascinating areas to research. During the writing process, you get to come across some interesting cases. For example, you can identify the correlation between mental health and violent activities, research crime prevention methods, examine how the international criminal court has helped reduce crimes globally, etc. Such topics are enjoyable to write about since you are prompted to use your imagination and come up with answers.
  • You get to explore and solve a mystery - There are several unresolved issues in criminal justice. When you write a research paper, you get to unravel these puzzles. Put another way, you want to address questions that you and others, including law enforcement, have about various topics. ‍
  • It reveals your deeper intelligence - You create research papers to inform the rest of the world about what you've uncovered about a criminal justice topic. While doing so, it promotes critical and creative thinking. So, you're encouraged to think out of the box and unleash your true intelligence. For example, you may need to communicate your opinions and comments with important lawmakers on the problem of the death sentence or child abuse to help them in their decision-making process. So, writing on criminology topics is a great way to show others how intelligent you really are.

Want to Advance Your Criminal Justice Assignment?

For unique custom-written papers, take a look at our special features.

How to Write Criminal Justice Thesis Papers?

It takes careful consideration of several factors to transform your brainstormed collection of notes into a finished research paper. Even though not every criminology topic is the same, the writing structure more or less follows similar techniques. So here we prepared a few key aspects to remember while crafting your criminology topics for research:

Criminal Justice

  • Select a Criminal Justice Topic

First things first, the universal answer to your question - ' how to start a research paper ?' is this: you must carefully select a research topic. Given our limited scope and discipline, picking the criminal justice research paper topics becomes even more vital. Your research goal is to find an issue, analyze it, and provide solutions. This suggests that your topic must be related to your study objectives. Also, while choosing a topic, don't set any restrictions. Create a classification system for your research question that will enable you to group it into a wider range of subtopics.

  • Explore Existing Theories on Criminology Topics

Like any social science conception, criminal justice theories offer helpful resources for explaining social processes and human behavior. Moreover, they provide crucial insights that influence real-world applications and guide policy. However, in terms of the origins and effects of crime and criminal conduct, criminal justice comprises a number of unique theoretical interpretations. So, get familiar with different existing theories for carefully developing your research topics criminology.

  • Conduct Research on Criminal Justice Topics

While exploring your criminal justice topic for research paper, you'll probably combine primary and secondary sources. Books, journals, periodicals, news pieces, and interviews are a few examples. Make sure you only choose those that are reliable and knowledgeable. In contrast to essays or term papers, a research paper needs concrete proof. You must be aware that your viewpoint will only be considered relevant if it is backed up by evidence.

  • Organize Research Findings on Criminology Topics

Your task is not complete until you have arranged and structured the results in your article. Then, you may choose to revise your criminal justice paper topics or conduct more research to obtain proof that validates your stance, depending on what you believe to be appropriate. Additionally, you will need to assess the data you have gathered to see if it supports your theory.

  • Develop Your Criminal Justice Research Paper

After completing the steps above for your criminal justice research paper, you are now prepared to combine the research findings and thoughtful evaluation in your first draft. Develop your criminology paper topics using the facts and justifications presented by academics in earlier research. Never fail to give due credit to all sources from which you have drawn inspiration. And always remember to use a correct citation format for research paper by following the accepted guidelines.

Criminal Justice Paper Outline

Let's briefly explain the criminal justice paper outline for you to stay on the right writing track:

  • The Introduction - After defining criminology research topics, the introduction is the very first section. It covers the broad context of the issue, the research question, objectives, the study's aim, and the thesis statement.
  • The Body - The main body is the most important part of your paper as it combines your critical examination and discussion on the topics for criminal justice paper. You must summarize and explain the results of several prior empirical research in the literature review section. Try to demonstrate how academics debate and counter-dispute the research problem. The techniques for data collecting and the participants in the research design are described in the methodology section. The results of your study are included in the findings sections. Be sure to mention any findings you made from both primary sources and the literature review. Finally, the discussion covers an analysis of the findings as well as their implications.
  • The conclusion - Along with the conclusion, incorporate a recommendation section that reviews the study problem and the thesis statement and highlights the findings before suggesting the next step.

Topics for Criminal Justice Paper

After going through the fundamentals of drafting a solid paper, let's explore some fascinating criminal justice topics for research paper. The list prepared by our coursework writing service is limitless, and we promise you'll find inspiration for your upcoming writing assignment right off the bat.

List of Criminology Research Topics

Let's start with the general research topics in criminology that sparks instant interest in your reader's mind:

  • Investigating and evaluating crime theories
  • How IQ influences crime rates
  • Does the death penalty prevent crime?
  • American police brutality
  • Cyberstalking and cyberbullying: how technology may act as a mediator
  • The relationship between terrorism and organized crime
  • When does exercising professional judgment go beyond the bounds of ethics?
  • Effects of drunk driving on growing accident rates
  • The significance of identifying stalking characteristics
  • Techniques for lowering economic crimes
  • Gender prejudice in investigations
  • Procedures for detaining children
  • The difficulties with the jail system
  • Important guidelines for preventing crime
  • Investigation procedures at crime scenes
  • Long-term implications of school suspensions on adult crime
  • Crime effects of domestic violence
  • The function of media in preventing crime
  • New developments in experimental criminology
  • Wildlife crimes and the role of forensic science

List of Realistic Crime Research Topics

Continuing with our criminological research topics, here you'll find some more realistic research topics for criminology that are relatable to current global issues in our society.

  • Why are homeless people's crime rates high?
  • Social standing and criminal activity
  • History of criminology
  • The relationship between criminal conduct and immigration status
  • The connection between age and criminality
  • Crimes against humanity
  • International laws and cross-border crimes
  • Human rights abuse during armed conflict
  • The connection between mental illness and criminal behavior
  • Global efforts to combat corruption and socio economic crimes

List of Basic Criminal Justice Topics

Moving on, here is a list of basic criminal justice topics. Consider how much information there is about the pertinent issue. In any case, it is entirely up to you to select your study topics in criminal justice. Therefore, look for the most recent materials and analyze them thoroughly.

  • Abduction and ransom: recurring traits, motifs, and behaviors
  • Media coverage of crime and justice
  • How is jury selection carried out?
  • The function of forensic science in contemporary criminal justice
  • Who is eligible for the witness protection program, and how may they be protected?
  • Identity theft in the current world: risks and repercussions
  • Criminal justice ethics: the unethical aspects of law enforcement
  • The main issues that law enforcement must address today
  • Are community corrections successful?
  • Crime mapping function in contemporary criminal justice
  • Issues with poor living conditions in prisons
  • What fundamental issues are resolved by problem-solving courts?
  • What can be learned about criminal courts from their past?
  • The role of distributive justice in criminal justice
  • What happens during a criminal trial?
  • How are prosecution laws used in reality?
  • Incidents of forgery in workplaces, government agencies, and educational institutions.
  • The mechanisms for categorizing crimes
  • How are crimes committed with a religious motive punished?
  • What regulations and security measures are in place to combat campus crime?

List of Criminal Justice Topics on Racial Discrimination

Now let's get more specific with the criminal justice topics for research papers. Here we'll distinguish the prompts by racial discrimination aspects:

  • What are the drawbacks of racial profiling? Are there any advantages?
  • Using racial and ethnic profiling to target minority communities
  • How can institutional prejudice impact criminal justice?
  • How does the unfair representation of minority groups in the media impact the criminal justice system?
  • How biased is the US legal system?
  • Racism and prejudice against African-Americans
  • Conflicts of Race on College Campuses
  • History of Punishment and Slavery

List of Crime Research Topics (Crime Types)

Last but not least, look at the topics for criminal justice research paper broken down by distinct sorts of crime:

  • White-collar offenses in the workplace
  • Worldwide organized crime
  • How people and drug trafficking are made easier by the internet
  • The centers of human trafficking
  • The reasons for property crimes
  • Public order offenses
  • Blue-collar offenses
  • Indian and Chinese human trafficking
  • Violence-related robberies: causes and effects
  • Recognizing and defending against terrorism
  • High-tech crimes in the digital age

Final Thoughts on Criminal Justice Research Papers

Now that we've reached the finish, we'd like to remind you that research topics for criminal justice should always adhere to ethical standards. So do your best to be sensitive and courteous while writing, even when discussing touchy subjects.

Meanwhile, you can always buy essays online handled by a native English speaker. Our writing service is the finest if you need a custom research paper . Let us compose your piece from the beginning and make it the highest-rated paper this semester!

Want to Impress Your Professor With a Flawless Paper?

We always have experienced essay writers on hand creating an outstanding paper depending on your specifications.

Related Articles

Narrative Essay Topics: 200 Best Ideas

ct-logo

200 Best Criminology Research Topics For Students

Criminology studies crime, criminal behavior, and the criminal justice system. Picking a good research topic is essential. It should match your interests and help us understand crime and how to prevent it.

There are many types of criminology research topics to choose from. You could look at criminal behavior, crime prevention, the justice system, theories about crime, or new issues like cybercrime. This guide will help you pick a research topic and get excited about criminology research. We’ll look at different topic ideas across criminology.

Whether you’re interested in why people commit crimes, how to stop crimes, the courts and jails, theories about crime, or new issues like internet crime, this guide will help you find a good research topic. Let’s explore criminology research topics and find great research ideas together! 

What are Criminology Research Topics?

Table of Contents

Criminology research topics involve studying crime, criminals, and the justice system using scientific methods. This includes looking at:

  • Why crimes happen
  • Patterns in criminal behavior
  • How crime impacts people and communities
  • How the justice system, like police, courts, and jails, work
  • Theories about the causes of crime
  • Ways to prevent crimes
  • New types of crimes like internet crime
  • How crime is different in various times and cultures
  • How crime affects victims
  • What the public thinks about crime
  • Ideas for improving crime laws and policies

Criminology Research Topics For Students

Here are over 200 criminology research topics for students categorized into different subfields of criminology:

General Criminology

  • The significance of restorative justice programs in decreasing recidivism rates.
  • Exploring the role of genetics in criminal behavior.
  • The impact of socioeconomic status on crime rates.
  • Analyzing the relationship between drug policies and crime rates.
  • Investigating the effectiveness of community policing in reducing crime.
  • Analyzing the role of mental health in criminal behavior.
  • Understanding the link between poverty and crime.
  • Exploring the use of technology in crime prevention.
  • Analyzing the effectiveness of rehabilitation programs for offenders.
  • Investigating the role of media in shaping perceptions of crime and criminals.

