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Home / Formal email writing examples & tips

25 formal email writing format examples & best practices

Get professional email writing formats proven to work in real life. See top formal email examples and learn professional email best practices.

Email writing is an art and doing it well takes know-how and practice. But you don’t have to make all the mistakes for yourself in order to write professional emails.

We assembled for you the essential tips for creating highly effective formal emails with a deep dive into formal email formats, structure, and best practices. We also gathered some real-life examples and templates you can use right away with a few tweaks.

What’s in this article

• Basic formal email structure
• 25 top professional formal email examples you can use today

Aesthetics of a formal email

• How to improve your email writing skills

Formal vs. informal email writing

Formal email writing is usually in a B2B or B2C scenario or a professional email between colleagues, businesses, or partners. Informal email writing is something you might send a friend, or family member, or sometimes even a quick email you’re firing off to a colleague.

When you’re emailing a friend there is not much risk of getting your words or meaning wrong, and there is little risk of hurting your reputation or wrecking an incredible business opportunity. But when writing a business email there is much at stake and many things that can go horribly wrong. This is why our article will deal mostly with formal email writing and how to get it right every time.

Here, we’ll go over all the ins and outs of what goes into an email structure, different email formats you can use, as well as short email templates that you can use in various scenarios. Keep reading to learn how to write the perfect email.

Basic formal & professional email structure

Before we get into different email templates, it’s important to know how to build an email yourself. For the most part, every email, regardless of its contents, will follow the same structure with the same basic elements. You should get to know these elements in order to ensure proper and effective email writing as a whole.

The basic elements of professional email writing:

• Your email address
• Subject line

Email Opening

Email ending.

• Email Sign off

Email signature/footer

Now let’s break these down, one by one.

Professional email address

Your email address is oftentimes out of your control. If you’re working for a company or operate under the umbrella of a brand your email address will likely include the company or brand name domain.

For example, the emails in WiseStamp are all in the following format: [employee_name]@wisestamp.com. This ensures that we all have a professional business email address. Since only the owner of wisestamp.com can issue email addresses under that domain name, this ensures our emails appear legitimate.

Imagine if each employee had a random Gmail address like [name][email protected], which anyone can create, that would be a bit suspicious. Email open rates are first and foremost dependent on trust, so make sure you have a trustworthy email address or suffer very low open rates.

If you are a freelancer professional, working separately from an established brand, consider buying a domain name for your personal brand. You can look up available domains on Google domain registrar .

Subject lines

Your subject line will be the single most important element in your formal email writing. It is the first thing your recipient will see and unless you convince her then and there that your email is a safe, relevant, and high priority (in that order) it may never be opened. If this happens, any effort you put into the rest of the email elements will go to waste.

Your subject line will depend on the purpose or content of your email, but overall, you want it to be something engaging enough for a recipient to click on.

Email subject line guidelines:

• Be clear and specific – avoid using generic or clickbait subject lines that say nothing or make unrealistic promises, like “find out how to double your business in a week”.
• Be original – avoid using those all too common subject line templates you find on the internet. Instead make original subject lines that are relevant, personal, and concise.
• Add relevancy – address something that the recipient will recognize, like an acquaintance’s name or an article/ show/ book they appeared on.

Studies have shown that personalized subject lines are 26% more likely to be opened . You also want to tailor your email subject line to your email goal, whether it’s a sales email, a personal email, a newsletter, or something else. I advise that you take the time to think of 3-4 refined options then consider which of them will likely be most appropriate.

The next most important way to hook a recipient into your email is by writing a strong email opening line . Like your subject line, the email opening is mostly used as another filtering stage for most people. If it fails to meet the promise made in the subject line, your readers will ditch it.

Therefore, it’s extremely important to define your main point in 1 or 2 paragraphs tops. If you clearly convey your request or question and your reader feels it’s relevant and interesting, then they’ll continue reading your email. If you manage to get them to stay after this point, in most cases, they’ll return your email. Good for you.

Email opening guidelines:

• Address your recipient by their preferred name – look up an article they’ve written or their LinkedIn page and see what name they use. Some people will use their full name or their nickname accordingly (for example David vs. Dave, or Anastasia vs. Ana).
• Establish a connection – connect your email to a personal experience that involves the recipient, like an article or a news piece you’ve read about them, or a conversation you had with an acquaintance.
• Match the opening with the subject line – your opening message has to mirror the promise made in the subject line because this is how the reader validates relevancy. If you don’t connect the subject line to the opening, readers will be confused and even assume clickbait.
• Get to the point fast – tell your reader why you contacted her and what’s in it for her.

The body of your email is where you get into your main message. Whether you’re composing an email to establish a new business connection or just following up on a meeting, the body of your email should be detailed enough that the reader isn’t confused, but also brief and to the point. No one wants to sit and read a long-winded email when they have dozens of other unattended messages in their inbox.

Email body writing guidelines:

• Be concise – detail only what’s needed to get your point across.
• Use words that convey (authentic) positive personal emotions – words like “glad”, “excited”, “intrigued”, and “confident”.
• Use the word “because ” when asking for something – it’s been scientifically shown that people are more easily convinced to do something if told why, and more so if the reason is important to them.
• Show don’t tell – if you can’t explain something in a few words, see if you can add a screenshot, a video, or a link that explains it better.
• Use headings to split long content into sub-topics – if you can’t avoid writing a long email, make sure to break it up into subsections with headings. This will help your time-scarce readers to scan and find their points of interest.
• Add your concrete request or question in bold text – to ensure your readers do not miss the most important piece of content (your request or question) – set it in a separate line and put it in bold. You can also use some color. If you do avoid light shades (you want high contrast between the text and the white background. Once you pick a color – stick with it.

After you’ve addressed all your main points in the body of your email, you’ll want to end it with a respectful and brief salutation. You can either invite your recipient to reach out for more questions, wish them success, or ask a question. It all depends on the motive for your email. If it was a long email it could also be a good idea to gently reiterate your main request, question, or motivation.

Email sign-off

When closing your email, you’ll want to choose a suitable email sign-off . There are different sign-offs you can use for each occasion, such as “best regards,” “sincerely,” or “with love,” but you obviously wouldn’t want to send the last one to your manager. Make sure your signoff is appropriate to your email content and your recipient.

A cool tip you can apply is to add a handwritten signature sign off. A handwritten signature give your recipient the feeling that you gave the email special attention and a personal touch. You can   create one here .

Your email signature (or footer) is your wave of goodbye. The way you do this can affect the impression you’ve made up to this point. If you make this moment memorable, organized, and aesthetic you can get some extra credit and a positive attitude from your reader. On the other hand, if you mess this up, your entire message or offer may be put in doubt. So, make sure your email signature looks visually appealing and well organized.

Consider creating a professional email signature to nail a positive lasting impression. Use the simple text email signature we all used back when email started at your discretion. Whichever you choose, be sure to include all your professional and contact information. It would also be a good idea to add links to your website, social media sites you are most active in, or a landing page.

Professional formal email examples: specific formats for specific goals & uses

In order to get a better understanding of how all the elements of an email work together in different types of emails, it’s helpful to look at some templates. Here, we’ll cover a number of email scenarios and provide you with an example for each one. Each of these letters refers to a specific situation, but you can always tweak the content to make it more relevant to your needs.

Our examples of the most common email formats:

Thank you email

Formal letter of appreciation, letter of complaint, cover letter, reminder email.

Apology letters samples:

Letter of apology for a client

Apology letter from boss.

• Apology mail for the manager

Sample business emails (B2B and B2C):

• Introduction email to client (outreach)
• Sample email for proposal submission

Proposal submission email

• Quotation email

Email asking for feedback

Information inquiry letter samples:

Email of inquiry requesting information

Email asking for a status update.

Request email samples – professional email asking for something:

Sick leave mail format

Letter asking for a discount from the supplier, ask for a raise, email your boss about a problem (asking for help), email to schedule a meeting.

Work update email samples:

• Email to the client sharing the status of project
• Email to the boss about work progress

Confirmation vs rejection email samples :

Acceptance email

“this is to inform you that” letter, job rejection email.

A thank you email is usually one that you’ll send after previous communication with someone. You might want to thank them for their help on a project, for fulfilling your personal request that you previously sent, for a job interview, or even for something as simple as taking a phone call or a meeting.

When composing a thank you email, you don’t want it to be too long, so get straight to the point. Additionally, they aren’t necessary 100% of the time and can sometimes just clog up the inbox of someone who might be really busy, so consider whether or not it will be useful for you before you click send on a “thank you” email.

Thank you email for work done or service rendered

Thank you so much for [action they did] It was such a pleasure to work with you, and I’m very excited about the next opportunity to work together again.

Please don’t hesitate to contact me if I can provide any additional information.

Best regards, [name and job title]

Thank you email for a job interview

Dear [name of hiring manager],

I enjoyed speaking with you the other day at the interview for the [job name]. The job appears to be an ideal match for my skills, ambitions, and interests.

The innovative approach to the corporate culture within the [job field] world confirmed my wish to work at your firm.

I will bring my engineering skills, assertiveness, and ability to engage others to work in a cooperative way within the [name of department] department.

Thank you for taking the time to interview me for the [position title] at [company]. I have a high level of interest in working for your firm and look forward to hearing from you.

Best Regards,

Dear Mr./Mrs. [name],

I would like to formally recognize all the hard work and dedication you’ve put into completing [project/task]. Due to your consistent efforts, the project is what it is today and that led to the positive results we were hoping for. 

On behalf of [company name, board members, etc.], we would like to formally thank you for your hard work and we would like to let you know that we highly value your contribution and your continued dedication to your job.

We are very grateful to have you as a member of our team and we wish to continue to see you thrive within our organization.

Best regards,

[Name and job title]

Dear [name],

On January 30th, 2020, I made a reservation at your restaurant located at 1234 Mulberry Lane for a birthday dinner for four people. This letter is intended to bring certain issues to your attention.

Unfortunately, we did not enjoy our dinner due to the fact that the food was very slow to arrive and we received the wrong dishes. It’s understandable that it was a busy time at your restaurant, but the quality of the service was not as expected.

To resolve this problem, I would appreciate it if you could provide compensation in the form of a gift voucher or discount on a future meal. 

I’m looking forward to your reply.

With regards,

[Your name]

It used to be common to send your cover letter and CV as an attachment to your email. However, it’s becoming a lot more accepted to use the email itself as your cover letter and simply attach your CV.

When sending a cover letter email, make sure you’re using formal language, addressing the right person such as HR or the hiring manager, you use a relevant subject and opening line, and the body of your email demonstrates why you’d be a perfect fit for the job and company. Since hiring managers likely receive dozens of email cover letters, be sure to make sure yours stands out and doesn’t drag on too long.

Cover letter example

Dear hiring manager [name],

I was very interested while reading the job posting for the position of [job title]. I believe that the experience I have strongly match the responsibilities of this position. I am enthusiastic about submitting my application for the position.

My most recent position was at [company name], where I was a [job title name ]. Additionally, I recently participated in a [mention an accomplishment in your last job that is relevent]

I have attached my resume to this email. Thanks to it, I believe you will learn more about my experience, education, and achievements.

Looking forward to hearing from you,

If it’s your first time reaching out to someone or a second or even third, the format of your email should be different. A first contact email has to include certain details that provide context.

when writing a reminder email or follow-up email you don’t need to provide a broad context. Instead, you should just briefly and lightly remind your recipients of what you already agreed on (assume that it simply may have been forgotten or placed low in their backlog).

This little push can go a long way in shortening your timetables and making sure you’re items are prioritized. Most people appreciate the reminder and respect you for being steadfast.

Reminder email sample

I’m sure your schedule is very busy, so this email is simply to remind you of your upcoming interview with [name] who is a candidate for [name of position].

The interview will be at [time] on [date] in [location].

Please let me know if there’s anything I can help you with to prepare to interview this candidate.

Apology letters samples

From time to time we all make mistakes, and we all get something wrong. Sometimes our mistakes hurt others, cause them discomfort, or make them frustrated. In these situations, it’s usually the right call to simply apologize.

Apologizing is something that must be sincere or you risk offending the person further. It’s always the best approach to express genuine regret.

But regardless of whatever you truly feel, be very careful to only use words that express empathy for whomever it is you’re apologizing to. Do not lay any responsibility on them, and do not give excuses.

Dear [client’s name],

Please accept my deepest apologies on behalf of [company or business name] for the poor experience you had at our restaurant.

I want to thank you for bringing these issues to my attention and please know that we are making every effort to correct our mistakes so events like these don’t happen in the future.

As a token of our apology, please accept a gift card in the amount of $50.00 that can be used at our restaurant in the future.

I hope to greet you again soon at [company or business name].

Yours sincerely,

[Your name and job title]

Dear Mr./Mrs. [boss’s family name],

I’m writing to you to express my regret for my behavior on [date] in regard to [event]. I would like to apologize for my words and actions and reassure you that such an event will not happen again.

On the date in question, I got into a verbal altercation with the head waiter about the scheduling, and this led to my inexcusable behavior. I have already apologized to [name of colleague], and I wanted to assure you that I will work to improve my reactions and behavior in the future.

I’d be happy to meet with you to speak about the incident further if you have any outstanding concerns.

I am sorry again.

Apology mail for manager

Dear [manager’s name],

I owe you an apology for providing you with the wrong information on [date] regarding [event]. It was not my intention to provide inaccurate information and I apologize for any inconvenience it may have caused you.

It wasn’t my intention to mislead you, and it seems the false information was a result of a careless mistake. I will be sure to be more thoughtful in the future and learn from this incident.

Please do not hesitate to share any thoughts or concerns with me and I’d be glad to discuss this further. 

Business emai l sample s

Introduction email to a client (sample email to approach a new client).

Dear [Sir/Madame/Name],

I would like to take a moment to introduce myself and my company. My name is [name] and I am a [job title] at [company name]. Our company provides customers with cutting-edge technology for all their email signature needs.

At [company name], there are a number of services we can offer, such as [short list of services]. Our employees are also highly dedicated and are willing to help you with your every need. 

I’d love the opportunity to speak or meet with you to discuss your needs further and to tell you more about how [company name] can help you succeed. You can contact me at [phone number] with any questions you may have.

Dear [Name],

Please find enclosed to this email the proposal you requested regarding your website audit.

We hope that you will find this proposal helpful and insightful and that it meets your expectations. Of course, if you would like to make any adjustments or go in a different direction, feel free to let us know and we’d be happy to discuss with you.

Thank you for entrusting [your company name] with your website audit, and we hope to hear back from you soon.

Sending quotation email

Dear [customer name],

We’d like to thank you for sending in your inquiry on [date] regarding a quotation for auditing your website.

Based on an initial estimation, we are happy to offer you a quotation based on your requests. Please find the official pricing quote attached to this email. Note that this quotation includes [list of services], but should you want additional services, we’d be happy to discuss it further with you and provide another quotation.

Please do not hesitate to get back to us with any questions about the quotation or our services.

Hi [customer name],

We really appreciate you using our services on [date] and we’d like to get your feedback on your experience.

Please follow the link [insert link] to complete a short survey regarding your experience. This survey shouldn’t take any longer than 2 minutes and it will help us improve our products and services in the future.

We want to thank you in advance for your time and hope that you enjoyed your experience with [company name].

[Name and/or company name]

Inquiry letter samples

This email is to inquire about the website audit services you posted on your website. 

As I understand, you offer services to audit businesses’ websites and provide personalized insight into what improvements can be made. I’d like to request further information with regard to your pricing as well as the scope of the work that will be performed, including specific services that can be expected.

I look forward to receiving your response.

I wanted to check in and check on the status of the website audit project that is due on [date]. 

Please let me know where you’re at with the project and don’t hesitate to let me know if you require any assistance from my end.

Request email samples – professional email asking for something

A personal request email is usually straight to the point and involves a sender asking a recipient for something. It could be anything from connecting on a professional network, asking to set up a meeting, or even requesting a professional introduction. Following a personal request email, a recipient may decide to either accept or reject what the sender is asking for. In this type of email, it’s important to be very clear with what you’re asking for.

Hi [Name of manager/supervisor],

I am writing to request sick leave from [date range]. I will be undergoing surgery and at the recommendation of my doctor, I need to be off of work for 2 weeks in order to recover. I hope to be back at work on [date]. 

Please let me know if you have any questions.

Dear [name of the supplier],

Thank you for sending over your catalog of goods. We are very much interested in purchasing [name of the product(s)] from you and would like to get a quote for these items.

Additionally, we are hoping that this will lead to a prolonged partnership between the two of us. Therefore, we are kindly requesting that you provide us with your best possible price since we would like to use your goods on a permanent basis.

Thank you for your understanding.

Dear [Name of Manager/supervisor],

I have greatly enjoyed working for [company name] over the last 3 years. During these years, I feel that I have become a valuable member of your team and I have contributed to projects in a significant way. 

Since working here, I have accomplished: [list accomplishments].

As an employee, I think I have outperformed the goals set for me. As a result, I would like to have the opportunity to discuss increasing my salary so that it matches my current performance. Please let me know when is a good time for you to meet so that we can discuss this further.

Once again, I am grateful to be part of an organization that provides me with unique challenges and opportunities to continuously learn and grow.

Dear Mr./Mrs. [name of boss],

I would like to bring to your attention the incident that occurred at [location] on [date] at [time].

I was deeply upset by the actions of [coworker/event]. I tried to speak with them, but this did not lead to any sort of resolution and now I feel as if our professional relationship at work is strained as a result.

I am turning to you for assistance with the matter and I hope that you are able to come up with a solution that neither of us has thought of yet. 

Thank you for taking the matter seriously and please let me know if you have any questions or concerns.

Thanks for getting in touch with us about our product. I’d be glad to set up a meeting in order to give you more information, answer your questions, and show you how it can work for your business. Does [date] at [time] work for you?

I look forward to meeting with you soon!

Work update email

Email to the client sharing the status of the project.

Dear [name of client],

We’d like to keep you updated regarding the progress we’ve made on our project. Please have a look at the tasks we’ve accomplished below and do not hesitate to get back to me with any questions or concerns you may have.

Key highlights and updates:

• [list them]

Tasks accomplished this week:

Tasks to do next week :

Email the boss about work progress

Hi [name of boss],

I am happy to let you know that the project [name of project] that was assigned to me on [date] is now nearing completion. Due to the hard work of our team, the project is expected to be completed on time. Based on the pace of our work, I expect to have the entire project completed by [date].

The remaining elements of this project to be completed are as follows:

• [List them 1]
• [List them 2]
• [List them n]

Thank you for your continued support and guidance and please do not hesitate to get in touch with any questions.

Confirmation vs rejection email samples

You might get an email confirmation after you purchase something online, or you can also reply to a formal email confirming receipt of an email attachment, a meeting time, or a company update. A rejection email is similar in that it might reject the item that was proposed in an email, in which case you’d let the sender know.

It is my great pleasure to inform you that I will be accepting your offer for employment as [job title] with [company name]. The goals for this role that you described are in line with my personal career aspirations, and I hope to be able to learn and grow in this role.

As discussed in our previous meeting, my salary will be [salary] and I will be starting on [date].

I appreciate all the time you took to make the interviews as seamless as they were, and I look forward to working with you soon.

This is to inform you that your business proposal [title of the proposal] has unfortunately been rejected by our committee. While we did like your idea, unfortunately, the costs involved reach well beyond our budget for this quarter. 

We wish you the best of luck in your future endeavors and encourage you to submit additional proposals if you have others that are aligned with our goals.

Best of luck,

This is to inform you that I will not be proceeding in the interview process for [job title] with [company name]. I would like to formally withdraw my candidacy.

At this time, I have accepted a position with another company, so I am no longer in search of employment. However, I would like to sincerely thank you for taking the time to meet with me and for being attentive to my questions about the role. 

It was a pleasure meeting with you and I wish you luck in finding the right candidate for the job.

Before you even get started on the content of your email, you want to make sure the aesthetic is appealing and not too out of the ordinary. Of course, you want to capture the attention of your recipient, but you also want to appear professional, so keep the Comic Sans font out of the equation. What sort of aesthetics should you pay attention to in a formal email? Let’s take a look.

Choice of Font

Don’t start reinventing the wheel here. It’s better to go with a safe bet instead of a creative option when selecting a font. Choose a font that’s easy to read and skim, since if you’re sending a longer email it’s possible your recipient will just skim its contents. Therefore, you want to font to be clear and the letters to be far enough apart. We suggest going with fonts like Georgia, Verdana, Arial, or Times New Roman

You don’t want your recipient to have to squint to read your email, but your text also shouldn’t appear as if it’s yelling either. Depending on the font you go with you might need to tweak the sizing a little, but in general, font size 12 is what you should be using. You can use size 10 or 11 as well, just make sure it doesn’t look too small before sending your email.

How do I improve my email writing skills?

There are a number of ways you can make your emails shine, and you don’t need to be a professional writer to do it. In fact, there are a few small areas you can focus on to make your emails clearer and more well-received. Here are a few things you should keep in mind when composing an email.

1. Practice optimizing your subject lines

Your subject line is the first thing a recipient sees when they receive your email. Therefore, it’s important that it’s optimized as much as possible. Keep these tips in mind when coming up with your subject line:

• Keep it short, no more than 40 characters is ideal
• Make it personal, use the recipient’s name if you have it
• Use a call to action, like “let’s set up a meeting today”
• Create a sense of urgency, such as “offer to expire soon”

2. Practice summarizing your main point for your email openings

Once you get your recipient to open your email, you don’t want to bore them right away. You have to keep things interesting, relevant, and straight to the point. That’s why it’s crucial to put your main point somewhere in the first sentence, or at least the first paragraph. 

While your opening line can be something general like “thank you for taking the time to meet with me,” the very next line should be something more powerful. Whether you ask for the results of a meeting, make a proposal, or initiate a follow-up meeting, this first sentence sets the tone of the rest of the email so the reader knows exactly what the subject is and what to expect from the rest of your message.

3. Research the correct email etiquette to use for your most common scenarios

When sending emails, especially formal or professional emails for work, it’s important to maintain email etiquette . Since many of us answer our emails on our phones while on the go, it’s tempting to reply to emails as we would a text message, but that’s not good practice.

4. Proofread grammar

Finally, before you click send, always give your email a once-over. Make sure your email is free of types, the punctuation makes sense (avoid using too many exclamation points), and that your syntax is correct.

Don’t always rely on spell-checkers, you want to read through your email before sending, especially if it’s an important message to a superior or a client since emails with grammar mistakes can potentially have a negative impact.

There are countless reasons for sending an email, and even if we didn’t cover every single scenario here, you should at least have a better idea of what constitutes a good email. Using our tips and examples, you’ll be able to compose better emails that get you the results you want. 

More on this topic

• An Interview with Chatgpt: Can AI think outside of the box for email marketing?
• Email closings: The definitive guide
• Email blast marketing: Learn how to effectively promote your brand
• Email management: : Proven Tips for Boosting Productivity
• Various best regards alternatives for email closing
• Ultimate guide on how to end an email
• How to get a professional email address
• How does BCC work: complete guide
• How to craft an introduction email to a new team
• Email etiquette explained: rules and examples in business and in the workplace

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How to Write an Email - Best Examples and Top 5 Dos and Don’ts

Want to know how to write an email? Need some guidance on what goes where and why? Well, whether this is the first email you’ve ever composed, or you just want to refresh your memory, here go through everything you need on the subject of how to write email properly! For more advanced email writing techniques, check out our how to write a professional email article .

Formatting and Components

Learning how to write a basic email is simple, and every email you ever write will feature the same format that requires you to address each of these components:

To, CC, BCC

Attachments.

• Subject Line

Here, we go into each of these components in more detail so you know exactly what makes a great email.

These fields, found at the top of your email, are where you will place the email addresses of the people you wish to contact. Each has a different function:

Discover More:

• What’s The Difference Between CC and BCC In Email? Your Complete Guide!
• The Best Email Providers That Don’t Need a Phone Number
• Want iMessage for PC? We’ve got the Solution for You

The attachment function in your email allows you to attach supporting documents that can be downloaded or previewed within your message. Most formats are supported, and in most cases, you can include text, images, videos, audio, and GIFs. It’s worth remembering, however, that there is usually a limit to the size of the file you can send.

The subject line of your email is all-important , spelling out the intention of your email and what it contains.

They’re often forgotten but this is bad news as they not only help the recipient understand what the body of your message contains, but they also ensure your email doesn’t end up in the trash folder .

Always start your email with a greeting.

Learning how to write an email introduction and greeting is important as it allows you to be polite and let the recipient know the purpose of your message .

Formal emails, such as for a job application or  sales email , require a formal greeting. When considering personal emails or those between close colleagues, it’s usually fine to use a more casual greeting. You should keep this in mind in you’re using any email templates or AI writing tools.