Criminal Justice System

  • The influence of mandatory minimum sentencing laws on crime rates.
  • Exploring racial disparities in the criminal justice system.
  • Analyzing the effectiveness of plea bargaining in reducing court backlogs.
  • Investigating the role of forensic evidence in criminal investigations.
  • Examining the ethics of using informants in criminal investigations.
  • Understanding the influence of incarceration on families and communities.
  • Exploring the role of prosecutorial discretion in shaping criminal justice outcomes.
  • Analyzing the effectiveness of probation and parole programs.
  • Investigating the use of body cameras in policing.
  • Examining the role of juries in the criminal justice system.

Crime Prevention

  • Exploring the effectiveness of gun control policies in reducing violent crime.
  • Analyzing the impact of CCTV cameras on crime rates in urban areas.
  • Investigating the role of environmental design in crime prevention.
  • Examining the effectiveness of school-based anti-bullying programs.
  • Understanding the link between unemployment and property crime.
  • Exploring the role of parenting in preventing juvenile delinquency.
  • Analyzing the efficacy of early intervention programs for at-risk youth.
  • Investigating the impact of neighborhood watch programs on community safety.
  • Studying the role of social media in facilitating or preventing cyberbullying.
  • Exploring the effectiveness of drug education programs in schools.

Juvenile Delinquency

  • The effect of family structure on juvenile delinquency rates.
  • Studying the role of peer pressure in juvenile offending.
  • Analyzing the effectiveness of diversion programs for juvenile offenders.
  • Investigating the link between childhood trauma and later delinquent behavior.
  • Examining the role of schools in preventing juvenile delinquency.
  • Understanding the influence of media on juvenile behavior.
  • Exploring the effectiveness of mentoring programs for at-risk youth.
  • Analyzing the impact of juvenile curfew laws on crime rates.
  • Investigating the role of substance abuse in juvenile offending.
  • Studying the efficacy of rehabilitation programs for juvenile offenders.
  • The impact of dark web marketplaces on illicit drug trade.
  • Exploring the effectiveness of cybersecurity measures in preventing cyber attacks.
  • Analyzing the role of cryptocurrencies in facilitating money laundering.
  • Investigating the link between online gaming and cyberbullying.
  • Examining the effectiveness of law enforcement responses to cybercrime.
  • Understanding the role of social media in cyberstalking cases.
  • Exploring the impact of data breaches on consumer privacy.
  • Analyzing the effectiveness of international cooperation in combating cybercrime.
  • Investigating the role of artificial intelligence in cybercrime detection.
  • Examining the legal and ethical issues surrounding hacking and hacktivism.

White-Collar Crime

  • The impact of corporate culture on white-collar crime.
  • Exploring the effectiveness of regulatory agencies in preventing corporate fraud.
  • Analyzing the role of whistleblowers in exposing corporate misconduct.
  • Investigating the link between executive compensation and financial fraud.
  • Examining the effectiveness of corporate compliance programs.
  • Understanding the role of technology in facilitating white-collar crime.
  • Exploring the impact of globalization on white-collar crime.
  • Analyzing the role of government oversight in preventing financial crimes.
  • Investigating the effectiveness of anti-money laundering measures.
  • Examining the psychological profiles of white-collar offenders.

Terrorism and Counterterrorism

  • The impact of globalization on terrorism.
  • Exploring the role of ideology in terrorist recruitment.
  • Analyzing the effectiveness of counterterrorism strategies.
  • Investigating the link between poverty and terrorism.
  • Examining the role of social media in terrorist propaganda.
  • Understanding the psychology of terrorism.
  • Exploring the impact of state-sponsored terrorism.
  • Analyzing the role of intelligence agencies in preventing terrorist attacks.
  • Studying the effectiveness of border security measures in combating terrorism.
  • Examining the ethics of targeted drone strikes in counterterrorism efforts.

Victimology

  • The impact of victim-blaming attitudes on reporting rates of sexual assault.
  • Exploring the psychological effects of victimization.
  • Analyzing the role of victim support services in aiding recovery.
  • Investigating the link between domestic violence and homelessness.
  • Studying the effectiveness of restorative justice practices for victims.
  • Understanding the role of trauma-informed care for victims.
  • Exploring the impact of victim compensation programs.
  • Analyzing the prevalence of revictimization among survivors.
  • Investigating the role of victim-offender mediation in reducing trauma.
  • Examining the experiences of marginalized victims within the criminal justice system.

Gender and Crime

  • The impact of gender stereotypes on sentencing outcomes.
  • Exploring the link between masculinity and violent crime.
  • Analyzing the role of gender in shaping criminal opportunities.
  • Investigating the prevalence of intimate partner violence against men.
  • Examining the experiences of transgender individuals within the criminal justice system.
  • Understanding the role of gender in white-collar crime.
  • Exploring the intersection of race, gender, and crime.
  • Analyzing the effectiveness of gender-responsive programming for female offenders.
  • Investigating the link between gender identity and hate crimes.
  • Examining the role of gender in criminal victimization experiences.

Race and Crime

  • The influence of racial profiling on policing practices.
  • Exploring the link between race and sentencing disparities.
  • Analyzing the role of systemic racism in contributing to crime rates.
  • Investigating the prevalence of hate crimes against racial minorities.
  • Examining the experiences of Indigenous peoples within the criminal justice system.
  • Understanding the impact of racial segregation on crime.
  • Exploring the intersection of race, poverty, and crime.
  • Analyzing the role of race in shaping perceptions of criminality.
  • Investigating the effectiveness of diversity training for law enforcement.
  • Examining the experiences of racial minorities as crime victims.

Policing and Law Enforcement

  • The influence of body-worn cameras on police behavior.
  • Exploring the effectiveness of predictive policing algorithms.
  • Analyzing the role of police discretion in shaping law enforcement outcomes.
  • Investigating the prevalence of police brutality and accountability measures.
  • Examining the impact of community-oriented policing initiatives.
  • Understanding the role of police unions in shaping department policies.
  • Exploring the use of technology in crime mapping and analysis.
  • Analyzing the effectiveness of de-escalation training for police officers.
  • Investigating the role of implicit bias in police interactions.
  • Examining the impact of police militarization on community relations.

Criminal Behavior Theories

  • The impact of strain theory on understanding criminal behavior.
  • Exploring the role of social learning theory in juvenile delinquency.
  • Analyzing the influence of biological theories on criminal behavior.
  • Investigating the relevance of rational choice theory in explaining white-collar crime.
  • Examining the role of labeling theory in shaping criminal identities.
  • Understanding the impact of control theory on crime prevention strategies.
  • Exploring the intersection of feminist theory and criminology.
  • Analyzing the relevance of routine activities theory in cybercrime.
  • Investigating the role of social disorganization theory in understanding neighborhood crime.
  • Examining the influence of psychoanalytic theories on criminal profiling.

Comparative Criminology

  • The impact of cultural differences on crime rates.
  • Exploring the effectiveness of different legal systems in combating crime.
  • Analyzing the role of globalization in transnational crime.
  • Investigating the prevalence of human trafficking in different regions.
  • Examining the effectiveness of drug policies in different countries.
  • Understanding the impact of political instability on crime rates.
  • Exploring the role of corruption in facilitating organized crime.
  • Analyzing the effectiveness of rehabilitation programs in different cultural contexts.
  • Investigating the prevalence of honor crimes in different societies.
  • Examining the role of religion in shaping attitudes towards crime.

Environmental Criminology

  • The impact of urban design on crime rates.
  • Studying the significance of crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED).
  • Analyzing the role of natural landscapes in preventing crime.
  • Investigating the impact of lighting on crime in public spaces.
  • Examining the role of surveillance in deterring criminal activity.
  • Understanding the influence of architecture on criminal behavior.
  • Exploring the impact of weather on crime patterns.
  • Analyzing the role of public transportation in facilitating crime.
  • Investigating the effectiveness of neighborhood revitalization efforts in reducing crime.
  • Examining the influence of housing policies on neighborhood safety.

Criminal Profiling and Forensics

  • The impact of offender profiling on criminal investigations.
  • Exploring the reliability of forensic evidence in court.
  • Analyzing the effectiveness of DNA databases in solving cold cases.
  • Investigating the role of forensic psychology in criminal profiling.
  • Examining the ethics of using familial DNA searching.
  • Understanding the limitations of eyewitness testimony in court.
  • Exploring the use of forensic linguistics in criminal investigations.
  • Analyzing the role of digital forensics in cybercrime investigations.
  • Investigating the effectiveness of geographic profiling techniques.
  • Examining the impact of forensic anthropology on missing persons cases.

Drugs and Crime

  • The influence of drug legalization on crime rates.
  • Exploring the role of drug trafficking organizations in organized crime.
  • Analyzing the effectiveness of harm reduction strategies in reducing drug-related crime.
  • Investigating the link between substance abuse and property crime.
  • Examining the impact of drug courts on recidivism rates.
  • Understanding the role of addiction in driving criminal behavior.
  • Analyzing the impact of drug policy on marginalized communities.
  • Investigating the prevalence of prescription drug abuse and crime.
  • Examining the role of drug treatment programs in reducing criminal recidivism.

Human Trafficking

  • The impact of globalization on human trafficking patterns.
  • Exploring the role of organized crime in human trafficking networks.
  • Analyzing the effectiveness of anti-trafficking laws and policies.
  • Investigating the link between human trafficking and other forms of exploitation.
  • Examining the role of technology in combating human trafficking.
  • Understanding the experiences of human trafficking survivors.
  • Exploring the intersection of migration and human trafficking.
  • Analyzing the role of demand in driving human trafficking.
  • Investigating the effectiveness of victim identification and support programs.
  • Examining the impact of cultural attitudes on human trafficking.

Organized Crime

  • The impact of globalization on the expansion of organized crime networks.
  • Exploring the role of cybercrime in organized criminal enterprises.
  • Analyzing the effectiveness of law enforcement strategies against organized crime.
  • Investigating the connection between organized crime and terrorism.
  • Examining the role of corruption in facilitating organized crime activities.
  • Understanding the structure and hierarchy of organized crime groups.
  • Exploring the impact of drug trafficking on organized crime syndicates.
  • Analyzing the role of money laundering in legitimizing criminal proceeds.
  • Investigating the use of violence and coercion in organized crime operations.
  • Examining the role of technology in disrupting organized crime networks.

Prisons and Incarceration

  • The influence of mass incarceration on communities of color.
  • Exploring the effectiveness of rehabilitation programs in prison.
  • Analyzing the role of privatization in the prison industrial complex.
  • Investigating the link between mental illness and incarceration rates.
  • Examining the impact of solitary confinement on mental health.
  • Understanding the experiences of LGBTQ+ individuals in prison.
  • Exploring the effectiveness of reentry programs for ex-offenders.
  • Analyzing the role of education and vocational training in reducing recidivism.
  • Investigating the prevalence of overcrowding in prisons.
  • Examining the ethics of for-profit prison systems.

Restorative Justice

  • The impact of restorative justice practices on victims and offenders.
  • Exploring the role of community involvement in restorative justice processes.
  • Analyzing the effectiveness of restorative justice in cases of intimate partner violence.
  • Investigating the cultural considerations in implementing restorative justice.
  • Examining the role of restorative justice in addressing historical injustices.
  • Understanding the impact of restorative justice on recidivism rates.
  • Exploring the role of restorative justice in cases involving juvenile offenders.
  • Analyzing the challenges of implementing restorative justice in rural communities.
  • Investigating the effectiveness of restorative justice in cases of hate crimes.
  • Examining the ethical considerations of restorative justice practices.

Factors To Consider When Selecting a Criminology Research Topic

Here are some factors to consider when picking a criminology research topic:

  • Importance – Choose a topic that matters today, is socially important, and will add useful information to criminology. Look at issues people are talking about in the media.
  • Interest – Pick a topic you find really interesting and will enjoy researching. Your excitement will show in your work.
  • Doable – Make sure the topic can be researched well in the time you have, with the data you can access, and follow ethical rules. Avoid topics that are too broad.
  • New – Try to provide new insights or a fresh viewpoint. Look at existing research to find gaps you can help fill.
  • Meaningful – Choose a topic that can potentially improve criminological knowledge, theory, or practice importantly.
  • Methods – Match the topic to research methods you know or want to learn, like statistical analysis, interviews, etc.
  • Sources – Consider access to articles, datasets, people to interview, etc. Can you find good information sources?
  • Audience – Keep your intended readers in mind. Adjust the scope and approach to give useful information to academics, policymakers, practitioners, etc.

Tips for Conducting Criminology Research

Here are some tips for doing criminology research:

  • Get organized – Make a plan for your research steps and deadlines. Keep your notes, sources, and documents in order.
  • Review existing research – Read and analyze other studies about your topic to find gaps, debates, and theories to build on.
  • Choose suitable methods – Pick research methods like surveys, interviews, field studies, or crime data analysis that match your research questions.
  • Follow ethical rules – Get approval for your research plan. Protect participant privacy and anonymity.
  • Find quality sources – Use scholarly journals, crime databases, court records, and trustworthy sources for good data and information.
  • Analyze data carefully – Use appropriate qualitative or statistical techniques to analyze your data and draw valid conclusions.
  • Make persuasive arguments – Interpret your findings to make evidence-based arguments that address your research questions.
  • Write clearly – Use academic but understandable language. Explain terminology. Use an organized structure.
  • Note limitations – Identify limits of your methods, data sources, and ability to determine causation. Suggest future research.
  • Proofread thoroughly – Check for typos, grammar issues, consistent formatting, and complete citations.
  • Share your research – Present at conferences, publish articles or apply findings to inform criminology practice.

Final Remarks

To wrap up, our journey through criminology research has been an exciting exploration of the complex world of crime and solutions. We’ve discovered exciting areas like criminal behavior, prevention, the justice system, and theories by seeing how important it is to pick the right topic.

Remember, your research can help shape real-world policies and practices. As you explore this changing field, connect with experts, use reliable sources, and follow your curiosity. 

A criminology is a powerful tool for positive change, and your work can impact our understanding of crime. Keep exploring, stay curious, and let your criminology research journey unfold! I’m glad we could explore these meaningful topics in a straightforward, easy-to-grasp way.

Similar Articles

How To Improve Grade

Top 19 Tips & Tricks On How To Improve Grades?

Do you want to improve your grades? If yes, then don’t worry! In this blog, I have provided 19 tips…

How To Study For Final Exam

How To Study For Final Exam – 12 Proven Tips You Must Know

How To Study For Final Exam? Studying for the final exam is very important for academic success because they test…

Leave a Comment Cancel Reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

This site uses Akismet to reduce spam. Learn how your comment data is processed .

Read our research on: Immigration & Migration | Podcasts | Election 2024

Regions & Countries

From police to parole, black and white americans differ widely in their views of criminal justice system.

research topics about the criminal justice system

Black Americans are far more likely than whites to say the nation’s criminal justice system is racially biased and that its treatment of minorities is a serious national problem.

In a recent Pew Research Center survey , around nine-in-ten black adults (87%) said blacks are generally treated less fairly by the criminal justice system than whites, a view shared by a much smaller majority of white adults (61%). And in a survey shortly before last year’s midterm elections , 79% of blacks – compared with 32% of whites – said the way racial and ethnic minorities are treated by the criminal justice system is a very big problem in the United States today.

Racial differences in views of the criminal justice system are not limited to the perceived fairness of the system as a whole. Black and white adults also differ across a range of other criminal justice-related questions asked by the Center in recent years, on subjects ranging from crime and policing to the use of computer algorithms in parole decisions.

Here’s an overview of these racial differences:

Black adults in the U.S. consistently express more concern than white adults about crime.

Concerns about violent crime, gun violence are higher among blacks than whites

Blacks are also more likely than whites to see crime as a serious problem locally . In an early 2018 survey , black adults were roughly twice as likely as whites to say crime is a major problem in their local community (38% vs. 17%).

That’s consistent with a survey conducted in early 2017 , when blacks were about twice as likely as whites to say their local community is not too or not at all safe from crime (34% vs. 15%). Black adults were also more likely than whites to say they worry a lot about having their home broken into (28% vs. 13%) or being the victim of a violent crime (20% vs. 8%). However, similar shares in both groups (22% of blacks and 18% of whites) said they actually had been the victim of a violent crime.

Some of the most pronounced differences between blacks and whites emerge on questions related to police officers and the work they do.

A survey conducted in mid-2017 asked Americans to rate police officers and other groups of people on a “feeling thermometer” from 0 to 100, where 0 represents the coldest, most negative rating and 100 represents the warmest and most positive. Black adults gave police officers a mean rating of 47; whites gave officers a mean rating of 72.

Blacks are also more likely than whites to have specific criticisms about the way officers do their jobs, particularly when it comes to police interactions with their community.

More than eight-in-ten black adults say blacks are treated less fairly than whites by police, criminal justice system

Stark racial differences about key aspects of policing also emerged in a 2016 survey . Blacks were much less likely than whites to say that police in their community do an excellent or good job using the right amount of force in each situation (33% vs. 75%), treating racial and ethnic groups equally (35% vs. 75%) and holding officers accountable when misconduct occurs (31% vs. 70%). Blacks were also substantially less likely than whites to say their local police do an excellent or good job at protecting people from crime (48% vs. 78%).

Notably, black-white differences in views of policing exist among officers themselves. In a survey of nearly 8,000 sworn officers conducted in the fall of 2016, black officers were about twice as likely as white officers (57% vs. 27%) to say that high-profile deaths of black people during encounters with police were signs of a broader problem, not isolated incidents. And roughly seven-in-ten black officers (69%) – compared with around a quarter of white officers (27%) – said the protests that followed many of these incidents were motivated some or a great deal by a genuine desire to hold police accountable for their actions, rather than by long-standing bias against the police. (Several other questions in the survey also showed stark differences in the views of black and white officers.)

The death penalty

Most whites – but only around a third of blacks – support the death penalty

Racial divisions extend to other questions related to the use of capital punishment. In a 2015 survey , 77% of blacks said minorities are more likely than whites to be sentenced to death for committing similar crimes. Whites were divided on this question: 46% said minorities are disproportionately sentenced to death, while the same percentage saw no racial disparities.

Blacks were also more likely than whites to say capital punishment is not a crime deterrent (75% vs. 60%) and were less likely to say the death penalty is morally justified (46% vs. 69%). However, about seven-in-ten in both groups said they saw some risk in putting an innocent person to death (74% of blacks vs. 70% of whites).

Parole decisions

Certain aspects of the criminal justice system have changed in recent decades. One example: Some states now use criminal risk assessments to assist with parole decisions. These assessments involve collecting data about people who are up for parole, comparing that data with data about other people who have been convicted of crimes, and then assigning inmates a score to help decide whether they should be released from prison or not.

A 2018 survey asked Americans whether they felt the use of criminal risk assessments in parole decisions was an acceptable use of algorithmic decision-making. A 61% majority of black adults said using these assessments is unfair to people in parole hearings, compared with 49% of white adults.

Voting rights for ex-felons

Blacks more likely than whites to favor allowing people convicted of felonies to vote after serving their sentences

States differ widely when it comes to allowing people with past felony convictions to vote. In 12 states, people with certain felony convictions can lose the right to vote indefinitely unless other criteria – such as receiving a pardon from the governor – are met, according to the National Conference of State Legislatures . In Maine and Vermont, by contrast, those with felony convictions never lose the right to vote, even while they are incarcerated. Twenty-two states fall somewhere between these positions, rescinding voting rights only during incarceration and for a period afterward, such as when former inmates are on parole.