Naturally, the body of your message is an important element when writing an email. The ideal email body has to be focused, structured, with a clear purpose and to the point .

Remember that story telling qualities aren’t appreciated in an email and people tend to lose focus and interest if you don’t keep your email short and to the point.

Always state what your email is about early in your message, and layout your information so it is easily accessible when skim reading .

Signing off your email correctly is just as important as starting it correctly, and ensuring you use the right kind of closing for your intended recipient ensures they know the message is finished.

Tailor your closing on a per-message basis and, if you are unsure about how to sign off, always default on the side of formality.

Sending and Writing an Email – Dos and Don’ts

There are many dos and don’ts when learning to write an email:

How To Write An Email – The Basics

When learning how to write an email, once you have added the recipients email address to the correct field, you’ll need to focus on three main areas. These are:

Here, we provide some examples of how you should approach each of these elements so that you can compose your email.

How to Write an Email Subject Line — Examples

Your subject line should be concise and to the point and include any relevant information that the recipient needs in order to identify the purpose of the message. When learning how to write an email subject line, you can use the following examples to guide you:

How to Write Email Introduction – Examples

Your greeting, salutation, or introduction should be tailored to your intended recipient. In many cases, your email introduction will be familiar to you from letter writing practices.

How to Write the Email Body – Examples

The body of your email will need to contain all the information you want to convey, without being overly long or complicated. Here are a few tips:

How to Write an Email Signature or Sign Off – Examples

Signing off your email is simple, and you can choose how you do it depending on who you are writing to. Here are a few ideas:

How To Write Email Like A Boss – Full Examples

Here, we look at some common examples of email writing to help you combine the elements above and rock your email technique.

How to Write an Email to a Friend or Family Member

When writing an email to a friend or family member, you don’t have to have as detailed of a subject line as you would for a more professional environment. Something along the lines of “Catching Up” will suffice. With your introduction, you can take a more conversational tone with them. You can use an informal introduction like “Hi Sam” when starting a conversation with them. 

Since you are talking to someone close to you in a non-business setting, you can treat it as would you a text message conversation. You’ll want to use a friendly tone, but that doesn’t mean you shouldn’t be concise and clear, though. Don’t ramble as they’ll likely skim past your information if so. When closing your message, salutations like “Love”, “From”, etc. are acceptable depending on the nature of your relationship. 

Example 

I just wanted to check you’d received my invite for Thanksgiving? Please let me know if you’re coming so I know how much turkey to cook!

Love, 

How to Write an Email to a Teacher or Professor

When emailing a teacher or a professor, you’ll want to use a much more clear tone than you would normally. In this setting, this person is an academic, so formality is required. Your introduction should be very formal. In our example below, we use “Dear” as the best option. When emailing a professor, be very concise and use bullet points when possible to make your point clear. When closing your email, use a formal salutation like “ Best Regards ”.

Dear Professor Smith, 

Unfortunately, due to sickness, I would like to request an extension to the deadline of our current project. If possible, I would like an extension until Monday. Please let me know if this works for if you. 

Kind Regards, 

How to Write an Email for a Job Application 

When sending an email for a job application, formality will be required. Your subject line should include “Application – JOB TITLE”. In your introduction, use a formal option like “Dear”. In your body, clearly state that your resume and cover letter are attached (don’t forget to attach them!).

Dear Sir/Madam, 

Please find attached my introductory letter and resume in application for the position of Marketing Associate as advertised on your website. You will find all the information you need in these documents, however, if you require anything further, you can reach me on my mobile or through email. 

Best Regards, 

Lorraine Lister

How to Write a Thank You Email After an Interview 

Getting a job interview is hard enough, so do something to set yourself apart from the rest of the applicants and send a thank you letter after the interview. In the subject line, state that you are thanking the interviewer for their time and attention. In the introduction, use the opening of “Dear NAME”. In the body, thank them for their time and let them know you are available to meet again if needed. “ Kindest regards ” is a great closing to use as your salutation.

Dear Jan, 

Thanks for giving me the time to speak with you and learn more about the role available. It was a pleasure to connect with you and discuss and how I might fill the position of Marketing Associate. 

Please feel free to contact me if you would like any more information or if you would like to arrange another meeting to discuss how we can proceed. I look forward to hearing from you in the near future. 

Kindest Regards, 

How to Write an Email for Business Purposes 

Email is the communication language of business, so it’s important to know how to learn ace email skills to further your career. “Hi Team” or “Hi All” is an ideal opening when sending to a group of people, but for a single person, use “Hi NAME” . Clearly state the purpose of the email, the intended outcome (meeting scheduled, documents reviewed, etc.), and then communicate the timeline. When closing, use “ Thanks ” or “ Best Regards ” .

Hi Team, 

Attached you’ll find the latest sales figures from the last quarter. If you have any comments, please get in touch with me directly. 

Best, 

Emma Watson

Sales Manager

ABC Company

How to Write an Email – FAQs

Email is the number one method of digital communication in the world, and its simplicity and ease of use mean it’s still popular even though it’s pretty old. You can write an email for a number of reasons, including keeping in touch with friends or family, applying for jobs, communicating with colleagues, or even just requesting information.

Anyone with an email app and an email address can write an email, and it remains one of the most popular methods of communication thanks to its availability and ease of use.

Your email address will be made up of three of four components. These are: your name (or other handle), the @ sign, and the domain of your email provider. This is usually a .com or .net domain, however this will depend on your email service.

The subject line is usually found at the very top of your email, just below the To, CC , and BCC fields where you enter the email addresses of your contacts. Don’t forget to write a short and snappy subject line so your recipients know what your email is about.

Depending on the email app you use, you may find the attachment button at the top or bottom of the screen. It is usually indicated with a paperclip icon and a click will allow you to attach files from a computer or the cloud.

The send button may be at the top or bottom of the screen depending on the app you use. It may be a simple arrow icon, or it could be a button with the word “send”. Usually, one click is all it takes to send your message, so make sure you check it properly first.

Gain Communication Clarity with Spike

Effective Email Communication

What this handout is about.

This handout is intended to help students, faculty, and University professionals learn to use email more effectively. It can help you determine whether email is the best mode of communication in a particular situation and write messages that successfully convey your meaning to your intended audience.

Although email is a valuable tool, it creates some challenges for writers. Miscommunication can easily occur when people have different expectations about the messages that they send and receive. Email is used for many different purposes, including contacting friends, communicating with professors and supervisors, requesting information, and applying for jobs, internships, and scholarships. Depending on your purposes, the messages you send will differ in their formality, intended audience, and desired outcomes.

So—how do you know when sending an email is the most effective way of accomplishing your communication goals? When is a brief message OK, and when it is more appropriate to send a longer, more professional-sounding email? How should you decide what style of writing is appropriate for each task? Keep reading for answers to these questions!

When is email the appropriate form of communication to use?

Email is a good way to get your message across when:

• You need to get in touch with a person who is hard to reach via telephone, does not come to campus regularly, or is not located in the same part of the country or world (for instance, someone who lives in a different time zone).
• The information you want to share is not time-sensitive. The act of sending an email is instantaneous, but that does not mean the writer can expect an instantaneous response. For many people, keeping up with their email correspondence is a part of their job, and they only do it during regular business hours. Unless your reader has promised otherwise, assume that it may take a few days for them to respond to your message.
• You need to send someone an electronic file, such as a document for a course, a spreadsheet full of data, or a rough draft of your paper.
• You need to distribute information to a large number of people quickly (for example, a memo that needs to be sent to the entire office staff).
• You need a written record of the communication. Saving important emails can be helpful if you need to refer back to what someone said in an earlier message, provide some kind of proof (for example, proof that you have paid for a service or product), or review the content of an important meeting or memo.

When is email NOT an appropriate form of communication to use?

Email is not an effective means of communication when:

• Your message is long and complicated or requires additional discussion that would best be accomplished face-to-face. For example, if you want feedback from your supervisor on your work or if you are asking your professor a question that requires more than a yes/no answer or simple explanation, you should schedule a meeting instead.
• The information is highly confidential. Email is NEVER private! Keep in mind that your message could be forwarded on to other people without your knowledge. A backup copy of your email is always stored on a server where it can be easily retrieved by interested parties, even when you have deleted the message and think it is gone forever.
• Your message is emotionally charged or the tone of the message could be easily misconstrued. If you would hesitate to say something to someone’s face, do not write it in an email.

Who is your audience?

People have different opinions what email should look like, so it is always helpful to be aware of the expectations of your audience . For example, some people regard email as a rapid and informal form of communication—a way to say “hello” or to ask a quick question. However, others view email as simply a more convenient way to transmit a formal letter. Such people may consider an informal email rude or unprofessional.

A message like this one might be OK to send your friend, but not to your professor:

Do you know what the assignment is about? Can U help me?

Although it may be obvious to you that you wouldn’t send such an email to your professor, let’s carefully examine what assumptions this message makes about the reader and their expectations. The tone of this message is very casual; it assumes that the reader knows who the sender is and has a close personal relationship with the sender. Because it contains an ambiguous reference to “the assignment,” this message also assumes that the reader is familiar with the subject matter at hand (for instance, it assumes the reader will know which course and which particular assignment the sender is referring to). The writer also makes an implicit assumption about the reader’s comfort with the language that is often used when sending an instant message or text message. The “U” might be taken by some readers as a sign that the writer is too lazy to type out the word “you.”

Making assumptions about your audience’s expectations increases the risk that your message or its tone will be misinterpreted. To ensure that your message has its intended effect, use the following questions to help you think about your audience and their needs:

• Who is your audience? How often does your audience use email to communicate?
• What is your audience’s relationship to you—for example, is the reader your teacher? Your boss? A friend? A stranger? How well do you know them? How would you talk to them in a social situation?
• What do you want your audience to think or assume about you? What kind of impression do you want to make?

Important components of an effective email:

Subject lines.

Email subject lines are like newspaper headlines. They should convey the main point of your message or the idea that you want the reader to take away. Therefore, be as specific as possible. One-word subjects such as “Hi,” “Question,” or “FYI” are not informative and don’t give the reader an idea of how important your message is. If your message is time sensitive, you might want to include a date in your subject line, like “Meeting on Thurs, Dec 2”. Think about the subject lines on the email messages you receive. Which ones do you think are most effective? Why?

Greetings and Sign-offs

Use some kind of greeting and some kind of sign-off. Don’t just start with your text, and don’t just stop at the end without a polite signature. If you don’t know the person well, you may be confused about how to address them (“What do I call my TA/professor?”) or how to sign off (Best? Sincerely?). Nonetheless, it is always better to make some kind of effort. When in doubt, address someone more formally to avoid offending them. Some common ways to address your reader are:

• Dear Professor Smith,
• Hello, Ms. McMahon,
• Hi, Mary Jane,

If you don’t know the name of the person you are addressing, or if the email addresses a diverse group, try something generic, yet polite:

• To whom it may concern,
• Dear members of the selection committee,
• Hello, everyone,

Your closing is extremely important because it lets the reader know who is contacting them. Always sign off with your name at the end of your message. If you don’t know the reader well, you might also consider including your title and the organization you belong to; for example:

Mary Watkins Senior Research Associate Bain and Company

Joseph Smith UNC-CH, Class of 2009

For your closing, something brief but friendly, or perhaps just your name, will do for most correspondence:

• Best wishes,
• See you tomorrow,

For a very formal message, such as a job application, use the kind of closing that you might see in a business letter:

• Respectfully yours,

Cc: and Bcc: (‘carbon copy’ and ‘blind carbon copy’)

Copying individuals on an email is a good way to send your message to the main recipient while also sending someone else a copy at the same time. This can be useful if you want to convey the same exact message to more than one person. In professional settings, copying someone else on an email can help get things done, especially if the person receiving the copy is in a supervisory role. For example, copying your boss on an email to a non-responsive co-worker might prompt the co-worker to respond. Be aware, however, that when you send a message to more than one address using the Cc: field, both the original recipient and all the recipients of the carbon copies can see all the addresses in the To: and Cc: fields. Each person who receives the message will be able to see the addresses of everyone else who received it.

Blind copying emails to a group of people can be useful when you don’t want everyone on the list to have each other’s addresses. The only recipient address that will be visible to all recipients is the one in the To: field. If you don’t want any of the recipients to see the email addresses in the list, you can put your own address in the To: field and use Bcc: exclusively to address your message to others. However, do not assume that blind copying will always keep recipients from knowing who else was copied—someone who is blind copied may hit “reply all” and send a reply to everyone, revealing that they were included in the original message.

Some additional tips for writing more effective emails

Think about your message before you write it. Don’t send email in haste. First, decide on the purpose of your message and what outcome you expect from your communication. Then think about your message’s audience and what they may need in order for your message to have the intended result. You will also improve the clarity of your message if you organize your thoughts before you start writing. Jot down some notes about what information you need to convey, what questions you have, etc., then organize your thoughts in a logical sequence. You can try brainstorming techniques like mapping, listing, or outlining to help you organize your thoughts.

Reflect on the tone of your message. When you are communicating via email, your words are not supported by gestures, voice inflections, or other cues, so it may be easier for someone to misread your tone. For example, sarcasm and jokes are often misinterpreted and may offend your audience. Similarly, be careful about how you address your reader. For instance, beginning an email to your professor or TA with “Hey!” might be perceived as being rude or presumptuous (as in “Hey you!”). If you’re unsure about how your message might be received, you might try reading it out loud to a friend to test its tone.

Strive for clarity and brevity in your writing. Have you ever sent an email that caused confusion and took at least one more communication to straighten out? Miscommunication can occur if a message is unclear, disorganized, or just too long and complex for readers to easily follow. Here are some steps you can take to ensure that your message is understood:

• Briefly state your purpose for writing in the very beginning of your message.
• Be sure to provide the reader with some context. If you’re asking a question, cut and paste any relevant text (for example, computer error messages, assignment prompts you don’t understand, part of a previous message, etc.) into the email so that the reader has some frame of reference for your question. When replying to someone else’s email, it can often be helpful to either include or restate the sender’s message.
• Use paragraphs to separate thoughts (or consider writing separate emails if you have many unrelated points or questions).
• Finally, state the desired outcome at the end of your message. If you’re requesting a response, let the reader know what type of response you require (for example, an email reply, possible times for a meeting, a recommendation letter, etc.) If you’re requesting something that has a due date, be sure to highlight that due date in a prominent position in your message. Ending your email with the next step can be really useful, especially in work settings (for example, you might write “I will follow this up with a phone call to you in the next day or so” or “Let’s plan to further discuss this at the meeting on Wednesday”).

Format your message so that it is easy to read. Use white space to visually separate paragraphs into distinct blocks of text. Bullet important details so that they are easy to pick out. Use bold face type or capital letters to highlight critical information, such as due dates. (But do not type your entire message in capital letters or boldface—your reader may perceive this as “shouting” and won’t be able to tell which parts of the message are especially important.)

Proofread . Re-read messages before you send them. Check your grammar, spelling, capitalization, and punctuation. If your email program supports it, use spelling and grammar checking tools. Try reading your message out loud to help you catch any mistakes or awkward phrasing that you might otherwise miss.

Questions to ask yourself before sending an email message

• Is this message suitable for email, or could I better communicate the information with a letter, phone call, or face-to-face meeting?
• What is my purpose for sending this email? Will the message seem important to the receiver, or will it be seen as an annoyance and a waste of time?
• How much email does the reader usually receive, and what will make them read this message (or delete it)?
• Do the formality and style of my writing fit the expectations of my audience?
• How will my message look when it reaches the receiver? Is it easy to read? Have I used correct grammar and punctuation? Have I divided my thoughts into discrete paragraphs? Are important items, such as due dates, highlighted in the text?
• Have I provided enough context for my audience to easily understand or follow the thread of the message?
• Did I identify myself and make it easy for the reader to respond in an appropriate manner?
• Will the receiver be able to open and read any attachments?

Sample emails

Use what you’ve just learned to explain why Student 2’s email to Professor Jones is more effective than the email written by Student 1. How does the tone of the messages differ? What makes Student 2’s email look and sound more appropriate? What are the elements that contribute its clarity? If you were Professor Jones and you received both messages, how would you respond to each one?

Email from Student 1:

hey, i need help on my paper can i come by your office tomorrow

Email from Student 2:

Hi Dr. Jones,

I am in your ENGL 101 class on Thursdays, and I have a question about the paper that is due next Tuesday. I’m not sure that I understand what is meant by the following sentence in the prompt:

“Write a 10 page paper arguing for or against requiring ENGL 101 for all UNC freshmen and provide adequate support for your point of view.”

I am not sure what would count as “adequate” support. Would using 3 sources be OK?

Can I come by your office tomorrow at 2:00 pm to talk to you about my question? Please let me know if that fits your schedule. If not, I could also come by on Friday after 1:00.

Here are two versions of an email from a supervisor, Jane Doe, to a group of her employees. Which version do you think is most effective? Why?

Version 1 of Jane Doe’s Email:

Subject: tomorrow As you know, tomorrow afternoon we’ll be meeting to discuss the status of all of our current projects. Donuts will be provided. Be sure to arrive on time and bring along the materials you have been working on this week—bring enough copies for everyone. Some of these material might include your calendars, reports, and any important emails you have sent. Also, I wanted to remind you that your parking permit requests are due later this week; you should turn those in to Ms. Jones, and if she is not at her desk when you stop by, you can email them to her.

Version 2 of Jane Doe’s Email:

Subject: materials for Wed. staff meeting

Hi, everyone—

For tomorrow’s 3 p.m. staff meeting in the conference room, please bring 15 copies of the following materials:

• Your project calendar
• A one-page report describing your progress so far
• A list of goals for the next month
• Copies of any progress report messages you have sent to clients this past month

See you tomorrow—

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.

Lamb, Sandra E. 2006. How to Write It: A Complete Guide to Everything You’ll Ever Write , 2nd ed. Berkeley: Ten Speed Press.

Terminello, Verna, and Marcia G Reed. 2002. E-Mail: Communicate Effectively . New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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• Knowledge Base

The Beginner's Guide to Writing an Essay | Steps & Examples

An academic essay is a focused piece of writing that develops an idea or argument using evidence, analysis, and interpretation.

There are many types of essays you might write as a student. The content and length of an essay depends on your level, subject of study, and course requirements. However, most essays at university level are argumentative — they aim to persuade the reader of a particular position or perspective on a topic.

The essay writing process consists of three main stages:

• Preparation: Decide on your topic, do your research, and create an essay outline.
• Writing : Set out your argument in the introduction, develop it with evidence in the main body, and wrap it up with a conclusion.
• Revision:  Check your essay on the content, organization, grammar, spelling, and formatting of your essay.

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Table of contents

Essay writing process, preparation for writing an essay, writing the introduction, writing the main body, writing the conclusion, essay checklist, lecture slides, frequently asked questions about writing an essay.

The writing process of preparation, writing, and revisions applies to every essay or paper, but the time and effort spent on each stage depends on the type of essay .

For example, if you’ve been assigned a five-paragraph expository essay for a high school class, you’ll probably spend the most time on the writing stage; for a college-level argumentative essay , on the other hand, you’ll need to spend more time researching your topic and developing an original argument before you start writing.

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

Before you start writing, you should make sure you have a clear idea of what you want to say and how you’re going to say it. There are a few key steps you can follow to make sure you’re prepared:

• Understand your assignment: What is the goal of this essay? What is the length and deadline of the assignment? Is there anything you need to clarify with your teacher or professor?
• Define a topic: If you’re allowed to choose your own topic , try to pick something that you already know a bit about and that will hold your interest.
• Do your research: Read  primary and secondary sources and take notes to help you work out your position and angle on the topic. You’ll use these as evidence for your points.
• Come up with a thesis:  The thesis is the central point or argument that you want to make. A clear thesis is essential for a focused essay—you should keep referring back to it as you write.
• Create an outline: Map out the rough structure of your essay in an outline . This makes it easier to start writing and keeps you on track as you go.

Once you’ve got a clear idea of what you want to discuss, in what order, and what evidence you’ll use, you’re ready to start writing.

The introduction sets the tone for your essay. It should grab the reader’s interest and inform them of what to expect. The introduction generally comprises 10–20% of the text.

1. Hook your reader

The first sentence of the introduction should pique your reader’s interest and curiosity. This sentence is sometimes called the hook. It might be an intriguing question, a surprising fact, or a bold statement emphasizing the relevance of the topic.

Let’s say we’re writing an essay about the development of Braille (the raised-dot reading and writing system used by visually impaired people). Our hook can make a strong statement about the topic:

The invention of Braille was a major turning point in the history of disability.

2. Provide background on your topic

Next, it’s important to give context that will help your reader understand your argument. This might involve providing background information, giving an overview of important academic work or debates on the topic, and explaining difficult terms. Don’t provide too much detail in the introduction—you can elaborate in the body of your essay.

3. Present the thesis statement

Next, you should formulate your thesis statement— the central argument you’re going to make. The thesis statement provides focus and signals your position on the topic. It is usually one or two sentences long. The thesis statement for our essay on Braille could look like this:

As the first writing system designed for blind people’s needs, Braille was a groundbreaking new accessibility tool. It not only provided practical benefits, but also helped change the cultural status of blindness.

4. Map the structure

In longer essays, you can end the introduction by briefly describing what will be covered in each part of the essay. This guides the reader through your structure and gives a preview of how your argument will develop.

The invention of Braille marked a major turning point in the history of disability. The writing system of raised dots used by blind and visually impaired people was developed by Louis Braille in nineteenth-century France. In a society that did not value disabled people in general, blindness was particularly stigmatized, and lack of access to reading and writing was a significant barrier to social participation. The idea of tactile reading was not entirely new, but existing methods based on sighted systems were difficult to learn and use. As the first writing system designed for blind people’s needs, Braille was a groundbreaking new accessibility tool. It not only provided practical benefits, but also helped change the cultural status of blindness. This essay begins by discussing the situation of blind people in nineteenth-century Europe. It then describes the invention of Braille and the gradual process of its acceptance within blind education. Subsequently, it explores the wide-ranging effects of this invention on blind people’s social and cultural lives.

Write your essay introduction

The body of your essay is where you make arguments supporting your thesis, provide evidence, and develop your ideas. Its purpose is to present, interpret, and analyze the information and sources you have gathered to support your argument.

Length of the body text

The length of the body depends on the type of essay. On average, the body comprises 60–80% of your essay. For a high school essay, this could be just three paragraphs, but for a graduate school essay of 6,000 words, the body could take up 8–10 pages.

Paragraph structure

To give your essay a clear structure , it is important to organize it into paragraphs . Each paragraph should be centered around one main point or idea.

That idea is introduced in a  topic sentence . The topic sentence should generally lead on from the previous paragraph and introduce the point to be made in this paragraph. Transition words can be used to create clear connections between sentences.

After the topic sentence, present evidence such as data, examples, or quotes from relevant sources. Be sure to interpret and explain the evidence, and show how it helps develop your overall argument.

Lack of access to reading and writing put blind people at a serious disadvantage in nineteenth-century society. Text was one of the primary methods through which people engaged with culture, communicated with others, and accessed information; without a well-developed reading system that did not rely on sight, blind people were excluded from social participation (Weygand, 2009). While disabled people in general suffered from discrimination, blindness was widely viewed as the worst disability, and it was commonly believed that blind people were incapable of pursuing a profession or improving themselves through culture (Weygand, 2009). This demonstrates the importance of reading and writing to social status at the time: without access to text, it was considered impossible to fully participate in society. Blind people were excluded from the sighted world, but also entirely dependent on sighted people for information and education.

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The conclusion is the final paragraph of an essay. It should generally take up no more than 10–15% of the text . A strong essay conclusion :

• Returns to your thesis
• Ties together your main points
• Shows why your argument matters

A great conclusion should finish with a memorable or impactful sentence that leaves the reader with a strong final impression.

What not to include in a conclusion

To make your essay’s conclusion as strong as possible, there are a few things you should avoid. The most common mistakes are:

• Including new arguments or evidence
• Undermining your arguments (e.g. “This is just one approach of many”)
• Using concluding phrases like “To sum up…” or “In conclusion…”

Braille paved the way for dramatic cultural changes in the way blind people were treated and the opportunities available to them. Louis Braille’s innovation was to reimagine existing reading systems from a blind perspective, and the success of this invention required sighted teachers to adapt to their students’ reality instead of the other way around. In this sense, Braille helped drive broader social changes in the status of blindness. New accessibility tools provide practical advantages to those who need them, but they can also change the perspectives and attitudes of those who do not.

Write your essay conclusion

Checklist: Essay

My essay follows the requirements of the assignment (topic and length ).

My introduction sparks the reader’s interest and provides any necessary background information on the topic.

My introduction contains a thesis statement that states the focus and position of the essay.

I use paragraphs to structure the essay.

I use topic sentences to introduce each paragraph.

Each paragraph has a single focus and a clear connection to the thesis statement.