In a fall 2018 survey , 69% of Americans favored allowing people convicted of felonies to vote after serving their sentences. Black adults were much more likely than white adults to somewhat or strongly favor this approach (83% vs. 68%).

research topics about the criminal justice system

Sign up for our weekly newsletter

Fresh data delivered Saturday mornings

America’s public school teachers are far less racially and ethnically diverse than their students

One-third of asian americans fear threats, physical attacks and most say violence against them is rising, majorities of americans see at least some discrimination against black, hispanic and asian people in the u.s., amid national reckoning, americans divided on whether increased focus on race will lead to major policy change, support for black lives matter has decreased since june but remains strong among black americans, most popular.

About Pew Research Center Pew Research Center is a nonpartisan fact tank that informs the public about the issues, attitudes and trends shaping the world. It conducts public opinion polling, demographic research, media content analysis and other empirical social science research. Pew Research Center does not take policy positions. It is a subsidiary of The Pew Charitable Trusts .

Overview of Justice System Research Initiatives

NIDA funds a broad portfolio of research addressing drug abuse in the context of the justice system. Drug abuse and crime are highly correlated in both the adult criminal justice system and the juvenile justice system. Estimates suggest that over half of individuals in prison and nearly two thirds of individuals in jails met criteria for drug dependence or misuse. 1  Among adolescents involved in serious offenses, substance dependence or misuse is approximately 3-4 times higher than that of the general population of adolescents. 2  In addition to a portfolio of independent research projects, NIDA has funded four major multisite initiatives to address the myriad issues at the intersection of the criminal justice system and substance use and misuse. These initiatives include:

  • The Justice Community Opioid Innovation Network (JCOIN; 2019-2024)
  • The Juvenile Justice Translational Research on Interventions for Adolescents in the Legal System (JJ-TRIALS; 2013-2019)
  • Criminal Justice Drug Abuse Treatment Studies (CJ-DATS; 2002-2014)
  • Seek, Test, and Treat: Addressing HIV in the Criminal Justice System (STTR; 2010-2017)

Justice Community Opioid Innovation Network (JCOIN)

Justice Community Opioid Innovation Network (JCOIN)

NIDA launched the Justice Community Opioid Innovation Network (JCOIN) in 2019 to address gaps in OUD treatment and related services in a wide range of criminal legal settings, including jails and prisons, probation and parole, drug and other problem-solving courts, and juvenile justice agencies.

JCOIN includes a collection of research and capacity-building projects to identify effective treatment service delivery models, test implementation strategies to promote their use, and engage practitioners in research and dissemination activities. JCOIN supports more than 70 distinct study protocols , including multisite clinical trials; public opinion surveys and national jail, prison, and court surveys; policy scans; simulation, geospatial, and predictive modeling projects; and a pilot grants program.

Together, these studies are designed to generate real-world evidence to address the unique needs of individuals with OUD as they transition between the criminal-legal system and the community.

Funding for JCOIN is provided primarily by the NIH HEAL Initiative, with additional projects supported directly by NIDA. Supplementary funds to support JCOIN’s training, technical assistance, and related activities are provided by the Bureau of Justice Assistance within the US Department of Justice.

JCOIN Components and Institutions

JCOIN consists of 14 major grant awards, including 12 academic research hubs and two large infrastructure support centers that also conduct complementary research.

The  Research Hubs  conduct large multisite clinical trials that each involve five or more communities, engaging with justice settings and with local service providers. These studies focus on expanding the use of evidence-based medications, behavioral interventions, digital therapeutics, and comprehensive patient-centered treatments in criminal-legal systems across 27 states and Puerto Rico. A  set of core measures  facilitates collaboration and harmonization of data across studies. 

The  Coordination and Translation Center (CTC) manages network logistics, engagement with practitioners and other key stakeholders in the justice and behavioral health fields, and dissemination of products and key research findings. The CTC also conducts research to identify effective dissemination strategies for reaching criminal justice stakeholders and provides funding for innovative, rapid-turnaround pilot studies. An educational component provides mentorship and support to early-career researchers and practitioners on conducting rigorous studies in justice settings.

The  Methodology and Advanced Analytic Resource Center (MAARC)  provides data infrastructure and statistical and analytic expertise to support individual JCOIN studies and cross-site data harmonization. The MAARC also conducts novel empirical research to understand changes in state policies, public opinion, and service delivery within the criminal justice system as they relate to the opioid crisis; and develops predictive, simulation, and geospatial models to provide a broader perspective on service delivery needs, contexts, and decision points.

JCOIN Research Hubs and Clinical Trials

  • Massachusetts JCOIN Clinical Research Center – Baystate Medical Center  
  • Using Implementation Interventions and Peer Recovery Support to Improve Opioid Treatment Outcomes in Community Supervision – Brown University  
  • Improving Retention across the OUD Service Cascade upon Re-entry from Jail Using Recovery Management Checkups – Chestnut Health Systems, Inc.  
  • A Comparative Effectiveness Trial of Extended-Release Naltrexone vs Extended-Release Buprenorphine with Individuals Leaving Jail – Friends Research Institute, Inc.  
  • Alliances to Disseminate Addiction Prevention and Treatment (ADAPT) – Indiana University
  • Facilitating Opioid Care Connections: System-Level Strategies to Improve Use of MAT and Movement Through the Opioid Care Cascade for Defendants in a New Opioid Court System – New York State Psychiatric Institute  
  • Long-Acting Buprenorphine vs Naltrexone Opioid Treatments in CJS-Involved Adults – New York University School of Medicine  
  • JCOIN TCU Clinical Research Center – Texas Christian University  
  • Reducing Opioid Mortality in Illinois (ROMI) – University of Chicago  
  • Kentucky Women’s JCOIN – University of Kentucky  
  • Transitions Clinic Network: Post-Incarceration Addiction Treatment, Healthcare, and Social Support (TCN-PATHS) Study – Yale University  
  • Addressing risk through Community Treatment for Infectious disease and Opioid use disorder Now (ACTION) among justice-involved populations – Yale University

JCOIN Infrastructure Support Centers:

  • JCOIN Coordination and Translation Center – George Mason University
  • JCOIN Methodology and Advanced Analytic Resource Center – University of Chicago

Questions about JCOIN can be addressed to Tisha Wiley .

Juvenile Justice Translational Research on Interventions for Adolescents in the Legal System (JJ-TRIALS)

JJ-Trials

NIDA’s Juvenile Justice Translational Research on Interventions for Adolescents in the Legal System (JJ-TRIALS) was a multisite cooperative agreement that launched in 2013 and ended in 2018. JJ-TRIALS was a seven-site cooperative research program designed to identify and test strategies for improving the delivery of evidence-based substance abuse and HIV prevention and treatment services for justice-involved youth. Virtually all justice-involved youth could benefit from HIV and substance misuse prevention and/or treatment interventions. Many evidence-based interventions targeting adolescent substance misuse and HIV screening, assessment, prevention, and treatment currently exist. Unfortunately, implementation of these interventions within juvenile justice settings is variable, incomplete, and non-systematic at best.

The JJ-TRIALS cooperative fielded three interrelated studies:

  • Scott, C. K., Dennis, M. L., Grella, C. E., Funk, R. R., & Lurigio, A. J. (2019). Juvenile justice systems of care: Results of a national survey of community supervision agencies and behavioral health providers on services provision and cross-system interactions. Health & Justice, 7, 11. doi:10.1186/s40352-019-0093-x
  • Robertson, A., Hiller, M., Dembo, R., Dennis, M., Scott, C., Henry, B.F., & Elkington, K. (2019). National survey of juvenile community supervision agency practices and caregiver involvement in behavioral health treatment. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 1-11.
  • Elkington, K.S., Robertson, A.A., Knight, D.K., Gardner, S.K. Funk, R.F., Dennis, M.L., … DiClemente, R. (2020). HIV/STI service delivery within juvenile community supervision agencies: A national survey of practices and approaches to moving high-risk youth through the HIV care cascade. AIDS Patient Care and STDs, 34(2). doi: 10.1089/apc.2019.0157
  • Funk, R., Knudsen, H.K., McReynolds, L.S., Bartkowski, J.P., Elkington, K.S., Steele, E.H., Sales, J.M., & Scott, C.K. (2020). Substance use prevention services in juvenile justice and behavioral health: Results from a national survey. Health and Justice, 8(11).
  • A 36-site cluster-randomized control trial (RCT) comparing different approaches to systems improvements efforts aimed at improving the identification of substance misuse service needs among justice involved youth and delivery of services to address those needs. Juvenile justice sites partnered with local behavioral health agencies to set tailored goals around how to reduce unmet needs for justice involved youth. This RCT was guided by an implementation science framework and focused on which elements of an implementation interventions led to the most changes in unmet service needs.
  • A publication describing the protocol in full can be found here (open access): Knight, D. K., Belenko, S., Wiley, T., Robertson, A. A., Arrigona, N., Dennis, M., Bartkowski, J. P., McReynolds, L. S., Becan, J. E., Knudsen, H. K., Wasserman, G. A., Rose, E., Diclimente, R. & Leukefeld, C. (2016). Juvenile Justice—Translational Research on Interventions for Adolescents in the Legal System (JJ-TRIALS): a cluster randomized trial targeting system-wide improvement in substance use services. Implementation Science, 11(1), 57. doi:10.1186/s13012-016-0423-5
  • The concept of a behavioral health services cascade, which is the measurement framework for the study is described in the following publication: Belenko, S., Knight, D., Wasserman, G. A., Dennis, M. L., Wiley, T., Taxman, F. S., Oser, C., Dembo, R., Robertson, A. A., & Sales, J. The Juvenile Justice Behavioral Health Services Cascade: A new framework for measuring unmet substance use treatment services needs among adolescent offenders. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 74, 80-91. doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2016.12.012
  • Knight, D.K., Joe, G.W., Morse, D.T., Smith, C., Knudsen, H., Johnson, I., … Wiley, T.R.A. (2019). Organizational context and individual adaptability in promoting perceived importance and use of best practices for substance use. Journal of Behavioral Health Services & Research, 46(2), 192-216.
  • Becan, J.E., Fisher, J.H., Johnson, I.D., Bartkowski, J., Seaver, R., Gardner, S.K., … Knight, D.K. (2020). Improving Substance Use Services for Juvenile Justice-Involved Youth: Complexity of Process Improvement Plans in a Large Scale Multi-site Study. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research. doi:10.1007/s10488-019-01007-z
  • Robertson, A., Fang, Z., Weiland, D., Joe, G., Gardner, S., Dembo, R., …Dennis, M. (in press). Recidivism among justice-involved youth: Findings from JJ-TRIALS. Crime and Behavior.
  • Wasserman, G.A., McReynolds, L.S., Taxman, F., Belenko, S., Elkington, K.S., Robertson, A., … Wiley, T.A. (in press). The missing link(age): Multilevel contributors to service uptake failure in youths on community justice supervision. Psychiatric Services.
  • A 6-site pilot trial examined the degree to which the model developed in the 36-site RCT can be adapted to meet unmet needs around STI/HIV risk behaviors and service needs for justice involved youth. Five of 6 participating sites were able to facilitate health and JJ partnerships; 3 developed on-site HIV/STI education and testing protocols, and 2 developed education and referral protocols. Four of 5 sites successfully implemented their protocols. Across the 3 sites that implemented on-site HIV/STI education and testing protocols, 98.5% of youth who were offered agreed to a behavioral risk assessment.

Seven research centers were funded as part of the JJ-TRIALS collaborative: Chestnut Health Systems (PIs: Michael Dennis and Christy Scott), Columbia University (PI: Gail Wasserman), Emory University (PIs: Ralph DiClemente and Gene Brody), Mississippi State University (PI: Angela Robertson), Temple University (PI: Steven Belenko), Texas Christian University (PI: Danica Knight), and the University of Kentucky (PI: Carl Leukefeld).

JJ Trials Map showing centers - read text for details

Questions about JJ-TRIALS can be addressed to Tisha Wiley .

Overview of the Criminal Justice Drug Abuse Treatment Studies (CJ-DATS) Phase I & II

CJ-DATS logo

CJ-DATS (the national Criminal Justice Drug Abuse Treatment Studies) was launched in 2002 and two initiatives (CJ-DATS-1 and CJ-DATS-2) were carried out from 2002 to 2014. The overarching goal of the CJ-DATS cooperative research programs was to improve both public health and public safety outcomes for substance abusing offenders leaving prison or jail and returning to the community by integrating substance abuse treatment into the criminal justice system. At that time CJ-DATS-1 was launched, an estimated 600,000 inmates were released each year in the United States, with approximately two-thirds having substance misuse problems that, if left unaddressed, could increase the risk of relapse and recidivism to crime.

CJ-DATS was designed to identify ways in which these offenders could benefit from the continuum of effective substance abuse treatment services. CJ-DATS tested several strategies for improving drug abuse treatment services through the coordination with criminal justice assessment, monitoring, and supervision activities. Further, the CJ-DATS initiatives were designed to inform the development of models for integrating evidence-based substance abuse treatment with the criminal justice system. More information on CJ-DATS can be found on our Archive site .

Seek, Test, and Treat: Addressing HIV in the Criminal Justice System (STTR-CJ)

The Seek, Test, and Treat: Addressing HIV in the Criminal Justice System (STTR-CJ) funded twelve R01 applications that empirically tested the “seek, test, treat, and retain” paradigm with drug abusers in criminal justice populations. Researchers developed, implemented, and tested strategies to increase HIV testing and the provision of HAART to HIV seropositive individuals involved with the criminal justice system, with particular focus on continuity of HAART during and after community re-entry following incarceration.

  • A description of the full cohort of 11,070 criminal justice involved individuals is described in the following publication: Chandler, R., Gordon, M. S., Kruszka, B., Strand, L. N., Altice, F. L., Beckwith, C. G., ... & Golin, C. E. (2017). Cohort profile: seek, test, treat and retain United States criminal justice cohort. Substance abuse treatment, prevention, and policy , 12 (1), 24.

For more information, see: Seek, Test, Treat and Retain

Related RFAs

  • JCOIN Coordination and Translation Center: RFA-DA-19-024
  • JCOIN Methodology and Advanced Analytics Resource Center: RFA-DA-19-023
  • JCOIN Clinical Research Centers: RFA-DA-19-025
  • CJ-DATS Phase 1: RFA-DA-02-011
  • CJ-DATS Phase 2: RFA-DA-08-002 and RFA-DA-09-006
  • JJ-TRIALS RFA: RFA-DA-13-009
  • STTR-CJ RFA: RFA-DA-10-017
  • Bronson, J., Stroop, J., Zimmer, S., & Berzofsky, M. (2017). Drug use, dependence, and abuse among state prisoners and jail inmates, 2007–2009. Washington, DC: United States Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics .
  • Mulvey, E. P., Schubert, C. A., & Chassin, L. (2010). Substance Use and Delinquent Behavior Among Serious Adolescent Offenders. Washington, DC: United States Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention .

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

  • View all journals
  • My Account Login
  • Explore content
  • About the journal
  • Publish with us
  • Sign up for alerts
  • Open access
  • Published: 04 September 2018

Young and unafraid: queer criminology’s unbounded potential

  • Vanessa R. Panfil   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3005-4726 1  

Palgrave Communications volume  4 , Article number:  110 ( 2018 ) Cite this article

11k Accesses

9 Citations

2 Altmetric

Metrics details

  • Criminology
  • Social policy

Queer criminology, a fairly young subfield, deals with matters of import for sexual and gender minorities, particularly LGBTQ+ populations. Areas of interest include reducing invisibility and inequity, though these pursuits can sometimes be accompanied with potential pitfalls or unintended consequences. This article provides an overview of the goals and considerations of queer criminology, while focusing on how to cultivate queer criminology’s unbounded potential to help address pressing social problems. Several global issues of immediate concern for LGBTQ+ people are identified, such as criminalization and devaluation of their lives, which has resulted in their detainment and torture, persecution when they organize for their rights, overrepresentation in criminal justice settings, and even fatal violence. Included alongside these issues are strategies to produce meaningful work during what seems to be a time of imminent crisis. The author provides strong encouragement to fiercely pursue projects that can improve our understanding, and, ultimately, the lives of LGBTQ+ people.

Shared themes in queer criminology

Queer criminology focuses primarily on issues of import for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, questioning, intersex, and asexual (LGBTQ+) people, such as their experiences with crime, victimization, the criminal and juvenile justice systems, and as justice system actors. Thus, broader concepts that queer criminologists investigate include discrimination, harassment, safety, and fairness. Some would also argue for a more expansive version of “queer” that encompasses not just self-identified LGBTQ+ people, but includes anyone who is outside of society’s boundaries pertaining to sex, gender, or sexuality. This is a related reason for the plus sign (+) in the LGBTQ+ acronym, as “LGBTQ” and similar acronyms cannot meaningfully capture everyone. A major thread in queer criminological scholarship is reducing invisibility of LGBTQ+ people in these contexts, which could include: as victims, in the form of improved records-keeping and integration of news coverage; as individuals navigating risk or seeking to avoid victimization or persecution; their overrepresentation and negative experiences in the juvenile and criminal justice systems; as criminal justice professionals who may break norms of paramilitary, hypermasculine organizations; and even as offenders. Many queer criminologists directly advocate for queer people’s equity and dignity, and for resources to be allocated to improve their outcomes.

Queer criminology’s growth has occurred primarily since 2000, with exponential growth happening from 2014 onward. Several full-length edited volumes (Peterson and Panfil, 2014 ; Dwyer et al., 2016 ), special issues of journals (Ball et al., 2014 ), and monographs (Ball, 2016b ; Buist and Lenning, 2016 ) address queer criminology and its relevant topics. A complete bibliography of queer criminological work is beyond the scope of this piece, but a brief review of some recent queer criminological topics will be illustrative of the range of approaches under this umbrella.

Regarding disciplinary concerns, queer criminologists have traced the history of criminology and its heteronormative origins (Woods, 2014 ), argued for integrating queer theory into social science discourses (Ball, 2016b ), and showed the lack of engagement with LGBTQ+ topics in criminology and criminal justice curricula (Cannon and Dirks-Linhorst, 2007 ). Concerning victimization, topics have included hate crimes in a global context (Stotzer, 2014 ), how transgender women navigate their safety after experiencing hate violence (Perry and Dyck, 2014 ), and experiences with intrafamilial hate violence among gay men and lesbians (Asquith and Fox, 2016 ), but has also critiqued hate crime laws (Meyer, 2014 ). Research on the criminal and juvenile justice system experiences of LGBTQ+ people has explored how courts and corrections not only fail them, but cause harm (Mogul et al., 2011 ), the programmatic needs and requests of sexual minority youth (Belknap et al., 2014 ), and how transgender women housed in men’s prisons build community and experience prison life (Sexton and Jenness, 2016 ). Policing research is also well-represented, such as tracing the history of policing queer people and asking whether progressive policies can emerge (Dwyer and Tomsen, 2016 ), assessing the effectiveness of police liaison programs meant to serve LGBTQ+ communities (Dwyer et al., 2017 ), and describing how gay and lesbian police officers navigate their occupation (Colvin, 2012 ). Queer criminology has even explored contexts of offending, such as youth weapons-carrying (Button and Worthen, 2017 ), how gay gang members construct identity through crime and gang membership (Panfil, 2017 ), and the dynamics of same-sex intimate partner violence (Messinger, 2017 ).

Unbounded potential

Among queer criminological circles, there has been some debate about its intellectual heritage, or what branch of criminology it falls under. For example, some might argue queer criminology is squarely within critical criminology, which “includes a variety of progressive, humanistic, and radical perspectives” (Kauzlarich, 2018 , p. 14) that challenge dominant understandings of the contours of crime and criminal justice. Critical perspectives that can be queered also include cultural criminology, with its interest in subcultures, situated meanings and identities, resistance, space/place, and risk and embodiment (Hayward and Young, 2004 ), not to mention a very early call for a “queered criminology” originating in an edited volume setting forth agendas for cultural criminology (Ferrell and Sanders, 1995 ). In contrast, others might suggest that it falls within the purview of feminist criminology, since gender and sexuality have long been foci of this tradition (see, e.g., Daly, 1994 ), and it has arguably included LGBTQ+ people more consistently than any other criminological subfield. There are practical implications for this debate about where queer criminology “lives” within the context of a larger disciplinary structure. For example, scholars may use indicators to help guide them as to where to send manuscripts, such as to Feminist Criminology versus Critical Criminology , or for which divisions of professional organizations they should perform service. All of these streams of criminology have legitimate claims to helping develop queer criminological work.