I make clear transitions between paragraphs and ideas.

My conclusion doesn’t just repeat my points, but draws connections between arguments.

I don’t introduce new arguments or evidence in the conclusion.

I have given an in-text citation for every quote or piece of information I got from another source.

I have included a reference page at the end of my essay, listing full details of all my sources.

My citations and references are correctly formatted according to the required citation style .

My essay has an interesting and informative title.

I have followed all formatting guidelines (e.g. font, page numbers, line spacing).

Your essay meets all the most important requirements. Our editors can give it a final check to help you submit with confidence.

Open Google Slides Download PowerPoint

An essay is a focused piece of writing that explains, argues, describes, or narrates.

In high school, you may have to write many different types of essays to develop your writing skills.

Academic essays at college level are usually argumentative : you develop a clear thesis about your topic and make a case for your position using evidence, analysis and interpretation.

The structure of an essay is divided into an introduction that presents your topic and thesis statement , a body containing your in-depth analysis and arguments, and a conclusion wrapping up your ideas.

The structure of the body is flexible, but you should always spend some time thinking about how you can organize your essay to best serve your ideas.

Your essay introduction should include three main things, in this order:

• An opening hook to catch the reader’s attention.
• Relevant background information that the reader needs to know.
• A thesis statement that presents your main point or argument.

The length of each part depends on the length and complexity of your essay .

A thesis statement is a sentence that sums up the central point of your paper or essay . Everything else you write should relate to this key idea.

The thesis statement is essential in any academic essay or research paper for two main reasons:

• It gives your writing direction and focus.
• It gives the reader a concise summary of your main point.

Without a clear thesis statement, an essay can end up rambling and unfocused, leaving your reader unsure of exactly what you want to say.

A topic sentence is a sentence that expresses the main point of a paragraph . Everything else in the paragraph should relate to the topic sentence.

At college level, you must properly cite your sources in all essays , research papers , and other academic texts (except exams and in-class exercises).

Add a citation whenever you quote , paraphrase , or summarize information or ideas from a source. You should also give full source details in a bibliography or reference list at the end of your text.

The exact format of your citations depends on which citation style you are instructed to use. The most common styles are APA , MLA , and Chicago .

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How to Write an Academic Email

4-minute read

• 21st October 2019

When you email a professor or tutor for the first time, you want to make a good impression. But how can you do this? Our top tips for writing an academic email include the following:

• Consider whether you need to send an email. You may be able to find the information in your syllabus, timetable, or other course materials.
• Write a clear subject line setting out what your email is about.
• Let the recipient know who you are and make a specific request.
• Use a clear, concise writing style and appropriate academic language.
• Proofread  your email carefully before hitting send.

Check out our guide below for more on how to write an academic email.

1. When to Send an Academic Email

If you say the word “inbox” to an academic, they will shudder in horror. This is because most lecturers and tutors receive dozens of emails every day. Keeping on top of this can take a lot of time and effort.

So, before writing an email, ask yourself: Do I need to send this?

Often, you can find the information you need in other places. If you want to know about a reading assignment, for example, you should check your syllabus, course documentation, or reading list.

This isn’t to say you shouldn’t ask for help. Academic staff are there to assist you. But they can do this more effectively if they have time to spare, so it’s best only to email someone when you can’t find the information elsewhere.

2. Subject Line

Every academic email should have a  clear subject line  that sets out why you’re emailing. For example, if you need to discuss a paper you’re writing, a vague subject line like “Question” or “Urgent!” may be easy to overlook.

Instead, you could write something like:

Aristotle Paper – Tutorial Request for Wednesday

This is short and simple, but the recipient will immediately understand the topic of your email, what you need, and when you need it.

3. Be Specific About Why You’re Emailing

The text of your email should be as specific as possible. To do this:

• Set out who you are and your relationship to the recipient.
• Explain your situation in no more than a couple sentences. For more complex requests, you’re better off setting up a meeting in person.
• Suggest how the recipient can help you address the problem.

This will ensure the recipient knows who you are and what you need from them. The simpler you make this, the easier it will be for them to respond.

4. Be Clear, Concise and Formal

As well as being specific, you need to use an appropriate writing style. This should be clear, concise, and  formal . Be sure to:

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• Address the recipient using their proper title (e.g.,  Dear  Prof.  Smith ).
• Use academic language as appropriate (avoid slang and emojis).
• Be polite in your request; don’t make demands.
• Thank the recipient for their time at the end of the email.

It may be the recipient is happy for you to use a less formal writing style. But it’s best to stick to formal, respectful language until you get to know them.

5. Proofread Carefully

Finally, be absolutely sure you  proofread your email before sending it.

This will save you from any embarrassing typos, ensuring your email is easy for the recipient to understand.

Example Academic Email

In closing, here’s an example of an academic email:

Dear Prof. Smith,

I am a first-year student on your Ancient Greek Philosophy module, and I was hoping we could meet to discuss the upcoming Aristotle paper (due on March 3).

I am planning to write about Plato and Aristotle, and I have attended the lectures and completed the required reading, but I have questions I would like to ask before I begin writing. Will you be available to meet this Wednesday?

Early afternoon would be best for me, but I am happy to adapt my schedule if you are not available then. If we cannot meet, do you have any books or research papers about Plato and Aristotle that you can suggest?

Thank you for your time.

Kind regards,

Isaac Kinsella

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How to Write an Email in English: Our 18 Favorite Tips [+ Example Emails]

Emails have been hugely important to the internet for decades, as most people read and send emails almost every day.

That’s why being able to write a strong, clear email in English is a really important skill—on top of the fact that it can help you get a job , make friends, get into a university and much more.

If it’s your first time writing an email in English, check out this guide for beginners , but if not, continue reading this post for useful tips about email writing and email culture (dos and don’ts).

You’ll get comfortable with the format of email writing in English and you’ll see full samples of different types of emails written in English.

Our Favorite English Email Tips

1. be sure an email is necessary, 2. use separate business and personal email addresses, 3. be clear, brief and polite, 4. don’t write emails when you’re angry, 5. use short sentences, 6. avoid forwarding emails and replying to all, 7. use a spell checker, 8. watch out for signatures, 9. have a native speaker proofread your email, if possible, 10. read your email personally before sending it, 11. double-check email addresses for all recipients, 12. use the subject line, 13. start with an appropriate greeting, 14. pay attention to punctuation, 15. consider where to put “small talk”, 16. start with the end in mind, 17. put spaces between paragraphs, 18. use an appropriate closing, english email examples, how to introduce yourself in an email, how to request an appointment or meeting, how to write a formal email, and one more thing....

Download: This blog post is available as a convenient and portable PDF that you can take anywhere. Click here to get a copy. (Download)

Like most of the email writing tips in this section, this may seem obvious. But sometimes we forget obvious things.

So ask yourself, “Is there a better or faster way to take care of this situation?” Many people get dozens or even hundreds of emails a day, so be sure that email is the fastest, clearest and most efficient way to communicate in your situation .

For example, if you’re writing to a coworker or a friend that you often see, you can probably just talk to him or her in person. Or you could also send a text message or call on the phone.

If you’ve decided that an email is the best option, then check the following tips before you click “Send.”

This may not apply to everyone, but if you can do it, it can help you in many ways.

Many jobs automatically give you an email address that you have to use. If that’s the case, then the problem is solved. Use the business email address for work and your personal email address for personal emails.

If you have a business email address, it can make an email look more professional. That’s good if you’re writing a formal email, but it might not be as nice if you’re writing to a friend. So that’s why having two can be useful.

Also, if you have separate accounts, it can help you balance your personal and professional life.

Again, many people receive so many emails each day. If your email is confusing, angry or really long, the recipient may not respond right away. Eventually they may forget to answer or even just delete it.

So be sure to get to the point quickly, but not in a rude way.

Treat an email similarly to an essay , only much shorter, and you will probably have good results. In an essay, you have to introduce the topic, explain the different points and then conclude the topic.

Honestly, this is something I have difficulty doing myself. I’m not (usually) rude in email, but I do have problems with the “brief” part. So when I’m done writing an email, I check it and try to eliminate about 20% of the content, since it was probably unnecessary.

It can be very tempting to write a mean email when you’re frustrated or angry at something. But it’s not worth it.

If you’re angry, wait until you’ve calmed down before writing your email. It’s better to wait a day than to lose a job or destroy a friendship because you said something stupid when you were angry.

Like #3, this is a problem that I have myself. I like to write long, complicated sentences, but often those are very confusing for the reader. That’s especially true if the reader is not a native English speaker.

I teach English in Costa Rica, and in Spanish it seems to be more common to have really long sentences with many commas. That’s very confusing, especially if you translate those ideas into English.

So here’s a tip: Write short sentences. It’s not bad style in English if you write short, clear sentences. Some authors, like Ernest Hemingway, are famous for doing it. (There’s even an online tool called Hemingway App that can help you write more like him!)

If you’re very comfortable writing in English, you can use long, more complicated sentences. But then again, if you’re very comfortable writing in English, then you probably don’t need these email writing tips!

The “Forward” option on email is a blessing (a good thing) and a curse (a bad thing). It can be good to quickly pass on important information to a new person. However, it can also be annoying for the recipient if it’s not used correctly. (The same thing is true about the “Reply All” option.)

If you need to forward an email, check carefully what information you’re forwarding. In some cases, it may be personal, confidential or just plain excessive (unnecessary). If so, cut those parts out.

Also, some email programs filter out emails marked with “Fwd” (forward) at the beginning of the subject line, and may even put them in the Spam filter or refuse to deliver them.

And if you click on “Reply All,” look closely at all of the recipients who will receive your email. Some people may not need to see your message. It’s frustrating to receive emails about subjects that aren’t relevant to you.

Most email programs have this option, so make sure you use it before sending the email.

Or if your email program doesn’t offer English spell checking , you can add an extension like Grammarly  to your browser and use it anytime you’re writing anything.

To get the most accurate version of Grammarly, you’ll need to make sure you have Grammarly Premium , which highlights and offers corrections for more advanced English issues.

Many people put “cool” or “funny” signatures at the bottom of emails. They often include contact information, like email addresses or phone numbers. That can be useful, but if your emails get forwarded (see #5), that information may get to people you don’t know, or even people you wouldn’t want to have that information.

Additionally, if you send multiple emails back and forth with another person, it may include your signature every time, and the email chain just gets longer and longer. So consider not including your signature in some emails.

Or if you do want an email signature, try to keep it simple, without including your personal information.

If you know any native speakers or have friends who speak English very well, you may want to ask them to review your email before you send it. That’s especially true if it’s about something important.

If you’re taking an English class, you might even be able to ask your teacher to review the email—just be sure to ask nicely and say “please”!

It might not always be possible to find a native speaker to check your email. In those cases, it’s still useful to read your email yourself. It can help your English, too.

Try to read the text of your email out loud. First of all, that will help you work on your pronunciation, which is always nice. Second, it can help you see and hear mistakes in grammar.

It also helps you understand how your email “flows.” If it’s too long or complicated to read out loud, then you should probably make it shorter and clearer.

As I mentioned before, I live in Costa Rica. People here often have the same last name as many other people. It’s basically like “Smith” or “Johnson” in the U.S., but about 10 times worse.

I’ve even had multiple students at the same time who had the exact same first and last names. And I’ve mistakenly sent emails to people who had very similar names.

So just check those email addresses twice to be safe.

After you’ve followed the general email writing tips in the previous section, you need to actually write the email. So how do you do that?

There’s a specific structure and format of email writing in English, shown in the following tips.

It’s surprising how many people don’t do this. Be specific in your subject line, as well.

For example, don’t just write “Question.” Instead, be more specific, like “Question About Schedule for Friday’s Meeting.” That way, the recipient will know immediately what your email is about, even before opening it.

It’s most polite to begin with some type of greeting. If you know the person well and it’s an informal email, you can just say “Hey [First Name].”

You can also use “Hi [First Name]” or “Hello [First Name],” to be a little less casual.

If you don’t know the name of the person (like if you’re writing to customer service), you can use “To Whom It May Concern.”

Notice that after greetings, you should generally use a comma. According to many sites like Business Writing , you should use a comma after a greeting in personal emails and letters, and use a colon after a greeting in business or formal emails/letters.

But in reality, a comma will probably always be fine if you can’t remember the rule.

Start each sentence with a capital letter. Be sure to put periods or other appropriate punctuation at the end of each sentence.

It’s a small detail, but it can really help to make a positive impression.

If you know the person you’re writing an email to, you might want to include a bit of “small talk.” That could be something like asking about the person’s family, a mutual friend or an activity that you have in common. But where and how can you include this?

Personally, I actually prefer to include this information  after  the “business” part of an email. If I’m asking for a favor, I prefer to ask first, and then to make small talk after.

Other people or cultures may prefer to have the small talk first, so you may want to adjust it if you know the reader’s personality well.

Get to know how to use small talk in English by seeing it in use through a program like FluentU .

FluentU takes authentic videos—like music videos, movie trailers, news and inspiring talks—and turns them into personalized language learning lessons.

You can try FluentU for free for 2 weeks. Check out the website or download the iOS app or Android app.

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As you write, focus on the purpose and the goal of your email. If you’re asking a question, that should be the main focus of your email. If you need a favor, then it should be very clear what favor you need and exactly how the reader can help you.

Imagine you are the recipient: Would you understand immediately what you needed to do in response to the email?

If you don’t do this, you’ll end up with a giant block of text. Just hit the “Return/Enter” key twice between paragraphs. It’s much easier to read and less overwhelming.

You can find some examples below, but be sure that it’s a goodbye that’s appropriate for the purpose of your email . In other words, don’t sign an email with “Love, Ryan” if you’re writing to your boss.

Similarly, don’t sign it “Sincerely, Ryan Sitzman” if you’re writing to your grandma to thank her for the birthday present she gave you. (And definitely don’t sign your emails as “Ryan Sitzman” if that’s not your name! And if it is your name, let me know. I’d like to start a Ryan Sitzmans Club!)

Here are some more closings you can use to say goodbye at the end of your email. Now, let’s put all of these tips into practice!

For this example, let’s imagine that you’re going to travel to the U.S., Canada or another English-speaking country. When you get there, you’ll stay with a host family. So the organization has matched you with a family and you need to introduce yourselves before you meet in person.

Here’s what you might send:

Dear Smith Family,

Hello, my name is John. I received a confirmation letter from the exchange organization today. It said I’ll be staying with you for two months later this year. I wanted to introduce myself so you can know a bit more about me.

I’m 18 years old. I like listening to rock music, playing basketball and reading comic books. I will graduate from high school later this year, and I hope to go to college next year. I’ve never traveled outside of my country, so meeting you and visiting your country will be an exciting, new experience for me! 

I’d also like to know more about you, so if you have a chance, please write back at this email address. If you have any questions for me, I’d be happy to answer them.

Thanks again for agreeing to host me—I’m very excited to meet you in person!

Dear Professor Smith,

I really enjoyed your Introduction to Writing Course, and I was interested in continuing by taking the Advanced Writing Course next semester. I’d like to meet with you to ask a few questions about the course, and also to get more information about the scholarship for international students.

Would it be possible to meet with you at your office sometime next week? I’m available during your regular office hours on Monday and Wednesday (2-5 p.m.), but if you’re busy on those days, I could also meet any time on Tuesday or on Friday afternoon. Please let me know what day and time would work best for you.

Thanks very much for your time and help!

John Johnson

I have to write emails like this pretty often, unfortunately. I say “unfortunately” because it’s frustrating to have a problem with a product. Dealing with a company’s customer service representatives can be difficult at times. But a clear, polite email should help you resolve your problems faster.

To Whom It May Concern,

I recently bought a toaster from your company, but unfortunately it appears that the heating element isn’t working correctly.

For reference, the model number is TOS-577, and I bought it on May 1, 2016 at the Toaster Emporium in New York City. I returned the toaster to the store, but they said I should contact you because the model had been an “open-box” discontinued model. Because of that, they weren’t able to offer a refund or exchange.

I can understand the Toaster Emporium’s position, but the toaster shouldn’t have broken so soon. It is still covered under your company’s one-year warranty, so I would like to exchange the toaster for a working model. If that isn’t possible I would like to receive a refund. Please let me know what steps I need to take for this to happen.

Thanks very much for your help with this situation.

Sincerely, John Johnson

So, there you have it! If you keep these tips in mind while writing emails in English, you can become an email expert.

If you like learning English through movies and online media, you should also check out FluentU. FluentU lets you learn English from popular talk shows, catchy music videos and funny commercials , as you can see here:

If you want to watch it, the FluentU app has probably got it.

The FluentU app and website makes it really easy to watch English videos. There are captions that are interactive. That means you can tap on any word to see an image, definition, and useful examples.

FluentU lets you learn engaging content with world famous celebrities.

For example, when you tap on the word "searching," you see this:

FluentU lets you tap to look up any word.

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FluentU helps you learn fast with useful questions and multiple examples. Learn more.

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How to Write an Email

Last Updated: October 5, 2023 Fact Checked

This article was co-authored by Tami Claytor and by wikiHow staff writer, Rain Kengly . Tami Claytor is an Etiquette Coach, Image Consultant, and the Owner of Always Appropriate Image and Etiquette Consulting in New York, New York. With over 20 years of experience, Tami specializes in teaching etiquette classes to individuals, students, companies, and community organizations. Tami has spent decades studying cultures through her extensive travels across five continents and has created cultural diversity workshops to promote social justice and cross-cultural awareness. She holds a BA in Economics with a concentration in International Relations from Clark University. Tami studied at the Ophelia DeVore School of Charm and the Fashion Institute of Technology, where she earned her Image Consultant Certification. There are 7 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 500,771 times.

Do you want to know how to write an email? It can be intimidating if you don't know where to start. When sending emails, there is a general format you should keep in mind. Be sure to know your recipient and the differences between informal and formal email messages. This wikiHow guide will teach you how to write friendly, formal, and professional emails for every occasion.

Things You Should Know

• You must choose between a formal or informal tone when writing an email.
• Using the wrong tone in an email can cause issues with the recipient.
• When writing emails, you'll need an email account from a trusted service.

Email Essentials

• If you are uncertain about how to create a new message, check the help pages for your email service to learn more about it in greater detail.

• A space is often enough to separate multiple email addresses, but some services do request that you separate multiple addresses with a comma or some other form of punctuation. If this is the case, these instructions should be specified by your specific email provider.
• Type the email address of the main receiver or receivers in the “To:” field. The main receiver usually refers to anyone whom the email is directly meant for or addressed to in the body of the email.
• Type other email addresses in the “CC:” field. This is the “copy” field. A receiver should be listed in the “CC:” field if the email does not directly mention them but does refer to something that individual should be aware of.
• Use the “BCC:” field to hide email addresses. If you do not want the receivers of an email to see a list of email addresses the message went to, you should type those email addresses in the “blind copy” field.

• For example, a casual email to a friend could simply say “What's Up?” If you are emailing with a question about an assignment, though, the subject line might read something like “Math homework.”
• Similarly, a question to a supervisor or professor could be labeled with a subject line like “Question” or “Question about...” followed by a brief label describing the topic in question.
• Note that a message without a subject will appear in a recipient's inbox with the label of “(no subject).”

• The nature of email is fast, so you should generally keep the length of your message fairly short.

Writing a Friendly Email

• The only time you would not send a friendly email to a family or friend would be if you are sending a group email of an official nature, like a plea for donations or sale advertisement. Since these emails will likely be sent to people who you are not on casual terms with, as well, you must gear the email toward them.

• If you are just writing an email to catch up with a friend, you could include a humorous subject line or one as simple as "Long time no see!"
• If you are writing with a purpose, mention what that purpose is. For example, if you decide to write an email about a group outing, label the email with a subject that specifically mentions that outing.

• "Morning Bob!"

• Read your email and ask yourself if the content of the email sounds like the way you speak in person. If so, then you've achieved a good tone for a friendly email.
• Use contractions. Contractions are not a part of formal writing, but they are a common part of everyday conversation, making them appropriate for a friendly email.
• Feel free to use slang. If desired, you can include Internet slang: "thx" instead of "thanks," "4" instead of "for," "l8r" instead of "later," etc.
• Also use emoticons when appropriate. :)

• "Later! Jen"
• "This email will self-destruct in 3...2...1..."

Writing a Formal Email

• The tone of your message can be a little more conversational but you should stay away from Internet slang.
• You should still include your signature, but you may not need to provide all of your contact information below your name.

• "Essay question" (when writing an email to a professor asking for details about an essay assignment)
• "Application for Management Job Ad" (when sending an email in response to a job ad)
• "Problem with Part #00000" (when typing an email to request customer service or to report a technical problem)

• "Dear Mr. Smith:"
• "Dear Ms. Jones:"
• "Dear Dr. Evans:"

• Avoid the use of contractions.
• Do not use Internet slang or emoticons.

• Yours faithfully
• Best regards
• Best wishes

• Your title, if you have one, should include your position and the name of the company or institution you are a part of.
• Include your telephone number, fax number, and email address, at minimum. You may also wish to include your mailing address and website URL.

Specific Types of Friendly Emails

• While it's a pretty risky move, you can also use email to tell a guy you like him.

• Similarly, write a flirty email to someone on an dating website. For an email like this, though, you need to be both flirty and informative so that the recipient gets a good idea of who you are.

Specific Types of Formal Emails

• Similarly, you can also write an email applying for an internship . Describe what sort of internship you are looking for and how it will help you meet your career goals. Also provide reasons why you should be selected for the internship.
• Send a follow-up email if you have not yet received a reply about the position you applied for.

• If your professor knows you well enough, you can also email your professor when asking for a letter of recommendation .

Sample Professional Emails

Community Q&A

• Never provide usernames, passwords, or personal information like credit card numbers and social security numbers via email. Thanks Helpful 3 Not Helpful 0

You Might Also Like

• ↑ https://edu.gcfglobal.org/en/gmail/sending-email/1/
• ↑ https://www.grammarly.com/blog/how-to-start-an-email/
• ↑ https://www.grammarly.com/blog/how-to-end-an-email/
• ↑ https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/format-for-formal-email
• ↑ https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/finding-a-job/sending-applications
• ↑ https://www.purdue.edu/advisors/students/professor.php
• ↑ https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/email-hr

About This Article

To write a formal email, start with a formal salutation followed by the recipient's last name and appropriate title, like "Dear Mr. Smith." Then, when you're finished writing the body of your email, conclude with a formal closing, like "Sincerely," "Best regards," or "Thank you." Next, include your full name below the closing of your email, followed by your title and the name of your company, if you have one. Finally, underneath your name, add your phone number and email address. To learn how to write a friendly, casual email, scroll down! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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Email Writing

Ladies and gentlemen, welcome to the future of letter writing– electronic mail writing. Gone are the days where people have to wait for weeks to receive a letter from a friend or a significant other. The concept of pen pals is no longer applicable when everyone from any part of the world can be contacted almost immediately– depending on your Internet speed and the kind of social media site you are using. If there are certain laws in your country that prevent you from accessing Google-related sites or even Facebook-owned sites, (e.g. China) then you would have to find another way to contact your fellow peers and colleagues using whatever mobile apps they have (e.g. WeChat). You may also see formal writings .

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Regardless, almost all forms of communication (except face-to-face talking) is already done through the use of modern technology that is able to fill the gap between the distance among people. The use of electronic mail writing these days are for more semi-formal and formal purposes (e.g. submitting a resume, asking your college instructor for some clarifications, making a business transaction) than casual purposes (e.g. chatting with a friend). You may also see some email examples by clicking here. For newbies who do not know the first thing about email writing, here are a few tips for you. You may also see application writings .

Sample Email Writing Example

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General Tips for Writing Emails in English

1. be sure an email is necessary.

Ask yourself if sending an email is really the best option to use in addressing the query or issue to the concerned party. Because if the matter at hand is something not so important or confidential, it can always be dealt directly with the aforementioned party. But then again, it is entirely up to your discretion. If you’ve decided that an email is the best option, then write your email and click “send”. You may also see article writings .

2. Use separate business and personal email addresses

Many jobs will normally give you an email address that you have to use, in case you have concerns or questions that you would want to raise to your boss or supervisor. Make sure that you strictly use your work email for work matters and personal email address for personal matters. Having a work email can look and sound more professional. That’s good if you’re writing a formal email, but it might not be as nice if you’re writing to a friend. You may also see memo writings .

3. Be clear, brief and polite

Everyone in the office is usually bombarded with emails every single day. That is why it is always best to keep the content of the message short, simple and concise enough so that they may be able to understand the gist of the letter without straining so much effort and time. Go straight to the point, but not in a rude and condescending way. Write your email just like you would in an essay. Similar to an essay, you have to introduce the topic, explain the different points, and then conclude the topic. You may also see summary writings .