Personally, I am not interested in figuring out one exclusive “home” for queer criminology, especially as different projects have contributions to make within critical, cultural, or feminist criminology—or elsewhere! In fact, I have argued before that queer criminology, or at least attention to the experiences of LGBTQ+ populations, is of central importance to the larger discipline (Panfil and Miller, 2014 ), and queer criminologists should strive to make at least some of their work accessible to and conversant with mainstream, even orthodox, criminology. Recent examples of this include queer criminologists’ integrations of recognizable criminological concepts such as the “criminal career” (e.g., Asquith et al., 2017 ) or testing well-known criminological theories including general strain theory (e.g., Button and Worthen, 2017 ). And, there are ways forward that would not abandon a critical queer criminology at the discipline’s margins, but would still be active in dialoguing with mainstream criminology in the hopes of “pointing out how its well-entrenched heteronormative and positivistic bad habits are holding it back,” such that we queer criminologists can help make criminology “a better discipline” (Dalton, 2016 , p. 30; original emphasis).

Furthermore, work that makes meaningful contributions to our knowledge about the safety and well-being of LGBTQ+ people may not appear in criminological outlets. One example is research on unnecessary surgical modification of intersex infants and children: although these surgeries are advised against by patient support groups and various human rights organizations and have been shown to cause both mental and physical harm, they continue to be performed daily in the U.S. (Davis and Murphy, 2013 ). Part of queer criminology’s unbounded potential is its ability to answer questions of import in today’s diverse world. Thus, in a more general sense, in order to do queer criminological work, I argue that scholars should not feel constrained by deep-seated disciplinary norms or politics that have systematically excluded LGBTQ+ people from humanistic and nuanced exploration.

To assume that queer criminology only has contributions to make to academic contexts would be selling it wildly short. Queer criminological work should dialogue not just with the broader field or related interdisciplinary fields, but with the public and community institutions. Many LGBTQ+ people who are not academics, but who still experience what it is like to live as a queer person daily, are very interested in trends of violence against queer people or political moves to restrict their rights, and the implications this has on health and well-being. We need to better utilize public criminology to get information out to the communities that could benefit from it, through social media, community forums, press releases, standard websites, and potentially even open access academic journals.

Related to this point of encouraging public criminology and collaboration with community organizations, work on many queer criminological topics exists largely within the public realm already. In fact, much of what we know on topics such as state mistreatment of LGBTQ+ people, fatal violence against transgender women, and experiences of queer people in the criminal and juvenile justice systems comes from the grey literature—reports from organizations that conduct research and release it on their own or outside of academic or commercial publishers. Thus, much information about LGBTQ+ populations’ experiences with crime and justice, especially the experiences of LGBTQ+ people of color, comes not from academics, but from organizations or associations doing work on the ground. These include Human Rights Watch, Amnesty International, GLSEN (the Gay, Lesbian, and Straight Education Network), National Center for Lesbian Rights, Human Rights Campaign, Trans People of Color Coalition, the National Coalition of Anti-Violence Programs, Center for American Progress, the Movement Advancement Project, and Black and Pink.

The unbounded potential of queer criminology also exists at the intersection of activism and scholarship. This could be conceived of outside the academy, such as scholars engaging in community organizing or volunteerism. However, scholars can also participate in activism through traditional academic acts such as research, teaching, and service—queer criminology as activism (Ball, 2016a ). Indeed, a diverse group of queer criminologists themselves note the importance of framing certain disciplinary acts as advocacy, and allowing our scholarship to inform our advocacy and vice versa (Dwyer and Panfil, 2017 ).

Of immediate concern

LGBTQ+ people have faced many challenges globally throughout history, and several contemporary revelations are particularly disturbing and concerning. For example, global news media has reported on suspected instances of queer people being systematically rounded up, detained, tortured, “disappeared,” and/or killed en masse—in modern-day Chechnya, for instance (Rainsford, 2017 ). Similarly, it is disconcerting when leaders of republics, such as those of Iran or Chechnya, say, “In Iran, we don’t have homosexuals like in your country [the U.S.]” (Goldman, 2007 ), or that there are no gay people in Chechnya (Rainsford, 2017 ). Although these statements are likely related to issues of visibility combined with those leaders’ goals for social desirability, it also raises unsettling questions about what efforts are being taken to ensure that no gay people exist in their respective locales. Human rights organizations have uncovered state torture and ill-treatment of LGBTQ+ people in countries across the world, in both the global North and the global South (Amnesty International, 2001 ).

In addition, it is estimated that nearly 80 countries have laws criminalizing same-sex sexual contact (Itaborahy and Zhu, 2013 ). Others have laws that dictate guidelines for self-presentation (such as no “cross-dressing”) or sexual contact (such as prohibiting “sodomy”) that may not explicitly mention LGBTQ+ people, but are often used to target their daily lives. In some of these countries, many of which are located in the global South, LGBTQ+ rights activists face extreme stigma and violence. They have been doxxed (their addresses/phone numbers or other identifying information released through local media), subjected to police harassment, targeted for interpersonal violence, and/or forced to flee. Several prominent activists, such as Brian Williamson of Jamaica, Xulhaz Mannan of Bangladesh, and Eric Ohena Lembembe of Cameroon, were murdered after their pro-LGBTQ+ activities were publicized; these activists’ lives and good works have been further devalued by victim blaming, and, in the latter two cases, a lack of sincere effort to bring a perpetrator to justice (for more details on each of these individuals’ activism and their murders, see Asquith et al., 2018 ). Australian queer criminologists in particular are thus far leading the way in combining Southern criminology and queer criminology (e.g., Ball and Dwyer, 2018 ), but hopefully others will serve as allies and collaborators to scholars and advocates in the global South who are motivated to pursue this work.

A related concern that has received much attention in the United States is the incidence of fatal violence against transgender people, especially transgender women of color. Compared to all women, transgender women are estimated to be 4.3 times more likely to be murdered; furthermore, 93 percent of the known transgender homicide victims between 2013–2016 were people of color, three-quarters of whom were African American (HRC and TPOCC, 2016 ). Just over two-thirds of all victims of anti-LGBTQ+ or HIV-motivated hate violence homicides are transgender women of color (NCAVP, 2013 ). Factors that contribute to this violence include misogyny, false and damaging cultural stereotypes of transgender people as “deceptive,” and perceived support for so-called “trans panic” as a legal justification for homicide (Wodda and Panfil, 2015 ). Racist, misogynist, and transphobic cultural forces combine to create dangerous scenarios for transgender women of color, and interventions into these structural forces are vitally necessary.

Queer people, including young LGBTQ+ people, are not only overrepresented in the juvenile and criminal justice systems, but are underserved by social institutions because they are denied equal protection in education, housing, employment, and healthcare. For example, LGBTQ+ youths’ percentages in the juvenile justice system are more than twice their proportion within the general youth population (Hunt and Moodie-Mills, 2012 ). They may end up in the juvenile justice system through mechanisms such as the school-to-prison pipeline, where LGBTQ+ youth are targeted for disciplinary infractions or exclusionary discipline (such as suspension, expulsion, or school transfer) related to their sexual orientation or gender expression (Burdge et al., 2014 ). They are also overcriminalized for activities such as engaging in age-appropriate sexual exploration with same-sex peers, or for their reactions to familial discord resulting from their LGBTQ+ identities (Majd et al., 2009 ). Criminal processing system overreach manifests in many forms, but is perhaps especially egregious in the case of “walking while trans,” where transgender people are arrested for suspicion of prostitution or other “quality of life” offenses simply for existing in certain areas or moving through space (Kellaway, 2015 ). Institutions similarly fail to protect LGBTQ+ people; only 19 states in the U.S. prevent employment discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity (Bellis, 2017 ). Transgender and gender nonconforming people are especially vulnerable to discrimination in the workplace, which perpetuates inequality and can even lead to survival crimes (Walker et al., 2018 ). Furthermore, the current U.S. federal administration has taken steps to allow healthcare workers to refuse services on religious grounds or “conscience” objections, and it seems likely this will include being able to refuse services to LGBTQ+ people (Kodjak, 2018 ). Because of the potential that LGBTQ+ people may be refused necessary healthcare services under government approval, this could soon be a state violence concern.

A caveat relevant to conducting queer criminological research is the risk of unintended consequences, such as our data being used to bolster administrative projects that further surveil, control, or criminalize LGBTQ+ people (Ball, 2014 ; see also Panfil, 2014 ). Because of the potential criminal justice system overreach mentioned prior, it is probably best to draw from the sensibilities of penal abolition as we proceed. After all, some scholars (e.g., Spade, 2013 ) have convincingly argued that we as queer scholars and community members should be hesitant to place our trust or resources in the same institutions that have historically marginalized and harmed people like us.

Meaningful work

The issues and topics that queer criminologists pursue constitute inherently meaningful work. Some projects may not seem to have an immediately obvious policy implication, such as work on identities, but any project that can shine light on LGBTQ+ people’s experiences is valuable. Topics such as those I note directly above are priority areas in my own estimation, but my forthcoming and in-progress projects do not align with all of them. Many of us have our own topical areas of concern that we have been pursuing for years, and I do not mean to imply that we should abandon other work we are doing and take up those particular challenges. In fact, many pressures today may make us feel as though we should be working on something else altogether. Scholars committed to social justice are understandably shaken by both existential and immediate threats to the world order, such as concerns about nuclear warfare and democracy being in crisis. A sense of crisis can accelerate time and make us feel that we must speed up our research process as we race to catch up, but taking more of a “slow science” approach can help us proceed more deliberately and reliably (Werth and Ballestero, 2017 ). While I do not object to research being reactionary if it evaluates a legal, political, or social change, the projects we thought were crucial at one time in the very recent past are likely still crucial and should not be shelved, and research looking broadly at deeply ingrained societal power structures is still necessary. Similar and complementary sentiments have taken root among and been fostered by many scholars. For example, the 2018 Racial Democracy, Crime, and Justice Network’s summer conference theme was “Staying on Course: Undertaking Crime and Justice Scholarship in an Anti-Science Era.” Queer criminologists (and others) should keep doing the work we feel compelled to complete. Even if the work does not seem to be about an extremely pressing social issue relevant to the policy changes of the past couple of years, any queer criminology topic does not suddenly become unimportant in light of other crises. And, more specifically, in order to understand the potential impacts of forthcoming or unfolding policy, a baseline (of sorts) would serve us well. Learning about identities, experiences, activities, meanings, challenges, hopes, fears, personal agency, social support, and other factors in the lives of LGBTQ+ people will better allow us to make sense of how things are and how they could, or should, be. I am certain that we will value possessing diverse threads of scholarship when we are again able to weave larger tapestries.