4. Don’t write emails when you’re angry

They say that there is a right time for everything– which includes expressing that rage and anger towards the person. But never in an email. Keep in mind that you have to be respectful and courteous to the one you are sending that letter to.

5. Use short sentences

Just as it is important to keep the content of your message short and simple, it is also essential to keep the sentences simple and easy to read in order to keep your thoughts cohesive and understandable. Try your best not to use very lengthy sentences in your letter. Instead, learn to break down each separate thought with a ‘period’. You may also see minutes writings .

6. Be careful with “forward” and “reply to all”

The “forward” button is considered a lifesaver especially when you do not have the files you need to send to your boss or colleague, and you realize you sent that specific file to someone else who needed it before they did. So, you simply use that forward button in order to save time and effort. But make sure that the content of the forwarded message is meant for that specific person. Otherwise, it is best you delete the rest and to just retain the file that is needed to be sent. The same can be said for the “reply to all” option. If your supervisor has sent a joint message to recipients A, B, and C, make sure you only reply to your supervisor and not reply to all the concerned parties mentioned, especially if it is not really “need to know” information by the others. You may also see narrative writings

7. Read your email personally before sending it

Since you are the one composing the email, it would be best if you took the time to proofread the letter just to make sure that the grammar is in tact and that the thoughts are coherent enough for your letter to be organized and understandable. This will prevent the email recipient from struggling to understand your email.

8. Double-check email addresses for all recipients

Make sure that the recipient’s email address is correct. Be careful as there are times that email addresses are structured in a similar way. You may also see argumentative writings .

Sports Email Writing Example

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The 3 Common Types of Emails

1.  a personal email –  introducing yourself for the first time.

As mentioned before, most people do not write personal emails to each another anymore. They would mostly communicate through texting, calling, or via any social media applications that do not really need much formality (e.g. Facebook Messenger, Viber, WeChat). But if ever you are the conservative type of person, then here are a few guidelines that you would need to follow.

General rules for personal emails:

• Politeness:  You don’t need to be too formal, but you would want to appear polite and friendly when you address the recipient. If you have any requests that you would need to ask from your friends, make sure that you are polite in doing so. Instead of saying “Write me back,” for example, try something like “If you have a chance, I’d love to hear back from you,” or even “Please write back when you have a chance.”
• Greetings:  For greetings, people would normally use the first name after the word “Dear”.
• Closings: To say goodbye, use something like “Thank you”, “See you soon!” or even a brief sentence like “I’m really looking forward to meeting you in person.” Be sure to write/type your name, even if it will be included in your signature.
• Casualness:  With these types of emails, you can probably include more jokes or informal comments. However, still be careful about the tone of your email, especially if you don’t know the recipient well.

Example of a personal email:

For this example, let’s imagine that you are going abroad for the summer, say the United States or Canada. When you get there, you’ll be staying with a host family. There is a great chance that you will need to introduce yourself via email. Listed below is a sample:

Dear Smith Family,

My name is Mark. I received a confirmation letter from the exchange organization today. It said I’ll be staying with you for three months later this year. I wanted to introduce myself so you can know a bit more about me.

I’m currently 17 years old. I like listening to classical music, playing football and reading comic books. I will graduate from high school later this year, and I hope to go to college in the next year. I’ve never traveled outside of my country, so meeting you and visiting your country will be an exciting, new experience! 

I’d also like to know more about you, so if you have a chance, please write back at this email address. If you have any questions for me, I’d be happy to answer them.

Thanks again for agreeing to host me—I’m very excited to meet you in person!

2. A Semi-Formal Email – Writing to request an appointment or meeting

This is a very common type of email, especially when you need to write to your teacher to request a meeting.

General rules for semi-formal emails:

• Length:  Follow the K.I.S.S. (keep it short and simple). Remember that you are talking to a professional. These types of people do not have the luxury of time to thoroughly go through your letter, sentence per sentence. So, go straight to the point on what you want to discuss. After all, other concerns can be resolved during the meeting.
• Respect:  Remember that you’re requesting a favor from the recipient, so be respectful and not too demanding.
• Greetings:  Use formal or semi-formal greetings. You can still use “Dear ~,” but instead of including the recipient’s first name, use their title (Mr., Mrs., Ms., Dr., Prof. etc.) and last name.
• Closings: Depending on the purpose, you can probably use a semi-formal goodbye, such as “Thanks,” “Hope to hear from you soon” or “Thanks in advance.” If it’s someone you have talked to before in person, you can maybe use something less formal, like “Have a great weekend.”
• Clarity:  If you’re requesting for a specific day, that day/date and time should be set. Try to give multiple options. That way, if your first option doesn’t work out, your recipient has other dates/times to choose from.

Example of a semi-formal email:

Dear Professor Constantine,

I really enjoyed your Introduction to Witchcraft Course, and I was interested in continuing by taking the Advanced Demonology Course next semester. I’d like to meet with you to ask a few questions about the course, and also to get more information about the scholarship for international students.

Would it be possible to meet with you at your office sometime next week? I’m available during your regular office hours on Tuesday and Wednesday (1-4 p.m.), but if you’re busy on those days, I could also meet any time on Monday or on Friday afternoon. Please let me know what day and time would work best for you.

Thanks very much for your time and help!

Gary Oldman

3. A Formal Email – Writing about a problem with a product

General rules for formal emails:.

• Politeness:  Follow Confucius’ Golden Rule which is, “Do not do unto others want you others to do unto you.”
• Formality: Avoid making jokes and using slang words.
• Clarity:  Be clear by including any relevant details.
• Requests: State the result or response that you want or expect. This is also called making your email “actionable.”
• Greetings: For greetings, use a common phrase like “To Whom It May Concern,” since you probably won’t know the name of the person who will be receiving the email. But if you do know the name, you can use “Dear [Title] [Last Name],” like the one in the semi-formal email example.

If those seem  too formal, you may want to try something like “Good Morning/Afternoon/Evening.” It could make you seem friendly and make the recipient more receptive to your complaint or questions.

• Closings: For goodbyes, a simple “Sincerely Yours” is best. But if it’s a more casual company or an organization that you’ve already interacted with, you can always say “Thanks”.

Example of a formal email:

To Whom It May Concern,

I recently bought a magic wand from Hogwarts, but unfortunately it appears that the wand is not working correctly.

For reference, the model number is TOS-577, and I bought it on May 1, 2016 from Dumbledore at Hogwarts. I returned the magic wand to the store, but they said I should contact you since you would have an idea on how to fix the wand. Because of that, they weren’t able to offer a refund or exchange.

I can understand Hogwarts’ position, but the magic wand shouldn’t have broken so soon. It is still covered under the school’s warranty, so I would like to exchange the magic wand for a working model. Please let me know what steps I need to take for this to happen.

Thanks very much for your help with this situation.

Sincerely, Voldemort

Business Conference Call Email Writing Example

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Just remember these steps in writing an email and you’ll be able to get it in no time.

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How to Write Formal Emails in English

19 Aug 2019

This article will help you to communicate better and to write formal emails in English.

Emails are among the most commonly used means of communication in the world. They’re fast, immediate, and allow you to interact with all kinds of businesses within and beyond the national boundaries. At work above all, writing formal emails in English in the right way requires certain skills, and being a professional situation, it’s essential not to commit mistakes in order to make a good impression of yourself and your company.  

In this article you’ll find:

The rules for writing formal emails in English

• The right format to use

Examples of formal emails in English

To write an email in English in the right way, don’t improvise! Read the following advice to avoid making serious mistakes that could compromise the success of the email from the moment it is received.

The subject is the first piece of information that the recipients of an email see, and if it’s written incorrectly or unclearly, it could push the reader to delete it without even opening it! So it’s important to give a clear and precise message, right from the start, indicating the content or reason for writing in two or three words that grabs the attention of the recipient. 

Unlike many other languages which require long complex sentences in a formal written context, English is very concise and favors short sentences and a simple structure. Make sure you break up the text into two or three paragraphs – this enables the reader to quickly see the key points.

Courtesy formulas

When you write an email in English, you’re not only using another language but you’re also entering another culture with different habits. The Anglo-Saxons in general pay a lot of attention to forms of courtesy and gratitude, therefore never forget to add them.

Check the email

Never send an email in English without having re-read what you wrote. Grammatical or typing mistakes are very common even in your own language, so in English you can make errors much more easily. Double-checking what you’ve written is a simple step to take that can prevent you from appearing unprofessional and above all careless.

Be sure to have set your emails to end with all the important information about you, including:

• name and surname
• relative details about your company (name, address..)
• link to the company website

The format of a formal email in English

Introduction

Body of the text

Depending on the type of relationship you have with the person you’re writing to, there are different ways of starting an email, but any email should always start with a greeting. In our specific case being formal, the most appropriate options are:

• Dear Mr/Mrs/Ms (surname of the recipient, e.g. Mr Black)
• Dear Sir/Madam (if you don’t know the name of the recipient) or more generally ‘To whom it may concern’

After the initial greeting you need an introductory sentence that indicates clearly the reason for writing and is consistent with the subject of the email. Introduce yourself briefly (long texts often discourage people from reading them), then follow on with:

• I am writing with regard to… (email subject)
• I am writing in connection with… (email subject)
• I am writing in reference to…

If you’re writing an email to send information, you can start with one of the following sentences:

• I am writing to let you know…
• I am delighted to tell you… (if you’re communicating good news)
• I regret to inform you that… (if you’re communicating bad news)

If instead you’re replying to an email you received, you can say:

• I am writing in response to…
• I am writing in reply to…
• I am writing to thank you for… (if you need to thank the recipient) 

There are no conventional formulas for writing the body of the text because this varies according to the function of what you need to communicate. It’s useful to prepare an initial draft and then proceed with any corrections.

The general rules are that the text should be divided into short paragraphs that avoid abbreviations and acronyms, both of which you can use, on the contrary, when you write an informal email to family and friends. 

Based on the type of message you’re sending, there are various ways to write a final invitation before ending the email, such as: 

• I look forward to hearing from you soon
• Thank you in advance
• For further information, please do not hesitate to contact me
• Please let me know if you have any questions
• Thanks for your attention

The most common way to end an email are:

• Best regards
• Kind regards
• Yours faithfully (if you began the email with ‘Dear Sir/Madam’ because you don’t know the name of the recipient)
• Yours sincerely (if you began the email with ‘Dear Mr/Mrs/Ms + surname)

Let’s see how all of this works in practice. 

Example 1: Delay with the delivery of an order

Subject: Delivery delay

Dear Mr Pascal, 

We regret to inform you that we will not be able to respect the deadline previously agreed for the delivery of your order. Our supplier has warned us today that they are experiencing supply problems, which will result in a delay in our production chain. We count on your understanding and thank you for your patience. 

Please accept our apologies.

Best regards,

Example 2: Replying to a job advertisement

Subject: Web Content Editor position

Dear Sir/Madam, 

With reference to your job ad in xxx, I would like to submit my application for the position of Web Content Editor in your company. 

I graduated in Communication Sciences at the University of xxx and worked for several years in a Digital Agency as Content Specialist. I believe my skills and experience are in line with the requirements for the job position. I will be glad to introduce myself in an interview, that will allow you to better evaluate my possible recruitment. 

Please find attached a copy of my resume. I look forward to hearing from you.

Yours faithfully,

Example 3: Sending a product catalogue

Subject: New product catalogue 

Dear Ms.Chapman, 

Following your request, we have recently sent you our new catalogue. We are convinced that it will enable you to see the quality of our products. Our local agent will contact you soon to arrange a meeting on a day and time that suits you in order to discuss in detail how our products can be of benefit to your company’s needs.

For further information, please do not hesitate to contact us. 

Yours sincerely, 

If you want to improve your English and get better at writing emails, find an English course that suits your needs.

This post has been adapted from the WSE Italy blog: Come Scrivere Email In Inglese Esempi

Learning and improving your knowledge of business vocabulary is a must. Read on to find out more.

Do you want to improve your writing skills? Read on to find out our tips on how to become a better writer in English!

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An informal email to a friend

Learn how to write an informal email to a friend.

Do the preparation task first. Then read the text and tips and do the exercises.

Preparation

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How's it going?

Sorry I haven't been in touch for such a long time but I've had exams so I've been studying every free minute. Anyway, I'd love to hear all your news and I'm hoping we can get together soon to catch up. We just moved to a bigger flat so maybe you can come and visit one weekend?

How's the new job?  

Looking forward to hearing from you!

I've been meaning to write to you for ages now so don't worry! How did your exams go? When will you know your results? I'm sure you did brilliantly as always!

As for me, I'll have been in the new job three months by the end of next week so I'm feeling more settled in. At first I felt like I had no idea what I was doing but now I realise it's normal to feel like that. There was a lot to learn – there still is actually – and I soon had to get used to the idea that I can't know everything. I used to work late a lot and at weekends but I'm slowly getting into a normal routine.

Which means I'd love to come and visit! We really need a good catch up! I can't believe we haven't seen each other since Carl's wedding. How does next month sound?

Anyway, I'd better get back to work.

Congratulations on the new flat! Can't wait to see you!

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What's the best way to stay in touch with friends you don't see often?

Language level

Well, I think the best way to stay in touch with my friends is call them or write them e-mails. Another way is by visiting their social networks, comments their publications or putting Likes on their photos. They love that.

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The best way to keep in touch is to go and see them!

I was pulling your leg! It was the best way before the internet was invented.

After the advent of the Internet, nobody can complain about not being aware of your friends and family. There are a lot of ways we can choose according to our situation.

In my view, video and voice calls make a more tangible connection. I usually reach out to them on special occasions like their birthday. But at other times, send a text and voice message.

If I would like to catch my friend on the hop, on her birthday, I will write a letter. This sounds old-fashioned but, in this era, receiving a letter is an unusual and exciting way to hear from someone.

I prefer to stay in touch with my friends by using instant messaging apps like WhatsApp or Facebook Messenger.

I agree, but i think THE BEST WAY IS TO see one anotHer . I know i'm old school

the best way to stay in touch with my friends i don't see often is texting them since we are occupied with our study and we also don't have much free time to meet in person.

I use Facebook and other social media to see what my friends are doing on daily basis. But if I want to know what is really happen I have to call them. The best way to know what's going on and how someone is feeling is to meet him and talk

I think so in all things that you right Sanja.

I think the most important is offline meetings. The best way is go to interesting place and after all speak about most interesting events in life. For example, I can go to cinema and then walk in park with guitar and ice cream and speak about everything!

What's your assement about this email ? thank you for advance.

Dear Bob I Hope this letter will find you and your entire family in good health. It's been a while! I'm writing to tell you about my recent relocation to a new house. As I told you the last time we spoke on the phone that I've got a new job, so it saves money, avoids traffic and it requires less effort to get to my office. My new house is close to Victoria métro station and it's located in the town's center. It's a second floor apartement with two bedrooms, a leavingroom, a small dining room, a bathroom and of corse a kitchen, it's rather roomy for that reason why I'm grateful for it. Besides the neighborhood is serene and beautiful as well. Would you like to visit us for a few days during the next holiday, I'm sure you'll enjoy the area, so we are waiting for you. I look forward to seeing you in my new home Take care Warm wishes Adil.

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How to Write a Formal Email

Nov 10th 2023

In the professional world, clear and effective communication is paramount. This is especially true for emails, which often serve as the primary method of communication between colleagues, clients, and other businesses. Knowing how to properly format an email can ensure your message is understood and well-received. 

In this article, you’ll learn how to write an effective email, the proper email format, and how to make sure your message is clear and professional. At the bottom of this page, you’ll find several formal email examples for different occasions, including how to format an email for a cover letter. Feel free to use them for reference!

A checklist to use before sending

Before sending your email, always make sure to check a few vital points:

• Make sure your email address is appropriate. If you’re writing from a personal email, your address should look like  f [email protected]. Learn more about creating a professional email address.
• If you're emailing on behalf of a company,  think about including a professional signature with your contact information, including phone number and social media links. Learn more about creating a professional email signature.
• Double-check the recipient's name and email. Make sure you’re writing to the right person and spell their name correctly.
• Stick to a professional font. Although many email clients let you change the font of your emails, use something conservative like Arial or Sans Serif. Avoid playing with different colors and using all caps.
• Don’t forget to attach files. If you’re sending someone a document, make sure to attach it. Name your file properly so a recipient can guess what’s inside (e.g., “Marketing Budget Q4.”)

Formatting a formal email

Emailing is all about context, so before drafting your message, take a moment to think about your relationship with the recipient. Is it your boss, colleague, or potential partner? This will help you define the appropriate level of formality - if you’re in doubt, it’s safer to stick to a more formal version. Here are the key components your message should contain:

1. Email Subject Line

A good subject line informs recipients what the message is about and why they should read it. Try to make your subject line clear, specific, and concise. For example:

• Marketing Budget Q4: Please review by August, 31
• Meet the new VP of Engineering
• Spark for Android: First impressions from our users
• Requesting vacation for Aug, 10-20

2. Greeting

If you need help picking a proper salutation, check out our comprehensive list of email greetings . Depending on the level of formality, your salutations can take various forms. Here are some standard greeting examples:

• Hello [Name],
• Dear [Name],
• Dear Mr./Ms./Dr./Professor [Last name],

3. Email body

Now, it’s time to craft the main part of your email. Here are some points to think about:

• Explain what you’re writing about.   If you’re emailing a stranger, briefly introduce yourself and get straight to the point. State the purpose of your email clearly so a person can understand why you’re emailing them and how they can help. 
• Value the reader’s time.  Provide a recipient with any additional information they need to reply. At the same time, try to keep your email short and simple, and don’t overload it with extra details. 
• Make your email easy to read. Break your message into short paragraphs and take advantage of headings and lists. Where appropriate, emphasize the key information with bold or italics. Your aim to make your email as structured and easy to skim as possible.

If you want your recipient to do something,  a formal closing tells a recipient what’s next and includes a specific call to action. If you’re just wrapping up the discussion you’ve previously had, end on a friendly note to show a reader you’re willing to keep in touch with them.

5. Signature

Here are some common phrases you can use to sign off:

• Best regards,
• Kind regards,
• Thanks again,

By following these guidelines, you can increase your open rates and ensure that your emails are professional and effective.

Formal email examples

Please note that these samples are for reference, and we recommend you adjust them to match the tone and level of formality appropriate for a particular recipient and occasion.

Example 1: Cover Letter

Subject: [Role] Application Dear [Company Name] , I am writing to express my interest in the [Job Title] position. With a [Degree or Professional Qualification] in [Your Field of Study] and [Number of Years] years of experience in [Your Current or Previous Relevant Job Role] , I am confident in my ability to contribute effectively to your team at [Company Name] . In my previous role at [Previous Company] , I [Briefly Describe a Relevant Achievement or Project] . This experience honed my skills in [Specific Skills Relevant to the New Job] , which I believe align well with the requirements for the [Job Title] role. For instance, [Provide a Specific Example of How You Used a Skill or Addressed a Challenge Relevant to the New Job] . Enclosed is my resume, which highlights my qualifications. I look forward to the possibility of discussing this exciting opportunity with you. I am available for an interview at your earliest convenience. Sincerely, [Your Name]

Example 2: Announcement

Subject: Meet the new Customer Support Representative Dear team, I am pleased to introduce you to [Name] who is starting today as a Customer Support Representative. She will be providing technical support and assistance to our users, making sure they enjoy the best experience with our products. Feel free to greet [Name] in person and congratulate her with the new role! Best regards, [Your name] [Job title]

Example 3: Business follow-up email

Subject: RE: [subject line of your previous email] Hi [Name] , Following up on my previous email about the collaboration with your website. I’m still interested in writing a guest post about the best UX practices for dating apps. With 10 years of experience in the mobile industry, I have a lot of insights to share with your audience. Please let me know if you’re interested in collaborating! Best, [Your name]

Example 4: Request

Subject: Vacation request for September, 10-15 Dear Mr./Ms. [Last name] , I would like to request a vacation from Monday, September 9th till Friday, September 13th. I will make sure to complete all my current projects and pending tasks in advance before the vacation. My colleagues [Name] and [Name] will cover my responsibilities during my absence. Looking forward to your approval. Sincerely, [Your name] [Job title]

Example 5: Question

Subject: Do you have student discounts for the Annual Coding Conference? Greetings, I would like to ask if you provide student discounts for tickets to the Annual Coding Conference. I’m a full-time student at the University of Texas and I’m very excited about your event, but unfortunately, the ticket price is too high for me. I would appreciate if you could offer me an educational discount. Looking forward to hearing from you! Best, [Your name]

Example 6: Response to a complaint

Dear [Name] , I’m sorry for the unpleasant experience you had in our store and I can understand your frustration. I have forwarded your complaint to our management team, and we’ll do our best to make sure this never happens again. I refunded your purchase, and your funds should be with you shortly. We also want to offer you a 10% discount for your next purchase in our store. Please use this promo code to get a discount: [link] . Please accept our apologies for the inconvenience you had. Best regards, [Your name] [Job title] [Contact details]

So, by ensuring your emails are clear, respectful, and professional, you'll foster positive and effective communication with your professional network. Whether you're seeking a formal email example or just curious about the best ways to sign off, you can now master the art of the art of email for all your professional interactions.

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Writing the Perfect Email for B1 Preliminary (PET)

Luis @ kse academy.

• noviembre 14, 2019

As we’ve already seen in the B1 Writing Guide (in Spanish), updated for the 2020 changes , the Writing component consists of 2 parts. The first one is an email whereas the second one is a story or an article, as you can choose which to do. For this reason, in this post I’m going to teach you how to write an email at B1 level for your Preliminary (PET) exam .

Email structure

Saying goodbye.

Este artículo también está disponible en castellano.

How to Write an Email for B1 Preliminary (PET)

In order to know the steps to write an email for this B1 exam , the first thing we need to do is to find out what the instructions are like and know what you’re expected to do. And even though we saw this in the B1 Writing guide (in Spanish), we will now go over it again and dive in even deeper.

Instructions for Writing B1 Preliminary Part 1: Email

In this part of the test, you are given an email from an English friend or relative, and you are asked to respond to it in about 100 words . This email contains annotations which help you identify exactly what you need to respond to.

As regards the topics, they’re usually not very difficult, as you’re expected to write at an intermediate level, about topics you are familiar with: sports, hobbies, TV programmes, the weather, your town/city, etc. Here’s an example taken from Cambridge English sample papers :

As you can see in the example above, taken from Cambridge’s official website, we have received an email from a person so-called Sandy , who is a friend of ours. In addition, we have made some annotations, which are the points we need to address in your email:

• Say which I prefer
• No, because…
• Ask Sandy…

In this sense, Cambridge is making this task easier, as we definitely won’t go blank and they are pointing out the structure that our email should have , which we will see in the following section.

The first thing you need to know is the different parts of an email , and these are:

• Greetings:  we greet  the other person (i.e. say «hi» or «hello»).
• Opening paragraph:  we react to the other person’s news and ask them how they are feeling and whatever else you feel is appropriate.
• Main paragraph 1:  in this paragraph we deal with the first important point, which we can identify in the instructions.
• Main paragraph 2: if there is a different point to deal with, this paragraph will do so.
• (We might have more main paragraphs, depending on the task.)
• Closing paragraph: in this paragraph we «start» to say goodbye by wishing the other person well and asking them to reply to your email.
• Goodbye: we use a short expression to say goodbye.
• Signature:  we sign the email with our name.

In general, all emails must follow the same structure, and also, I recommend you following these two pieces of advice::

• Don’t write From: y To: , as it is completely unnecessary and Cambridge won’t penalise you. Also, you’re saving words which you can use in the body of your email.
• Don’t write a subject , for the same reason as before.

Now that we know the different parts of an email, we should see an example.

Example Email for PET Writing Part 1

Let’s take a look at the following example of a Preliminary (PET) task answer for Writing Part 1 , where we can see an answer to the sample task we saw above:

In the example above, you can see the different parts of an email well defined. It’s important that your writing is visually appealing , apart from having good grammar and vocabulary. This means that the paragraphs should be well defined , with a space in between, and that you should know when to break lines. This is specially important after greetings, after opening and closing paragraphs, and after saying goodbye. This will make your text visually appealing, as it will look like a real email.

Expressions to use in your email

In this section, we are going to focus on different expressions you can use in the different parts of the email . While the main paragraphs will vary completely depending on the topic of your writing, most of the other parts in the email can be practised and memorised almost completely. Let’s take a look:

In order to start your email in Writing Part 1 for Cambridge English: Preliminary (PET) , you can use different expressions, which are really typical and easy to remember. We have 3 basic ways to greet in this kind of writing, which is usually for a friend or family member:

• Hi John, 
• Hello John,

Notice how «hi» is less formal than «hello» or «dear». Also, don’t forget to write a comma (,) right after greeting your friend or relative. After greeting the addressee (i.e. the person who will read the email), you must start the opening paragraph in a new line .

Opening paragraph

The opening paragraph is the place to react to your friend’s or relative’s email . In order to do so, you can use a number of different expressions. Here we have some examples:

• It’s nice / great / good to hear from you. 
• It’s nice / great / good  to read your email. 
• I’m glad to hear your news. 
• I’m excited about…  (your news.)
• It’s great to hear that…
• I’m sorry to hear that…
• I’m really sorry to read your news. 
• Thanks a lot for writing!
• It was good to receive your email. 
• Thank you very much for your email. 

And many more. Also, it’s a good idea to ask your friend or relative how they are feeling , which you can do like this:

• Hope you are doing well. 
• How’s it going? 
• How are you (doing)?
• How are things (going)?

You can also add some information that you think is relevant or necessary, but don’t expand this paragraph very much, because the important information must go in the main paragraphs .

Main paragraphs

For the main paragraphs, there aren’t any fixed expressions which you must use, as it depends mostly on what you have to write about. However, you should try to make use of connectors and appropriate punctuation . So let’s take a look at  common useful connectors and the punctuation we use them with:

• … and… :  to connect two similar things or ideas.

I love reading and listening to music. My favourite meal is fish and chips.

• …, but… : to connect two contrasting ideas.

I love watching Tv , but I don’t have a favourite show. I am reading a book, but I don’t remember the title.

• . However, … : to connect contrasting ideas.

Last month, I went to the cinema . However, I didn’t enjoy the movie. I am a very big fan of this author . However, I haven’t read his last novel.

• Moreover, … : to add more information about something.
• … because… : to justify an opinion or idea.

My mum is the perfect cook because she knows a lot of recipes and has plenty of experience. Moreover, she experiments with different ingredients all the time.

• . Because of that, … : to justify an opinion, fact or idea.

My mum likes to cook using new ingredients all the time. Because of that, she creates original dishes every month.

• . As for…/ Regarding…  : to switch to a new topic. For instance, you can use this connector to start the second main paragraph.

As for/Regarding why I like this cookery show, I think it’s because it’s a great way to see new recipes.

• Time linkers: then, after that, yesterday, this morning, last summer, etc. 

Last night, I watched a very good action film.

With many connectors, we typically use a comma (,) after it when we start a sentence (e.g.: However, Last night, Moreover, etc. ).

Closing paragraph

As we mentioned earlier, a closing paragraph in this Writing part 3 is used to start saying goodbye to the addressee and to ask for a response to your email. So we can use the following expressions:

• Well, it’s time to say goodbye. 
• Anyway, I have to go now. 
• Well, it’s time to go. 
• Anyway, gotta go. 
• I really hope to hear from you soon. 
• I’m looking forward to hearing from you. 
• I hope you write back soon. 
• Make sure you write back soon. 

Also, if you still have to write more words, you can add a question for a subsequent email. This question should be related to the topic of your piece of writing.

There are many ways in English to close an informal email. The most frequently used ones are the following:

• Best wishes,
• Sincerely, 
• Take care, 
• All my love, 
• Lots of love, 
• See you soon, 
• Regards, 

Notice how there is a comma (,) after each of the phrases . Also, after writing any of these sentences, make sure you write your name on a different line . And write your name without a full stop!

Another example of an email at B1 level

Now that we know what expressions we should be using in our writing, we are going to take a look at another task and a sample answer. In this case, this is an example of an old task, but the email follows the same rules. Pay close attention to how it’s structured and how its paragraphs are well defined and separated:

Notice how the expressions in bold  are used. Whenever you write an email, you should think about this type of expressions and make sure you use them appropriately .

Top 5 Tips for writing an Email for B1 Preliminary (PET)

• Learn and memorise a set of expressions . Make sure you already know a set of expressions to use in your greetings, opening and closing paragraphs, and to say goodbye. This will save you a lot of time while doing a task, and you will avoid making silly mistakes as you will already know the expressions by heart.
• Write a well-structured and visually-appealing email . One of the things Cambridge English examiners pay attention to is the organisation of your piece writing, so make sure not to write a messy email. Also, remember that  punctuation matters , so be sure to separate your sentences with stops and commas and don’t write excessively long sentences.
• Brainstorm, write, read and edit . Before starting to write your email, brainstorm a couple of things and write down some ideas. This can include vocabulary related to the topic. For example, if you have to write about TV shows, you can write down thinks like «contestants», «cookery show», «prize», etc. Then, write out your email. After that, read it and look for possible mistakes or opportunities for improvement (e.g.: adding descriptive adjectives, rephrasing sentences, etc.).
• Read carefully and identify the task . Don’t start writing right away. Make sure you read the task carefully and that you identify exactly what you are being asked. Sometimes, we don’t pay attention to the instructions and we end up writing about something different. This will mean losing points, in a very silly way, I must say.
• Experiment at home, be conservative in the exam . Homework is the best chance to be creative and experiment different ways to express yourself. So make sure you try your hardest to keep improving when you write at home. On the other hand, when you’re doing an exam, don’t risk trying out new words or expressions, as you may be making a terrible mistake. So be safe in your exam and stick to what you already know works .

Did you find this post useful? Did you? Well, don’t forget to comment and share. And if you love the English language, follow KSE Academy on Facebook, Twitter & YouTube! And don’t forget to subscribe to the blog!

Oh, and don’t forget to keep smiling!

44 comentarios en “Writing the Perfect Email for B1 Preliminary (PET)”

EXCELLENT HELP FOR THE NEW 2020 PET FORMAT. THANKS A LOT

Hi Liliana! Thanks a lot for your comment! Take care!

Grazie mille di tutto, saluti dall’ Italia

you are great Luis. Thanks a lot for your good work. Paqui Muñoz Mendoza

Thank you very much, Paqui. It’s great to receive comments like this from time to time.

Thanks Luis

Your help was so useful. Thanks.

Thanks for your comment, Rocío. Take care!

Thank you so much!

Thank you so much for sharing. It’s very useful and helpful.

Thank you! 🙂

Nice work, Luis! I’m continuing my classes online during the coronavirus, and this post provides a great, visually-appealing review of this part of the new test. I will be sending my students here next week to help with their homework!

Thank you very much for your comment. Hope your students find it useful. Take care!

The best email. that I found. Thanks.

Thank you, Angelines! 🙂

Super clear!!!! Thank you very much. Claudia

Thank you, Claudia! 🙂

EXCELLENT GUIDE!! THANK YOU SO MUCH FOR SHARING IT

Thank you for your comment, Paola. 🙂

You’re welcome! 🙂

Thank you soo much, im 12 and doing the test, this is the day before the test and your info was soo usfull, have a good evening

Hi, Cameron. Thanks a lot for your comment. Sorry for taking so long to reply. I hope you passed your test! 😀

Absolutely clear guidelines for Writing Part 1 Email Thanks a lot for sharing it!!!

Thank you so much for your comment! 🙂

Great work! Thank you for sharing

Thank you for reading, Susana! 🙂

Happy New Year! Useful tips, good job. Thanks!

Thank you so much for your feedback. Take care and Happy New Year to you too!

THANK YOU VERY MUCH MY DEARRRRRR. I’m having the Cambridge PET exam tomorrow and I’m really nervous… Wish me luck!

Hey, Camila! Hope your exam was fine! Don’t forget to come back here and let us know your score! 🙂

I love you Luis

Haha, thank you, Carlos! Love u too!

Precious guide and helpful insight, thank you.

Thank you very much! 🙂

Great post, thanks!

Thank you, Juliana! 🙂

As an exam coach myself, I really want to congratulate you for this wonderful and useful site. It’s great to see an updated B1 Preliminary writing guide; I’m using it right now with the candidates I teach. Keep up the great work!

Hey, Lenin. Thanks a lot for such a nice comment. I hope your students find it useful. If you ever have any feedback, let me know. Thanks again!

Extremely detailed and useful guidance for those who is taking the PET exams! Thanks a lot.

OLIVIA 15/1/2023 A LAS 11:49 Hello, happy new year.

As an exam preparation teacher myself, I would like to thank you for all your hard work. Yours is the best site I have found online with important tips and useful samples for our students. Keep up the great work! I really appreciate it!

Thank you very much for your comment, Tulia. 🙂

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• Email Writing

Email Writing - Format and Samples

Emails are modern-age letters. This article explains the format of email writing and also gives you sample emails for students of Class 8 to Class 12 and working professionals.

How to Write an Email?

Email expressing your appreciation, email about your trip.

• Email on Seeking Information about Course Details

Email on Introducing a New Employee to Your Team

Email on official intimation of your resignation, email informing your employees about the change in work timings, faqs on email writing format.

Email writing is an essential part of professional communication. It is not easy to get people to respond to your emails if they do not feel interested in your message or proposal. This is exactly the reason why you should learn to write good emails. Be bold. Get to the point right away. The best email communication is the one that is simple and clear.

There are a few tips you have to keep in mind when you sit down to write emails. Emails can be casual or professional, just like informal and formal letters. The format of the email changes according to the kind of email you are writing. However, accurate grammar and spelling are aspects that are to be taken seriously.

When you start writing an email,

• Make sure you type in the right email ID. Always check with the receiver for the exact email address because even a full stop that is not part of the email address can land your email with the wrong person, or the mail would simply bounce.
• The Subject line is the next most important factor you should carefully consider because that is the first thing anyone receiving the email would see. It also determines if the receiver would want to open the mail. ‘The from line is what recipients use to determine whether to delete an email. The subject line is what motivates people to actually open the email.’ said Loren McDonald. Spend double the time you spend on drafting the body to draft the subject.
• See to it that your Salutation or Greeting is appropriate to the receiver/s. The greeting builds a rapport.
• The Body of the email states what the email is about. Be clear with what you want your receiver to know. Make sure you have everything you want to convey drafted in simple terms. Do not use colloquial language or long unwinding sentences. Try not to repeat words or use cliched terms. Make your message positive, even if you’re turning down an offer. If you have to follow, do it before they remind you to. Keep it short. Use standard font style and size. Do a final spelling/grammar check/proofread.
• Finally, Sign off the email on a polite note and proofread it before hitting send. The closing should feel genuine; only then will the receiver want to respond.

Email Writing Format Samples

Here are some sample emails that will help you understand how to write an email in the best possible way.

Informal Email Writing Format Samples

To: Recipient’s email address

Subject: Congratulations!

Dear (Name),

My heartfelt congratulations to you. I was glad to see your name on the merit list. All your efforts were definitely not in vain. I bet everyone at home is so proud of you.

You have truly honoured the family name, and I am happy that you would get to take up the course in architecture that you had been waiting for. I am waiting to meet you in person to convey all my love and appreciation.

Convey my regards to uncle, aunty and grandpa.

To: Recipient’s email ID

Subject: About my trip

My dear (Name),

I am very excited to write to you about the long tour I will be going on along with my parents. We will be leaving on the 25 th .

We will be away for three months. We are going to San Francisco for an official meeting my father has to attend. We would then be travelling to New York to visit our cousins. We would stay there for a month. After that, we will be going to Paris. It has always been my dream to visit Paris at least once in my lifetime, and my parents have finally agreed to take me there. I will definitely write to you all about my trip – all the different places we visit, the variety of food we eat and the people we meet.

It would have been even more special if you had come along with me. We will make sure we plan out a trip once I am back home.

With best wishes,

Formal Email Writing Format Samples

Email on seeking information regarding course details.

Subject: Regarding Course Details

I have passed the B.Sc. degree examination with Electronics as the main subject. I intend to have a course in Computer Science and would like to know the details of the courses taught at your institution. Could you please send me a copy of your prospectus?

Yours faithfully,

Subject: Meet the New Customer Service Representative

I am pleased to introduce you to (Name), who is starting today as our Customer Service Representative. She will be providing technical support and assistance to our users and making sure they enjoy the best experience with our products.

Feel free to greet (Name) in person and congratulate her on the new role!

Best regards,

Designation

Subject: Resignation

Dear Sir/Ma’am,

I am planning to pursue my higher studies in the coming academic year, and hence I would like to inform you of my intention to resign from the post of (Designation) at (Name of the Institution), effective three months from now.

I appreciate the opportunities for growth and development you have provided during my association with (Name of the Institution). It was indeed a privilege working here, and it was a valuable work experience which has helped me grow personally and professionally to a great extent.

Please accept this letter as the formal intimation of my resignation.

Thank you for your guidance and support.

Yours sincerely,

Subject: Revised Working Hours

Our company is growing, and there is a good inflow of projects every week. This has been possible with your dedicated and timely teamwork. In order to keep up with this, we have decided that the working hours would be advanced by 30 minutes. The revised time would be 8:30 am to 5 pm. This will be in effect from July 5, 2021 (Monday). It would be appreciated if all of you keep up with the timing and abide by it.

Feel free to come up with suggestions, if any.

Warm regards,

What should I put as the subject in an email?

The subject in an email should state what your email is about. Do not use long sentences when writing the subject. Use simple vocabulary and place the most important words at the very beginning of the subject.

What is the format of email writing?

Be sure to type in the exact email address of the recipient. Keep the subject as short as possible. Use it only to convey what the mail is about. No explanation about the matter should be included in the subject line. The body of the email should explain the purpose of the email. However, add only the necessary details. Keep it simple. End the email with a complimentary close and sign off with just your name in informal emails and with your name and destination in a formal email.

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Letter/Email – examples & model answers | B2 First (FCE)

An email/a letter is written in response to the situation outlined in the question. Letters and emails in the B2 First Writing paper will require a response which is consistently appropriate in register and tone for the specified target reader.

Candidates can expect to be asked to write letters or emails to, for example, an English-speaking friend or colleague, a potential employer, a college principal or a magazine editor.

FCE, CAE, CPE

Practice, write & improve, fce email example: touring holiday.

You have received this email from your English-speaking friend David.

Write your email .

FCE Email: Example Answer (Grade: 4)

Dear David,

I’m glad your friends are visiting my area soon for a week’s touring holiday. I have many ideas what I can show them and tell about.

In my opinion the best way to travel around will be by bike because of small distances between the places and views are amazing.

My area includes also beautiful Baltic Sea which many tourist visit especially in summer. Your friends could sunbath or swim if they would like but the water is quite cold in this season. Beautiful sightseeing of sunrise is the best memorise!

You wrote that they are intrested in history of my local area. That’s great! We have museum of our local history where I can go with them. Tickets are not so expensive and I can think about some discount.

What do you think about it? Would you mind send me some your ideas?

I look forward to hearing from you soon.

Best wishes, Sam

Get Your (FCE) Letter Checked!

Fce email example: swimming team.

You have received this email from your English-speaking friend, Jo.

It is good to receive news from you! I bet you are swimming like a fish. Do you remember when we were kids and we made a few races in Angelina’s pool?

I understand why you are trying to persuade them but remember that they want your best. If I were you firstly I would try to talk with your swimming coach and ask him about the possibilities of training another day. Then if the answer would have been negative I will probably try to do the same with yours future math teacher. I am sure that everyone knows the importance of practising sports while studying. So they will find a solution.

If everything goes don’t doesn’t happen as you and I expect ensure that your parents don’t get mad with your decision. They are giving their best! Put your education in front first place. Opportunities to swim you will have a lot during your life. Moreover, you can come to Barcelone and try to catch me in the pool.

Good luck, Sam

FCE Letter Example: School uniforms

This Is part of a letter from Karl, your English friend:

Write your letter .

FCE Letter: Example Answer (Grade: 4-5)

I’m writing to you about the letter which you sent me and asking my opinion about the school uniform. I believe it is one of the most important thing that we should discuss.

Nowadays, there are a few schools in which students wear a school uniform. I believe that this happening because pupils are free to wear whatever they want. Also, this means that they can express themselves.

On the other hand, school uniforms showes In which school each pupil belong to. Then, the uniforms support the way that the schools should work in our days In addition, if all pupils wear the school uniform, there will not be any pupil who will be unfashionable, and nobody will feel uncomfortable. Fashion is very popular, especially in high school, and wear fashionable clothes is the way to show off. That’s such a waste because fashion is the thing that cannot keep for long time. It Is not a good idea to flow fashion in school time.

To sum up, I believe that we should wear uniforms because in this way, them will not be any differences between pupils.

Best wishes Tom

FCE Letter Example: Letter of application

You see this advertisment in your local newspaper:

Write your letter of application. 

FCE Letter: Model Answer (Grade: 5)

Dear Mr. Nick Jones,

I had been searching for a job when i discovered the advertisment in the local newpaper, in which you were offering a post at your holiday club.

I am an eighteen year-old student at King’s College and I have a part-time job at the local library, as an assistant. In the last three years, I have been attending English courses and I have achieved a high score at an exam involving the language.

Since I started highschool, I have always enjoyed helping children in need. I was usually participating in children’s parties as a helper, but I was also caring for the one’s in the street by giving them food and by giving advice whenever they needed it.

I love children and I do my best to make them happy. I am comunicative, hard- working and patient.

In the end, I think I will manage with the challenges this job may offer. I inclose my curriculum vitae and a photography. I am looking forward to your reply!

yours sincerely, Stefan Pasoi

FCE Email Example: Money!

You have received this email from your English-speaking friend, Susan:

Dear Susan,

I think you know from the start that this subject may be inappropriate to discuss with me, but since we are best friends, I accept.

If I were you, I would spend it all on an amazing holiday with my friends where you can do fun things and maybe meat someone special.

I am not sure what you are supposed to do with the money, but I can help you find the best solution. You must think simultaniously at both advantages and disadvantages. If you give your money to your parents, you would loose the benefits from it, but you could also help them.

I suggest you put it in your bank account and wait until celebrities can show up at your door, so that you can photograph them and be well-known.

There are a lot of money, so think carefully which is the best solution. You can also contact me or meat face-to-face if you need.

Therefore, you can benefit from it if you are wise and rational

Yours, Andrea

What is your level of English?

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Travel, Money, Pets Et Cetera

5 Email Essay Spm example – Informal Email

Informal emails are suitable for communicating with acquaintances, friends, or colleagues you share a close relationship with, allowing you to express yourself more freely and naturally compared to formal or business communication. However, it’s essential to be mindful of the context and the nature of your relationship with the recipient to ensure that the tone and content of your email are appropriate. Certainly, here is an example of an email essay for the SPM (Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia) examination:

To: [email protected]

Subject: Activities during free time

Dear Ahmad,

It’s great to hear from you.

I agree, watching TV is tiresome. These days, I’m into gardening. My sister and I tried planting a flowering plant a few months ago. Seeing it grow made me feel delighted. Since then, we turned the empty lawn into a garden. Why don’t you try it as well?

If you want something to di indoor, you could try playing online games. My brother loves it. He said it’s fun and exciting.

I hope this will be of help. Write to me as soon as you can and tell me what to do.

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To: [email protected]

Subject: Ways to take care of the environment, let’s go green.

Hi Sonali Bendre,

It’s good to hear that your family has jumped on the recycling bandwagon.

There are few things you can do to take care of the environment. You should switch off and unplug any electrical appliances when not use. When you leave a room, make sure to swich off the lights and fans. This can help to reduce carbon emission.

Additionally, you should use a green bag instead of a plastic bag when shopping. Keep away from using straws too. Both of these cannot be recycled.

Hope this has helped.

Sincerely, Raju Chandran

To: [email protected]              

Subject: The best way to go to Kuala Terengganu – by Car or flight

Dear Monalisa

In my opinion, going to Kota Bharu by car is better than taking a flight. Although it will take longer hours, it is economical. Your parents only need to pay for the toll and fuel which are cheaper compared to the flight tickets. Moreover, your family won’t have to worry about renting a car once you have arrived in Kuala Terengganu.

As for me, my family do not have any plans yet for the holidays. But I do hope we will get to go to the beach.

I hope I have helped you.

Love, Rashidah

To: [email protected]

Subject: Malaysia Day Celebration: Singing and Dancing Activities

Hello Melissa Saila,

My suggestion for the Malaysia Day celebration would be Dancing dan Singing competition. This activity will help the students know the patriotic songs besides showing off their hidden talents. Over and above that, the students will also get the opportunity to show their creativity in composing songs and delivering them to the audience. They can dress up as freedom fighters or national leaders. I am pretty sure the students will enjoy it.

I hope this suggestion will help you to organise the day. See you later.

Nationalist Latifah Omar

Email Essay Spm example Email Essay Spm example

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The Golden Age of American Jews Is Ending

Anti-Semitism on the right and the left threatens to bring to a close an unprecedented period of safety and prosperity for Jewish Americans—and demolish the liberal order they helped establish.

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Stacey Zolt Hara was in her office in downtown San Francisco when a text from her 16-year-old daughter arrived: “I’m scared,” she wrote. Her classmates at Berkeley High School were preparing to leave their desks and file into the halls, part of a planned “walkout” to protest Israel. Like many Jewish students, she didn’t want to participate. It was October 18, 11 days after the Hamas invasion of southern Israel.

Zolt Hara told her daughter to wait in her classroom. She was trying to project calm. A public-relations executive, Zolt Hara had moved her family from Chicago to Berkeley six years earlier, hoping to find a community that shared her progressive values. Her family had developed a deep sense of belonging there.

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But a moral fervor was sweeping over Berkeley High that morning. Around 10:30, the walkout began. Jewish parents traded panicked reports from their children. Zolt Hara heard that kids were chanting, “From the river to the sea, Palestine will be free,” a slogan that suggests the elimination of Israel. Rumors spread about other, less coy phrases shouted in the hallways, carrying intimations of violence. Jewish students were said to be in tears. Parents were texting one another ideas about where in the school their children could hide. Zolt Hara placed a call to the dean of students. By her own admission, she was hysterical. She says the dean hung up on her.

By the early afternoon the walkout was over, but Zolt Hara and other Jewish parents worried that it was a prelude to something worse. They joined Google Groups and WhatsApp chains so they could share information. Zolt Hara organized a petition, pleading with the school district to take anti-Semitism more seriously. It quickly received more than 1,300 signatures.

Most worrying was what parents kept hearing about teachers, both in Berkeley and in the surrounding school districts. They seemed to be using their classrooms to mold students into advocates for a maximalist vision of Palestine. A group of activists within the Oakland Education Association, that city’s teachers’ union, sponsored a “teach-in.” A video trumpeting the event urged: “Apply your labor power to show solidarity with the Palestinian people.” An estimated 70 teachers set aside their normal curriculum to fix students’ attention on Gaza.

Even classes with no discernible connection to international affairs joined the teach-in. Its centerpiece was a webinar titled “ From Gaza to Oakland: How Does the Issue Connect to Us? ,” in which local activists implored the kids to join them on the streets. They told the students—in a predominantly Black and Latino school district—that the Israeli military works hand in glove with American police forces, sharing tips and tactics. “Repression there ends up cycling back to repression here,” an activist named Anton explained. Elementary-school teachers, whose students were too young for the webinar, were given a list of books to use in their classes. One of them, Handala’s Return , described how a “group of bullies called Zionists wanted our land so they stole it by force and hurt many people.”

The same zeal was gripping schools in Berkeley. Zolt Hara learned from another parent about an ethnic-studies class in which the teacher had described the slaughter of some Israelis on October 7 as the result of friendly fire. She saw a disturbing image that another teacher had presented in an art class, of a fist breaking through a Star of David. (Officials at Berkeley High School did not respond to requests for comment.) In her son’s middle school, there were signs on classroom walls that read Teach Palestine .

Zolt Hara didn’t need to imagine how kids might respond to these lessons. After October 7, her son, who is 13, began coming home with stories about anti-Semitic jibes hurled in his direction. On his way to math class, a kid walked up to him playing what he called a “Nazi salute song” on his phone. Another said something in German and told him, “I don’t like your people.” A Manichaean view of the conflict even filtered down to the lowest grades in Berkeley. According to one parent complaint to the principal of Washington Elementary School, a second grader suggested that students divide into Israeli and Palestinian “teams,” and another announced that Palestinians couldn’t be friends with Jews.

On November 17, the middle school that Zolt Hara’s son attends staged its own walkout. Zolt Hara was relieved that her son was traveling for a family event that day. But she heard about video of the protest, recorded on a parent’s phone. I tracked down the footage and watched it myself. “Are you Jewish?” one mop-haired tween asks another, seemingly unaware of any adult presence. “No way,” the second kid replies. “I fucking hate them.” Another blurts, “Kill Israel.” A student laughingly attempts to start a chant of “KKK.”

On a damp morning this winter, I joined about 40 kids assembled in a classroom at a public high school in the East Bay for a meeting of the Jewish Student Union. I promised that I wouldn’t identify their school in the hopes that they might speak freely, without fear of retribution from teachers or peers. The first boy to raise his hand proudly announced that he supported a cease-fire. But as the conversation progressed, students began to recall how painful their school’s walkout had felt. Their classmates had left them alone with teachers, who they suspected would think less of them for having stayed put. At every stop in their education in this progressive community, they had learned about a world divided between oppressors and the oppressed—and now they felt that they were being accused of being the bad guys, despite having nothing to do with events on the other side of the world, and despite the fact that Hamas had initiated the current war by invading Israeli communities and murdering an estimated 1,200 people .