A closing thought on privilege

Although I think the tide is turning as the discipline becomes more diverse and its boundaries are pushed, doing queer criminology is sometimes still seen as a gamble or capable of producing occupational hazards. I have met many graduate students and early career scholars who have been encouraged to “de-lavender” their CV, or advised that their work on queer people or sexuality was “career suicide,” or told it was a niche topic. Clearly I do not believe these latter two to be true, and certainly would never have followed the advice provided in the former. For those of us who are able to achieve the discipline’s normative markers of success (e.g., advanced degrees, publications, grants) and feel institutionally secure, I hope we continue to use our privilege to work for us to aid others looking to contribute to queer criminology. I recognize that privilege (or the lack of it) can look very different depending on the type of academic institution, the scholar’s career stage, whether they feel they are already a token, whether conducting queer criminological work would open them up to potentially damaging professional risk, and other factors. For those of us who can exercise our discretion, autonomy, and resources to pursue these lines of inquiry and have it not be to our detriment, we should recognize the advantageous position we are in and the unbounded potential that too affords us.

It is incumbent upon us to be fiercely committed and to cultivate allies where we can. Of course, I would also encourage people who have seniority and pull and who consider themselves to be LGBTQ+ allies to also become outspoken allies of queer criminology, and mentors to the primarily untenured and early career scholars who are undertaking this work. Queer criminology as a subfield is young, so I do not blame budding scholars or newcomers for feeling wary; more specifically, I do not begrudge them caution or being strategic. However, we must be unafraid enough to push forward. There is too much on the line.

Amnesty International (2001) Crimes of hate, conspiracy of silence: torture and ill-treatment based on sexual identity. Amnesty International Publications, London

Google Scholar  

Asquith NL, Dwyer A, Simpson P (2017) A queer criminal career. Curr Issues Crim Justice 29:167–180

Asquith NL, Fox CA (2016) No place like home: Intrafamilial hate crime against gay men and lesbians. In: Dwyer A, Ball M, Crofts T (eds) Queering criminology. Palgrave Macmillan, London, p 163–182

Asquith NL, Panfil VR, Dwyer A (2018) LGBQ people and social justice. In: Roberson C (ed) Handbook of social, economic, and criminal justice. Routledge, New York, NY, p 141–156

Ball M (2014) What’s queer about queer criminology? In: Peterson D, Panfil VR (eds) Handbook of LGBT communities, crime, and justice. Springer, New York, NY, p 531–555

Chapter   Google Scholar  

Ball M (2016a) Queer criminology as activism. Crit Criminol 24:473–487

Article   Google Scholar  

Ball M (2016b) Queer theory and criminology: dangerous bedfellows? Palgrave, London

Book   Google Scholar  

Ball M, Dwyer A (2018) Queer criminology and the global south: setting queer and southern criminologies into dialogue. In: Carrington K, Hogg R, Scott J, Sozzo M (eds) Palgrave handbook of criminology and the global South. Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke, p 121–138

Ball M, Buist CL, Woods JB (2014) Introduction to the special issue on queer/ing criminology: new directions and frameworks. Crit Criminol 22:1–4

Belknap J, Holsinger K, Little JS (2014) Lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth incarcerated in delinquent facilities. In: Peterson D, Panfil VR (eds) Handbook of LGBT communities, crime, and justice. Springer, New York, NY, p 207–228

Bellis R (2017) Here’s everywhere in the U.S. you can still get fired for being gay or trans. https://www.fastcompany.com/40456937/heres-everywhere-in-the-u-s-you-can-still-get-fired-for-being-gay-or-trans . Accessed 30 April 2018

Buist CL, Lenning E (2016) Queer criminology. Routledge, New York, NY

Burdge H, Licona AC, Hyemingway ZT (2014) LGBTQ youth of color: discipline disparities, school push-out, and the school-to-prison pipeline. Gay-Straight Alliance Network, and Crossroads Collaborative at the University of Arizona, San Francisco, Tucson

Button DM, Worthen MGF (2017) Applying a general strain theory framework to understand school weapon carrying among LGBQ and heterosexual youth. Criminology 55:806–832

Cannon KD, Dirks-Linhorst PA (2007) How will they understand if we don’t teach them? The status of criminal justice education on gay and lesbian issues. J Crim Justice Educ 17:262–278

Colvin RA (2012) Gay and lesbian cops: diversity and effective policing. Lynne Reinner, Boulder

Dalton D (2016) Reflections on the emergence, efficacy, and value of queer criminology. In: Dwyer A, Ball M, Crofts T (eds) Queering criminology. Palgrave Macmillan, London, p 15–35

Daly K (1994) Gender, crime, and punishment. Yale University Press, New Haven

Davis G, Murphy EL (2013) Intersex bodies as states of exception: an empirical explanation for unnecessary surgical modification. Fem Form 25(2):129–152

Dwyer A, Panfil VR (2017) We need to lead the charge—Talking only to each other is not enough: the Pulse Orlando mass shooting and the futures of queer criminologies. Criminologist 42(3):1–7

Dwyer A, Tomsen S (2016) The past is the past? The impossibility of erasure of historical LGBTIQ policing. In: Dwyer A, Ball M, Crofts T (eds) Queering criminology. Palgrave Macmillan, London, p 36–53

Dwyer A, Ball M, Crofts T (eds) (2016) Queering criminology. Palgrave Macmillan, London

Dwyer A, Ball M, Bond C, Lee M, and Crofts T (2017) Exploring LGBTI police liaison services: factors influencing their use and effectiveness according to LGBTI people and LGBTI police liaison officers. Report to the Criminology Research Advisory Council. http://crg.aic.gov.au/reports/1718/31-1112-FinalReport.pdf . Accessed 16 July 2018

Ferrell J, Sanders CR (1995) Cultural criminology. Northeastern University Press, Boston

Goldman R (2007) Ahmadinejad: no gays, no oppression of women in Iran. ABC News. http://abcnews.go.com/US/story?id=3642673. Accessed 30 April 2018

Hayward KJ, Young J (2004) Cultural criminology: some notes on the script. Theor Criminol 8:259–273

Human Rights Campaign (HRC) and Trans People of Color Coalition (TPOCC) (2016) A matter of life and death: fatal violence against transgender people in America 2016. HRC and TPOCC, Washington, D.C

Hunt J, Moodie-Mills A (2012) The unfair criminalization of gay and transgender youth: an overview of the experiences of LGBT youth in the juvenile justice system. Center for American Progress, Washington, D.C

Itaborahy LP, Zhu J (2013) State-sponsored homophobia. A world survey of laws: criminalisation, protection and recognition of same-sex love. International Lesbian Gay Bisexual Trans and Intersex Association, Brussels/Mexico City.

Kauzlarich D (2018) Critical criminology isn’t only about Marxism or the U.S. Criminologist 43(2):14

Kellaway M (2015) Arizona appeals court overturns Monica Jones’s conviction for “Walking While Trans.” The Advocate . http://www.advocate.com/politics/transgender/2015/01/27/arizona-appeals-court-overturns-monica-joness-conviction-walking-whi . Accessed 30 April 2018

Kodjak A (2018) Trump admin will protect health workers who refuse services on religious grounds. NPR.org. https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2018/01/18/578811426/trump-will-protect-health-workers-who-reject-patients-on-religious-grounds . Accessed 30 April 2018

Majd K, Marksamer J, Reyes C (2009) Hidden injustice: lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender youth in juvenile courts. Legal Services for Children, National Juvenile Defender Center, and National Center for Lesbian Rights, San Francisco

Messinger AM (2017) LGBTQ intimate partner violence: lessons for policy, practice, and research. University of California Press, Berkeley

Meyer D (2014) Resisting hate crime discourse: queer and intersectional challenges to neoliberal hate crime laws. Crit Criminol 22:113–125

Mogul JL, Ritchie AJ, Whitlock K (2011) Queer (In)justice: the criminalization of LGBT people in the United States. Beacon Press, Boston

National Coalition of Anti-Violence Programs (NCAVP) (2013) Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and HIV-affected hate violence in 2012. NCAVP, New York, NY

Panfil VR (2014) Better left unsaid? The role of agency in queer criminological research. Crit Criminol 22:99–111

Panfil VR (2017) The gang’s all queer: the lives of gay gang members. NYU Press, New York, NY

Panfil VR, Miller J (2014) Beyond the straight and narrow: the import of queer criminology for criminology and criminal justice. Criminologist 39(4):1–8

Perry B, Dyck DR (2014) “I don’t know where it is safe”: trans women’s experiences of violence. Crit Criminol 22:49–63

Peterson D, Panfil VR (2014) Introduction: reducing the invisibility of sexual and gender identities in criminology and criminal justice. In: Peterson D, Panfil VR (eds) Handbook of LGBT communities, crime, and justice. Springer, New York, p 3–13

Rainsford S (2017) Chechen “gay purge” victim: no one knows who will be next. BBC News. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-41645281 . Accessed 30 April 2018

Sexton L, Jenness V (2016) “We’re like community”: collective identity and collective efficacy among transgender women in prisons for men. Punishm Soc 18:544–577

Spade D (2013) Their laws will never make us safer. In: Conrad R (ed) Against equality: prisons will not protect you. Against Equality Publishing Collective, Lewiston, p 1–12

Stotzer R (2014) Bias crimes based on sexual orientation and gender identity (SOGI): global prevalence, impacts, and causes. In: Peterson D, Panfil VR (eds) Handbook of LGBT communities, crime, and justice. Springer, New York, NY, p 45–64

Walker A, Sexton L, Valcore J, Sumner J, Wodda A (2018) Transitioning to social justice: transgender and non-binary individuals. In: Roberson C (ed) Handbook of social, economic, and criminal justice. Routledge, New York, NY, p 220–233

Werth R, Ballestero A (2017) Ethnography and the governance of il/legality: some methodological and analytical reflections. Soc Justice 44(1):10–35

Wodda A, Panfil VR (2015) “Don’t talk to me about deception”: the necessary erosion of the trans* panic defense. Albany Law Rev 78:927–971

Woods JB (2014) “Queering criminology”: overview of the state of the field. In: Peterson D, Panfil VR (eds) Handbook of LGBT communities, crime, and justice. Springer, New York, NY, p 15–41

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Department of Sociology and Criminal Justice, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, 23529, USA

Vanessa R. Panfil

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Vanessa R. Panfil .