At the end of the session a student in a kippah, puffer jacket, and T-shirt pulled me aside. He said he wanted to speak privately, because he didn’t want to risk crying in front of his peers. After October 7, he said, his school life, as a visibly identifiable Jew, had become unbearable. Walking down the halls, kids would shout “Free Palestine” at him. They would make the sound of explosions, as if he were personally responsible for the bombardment of Gaza. They would tell him to pick up pennies. As he was walking into the gym to use one of its courts, a kid told him, “There goes the Jew, taking everyone’s land.” I asked if he’d ever told any of this to an administrator. “Nothing would change,” he said. Based on how other local authorities had responded to anti-Semitism, I didn’t doubt him.

Like many American Jews , I once considered anti-Semitism a threat largely emanating from the right. It was Donald Trump who attracted the allegiance of white supremacists and freely borrowed their tropes. A closing ad of his 2016 presidential campaign flashed images of prominent Jews—Lloyd Blankfein, Janet Yellen, and George Soros—as it decried global special interests bleeding the people dry.

Trump’s victory inspired anti-Semitic hate groups, long consigned to the shadows, to strut with impunity. Less than two weeks after Trump’s election, the white nationalist Richard Spencer came to Washington, D.C. , and proclaimed, “Hail Trump! Hail our people!” as supporters responded with Nazi salutes. In August 2017, angry men carried tiki torches through Charlottesville, Virginia, chanting , “Jews will not replace us.” In 2018, the consequences of violent anti-Semitic rhetoric became tangible: At the Tree of Life synagogue in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 11 people were fatally shot . The following year, on the last day of Passover, at a synagogue in a San Diego suburb, a gunman killed one and wounded three others, including a rabbi .

After each incident, my anxiety about the safety of my own family and synagogue would spike, but I consoled myself with the thought that once Trump disappeared from the scene, the explosion of Jew hatred would recede. America would revert to its essential self: the most comfortable homeland in the Jewish diaspora.

From the May 2023 issue: Is Holocaust education making anti-Semitism worse?

That reassuring thought required downplaying the anti-Semitism that had begun to appear on the left well before October 7—on college campuses, among progressive activists, even on the fringes of the Democratic Party. It required minimizing Representative Ilhan Omar’s insinuation about Jewish control of politics —“It’s all about the Benjamins baby”—as an ignorant gaffe. And it meant dismissing intense outbreaks of anti-Zionist harassment by pro-Palestinian demonstrators, which coincided with tensions in the Middle East, as a passing storm.

Part of the reason I failed to appreciate the extent of the anti-Semitism on the left is that I assumed its criticisms of the Israeli government were, at bottom, a harsher version of my own. I opposed the proliferation of settlements in the West Bank, the callousness that military occupation required, and the religious zealotry that had begun to infuse the country’s right wing, including its current ruling coalition.

Such criticisms were not those of a dissident— the majority of American Jews share them . The Palestinian leadership has a long record of abject obstructionism, historical denialism, and violent irredentism, but American Jews heap blame on recalcitrant right-wing Israeli governments, too. Polling by the Pew Research Center in 2020 found that only one in three American Jews said they felt that the Israeli government was “sincere” in its pursuit of peace. But whatever criticism American Jews leveled against Israel, the anger was born of love. Eight in 10 described Israel as either “essential” or “important” to their Jewish identity. And they still held out hope for peace. In that same poll, 63 percent of American Jews said they considered a two-state solution plausible. Jews were, in fact, more likely than the overall U.S. population to believe in the possibility of peaceful coexistence with an independent Palestine.

Among the brutal epiphanies of October 7 was this: A disconcertingly large number of Israel’s critics on the left did not share that vision of peaceful coexistence, or believe Jews had a right to a nation of their own. After Hamas’s rampage of rape, kidnapping, and murder, a history professor at Cornell named Russell Rickford said Palestinians were understandably “exhilarated by this challenge to the monopoly of violence.” He added, “I was exhilarated.” A student at the same university was arrested and charged with posting online threats about slitting the throats of Jewish males and strafing the kosher dining hall with gunfire. In Philadelphia, a mob descended on a falafel restaurant, chanting about the Israeli American co-owner’s complicity in genocide. Over the three-month period following the Hamas attacks, the Anti-Defamation League recorded 56 episodes of physical violence targeting Jews and 1,347 incidents of harassment. That 13-week span contained more anti-Semitic incidents than the entirety of 2021—at the time the worst year since the ADL had begun keeping count, in 1979.

I don’t want to dismiss the anger that the left feels about the terrible human cost of the Israeli counterinvasion of Gaza, or denounce criticism of Israel as inherently anti-Semitic—especially because I share some of those criticisms. Nor do I believe that anti-Zionist is a term that should be considered axiomatically interchangeable with anti-Semite . The elimination of Israel, in my opinion, would be a profound catastrophe for the Jewish people. But I have read idealistic critics of Israel, such as the late historian Tony Judt , who imagined that it could be replaced by a binational state, where Jews and Palestinians live side by side under one democratic government. That strikes me as naive in the extreme—especially after the Hamas pogrom of October 7—and very likely the end of Jewish existence in the Levant. But not everything that is terrible for the Jews is anti-Semitic.

Anti-Semitism is a mental habit, deeply embedded in Christian and Muslim thinking, stretching back at least as far as the accusation that the Jews murdered the son of God. It’s a tendency to fixate on Jews, to place them at the center of the narrative, overstating their role in society and describing them as the root cause of any unwanted phenomena—a centrality that seems strange, given that Jews constitute about 0.2 percent of the global population. Though it shape-shifts over time, anti-Semitism returns to the same essential complaint: that Jews are cunning, bloodthirsty, and mad for power. Anti-Zionism often takes a similar form: the dehumanization, the unilateral casting of blame, and the fetishizing of Jewish villainy.

Liberal Jews once celebrated Israel as the lone democracy in a distinctly undemocratic region. Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu’s coalition of theocrats and messianists seems bent on shredding the basis for that claim . But many governments in the world share these undesirable traits. Still, no one calls for the eradication of Hungary or El Salvador or India. No one defaces Chinese restaurants in San Francisco because Beijing imprisons Uyghurs in concentration camps and occupies Tibet.

The anti-Zionism that has flourished on the left in recent years doesn’t stop with calls for an end to the occupation of the West Bank. It espouses a blithe desire to eliminate the world’s only Jewish-majority nation, valorizes the homicidal campaign against its existence, and seeks to hold members of the Jewish diaspora to account for the sins of a country they don’t live in and for a government they didn’t elect. In so doing, this faction of the left places itself in the terrible lineage of attempts to erase Jewry—and, in turn, stirs ancient and not-so-ancient existential fears.

Nowhere is this more fully on display than in the Bay Area. After October 7, protesters flooded city-council meetings, demanding cease-fire resolutions and rejecting any attempt to include clauses condemning Hamas for the rape and murder of Jews. One viral video compiled enraged citizen comments at an Oakland city-council meeting. These citizens weren’t just showing solidarity for the people of Gaza, but angrily amplifying wild conspiracy theories. One woman declared, in the style of a 9/11 truther, that “Israel murdered their own people on October 7.” Another, in the manner of a Holocaust denier, described the events of that day as a “fabricated narrative.”

For months, the Berkeley city council resisted the pressure to pass a cease-fire resolution; the mayor regarded foreign policy as far beyond its jurisdiction . But the pressure grew so intense that the council could hardly conduct any other business. Protesters disrupted official meetings, forcing the mayor to keep adjourning deliberations to another room where the public was not allowed. Police offered to escort council members to their cars after meetings. The mayor’s unwillingness to condemn Israel was anomalous, even in his own city. On December 4, the Berkeley Rent Stabilization Board voted to endorse a cease-fire .

Impassioned support for the Palestinian cause metastasized into the hatred of Jews. Anti-Semitism has become part of the landscape. In 2021, a community space in San Francisco’s Mission neighborhood, owned by a progressive gay Jewish activist, was defaced with messages including Zionist pigz. After October 7, the windows of Smitten Ice Cream, owned by a Jewish woman, were smashed and spray-painted with the words Out the Mission .

During Hanukkah, a menorah sponsored by Chabad Oakland and perched on the shore of Lake Merritt, in the center of the city, was torn apart by its branches and hurled into the water , replaced by graffiti reading your org is dying, we’re gonna find you, you’re on fucking alert . Oakland Public Works quickly painted over the message and other anti-Semitic graffiti. But when I walked the trail around the lake several weeks after Hanukkah, I found a weathered metal box, built to display a work of public art. On its side was a laminated message titled “The World We Wish to See.” What followed was a lyrical vision of liberation that imagined a future in which “all beings are treated with dignity.” But whatever display had once existed in the box had been removed. What was left were the etched words Zionist KILLER .

In the hatred that I witnessed in the Bay Area, and that has been evident on college campuses and in progressive activist circles nationwide, I’ve come to see left-wing anti-Semitism as characterized by many of the same violent delusions as the right-wing strain. This is not an accident of history. Though right- and left-wing anti-Semitism may have emerged in different ways, for different reasons, both are essentially attacks on an ideal that once dominated American politics, an ideal that American Jews championed and, in an important sense, co-authored. Over the course of the 20th century, Jews invested their faith in a distinct strain of liberalism that combined robust civil liberties, the protection of minority rights, and an ethos of cultural pluralism. They embraced this brand of liberalism because it was good for America—and good for the Jews. It was their fervent hope that liberalism would inoculate America against the world’s oldest hatred.

For several generations, it worked. Liberalism helped unleash a Golden Age of American Jewry, an unprecedented period of safety, prosperity, and political influence. Jews, who had once been excluded from the American establishment, became full-fledged members of it. And remarkably, they achieved power by and large without having to abandon their identity. In faculty lounges and television writers’ rooms, in small magazines and big publishing houses, they infused the wider culture with that identity. Their anxieties became American anxieties. Their dreams became American dreams.

But that era is drawing to a close. America’s ascendant political movements—MAGA on one side, the illiberal left on the other—would demolish the last pillars of the consensus that Jews helped establish. They regard concepts such as tolerance, fairness, meritocracy, and cosmopolitanism as pernicious shams. The Golden Age of American Jewry has given way to a golden age of conspiracy, reckless hyperbole, and political violence, all tendencies inimical to the democratic temperament. Extremist thought and mob behavior have never been good for Jews. And what’s bad for Jews, it can be argued, is bad for America.

I grew up at the apex of the Golden Age. The nation’s sartorial aesthetic was the invention of Ralph Lifshitz, an alumnus of the Manhattan Talmudical Academy before he became the denim-clad Ralph Lauren. The national authority on sex was a diminutive bubbe, Dr. Ruth. Schoolkids in Indiana read Anne Frank’s diary. The Holocaust memoirist Elie Wiesel appeared on the nightly news as an arbiter of public morality. The most-watched television show was Seinfeld . Even Gentiles knew the words to Adam Sandler’s “The Chanukah Song,” which earned a place in the canon of festive music annually played on FM radio. Jews accounted for roughly 2 percent of the nation’s population at the time , but I’d estimate that my undergraduate class at Columbia University was one-third Jewish; soon, a third of the justices on the Supreme Court would be Jewish as well. In 2000, Joe Lieberman, a Shabbat-observant Jew with a wife named Hadassah, fell 537 votes short of becoming vice president. None of these occurrences sparked a backlash worthy of note.

By the mid-’90s, experts had declared the end of anti-Semitism. It persisted, of course, in the dark corners of American political culture—in the wacky cosmology of the Nation of Islam and in the malevolent rantings of David Duke, the ubiquitous ex-Klansman—but that proved the point. The only Jew haters to be found were hopelessly fringe; anti-Semitism disappeared from polite conversation. Leonard Dinnerstein, a historian who devoted his life’s work to studying anti-Semitism, concluded his magnum opus , published in 1994, with the admission that his scholarly obsession was becoming a relic: “It has declined in potency and will continue to do so for the foreseeable future.”

That last sentence was an expression of triumphalism, rendered in the spirit of the times. Like the end of history, the end of anti-Semitism was a post–Cold War reverie, a naive declaration of a golden age without end. American Jews now worried that they might become too accepted. The great anxiety of the fin de siècle was intermarriage.

The threat of assimilation had frightened the Orthodox Jews who came to the United States during the great wave of immigration in the last decades of the 19th century. Fathers who had fled the Pale of Settlement feared that their sons would trade ancestral traditions for the allure of American culture. (A quite popular, very American musical is energized by these anxieties.) One of those sons, however, made it his intellectual project to find a way for Jews to enjoy the bounties of American society without having to fully abandon their Jewishness.

Born in Silesia in 1882, the eldest of eight, Horace Kallen had a preordained calling: to become a rabbi like his father. But a Boston truant officer forced him, against his parents’ wishes, to attend a secular grammar school. This set him on the path to Harvard, where he paid his way by reading meters for the Dorchester Gaslight Company. Kallen never felt at ease with patrician classmates like Franklin D. Roosevelt, though the philosopher William James embraced him as a protégé.

Kallen’s breakthrough came in the course of an argument with another Jew. In 1908, the British-born playwright Israel Zangwill had a hit called The Melting-Pot , a melodrama about a pogrom survivor who sets out to marry a Christian woman in the hopes that he will no longer be haunted by his identity. This vision of assimilation was a warmed-over version of the devil’s bargain that Western Europeans had offered Jews ever since Napoleon: In exchange for the rights of citizenship, Jews would have to give up their distinctive identity.

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Kallen didn’t want to surrender his identity. He wasn’t religious, but he had read Spinoza and devoured the works of the early Zionist thinkers. At Harvard, he co-founded the Menorah Society, a Jewish affinity group. His rebuttal to Zangwill took the form of unabashed patriotism. In essays that were intellectual bombshells at the time, Kallen extolled the mongrel nature of American society, the phenomenon known as hyphenation. Harvard’s Brahmin elite believed that newcomers must assimilate in full, commit to what they called “100 percent Americanism.” But to Kallen, the hyphen was the essence of democracy. He described America as a “symphony of civilization,” an intermingling of cultures that resulted in a society far more dynamic than most of the countries back in the Old World. The genius of America was that it didn’t coerce any minority group into abandoning its marks of difference.

That argument was idealistic, though also self-interested. Kallen’s polemics implicitly targeted the Protestant monopoly controlling academia, politics, and every other corner of the establishment, which reverted to desperate measures to block the ascent of Jews , imposing quotas at universities and restrictive housing covenants in well-to-do neighborhoods. His ideas were emblematic of an emerging strain of Jewish political philosophy, a set of arguments that would define American Jewry for generations.

The sons and daughters of immigrants may have dabbled in socialism, but in the 1930s and ’40s, liberalism became the house politics of the Jewish people. Walter Lippmann, a descendant of German Jews, first used the term liberal in the American context, to describe a new center-left vision of the state that was neither socialist nor laissez-faire. Louis Brandeis, the first Jewish justice on the Supreme Court, conceptualized a new, expansive vision of civil liberties. Lillian Wald and Henry Moskowitz co-founded the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, in the belief that all minorities deserved the same protections. Jews became enthusiastic supporters of the New Deal, which staved off radical movements on the left and the right that tended to hunt for Jewish scapegoats. As a Yiddish joke went, Jewish theology consisted of die velt (“this world”), yene velt (“the world to come”), and Roosevelt.

The historian Marc Dollinger titled his 2000 narrative of Jewish liberalism Quest for Inclusion . Jews set out to achieve that goal procedurally—opposing prayer in public school, knocking down discriminatory housing laws, establishing new fair-employment rules. But it was also a project of mythmaking and dream-casting. Widely read mid-century intellectuals such as Louis Hartz, Daniel Boorstin, and Max Lerner wrote books reimagining America as the home of a benevolent centrism—tolerant, cosmopolitan, unique in the history of nations.

Reality began to resemble the myth: In the years following World War II—and especially as the world began to comprehend the extent of the Nazi genocide—a liberal consensus took hold, and anti-Semitism receded. After Auschwitz, even three-martini Jewish jokes at the country club felt tinged by the horrors. In 1937, the American edition of Roget’s Thesaurus had listed cunning , rich , extortioner , and heretic as synonyms for Jew . At that time, nearly half of Americans said Jews were less honest in business than others. By 1964, only 28 percent agreed with that assessment . It became cliché to refer to America as a “Judeo-Christian nation.” Quotas at universities fell to the side.

As anti-Semitism faded, American Jewish civilization exploded in a rush of creativity. For a time, the great Jewish novel—books by Saul Bellow, Philip Roth, Norman Mailer, Joseph Heller, and Bernard Malamud, inflected with Yiddish and references to pickled herring—was the great American novel. Under the influence of Lenny Bruce, Sid Caesar, Mel Brooks, Elaine May, Gilda Radner, Woody Allen, and many others, American comedy appropriated the Jewish joke, and the ironic sensibility contained within, as its own.

During the Golden Age, Jews created new genres of Americana, and in turn remade America’s image of itself, through the idealized vision of the heartland found in Rodgers and Hammerstein’s Oklahoma! ; the folk revival popularized by Bob Dylan, Art Garfunkel, and Paul Simon; the movies mythologizing the decency of the American Everyman produced by David O. Selznick, Louis B. Mayer, and Jack Warner. (To say that “the Jews” run Hollywood is conspiratorial; to say that Jews founded it is factual.) Only in America could Jews—Irving Berlin, George Wyle, Sammy Cahn—write the Christmas songbook.

It wasn’t just mass culture. The New York Intellectuals, a group with a name as euphemistic as it sounds, acquired a priestly authority in the realm of aesthetics and political ideas, and included the likes of Alfred Kazin, Clement Greenberg, Irving Howe, and Susan Sontag. Betty Friedan, Bella Abzug, and Ruth Bader Ginsburg ushered second-wave feminism into the world. Jews became the prophetic face of American science (J. Robert Oppenheimer) and the salvific one of American medicine (Jonas Salk). The intellectual rewards of Jewish liberation could be measured in medals: Approximately 15 percent of all Nobel Prize winners are American Jews.

In the Golden Age, Jews in America embraced Israel. Enjoying their political and cultural ascendance, they looked to the new Jewish state not as a necessary refuge—they were more than comfortable on the Upper West Side and in Squirrel Hill and Brentwood—but as a powerful rebuttal to the old stereotypes about Jewish weakness, especially after the Israeli military’s victory in the Six-Day War of 1967. As The New York Times ’ Thomas Friedman has put it , American Jews “said to themselves, ‘My God, look who we are! We have power! We do not fit the Shylock image, we are ace pilots; we are not the cowering timid Jews who get sand kicked in their faces, we are tank commanders.’ ”

A now-obscure cultural event captures, for me, this newfound sense of self and self-confidence. In 1978, ABC aired The Stars Salute Israel at 30 , a kitschy prime-time variety show filmed in front of a full house at the Dorothy Chandler Pavilion, in Los Angeles, the same venue that hosted the Oscars. Like the Oscars, it featured an A-list slate: Barry Manilow in a white suit, surrounded by backup singers in sequins; Henry Winkler, the Fonz himself, playing a rough-hewn Israeli in a sketch; and, of course, Sammy Davis Jr. Near the conclusion, Barbra Streisand emerged in a white gown to talk via remote hookup with Golda Meir as a camera filmed the former prime minister in a book-filled room in Israel—the two most celebrated Jewish women of the century kibitzing on American TV.

In the early decades of Hollywood, Jewish stars had hidden behind stage names—Emanuel Goldenberg performed as Edward G. Robinson; Issur Danielovitch transformed himself into Kirk Douglas. Streisand had also changed her name, dropping the a from Barbara, but that was an instance of a diva’s bravado, not a sop to the goyim. What made her stardom so emblematic of the Golden Age was that she never allowed herself to be bullied into suppressing her Jewish identity. Her crowning achievement was Yentl , an adaptation of an Isaac Bashevis Singer short story. For the grand finale of the ABC telecast , Streisand sang “Hatikvah,” the Israeli national anthem, for 18.7 million viewers. “The good feelings and the love will always remain,” she told them.

The Jewish vacation from history ended on September 11, 2001. It didn’t seem that way at the time. But the terror attacks opened an era of perpetual crisis, which became fertile soil where the hatred of Jews took root. Though Osama bin Laden claimed credit for the plot, that didn’t stop some people from trying to shift the blame. One theory explained in exquisitely absurd detail how Mossad, the Israeli intelligence service, had toppled the Twin Towers.

But there was also a more sophisticated version of this conspiracy theory, one that had a patina of academic respectability. On the left, it became commonplace to fulminate against the neoconservatives, warmongering intellectuals said to be whispering in the ear of the American establishment, urging the invasion of Iraq and war against Iran.

This wasn’t fully untethered from reality: The neocons were a group of largely Jewish think-tank denizens and policy operatives, some of whom held top posts in President George W. Bush’s administration. But the angry talk about neocons also trafficked in dangerous old tropes. It inflated their role in world events and ascribed the worst motives to them. Men like Paul Wolfowitz, the second-highest-ranking official in Bush’s Pentagon, and William Kristol, the editor of The Weekly Standard , were portrayed by critics on the left as bamboozlers undermining the national interest in service of their stealth loyalty to Israel. Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld, for one, took exception to the idea that Jews were pulling the strings of the United States government. “I suppose the implication of that is that the president and the vice president and myself and Colin Powell just fell off a turnip truck to take these jobs,” he said.

In 2007, Stephen Walt and John Mearsheimer, professors at Harvard and the University of Chicago, respectively, spelled out what others implied in The Israel Lobby and U.S. Foreign Policy , a book published by a venerable house, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, that soon arrived on the New York Times best-seller list. This was the opposite of the schmaltzy Streisand tribute—the Jewish state as not a friend but a villain surreptitiously manipulating American power to further its own ends.

One year later, Lehman Brothers, a bank founded in 1850 by the son of a Jewish cattle merchant from Bavaria, collapsed. That news was followed by the revelation that Bernie Madoff had masterminded the largest-known Ponzi scheme in history. Although politicians, on the whole, refrained from casting Jews as the primary culprits of the 2008 financial crisis—which was, in fact, systemic—a sizable portion of the public harbored this thought. Stanford University professors conducted a survey that found that nearly a quarter of the country blamed Jews for crashing the global economy. Another 38.4 percent ascribed at least some fault to “the Jews.”

In the era of perpetual crisis, a version of this narrative kept recurring: a small elite—sometimes bankers, sometimes lobbyists—maliciously exploiting the people. Such narratives helped propel Occupy Wall Street on the left and the Tea Party on the right. This brand of populist revolt had long been the stuff of Jewish nightmares. A fear of the mob suffused masterworks of the Golden Age—Theodor Adorno’s The Authoritarian Personality , Hannah Arendt’s The Origins of Totalitarianism , Richard Hofstadter’s Anti-intellectualism in American Life . Haunted by the Holocaust and inherited memories of pogroms, these writers warned how a society might fall prey to a demagogue who tapped into prejudice.

After 2008, a version of their prophecy came to pass. The right settled on a Jewish billionaire as their villain of choice: George Soros. An idea took hold, and not just on extremist blogs. The mainstream of the Republican Party seeded the image of Soros as the “shadow puppet master,” in the words of the former Fox News host Bill O’Reilly. In elevating the figure of Soros and invoking him so frequently, Fox News and Republican politicians were also, intentionally or not, drawing on the deeply implanted imagery of the Jewish financier bankrolling the destruction of Christian civilization.

In 2018, Fox News began carrying images of migrant caravans headed from Central America toward Texas, a tide of humanity it described as an “invasion.” Though they had no evidence to bolster the charge, Republican politicians insinuated that the caravans were paid for by Soros. Representative Matt Gaetz tweeted a video of two men handing out cash to a line of Honduran migrants, accompanied by the question “Soros?” When President Trump was asked about Soros’s role in funding a caravan, a week after a pipe bomb was found in Soros’s mailbox, and days after the Tree of Life shooting, he told reporters, “I wouldn’t be surprised.”

Soros was a central character in a new master narrative, much of it adapted from European sources. The spine of the story was borrowed from a French author named Renaud Camus, a socialist turned far-right reactionary who wrote a 2011 book called The Great Replacement , warning that elites intended to diminish the white Christian presence in Europe by flooding the continent with migrants. The Jews weren’t a central feature of Camus’ theory. But when elements of the American right embraced it, they inserted Soros and his fellow Jews as the masterminds of the elite plot. This became the basis for the chant “Jews will not replace us.”

Jews were the antagonists of the conspiracy theory because they occupied a special place in the bizarre racial hierarchy of American ethno-nationalism. Eric Ward, an activist who is among the most rigorous students of white supremacy, has put it this way: “At the bedrock of the movement is an explicit claim that Jews are a race of their own, and that their ostensible position as White folks in the U.S. represents the greatest trick the devil ever played.” That is, Jews were able to pass as white people, but they were really stealth agents working for the other side of the race war, using immigration to subvert white Christian hegemony.