Ethics declarations

Competing interests.

The author declares no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher's note: Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ .

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Panfil, V.R. Young and unafraid: queer criminology’s unbounded potential. Palgrave Commun 4 , 110 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-018-0165-x

Download citation

Received : 30 April 2018

Accepted : 07 August 2018

Published : 04 September 2018

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-018-0165-x

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

This article is cited by

Out of the closet and onto the olympic floor: a qualitative look at social media user’s perceptions of transgender olympic athletes.

  • Susana Avalos
  • MacKenzie Kibler
  • Elizabeth Monk-Turner

Gender Issues (2022)

Experiences of Trans Scholars in Criminology and Criminal Justice

  • Allyn Walker
  • Jace Valcore
  • Ash Stephens

Critical Criminology (2021)

Quick links

  • Explore articles by subject
  • Guide to authors
  • Editorial policies

research topics about the criminal justice system

IMAGES

  1. 180+ Unique Criminal Justice Research Topics for Students

    research topics about the criminal justice system

  2. PPT

    research topics about the criminal justice system

  3. Criminal Justice Research Topics

    research topics about the criminal justice system

  4. 135+ Amazing Criminal Justice Research Topics In 2023

    research topics about the criminal justice system

  5. Exploring Criminal Justice Research Topics: The State of Justice

    research topics about the criminal justice system

  6. Criminal Justice research and impact at CU Denver School of Public Affairs

    research topics about the criminal justice system

COMMENTS

  1. 35 Criminal Justice Topics for Students

    35 Criminal Justice Topics for Students These criminal justice topics can help spark your imagination as you select a focus for your own dissertation. As long as there have been legal systems, criminal justice has played a role in societies around the world.

  2. 500+ Criminal Justice Research Topics

    Criminal Justice Research Topics are as follows: The effectiveness of community policing in reducing crime rates The impact of body-worn cameras on police accountability and public trust The causes and consequences of police use of excessive force The role of race and ethnicity in police-citizen interactions and perceptions

  3. 135+ Amazing Criminal Justice Research Topics In 2023

    Some research topics include the following: The role of law enforcement, prosecutors, and public defenders. Challenges with eyewitness identifications. Different types of evidence are used in criminal cases. The effect of jury selection on trials. How criminal justice impacts mental health. What Is a Research Paper in Criminal Justice?

  4. Reflections on Criminal Justice Reform: Challenges and Opportunities

    Concerns about dramatic increases in violent crime beginning in the late Sixties and accelerating into the 1980s led to the "War on Drugs" and the "War on Crime" that included implementation of more punitive policies and dramatic increases in incarceration and community supervision.

  5. Research Guides: Criminal Justice Resources: Home

    In addition to criminal justice and criminology, topics covered include criminal law and procedure, corrections and prisons, police and policing, criminal investigation, forensic sciences and investigation, history of crime, substance abuse and addiction, and probation and parole. 1968-current. more... NCJRS

  6. NIJ Journal

    The NIJ Journal, published several times a year, features articles to help criminal justice policymakers and practitioners stay informed about new developments. The NIJ Journal presents research-based information that can help inform policy decisions and improve understanding of the criminal justice system.Each issue of the NIJ Journal focuses on a single theme, allowing the articles to dive ...

  7. Criminal Justice

    report | Jun 14, 2023 Support for the Black Lives Matter Movement Has Dropped Considerably From Its Peak in 2020 Today, 51% of U.S. adults say they support the Black Lives Matter movement - down from 67% in June 2020.

  8. Top Trends in Criminal Justice Reform, 2022

    Challenging Racial Disparity. Racial and ethnic disparities in the criminal justice system have been extensively documented. California officials adopted Assembly Bill 256, the Racial Justice Act for All.The measure allows persons with convictions or judgements prior to January 1, 2021 to petition the court and seek relief if racial bias was proven to be present in their case.

  9. Criminal Justice Research Topics

    Strong criminal justice research papers consist of a focused question to answer and a specific area of criminal justice like forensic science, serial killers, substance abuse, sexual offenders, cyber criminology, corporate crime, juvenile justice, or criminal behavior.

  10. Criminal Justice Research Topics

    This collection provides overviews of nearly 100 key criminal justice research topics comprising traditional criminology and its more modern interdisciplinary outgrowths. These topics are divided into six thematic parts: Criminology Correlates of Crime Criminology Theories Crime Research Types of Crime Criminal Justice System

  11. 100 Criminal Justice Research Topics For College Students

    100 Amazing Criminal Justice Research Topics 2023 To score the top grades, students must choose the right criminal justice research topics for their papers and essays. Writing assignments in this academic field deal with justice and crime. However, the study field of a learner can be limited to specific academic barriers and choices.

  12. Crime and justice research: The current landscape and future

    The contributions in this themed section developed from conversations that took place at an event hosted by the British Society of Criminology and Criminology & Criminal Justice in April 2019. The papers that follow respond to a 'think-piece' presented by Richard Sparks at that event, and engage with the subsequent debate about the future of funding for crime and justice research.

  13. 230 Criminal Justice Research Topics for your Inspiration

    Updated 21 Nov 2023 According to statistics, criminal justice takes honorary second place after general Law assignments in terms of assignment difficulty. Just like Healthcare and Nursing, this type of writing requires definite accuracy and sufficient sources that support ideas and arguments.

  14. CrimeSolutions

    Science supports corrections agencies and the larger criminal justice system by delivering precise, reliable processes capable of generating consistent, repeatable outcomes. The National Institute of Justice is tasked by Congress with producing real-world benefits, through scientific innovation, for justice agencies, their stakeholders and the ...

  15. Criminal Justice System Research Paper Topics

    $15 proceed to order In recent years, the criminal justice system has been the subject of intense scrutiny, particularly in relation to issues of racial and social justice. As a result, there is a growing need for research that addresses these concerns and promotes meaningful reform.

  16. The List of Criminal Justice Research Topics

    60+ Criminal Justice Research Topics Written by Daniel Pn. January 10, 2023 10 minutes Share the article Criminal Justice Research Paper: Definition Whether you've been assigned crime research topics by your professor or you simply enjoy exploring exciting topics in criminology, we guarantee you'll read through this article in one fell swoop.

  17. 200 Best Criminology Research Topics For Students

    Criminology research topics involve studying crime, criminals, and the justice system using scientific methods. This includes looking at: Why crimes happen Patterns in criminal behavior How crime impacts people and communities How the justice system, like police, courts, and jails, work Theories about the causes of crime Ways to prevent crimes

  18. How black, white Americans differ in views of criminal justice system

    In a recent Pew Research Center survey, around nine-in-ten black adults (87%) said blacks are generally treated less fairly by the criminal justice system than whites, a view shared by a much smaller majority of white adults (61%). And in a survey shortly before last year's midterm elections, 79% of blacks - compared with 32% of whites ...

  19. Overview of Justice System Research Initiatives

    NIDA funds a broad portfolio of research addressing drug abuse in the context of the justice system. Drug abuse and crime are highly correlated in both the adult criminal justice system and the juvenile justice system. Estimates suggest that over half of individuals in prison and nearly two thirds of individuals in jails met criteria for drug ...

  20. Criminal Justice System

    The criminal justice system is the network of government and private agencies intended to manage accused and convicted criminals. The criminal justice system is comprised of multiple interrelated pillars, consisting of academia, law enforcement, forensic services, the judiciary, and corrections.

  21. Race, gender, class, and criminal justice: Examining barriers to

    Race, Gender, Class, and Criminal Justice is a cogent examination of how these three important characteristics impact individuals at different stages of the criminal justice system. McDonald accomplishes this by taking each concept (race, gender, and class) and examining each as a separate entity to allow readers to get an in depth understanding.

  22. Young and unafraid: queer criminology's unbounded potential

    Research on the criminal and juvenile justice system experiences of LGBTQ+ people has explored how courts and corrections not only fail them, but cause harm (Mogul et al., 2011), the programmatic ...

  23. How Research Is Translated to Policy and Practice in the Criminal

    A recent NIJ-funded study of Florida's correctional systems has shed new light on the question of how research is translated into policy and practice in the criminal justice system. Researchers found that the most common ways to effectively translate research to policy and practice included making the information easier to understand, more credible and more applicable to local circumstances ...

  24. The search for justice in America is not a nine-to-five job

    Krystal Rodriguez, policy head of the Data Collaborative for Justice at John Jay College, says arraignments both night and day are a "snapshot of how the criminal-justice system becomes the ...

  25. Victims' Rights, Sentencing Reform, and a Civilian-Military Dialogue on

    Over the last two decades, both the civilian and military criminal justice systems have enhanced victims' rights, and the military has begun to mirror the federal system in terms of sentencing. The overlap is so clear that Justice Kagan recently wrote that there is no reason to make a distinction between the two. See Ortiz v.

  26. A fresh dialogue on criminal justice reform changes the game for 2024

    Public opinion on crime and criminal justice has fundamentally changed over the past few years and the majority now favor dealing with the roots of crime over strict sentencing by a 2 to 1 margin ...

  27. Courts

    NIJ Seeks Research Partner Sites for Veterans Treatment Court Evaluation. The National Institute of Justice sponsors criminal court research and court-based program evaluation to identify tools, programs and policies that satisfy criminal justice goals including: public safety, cost-efficiency and fair and equitable treatment of victims and ...