This notion planted itself in the mind of Robert Bowers, a loner who lived in a suburb of Pittsburgh. He became obsessed with the work of HIAS , originally the Hebrew Immigrant Aid Society. It was formed in 1902 with the intention of easing the arrival of Jewish refugees fleeing pogroms. The group’s evolution was emblematic of the trajectory of Jewish liberalism. As American Jews settled into a comfortable existence in their new land, HIAS’s mission expanded. It has field offices in more than 20 countries, including a branch on a Greek island to tend to Syrian, Iraqi, and Afghan migrants. On October 19, 2018, the Tree of Life synagogue in Pittsburgh was participating in a National Refugee Shabbat, which was the brainchild of HIAS.

The event stoked Bowers’s rage. “HIAS likes to bring invaders in that kill our people,” he wrote on Gab, the Christian-nationalist social-media site. Just before he entered the synagogue’s sanctuary, armed with three semiautomatic pistols and an AR‑15 rifle, he posted, “Open you Eyes! It’s the filthy EVIL jews Bringing the Filthy EVIL Muslims into the Country!!”

A faith in immigration—the idea of America as a sanctuary for the refugee, the belief that subsequent groups of arrivals would experience the same up-from-the-shtetl trajectory—was a core tenet of Jewish liberalism. A Jewish poet had written the lines about huddled masses inscribed at the base of the Statue of Liberty. If America was a nation of immigrants, that made Jews quintessential Americans. But now this ideal was the basis for Jews’ vilification. At the Tree of Life synagogue, it was used to justify their slaughter.

In the old Jewish theory of American politics, the best defense against the anti-Semitism of the right was a united left: minorities and liberal activists locking arms. When I was young, rabbis and elders reverently told us about the earnest young Jews in chunky glasses who had jumped aboard the Freedom Rides; about Rabbi Abraham Joshua Heschel, in his unmissable kippah, marching right next to Martin Luther King Jr.; and about the martyrdom of Andrew Goodman and Michael Schwerner, two Jews who had been murdered alongside James Chaney, a Black Mississippian, for their work registering Black Americans to vote. A coalition of the tolerant pressed the country to live up to its ideals.

Later, I would learn that those memories were a bit gauzy. In the late 1960s, former comrades began to quietly, then brusquely, discard this spirit of common cause. Younger activists in the civil-rights movement took a hard turn toward Black Power and dismissed the old liberal theory of change as a melioristic ruse. Anti-war protesters embraced the decolonization struggles of the developing world. After Israel captured the Gaza Strip and the West Bank in 1967, many came to view the Jewish state as a vile oppressor. (This was well before right-wing Israeli governments saturated the occupied territories with Jewish settlers.) Even as Israel’s shocking victory in the Six-Day War, 22 years after the liberation of Auschwitz, filled American Jews with pride and confidence, a meaningful portion of America’s left turned on Israel.

The turmoil of the late ’60s presaged the rupture that has occurred over the past decade or so. A new ideology has taken hold on the left, with a reordered hierarchy of concerns and an even greater skepticism of the old liberal ideals.

This rupture was propelled by the menace of Donald Trump. His election jolted his opponents to take emergency measures. The left began describing itself as the Resistance, which implied a more confrontational style than that of Nancy Pelosi floor speeches or Center for American Progress white papers.

Even before Trump took office, the Resistance announced a mass protest set to defiantly descend on the capital, what organizers called the Women’s March on Washington. In an early planning meeting, at a New York restaurant, an activist named Vanessa Wruble explained that her Judaism was the motivating force in her political engagement. But Wruble’s autobiographical statement of intent earned her a rebuke. According to Wruble, two members of the inner circle planning the march told her that Jews needed to confront their own history of exploiting Black and brown people. Tablet magazine later reported that Wruble was told that Jews needed to repent for their leading role in the slave trade—a fallacious charge long circulated by the Nation of Islam. (The two organizers denied making the reported statements.) That moment of tension never really subsided, either for Wruble or for the left.

When the march’s organizers published their “unity principles,” they emphasized the importance of intersectionality, a theory first introduced by the law professor Kimberlé W. Crenshaw . It would be insufficient, she argued, for courts to focus their efforts on one narrow target of discrimination when it takes so many forms—racism, sexism, homophobia—that tend to reinforce one another. Her analysis, incisive in the context of the law, was never intended to guide social movements. Transposed by activists to the gritty work of coalition-building, it became the basis for a new orthodoxy—one that was largely indifferent to Jews, and at times outwardly hostile.

When the Women’s March listed the various injustices it hoped to conquer on its way to a better world, anti-Semitism was absent. It was a curious omission, given the central role that Jews played in the conspiracies promoted by the MAGA right, and a telling one. Soon after the march, organizers pushed Wruble out of leadership. She later said that anti-Semitism was the reason for her ouster. (The organizers denied this charge.)

The intersectional left self-consciously rebelled against the liberalism that had animated so much of institutional Judaism, which fought to install civil liberties and civil rights enforced by a disinterested state that would protect every minority equally. This new iteration of the left considered the idea of neutrality—whether objectivity in journalism or color blindness in the courts—as a guise for white supremacy. Tolerance, the old keyword of cultural pluralism, was a form of complicity. What the world actually needed was intolerance, a more active confrontation with hatred. In the historian Ibram X. Kendi’s formulation, an individual could choose to be anti-racist or racist , an activist or a collaborator. Or as Linda Sarsour, an activist of Palestinian descent and a co-chair of the Women’s March, put it, “We are not here to be bystanders.” To be a member of this new left in good moral standing, it was necessary to challenge oppression in all its incarnations. And Israel was now definitively an oppressor.

The American left hadn’t always imposed such a litmus test. During the years of the Oslo peace process, groups such as Students for Justice in Palestine had no problem attending events with liberal Zionists. Back then, the debate was over the borders of Israel, not over the fact of its existence. But that peace process collapsed during the last days of the Clinton administration, and whatever good faith had existed in that brief era of summits and handshakes dissipated. Hamas unleashed a wave of suicide bombings in the Second Intifada. And in the aftermath of those deadly attacks, successive right-wing Israeli governments presided over repressive policies in the West Bank and an inhumane blockade of Gaza.

Palestinian activists and their allies began the Boycott, Divestment, Sanctions movement, pushing universities to divest from Israel. The new goal was no longer coexistence between Arabs and Jews. It was to turn Israel into an international pariah, to stop working with all Israeli institutions—not just the military, but also symphonies, theater groups, and universities. In that spirit, it became fashionable for critics of Israel to identify as “anti-Zionist.”

Within the Jewish establishment, there’s a tendency to impute anti-Semitism to anyone who describes themselves that way. That has always struck me as intellectually imprecise and, occasionally, as a rhetorical gambit to close down debate. But there’s a reason so many Jews bristle at the thought of anti-Zionism finding a home on the American left: Zionist can start to sound like a synonym for Jew . Zionists stand accused of the same crimes that anti-Semites have attached to Jews since the birth of Christianity; Jews are portrayed as omnipotent, bloodthirsty baby-killers. Knowing the historical echoes, it’s hard not to worry that the anger might fixate on the Jewish target closest at hand—which, indeed, it has.

In 2014, dorms at NYU where religiously observant Jews lived received mock eviction notices—“We reserve the right to destroy all remaining belongings,” read the flyer slipped under doors—as if intimidating college kids with unknown politics somehow represented a justifiable reprisal for Israeli-government action in the West Bank. The same notices appeared at Emory University, in Atlanta, in 2019. At the University of Vermont and SUNY New Paltz, groups that helped sexual-assault survivors were accused of purging pro-Israel students from their ranks. “If you don’t support Palestinian liberation you don’t support survivors,” the Vermont group exclaimed. Years before October 7, students at Tufts University, outside Boston, and the University of Southern California moved to impeach elected Jews in student government over their support for Israel’s existence. This wasn’t normal politics. It was evidence of bigotry.

Among the primary targets of the activists were the Hillel centers present on most college campuses. These centers occasionally coordinate trips to Israel and, on some campuses, sponsor student groups supportive of Israel. Those facts led pro-Palestinian activists to describe Hillel as an arm of the “Israeli war machine.” At SUNY Stony Brook, activists sought to expel Hillel from campus, arguing, “If there were Nazis, white nationalists, and KKK members on campus, would their identity have to be accepted and respected?” At Rice University, in Texas, an LGBTQ group severed ties with Hillel because it allegedly made students feel unsafe. What made this incident darkly comic is that Hillel couldn’t be more progressive on issues of sexual freedom. What made it so worrying is that Hillel’s practical purpose is not to defend Israel, but to provide Shabbat dinners and a space for ritual and prayer. To condemn Hillel is to condemn Jewish religious life on campus.

Gal Beckerman: The left abandoned me

As exclusion of Jews became a more regular occurrence, the leadership of the left, and of universities for that matter, had little to say about the problem. To give the most generous explanation: Jews simply didn’t fit the analytic framework of the new left.

At its core, the intersectional left wanted to smash power structures. In the American context, it would be hard to place Jews among the ranks of the oppressed; in the Israeli context, they can be cast as the oppressor. Nazi Germany definitively excluded Jews from a category we now call “whiteness.” Today, Jews are treated in sectors of the left as the epitome of whiteness. But any analysis that focuses so relentlessly on the role of privilege, as the left’s does, will be dangerously blind to anti-Semitism, because anti-Semitism itself entails an accusation of privilege. It’s a theory that regards the Jew as an all-powerful figure in society, a position acquired by underhanded means. In the annals of Jewish history, accusations of privilege are the basis for hate, the kindling for pogroms. But universities too often ignored this lesson from the past. Instead, they acted, as the British comedian David Baddiel put it in the title of his prescient book about progressive anti-Semitism, as if “ Jews don’t count .”

In the death spiral of liberalism, extremism on the right begets extremism on the left, which begets further extremism on the right. To protest the censoriousness of the new progressives, right-wing edgelords and trolls attempted to seize the mantle of liberty.

The most powerful of the edgelords was Elon Musk, who purchased Twitter ostensibly to save discourse from the woke mob. To make good on his noble aims, he reversed bans that the platform’s previous regime had imposed on the most vile anti-Semites, including the white nationalist Patrick Howley, the comic Sam Hyde, and the Daily Stormer’s founder, Andrew Anglin. By restoring them to the site, Musk was, in essence, conceding that their words shouldn’t have been considered taboo in the first place. He legitimized their claims of victimhood, the sense that they had been excluded only because they’d offended the wrong people.

In fact, Musk hinted that he shared this conspiratorial view of censorship. In May 2023, he retweeted an aphorism that he attributed to Voltaire: “To learn who rules over you, simply find out who you are not allowed to criticize.” Those words were actually uttered by a neo-Nazi named Kevin Alfred Strom, not the French philosopher. It shouldn’t have been hard to imagine that the words had dubious origins, because they captured a view of the world in which shadowy forces furtively censor their enemies.

Nor was it hard to imagine that those shadowy forces might include the Anti-Defamation League, which relentlessly called attention to the proliferation of Jew hatred on Twitter under Musk’s ownership. Musk threatened to sue the group, accusing it of trying to “kill this platform by falsely accusing it & me of being anti-Semitic.” The Jews, he all but spelled out, were those who couldn’t be criticized—which, by the logic of the Strom quote, made them society’s secret masters.

Musk wasn’t alone in this argument. In 2022, Dave Chappelle used the opening monologue of Saturday Night Live to muse about the cancellation of the hip-hop artist Ye (formerly Kanye West), who had lost a deal with Adidas after he promised, among other things, to go “death con 3 on JEWISH PEOPLE.” Chappelle exuded empathy for Ye. “I don’t want a sneaker deal, because the minute I say something that makes those people mad, they’re going to take my sneakers away … I hope they don’t take anything away from me,” he said, adding with a smile and a conspiratorial whisper: “Whoever they are.” There was no mystery about his use of pronouns: “I’ve been to Hollywood … It’s a lot of Jews. Like, a lot.” He went on, “You could maybe adopt the delusion that the Jews run show business.”

Chappelle practices shock comedy as a form of shock therapy: The authoritarian impositions of the left justify offensive comments, which are a form of defiance. He has taken a genuine problem—anti-liberalism on the left—and used it as a pretext for smuggling anti-Semitism into acceptable discourse.

That Chappelle and Musk see fit to indulge anti-Semitism in order to protect freedom of speech contains a dark irony. In the 20th century, starting with Louis Brandeis’s dissents on the Supreme Court, Jews stood at the vanguard of the movement to protect “subversive advocacy,” even when it came at their own expense. This could be understood as a defense of the Talmudic tradition of disagreement, what Rabbi David Wolpe calls the “Jewish sacrament” of debate. The movement culminated in Skokie, Illinois, in 1977, when the ACLU deployed the lawyer David Goldberger to sue to allow neo-Nazis to march through the Chicago suburb, which was filled with Holocaust survivors. The Jewish community was hardly unanimous on the Skokie question—unanimity would have been inconsistent with the tradition—but the ACLU position reflected a commitment to free speech officially espoused by major Jewish communal institutions in the postwar years.

In the Jewish vision of free speech, open interpretation and endless debate mark the path to knowledge; the proliferation of discourse is the antidote to bad ideas. But in the reality of social media, free speech also consists of Jew hatred that masquerades as comic entertainment, a way to capture the attention of young men eager to rebel against the strictures of what they decry as wokeness.

When I asked Oren Segal, who runs the ADL’s Center on Extremism, to point me to a state-of-the-art anti-Semitic hate group, he cited the Goyim Defense League. The spitefully silly name reflects its methods, which include pranks and stunts broadcast on its website, Goyim TV. Its leader sometimes dresses as an ultra-Orthodox Jew, calling himself the “Honest Rabbi.” In one demented piece of guerrilla theater, he apologizes on behalf of the Jewish people for fabricating stories about the Holocaust. The group has attempted to popularize the slogan “Kanye is right about the Jews,” hanging a banner proclaiming it on a freeway overpass in Los Angeles and projecting it on the side of a football stadium in Jacksonville, Florida, as 75,000 fans filed out. GDL hecklers have stood in front of Florida synagogues and Holocaust museums, shouting, “Leave our country. Go back to Israel” and “Heil Hitler.”

In a short span, as the edgelords successfully pushed the limits, American culture became permissive regarding what could be said about Jews. Anti-Semitism crept back into the realm of the acceptable.

For a brief moment , it felt as if the October 7 attacks might reverse the tide, because it should have been impossible not to recoil at the footage of Hamas’s pogrom. Israel had yet to launch its counterattack, so there was no war to condemn. Still, even in this moment of moral clarity, the campus left couldn’t muster compassion. At Harvard, more than 30 student groups signed a letter on October 7, holding “the Israeli regime entirely responsible for all unfolding violence.” Days later, the incoming head of NYU’s new Center for Indigenous Studies described the attacks as “affirming.” This sympathy for Hamas, when its crimes were freshest, was a glimpse of what was about to come.

On the afternoon of October 11, Rebecca Massel, a reporter at the Columbia Daily Spectator , received a tip. She was told that a woman, her face wrapped in a bandanna, had assaulted an Israeli student in front of Butler Library in a dispute over flyers depicting hostages held by Hamas. The woman’s alleged weapon was a broomstick. Her battle cry was said to be “Fuck all of you prick crackers.” After striking him with the broomstick, the man said, she attempted to punch him in the face. By the end of the fracas, she had bruised one of his hands and sprained a finger on the other.

Massel began to report out the story . She spoke with the victim, who told her, “Now, we have to handle the situation that campus is not a safe place for us anymore.” She spoke with the NYPD, which confirmed that it had arrested the woman, who was charged with hate crimes and has pleaded not guilty. Massel and her editors curbed their impulse to quickly score a scoop, double-checking every sentence. They didn’t publish the story until 3 a.m. on October 12.

Later that morning, Massel, a sophomore studying political science, was sitting in her Contemporary Civilization seminar when her phone lit up. It was her editor, calling her back. She had texted him to get his sense of the response her article had elicited, so she stepped out of class to hear what he had to say. She had already caught a glimpse of posts on social media, harping on her Jewishness and accusing her of having a “religious agenda.” She’d worried that these weren’t stray attacks. The editor told her the paper had been inundated. The messages it had received about the article were vitriolic, but he didn’t give her any specifics. Before returning to class, she checked her own email. A message read, “I hope you fucking get what you deserve … you racist freak.”

Read: The juvenile viciousness of campus anti-Semitism

For as long as she could remember, Massel had wanted to be a journalist. She’d founded the newspaper at her elementary school. During high school, she’d read She Said , Jodi Kantor and Megan Twohey’s book about investigating Harvey Weinstein’s sexual assaults. The New York Times reporters insisted that they were journalists, not feminist journalists. Massel vowed to take the same approach. The accusations of bias, therefore, didn’t just feel anti-Semitic. They felt like an attack on the integrity that she hoped would define her work.

But anger was an emotion for another day. At that moment, she was overwhelmed by fear. She thought about what the Israeli student had told her the day before. A dean had apparently advised him to leave campus because the university couldn’t guarantee his safety. Now Massel felt unsure of her own physical well-being. She decided that she would stay with her parents until she could get a better sense of the fury directed at her.

In her unnerved state, Massel threw herself into her journalism. She decided to interview Jewish students, from all corners of the university, to gauge their mood. After the office of public safety assured her that she could return to campus, she parked herself in the second-floor lounge of Columbia’s Hillel center. When she overheard a student mention an incident, she would approach them and ask to talk.

Over the course of two weeks, Massel spoke with 54 students . What she amassed was a tally of fear. Thirteen told her that they had felt harassed or attacked, either virtually or in person. (One passerby had barked “Fuck the Jews” at a small group of students.) Thirty-four reported that they felt targeted or unsafe on campus. (At one precarious moment, the Hillel center went into lockdown, out of concern that protesters might descend on the building.) Twelve said that they had suppressed markers of their Jewish identity, wearing a baseball cap over a yarmulke or tucking a Star of David necklace into a sweatshirt. She learned that a group of students had created a group-chat system to arrange escorts, so that no Jew would have to walk across campus alone if they felt unsafe.

Perhaps even more ominously, Massel uncovered incidents in which teachers expressed hostility toward Jewish students. One Israeli student told Massel that a professor had once said to him, “It’s such a shame that your people survived just in order to perpetuate another genocide.” When I made my own calls to students and faculty, I heard similar stories, especially instances of teaching assistants seizing their bully pulpit to sermonize. One TA wrote to their students, “We are watching genocide unfold in real time, after a systematic 75+ years of oppression of the Palestinian people … It feels ridiculous to hold section today, but I’ll see you all on Zoom in a bit.” One student left class in the middle of a professor’s broadside against Israel in a required course in the Middle East–studies department. Afterward, he sent an email to the professor explaining his departure, to which the professor wrote back, saying they could discuss it in class later. When the student returned, the professor read his email aloud to the whole class, and invited everyone to discuss the exchange. It felt like an act of deliberate humiliation.

When I talked with Jewish students at Columbia, I was struck by how they, too, tended to speak in the language of the intersectional left. They described their “lived experience” and trauma: the pain they felt on October 7 as they learned of the attacks; the fear that consumed them when they heard protesters call for the annihilation of Israel. They sincerely expected their university to respond with unabashed empathy, because that’s how it had responded in the past to other terrible events. Instead, Columbia greeted their pain with the soon-to-be-infamous concept of “context,” including a panel discussion that explained the attacks as the product of a long struggle. This historicizing felt as if it not only discounted Jewish students’ suffering but also regarded it as a moral failing. (In early November, in response to criticism, Columbia announced that it would create a task force on anti-Semitism.)

There are many reasons for the unusual intensity of events at Columbia, which is located in a city that is a traditional bastion of the American left; its campus is where the late Palestinian American literary critic Edward Said achieved legendary status. But Columbia is also a graphic example of the collapse of the liberalism that had insulated American Jews: It is a microcosm of a society that has lost its capacity to express disagreements without resorting to animus.

The events on campus that followed October 7 were a sad coda to the Golden Age. When I was a student at Columbia, in the ’90s, the Ivy League was a primary plot point in a triumphalist tale. During the first half of the 20th century, Columbia had deployed extraordinary institutional energy to limit the presence of Jews. The modern college-application process was invented by Columbia President Nicholas Murray Butler to more effectively weed out Jews. In the late ’20s, the university created an ersatz version of itself in Brooklyn, Seth Low Junior College, so that it could educate otherwise qualified Jewish applicants there, rather than having them mingle with the Gentiles in Morningside Heights. But once Columbia lifted its quotas after World War II, the Jewish presence swelled. By 1967, the student body was 40 percent Jewish. The institution that arguably had fought hardest to exclude them became a welcoming home.

But in the 21st century, the Jewish presence in the Ivy League has steadily receded . In the 2000s, Yale was 20 percent Jewish. The proportion is now about half that. The University of Pennsylvania went from being a third Jewish to about 16 percent. The reasons for that plummet aren’t nefarious. There has been a deliberate institutional drive to reengineer the elite, to provide opportunities to first-generation college students and students of color. Some Jews have chafed at this reengineering. But the concept of meritocracy that Jews celebrated was far from a pure reward for test scores and grades. Jewish alumni came to benefit from the same dynastic system of preference that their Protestant predecessors had taken advantage of. Their children applied from prestigious high schools, which maintained a cozy relationship with university admissions offices. It was a system that desperately required reforming in the name of fairness.

The problem exposed in the limp university response to campus anti-Semitism after October 7—distilled to then–Harvard President Claudine Gay’s phrase, “It depends on the context”—is that Jewish students aren’t just a diminished presence but a diminished priority. Whereas Jews thought of themselves as a vulnerable minority—perhaps not the most vulnerable, but certainly worthy of official concern—their academic communities apparently considered them too privileged to merit that status. This wasn’t just scary. It carried the sting of rejection.

There’s a number that haunts me. In 2022, the Tufts political scientist Eitan Hersh conducted a comprehensive study of Jewish life on American college campuses, which surveyed both Jews and Gentiles. Hersh found that on campuses with a relatively high proportion of Jewish students, nearly one in five non-Jewish students said they “wouldn’t want to be friends with someone who supports the existence of Israel as a Jewish state.” They were saying, in essence, that they couldn’t be friends with the majority of Jews.

Each spring , during the Passover seder, Jews recite this phrase from the Haggadah: “In every generation, our enemies rise up to destroy us.” To participate in the most universally observed of all Jewish rituals, a celebration of liberation and survival, is to be reminded of the grim cycle of Jewish history, in which golden ages are moments of dramatic irony, the naive complacency just before the onset of doom. Some of these moments are within living memory.

In 1933, the Central Union of German Citizens of the Jewish Faith published a 1,060-page book meticulously enumerating the achievements of the community. It was quite a list. Weimar Germany is remembered as a period of instability, a time of beer-hall-putschists, louche cabarets, and rampant assassinations. But Weimar was also the pinnacle of Jewish power, a golden age in its own right, especially if one considers the whole of German culture, which sprawled across borders on the map. During the first decades of the 20th century, Jewish contributors to German music included Gustav Mahler, Kurt Weill, and Arnold Schoenberg; to German literature, Franz Kafka, Stefan Zweig, and Walter Benjamin; to science, Albert Einstein. Jews presided over the Frankfurt School of social criticism and populated the Bauhaus school of art and architecture. The Central Union’s compendium could be read as the immodest self-congratulation of a people who represented 0.8 percent of the total population—or as a desperate, futile plea for Germany to return the love that Jews felt for the country.

Americans maintain a favorable opinion of Jews . The community remains prosperous and politically powerful. But the memory of how quickly the best of times can turn dark has infused the Jewish reactions to events of the past decade. “When lights start flashing red, the Jewish impulse is to flee,” Jonathan Greenblatt, the head of the Anti-Defamation League, told me.

Back in 2016, many liberals blustered about leaving the country if Donald Trump was elected president; after he won, many Jews actually hatched contingency plans. My mother tried, in vain, to get a passport from Poland, the country of her birth. An immigration lawyer I know in Cleveland told me that he had obtained a German passport, and suggested that I call the German embassy in Washington to learn how many other American Jews had done the same.

The German government, for understandable reasons, doesn’t count Jews. But the embassy sent me a tally of passport applications submitted under laws that apply to victims of Nazi persecution and their descendants. In 2017, after Trump’s election, the number of applications nearly doubled from the year before, to 1,685, and then kept growing. In 2022, it was 2,500. These aren’t large numbers in absolute terms; still, it’s extraordinary that so many American Jews, whose applications required documenting that their families once fled Germany, now consider the country a safer haven than the United States.

I also saw signs of flight in Oakland, where at least 30 Jewish families have been approved to transfer their children to neighboring school districts —and I heard similar stories in the surrounding area. Initial data collected by an organization representing Jewish day schools, which have long struggled for enrollment, show a spike in the number of admission inquiries from families contemplating pulling their kids from public school.

After 1967, the previous moment of profound political abandonment, the American Jewish community began to entertain thoughts of its own radical reinvention. A coterie of disillusioned intellectuals, clustered around a handful of small-circulation journals and think tanks, turned sharply rightward, creating the neoconservative movement. Among activists, the energy that had once been directed toward Freedom Rides was plowed into the cause of Soviet Jewry, which became a defining political obsession of many synagogues in the 1970s and ’80s. Meanwhile, Jewish hippies turned inward, creating new spiritual movements centered on prayer and ritual.

Although not all of these movements proved equally fruitful, this history, in a way, is cause for optimism, an example of how conflict might provide the path to religious renewal and a fresh sense of solidarity. It’s also a reminder that the Golden Age was not an uninterrupted rise.

The case for pessimism, however, is more convincing. The forces arrayed against Jews, on the right and the left, are far more powerful than they were 50 years ago. The surge of anti-Semitism is a symptom of the decay of democratic habits, a leading indicator of rising authoritarianism. When anti-Semitism takes hold, conspiracy theory hardens into conventional wisdom, embedding violence in thought and then in deadly action. A society that holds its Jews at arm’s length is likely to be more intent on hunting down scapegoats than addressing underlying defects. Although it is hardly an iron law of history, such societies are prone to decline. England entered a long dark age after expelling its Jews in 1290. Czarist Russia limped toward revolution after the pogroms of the 1880s. If America persists on its current course, it would be the end of the Golden Age not just for the Jews, but for the country that nurtured them.

*Lead image source: Top row from left to right : Michael Ochs Archives / Getty; Universal History Archive / Getty. Middle row from left to right : Robert Mitra / WWD / Penske Media / Getty; Ulf Andersen / Getty; Jean-Régis Roustan / Roger Viollet / Getty; CBS Photo Archive / Getty; Daily Herald / Mirrorpix / Getty; Bettmann / Getty; David Lefranc / Getty; Bettmann / Getty; Frederick M. Brown / Getty; CBS Photo Archive / Getty; Theo Wargo / Getty; Max B. Miller / Archive Photos / Getty. Bottom row from left to right : ABC Photo Archives / Getty; Bachrach / Getty; Getty; Bernard Gotfryd / Getty.

This article appears in the April 2024 print edition with the headline “The End of the Golden Age.” When you buy a book using a link on this page, we receive a commission. Thank you for supporting The Atlantic.

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Fasting for Ramadan While Gaza Goes Hungry

By Zaina Arafat

On the evening of February 28th, thousands of people gathered on Al-Rashid Street, in Gaza City, in hopes that a convoy of aid trucks would bring them desperately needed food. The trucks arrived early the next morning, at around a quarter to five. When a large crowd encircled them in an effort to obtain food, Israeli forces, who were standing by, opened fire. More than a hundred people were killed, and hundreds more were injured. Later, the Israeli Army said that its troops had felt threatened, and that some Palestinians died in a stampede . The day has become known as the “flour massacre.”

After I saw the news, I called my father to check on him. I’m in New York and he lives in the suburbs of Washington, D.C., but much of our family is in Gaza and the West Bank. He’d heard about what had happened but didn’t know many details. “I can hardly stand to watch the news anymore,” he told me.

I pointed out that in ten days many Muslims would start fasting for Ramadan. I was struggling to imagine the holy month in Gaza, where the World Food Program has been warning of mass starvation.

“Do you think people will still fast?”

“Of course they will still fast,” my father said. “They are fasting already.”

He forwarded me a WhatsApp voice message from my cousin Jinan, in northern Gaza. In December, Israeli forces attacked the U.N. school where Jinan was taking shelter with her husband and two children. A blast broke her jaw, and she could no longer eat solid food. Her daughter, Nouran, who loved to draw anime, lost her right eye, part of her cheek, and the use of both hands. They waited three days for the Palestinian Red Crescent to take them to Al-Shifa hospital, and have been there ever since, waiting for surgeries. Lately, Al-Shifa has also been treating survivors of the flour massacre.

I was amazed to hear levity and humility in Jinan’s voice. “Our situation is better than many others,” she said. “But what can we do—this is our fate written by God. All we have is the Day of Judgment.”

I messaged Jinan to ask how she was doing, and what she was planning for Ramadan. A day passed before she was able to respond. “Do you believe that we haven’t tasted eggs or chicken for months,” she wrote back. She has been surviving on pre-cooked rice, sometimes with lentils, hummus, and fava beans. Her family can’t find fresh fruits or vegetables. “As for Ramadan, we’re going to fast as we can . . . Inshallah we will manage.”

Lately, images from Gaza have been filling my Instagram feed. I keep seeing photographs of Yazan al-Kafarneh, one of at least sixteen children who have reportedly died from malnutrition or dehydration in Gaza. In old photos of him, he looks like a ten-year-old boy. In more recent photos, his skin appears wrinkled and yellow, his open eyes look hollow, and his skeleton is clearly visible. I feel sick and sad and scared. How could anyone allow this to happen to a child? In another post, I see a photo of a refugee tent decorated with Ramadan lanterns.

As I read the news from Gaza, I think about the special cruelty of killing hungry people. Death ends their misery, but forever denies them the relief that they were seeking. Part of Ramadan’s joy is the act of looking forward: to iftar, the meal that breaks the fast every evening; to Laylat al-Qadr, the night when the first verses of the Quran were revealed to the Prophet Muhammad; to the feast of Eid, which marks the end of daily sacrifice. How do you celebrate the holy month when you fear the suffering will not end?

My parents grew up in the West Bank, and their entire city, Nablus, transformed for Ramadan: you could arrive late to work, businesses closed early, and shops and restaurants reopened in the evenings for souq nazel, a nightly descent into the Old Town market. My father, ten years older than my mother, remembers the days before the Israeli occupation. At his grandfather’s house, his family made dough and then brought it to a public oven, to bake it into bread. Homemade lentil soup and fattoush salad were always on the table, along with qamar al-deen , a juice made from dried apricot. They waited to eat until they heard the call to prayer from the local mosque. At night, in the Old Town, he and his friends sang, walked, flirted, smoked argileh , and poured cups of mint tea or sous , a licorice drink, from copper pitchers. Sometimes people would stay out until suhoor , the predawn meal, and only then head home to sleep.

My mother was a child when the Israeli occupation began. Not all of her four siblings fasted, and she found it too difficult. But she loved the evening rituals. One of the kids would carry a plate to the local market, ten minutes away, and spend a shilling, or about five cents, on hummus. If there hadn’t been any incidents with Israeli forces that day, they could go to the playground, but outings were often cut short by curfews. Each morning, before sunrise, someone walked through the neighborhood banging a drum, to let people know it was time to get up for the morning meal. On Laylat al-Qadr, when the late-night sky is said to open for God to answer all prayers, and angels are said to descend to earth, she and her siblings would sit on their balcony and ask for money, clothes, or toys.

When the crescent-shaped moon appeared in the sky, Eid arrived. “We’ve put a man on the moon, we used to say,” my mom told me, laughing, “but we still can’t tell when Eid will be until the day before.” In preparation, she laid her outfit on her bed as her mother chased one of her younger brothers around the house, trying to wrangle him into his Eid clothes. My father’s Eid was different: he’d wake up early for morning prayer, then head to the cemetery to read verses from the Quran at family graves. They’d give meals and sweets—often date-filled ma’mool or cheesy, syrupy knafeh —to people who couldn’t afford it, or who had lost spouses or parents. (According to the Hadith—the teachings of the Prophet—anyone who supports an orphan goes to Heaven.) After breakfast, they visited family; children kissed the hands of elders and received a few coins. In my dad’s memories, Christian and Jewish neighbors were the first to come over to wish them happy Eid.

My parents did their best to hand down these traditions to my brother and me. In the D.C. suburbs, Ramadan was one of my favorite times of the year. When I was old enough to fast, my father started waking me up for suhoor with a bowl of cinnamon Life cereal, which I slurped down before falling back asleep. At school, I couldn’t eat or drink, so I dipped cafeteria French fries in ketchup and fed them to my friends. At birthday parties, I took a piece of cake home with me to enjoy after dark. We watched Al Jazeera’s recorded broadcast from the Kaaba, in Mecca, until the sun went down. The certainty that Ramadan would end, and so would the hunger, made the days easier. So did the iftars we spent with friends, which sometimes doubled as fund-raisers for Palestinians in need.

I always loved to eat—as a baby, I once scampered off my changing table to snatch a falafel sandwich from my mother’s friend—but food never tasted more delicious than after a day of longing. My favorite dish was bazella : chopped carrots, green peas, tomato sauce, and cubes of lamb served over basmati rice. For dessert, we ate atayief —little pancakes that were folded over sweet cheese or walnuts, and then fried and doused in syrup—and watched Syrian sitcoms on TV.

I believed in God and loved Islam, but my fasting was less about religion than about ritual. In the diaspora, with its handed-down stories and its longing to be elsewhere, Ramadan helped us connect with our heritage. It offered belonging. The act of sacrifice taught me to appreciate whatever I had—itself a Palestinian tradition, given how much the vagaries of history had shaped our lives. So much depended on when and where you were born: were you Forty-eighters or Sixty-seveners? Displaced or occupied? I could endure the hunger because I was part of something, and we were together.

One aspect of Ramadan, for my parents, is remembering better days. Even as a child, my mother wished that she could have celebrated like her mother did before the occupation. My father misses Ramadan during his college days, in Egypt, when the Nile glowed with lights and theatres played movies from the fifties, Cairo’s golden age of cinema. Too often, these stories are followed by talk of how much has changed. Two years ago, my mother and her brother drove through a town near Nablus on their way to an iftar. Israeli soldiers seemed to be everywhere, carrying guns. “I’m scared,” she told him.

“Why?” he said. “It’s always like this now.”

It’s difficult to imagine Ramadan in Gaza this year. I want to imagine that, even at a time of devastation and deprivation, a personal act of sacrifice can still lend purpose to senselessness. Maybe it can give powerless people a small sense of control. When you fast, you can think, I chose this hunger; it was not forced on me. But maybe that’s wishful thinking. Hunger is painful. It is one of our most primal desires, and the most human; inflicting it on someone else can seem inhuman. The only antidote is to eat. And in the same way that food brings people together I wonder whether its absence keeps us apart. Hunger makes us weak, and not only physically. It cuts us off from the strength that comes from being together.

In Islam, Ramadan is the month during which the Quran was revealed as a guide for humanity. God prescribes fasting as a means of self-discipline, a way to show Muslims what they’re capable of and to protect themselves from hellfire. But He is merciful; not everyone is called on to fast, especially if doing so causes harm. The Quran grants exceptions to those who are pregnant, breast-feeding, or menstruating, and to people who are travelling, elderly, or ill. Starvation or P.T.S.D. would count as illnesses; fleeing your home would count as travel. These exemptions seem almost absurd, and maybe they won’t matter. Some will choose to fast regardless. Sometimes the best way to forget one pain is to focus on another.

I stopped fasting in college, mostly because I was away from home, but I went to iftars hosted by my classmates, and I often returned to D.C. for Eid. My uncle, the one who hated Eid clothes, always brings his five kids to brunch at the Silver Diner, in Tysons, Virginia, and we order pancakes for dessert. In the afternoon, we visit my mother’s cousin and his wife, where we eat more. My uncle plays the piano, and my mother’s cousin sings on the guitar.

In November, 2022, I gave birth to my first daughter, Nour. Motherhood has made Ramadan more important to me. I want to give Nour what I had—a heritage that’s being erased, and one that’s become increasingly dangerous to inhabit, both here and in Palestine. During Nour’s first-ever Ramadan, my mother came to visit and spent many mornings playing Arabic songs for her, particularly one by the legendary Egyptian singer Abdel Halim Hafez. During Nour’s tummy time, my mother told her that she’s not only American but also Palestinian. And when Eid came, a couple weeks later, my wife and I took Nour to a Moroccan restaurant, and then to the bucket swings at the playground. I missed the Silver Diner, but there was something special about forming our own Ramadan traditions.

Lately, I’ve been thinking about mothers in Gaza. I read in the news that, at one Gaza clinic, one in five pregnant women are malnourished, which makes it difficult to produce breast milk; eighty per cent of mothers have been skipping meals to feed their children. Jinan told me that mothers have been feeding their children green leaves cooked with tomato paste and a pinch of rice. Others try to quiet their desperately hungry children by giving them chewing gum. These stories make me think of my pregnancy, when I often woke up ravenous—not only for myself but for Nour. After she was born, her most painful and guttural cries came when she was hungry. I cannot imagine hearing them with nothing to offer her.

This year, my mother will spend the last week of Ramadan with us in Brooklyn. If all goes well, a few days before Eid, my wife will give birth to our second child—one more reason to try to celebrate. I sometimes think about how I will explain their first Ramadans to them when they’re older: how important it was to find slivers of joy in times of grief and despair, especially as a parent; how sometimes, for Palestinians, the only thing that keeps you going is the hope that things will get better.

The other day, I sent a Facebook voice note to my uncle’s wife, Reda. She lives in Jordan, but she spent most of her life in Gaza, and her immediate family is still there. In December, her brother walked ten miles with his eight-month-old daughter on his back, breathing in dust and keeping his arms in the air, in hopes that soldiers would not shoot him. “I don’t know what Ramadan in Gaza will be like this year, during the war,” Reda wrote to me in Arabic. “But I can tell you how it used to be.”

She sent me an Instagram reel, which was filmed during Ramadan in 2023. I could hardly believe that I was looking at Gaza. A lantern, decorated with a moon and star, was hanging in a store with fully stocked shelves. Outside, lights had been dangled over the street and wrapped around trees. I saw plastic bins of pickled vegetables, buckets of candy, and barrels that practically spilled over with fruit. Cars drove through the streets; young people hung out at a lit café. She also sent the photograph I’d seen earlier, of the refugee tent strung with lights. The juxtaposition said what she perhaps couldn’t.

I watched the video while sitting on my bed. I felt heartbroken, and also proud of what Gaza was, of who Gazans are, of what Palestine means. My wife put her hand on my shoulder. Then I played it again, trying to remember better days. ♦

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• AAP Medical Student Essay Contest on The Art of Communication in Psychiatry
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The Association for Academic Psychiatry (AAP) is accepting entries to the 2024 Medical Student Essay Contest.

The theme is:  The Art of Communication in Psychiatry: Connecting with the Patient.

The author of the winning entry will receive a complimentary registration to AAP’s annual meeting, a travel stipend and the opportunity to present their essay as a poster at the meeting, which will be held in Washington, D.C., September 11-14.

DEADLINE FOR SUBMISSION: June 1, 2024

Submission Requirements The contest is open to any student who is both currently enrolled in an accredited medical school and will be enrolled at the time of the annual meeting. The work must be an original unpublished essay of 1,000 words or less. Only one submission per student will be accepted.

Submit an essay

For questions, contact James Haliburton, M.D., Medical Student Essay Subcommittee Chair, at  [email protected] . All essay submissions must be made through the Award portal.

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

This article is part of the research topic.

Artificial intelligence (AI) in the complexity of the present and future of education: research and applications

Exploring the Boundaries of Authorship: A Comparative Analysis of AI-Generated Text and Human Academic Writing in English Literature Provisionally Accepted

• 1 Department of Language and Literature, Faculty of Humanities & Social Sciences, Yazd University, Iran
• 2 M.A in Applied Linguistics, Department of English Language and Literature, Yazd University, Yazd, Iran, Iran

The final, formatted version of the article will be published soon.

As artificial intelligence (AI) increasingly permeates educational landscapes, its impact on academic writing has become a subject of intense scrutiny. This research delved into the nuanced dimensions of authorship and voice in academic writing, specifically focusing on the application of OpenAI's ChatGPT. In this study, the research team compared and contrasted an essay written by one second-year English student for a course on English literature with a similar essay produced by ChatGPT. The current research also, tried to clarify whether artificial intelligence can satisfy the formal requirements of academic writing and maintain the distinctive voice inherent in humanauthored content. The examination hinges on parameters such as assertiveness, self-identification, and authorial presence. Additionally, the researchers shed light on the challenges inherent in producing AI-generated academic text. While ChatGPT presented an ability to generate contextually relevant content, the results highlighted its need for support in guaranteeing factual accuracy and capturing the complex aspects of authorship that are common in human writing.Notably, when compared to human-generated text, the AI-generated text was deficient in terms of specificity, depth, and accurate source referencing. While AI has potential as an additional tool for academic writing, this study's findings indicated that its current capabilities-particularly in producing academic text are limited, and remain constrained. This study emphasizes upon the imperative for continued refinement and augmentation of AI models to bridge the existing gaps in achieving a more seamless integration into the academic writing landscape.

Keywords: Academic writing, AI-generated text, Authorship, ChatGPT, Educational Technology

Received: 30 Nov 2023; Accepted: 11 Mar 2024.

Copyright: © 2024 Amirjalili, Neysani and Nikbakht. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

* Correspondence: Dr. Forough Amirjalili, Department of Language and Literature, Faculty of Humanities & Social Sciences, Yazd University, Yazd, Iran

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Emmanuel Todd Prophesies the Defeat of the West

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French demographer Emmanuel Todd’s new book argues that secularization has left Western societies weak and divided. But his account of the US and Europe’s secular nihilism is deeply reductive, leaving no space for forward-looking political change.

French anthropologist, historian, and demographer Emmanuel Todd in 2014. (Wikimedia Commons)

The Western admirers of Vladimir Putin’s Russia are a strangely assorted bunch, with each finding quite different things to like about it. Tucker Carlson raves about the living standards. He returned from a recent journey to Moscow enthusing over the spotless Metro system and the cheap supermarkets. The Putin-understanders of the German far right see in him a fellow champion of ethnonationalism. The French demographer, sociologist, and all-around provocateur Emmanuel Todd is cooler and higher minded in his praise: he is drawn to Putin’s mastery of geopolitics.

Todd’s latest book argues that Western powers are locked in a doomed effort to prop up Ukraine in its war with Russia. While it has sold well in France, it has also earned some scornful reviews. Le Monde dismissed him as a false prophet and a copyist of “the Kremlin’s propaganda.” La Défaite de L’Occident ( The Defeat of the West ) is undoubtedly soft on Putin. Yet it abounds in imaginative and occasionally shrewd explanations for the fears and jealousies which rack Western states. Its appearance is an opportunity to take the measure of a thinker at once systematic and mercurial, a cynic but also a moralist whose one consistent aversion is to self-satisfaction.

Family Fortunes

Todd’s dual identity as a demographer and firebrand is unusual. In a brilliant recent study , the historian Jacob Collins makes sense of it by placing him in what he calls an “anthropological turn” in French intellectual life, which began in the 1970s. The events of 1968 had shaken a narrow and repressive establishment but had not brought about a socialist nirvana. The Communist Party’s vote in national and presidential elections slumped and union membership tailed off. The oil shock of 1973 dampened economic growth and cast doubt on the Left’s assumption that the aim of politics was to share out an expanding affluence. These reverses encouraged some youngish intellectuals — who were not themselves anthropologists but read a lot of their work — to reground their understanding of politics and citizenship in the systematic study of human nature. Although Todd is the grandson of Paul Nizan, a celebrated Communist writer, and a youthful member of the French Communist Party, he soon shed a Marxist understanding of politics as the epiphenomena of class struggle and sought alternative models in the anthropological study of history. Perhaps it helped that he is also related to Claude Lévi-Strauss.

Todd ended up at Trinity College, Cambridge, where Peter Laslett supervised his doctoral study of peasant communities in preindustrial Europe. This was an important detour. Todd might seem in manner to be the model of a Left Bank intellectual who is viscerally opposed to “les Anglo-Saxons.” David Frum, the Bush staffer turned hack, once devoted a think tank blog post to sneering at Todd’s exquisite hair and reflexive skepticism about American power. Yet his thinking owed much more to Laslett’s wistful empiricism than to the antifoundational French Thought which once alarmed North American conservatives.

In his celebrated book, The World We Have Lost (1964), Laslett had argued that the key to past societies was less their economies than their distinctive family structures. Contrary to what Marxists claimed, it was not capitalism that had ripped apart the fabric of English life by subordinating it to market forces. In this telling, preindustrial England was already capitalist — what mattered was that its unit of production was the household of a nuclear family and its servants. Before the coming of factories, there were no faceless masses, few lonely people, and no social classes to speak of. Labor was intimate, rather than alienated, which did not make it any less exacting than modern work, merely different in kind. England’s patriarchal politics had followed its family structure: they reserved power to the tiny proportion of gentlemen whose horizons stretched beyond the villages in which they lived.

Laslett’s thesis reinforced Todd’s sympathy with the nineteenth-century French sociologists who had already found in the family a means of explaining the comparative political stability and economic vitality of European societies. In a series of voluminously documented books, Todd went on to chart elaborate homologies between political ideologies and family structures across not just Europe but the world. The republican triad of liberty, equality, and fraternity oscillated according to the relationships between fathers, sons, and siblings. Freedom flourished in societies such as England and the United States where most families were nuclear: children escaped from the authority of their parents and formed households of their own. Germany or Japan, where children had lived under the thumb of their parents in “stem families,” tended towards authoritarianism. The French Revolution had drawn its egalitarian inspiration from the Paris region, where families had divided up inheritances between siblings. Communitarian ideologies did best in societies such as Russia, where families had lived in large agricultural communes.

The Discrete Charms of Demography

France’s national institute for demographic study, which soon hired Todd to undertake such work, was a globally minded but thoroughly centrist body. When its founder Alfred Sauvy coined the term “the Third World,” he evoked the insurgent “Third Estate” whose demands had triggered the French Revolution. Yet the point of studying developing countries was to identify structures which could assist their integration into the global market. The institute also sought to benefit the domestic economy by determining the rate at which economic migrants should be admitted to France.

Todd recognized that his charts and maps could become a platform for prophetic interventions in public life. He made his name even before his arrival at the institute with his 1976 book, La Chute Finale ( The Final Fall ). This work marshaled stray but alarming indications of the Soviet world’s demographic problems — such as rising infant mortality and falling fertility, despite an absence of economic growth — to predict its collapse. Profile writers to this day mention it as an example of his prescience, even though the trends he identified no longer seem grave or permanent enough to explain the meltdown of the Eastern bloc.

After his lucky essay in Sovietology, Todd became better known as an analyst of France, who celebrated what he saw as the Hexagon’s uniquely complex weave of family systems and thus of ideologies. He regarded such diversity as positive, not least because it would militate against a nativist rejection of the North African economic migrants whose presence in France became a much-discussed phenomenon in the ’80s and ’90s. Yet by the time he published Après la Démocratie ( After Democracy ) in 2008, he was fretting about social divides which threatened the coherence of the republic and the viability of its democracy. One of these was education. Todd had always regarded the spread of universal literacy as an engine of democratization and a potent solvent of prejudices and inequalities, especially between the sexes. But he came to lament the later twentieth-century expansion of higher education, which in France and other Western countries was introducing a rift between the 40 percent or so of citizens who had benefited from it and all the rest. Globalization exacerbated this divide, because people with higher education sided with the wealthy elite in the misguided hope of sharing in its gains.

Religion, however, was the prime agent of division. In 2015, Todd’s interest in it generated his most incendiary intervention in debates about France’s democracy. After terrorists in Paris killed the staff of the satirical Charlie Hebdo magazine and four Jewish shoppers and staff in the Hyper Cacher supermarket, mass marches took place throughout France. These proclaimed the unity and secularity of the republic and the right to freedom of speech — up to and including the blasphemous cartoons of Muhammad published by Charlie Hebdo . Several months later, Todd caused great offense by publishing Qui est Charlie? ( Who is Charlie? ), which interpreted the marches as the symptom of a “religious crisis.” He argued that they were dominated by the professional classes, by regions peripheral to the egalitarian core of France where more authoritarian family structures lingered, and — crucially — by former Catholics.

“Zombie Catholics”

Todd’s earlier work had always stressed the importance of religious divisions but put them second to his cartographies of the family. He viewed family structures as foundational to all ideologies, including religion. He noted that regions with authoritarian and inegalitarian family structures were under the sway of the Virgin Mary, whereas the Parisian region had long ago cast off the Church in favor of Marianne, the incarnation of republican liberty and reason. However, religious practice had collapsed since the 1960s, even in traditionally faithful regions. How then could Catholicism be a factor in the Charlie marches?

Todd’s answer was that even people who had abandoned their faith might still perpetuate its reactionary attitudes. Arguing that a religion can shape minds in its absence may seem a bit of a stretch, but the Charlie marchers skewed old and had been thoroughly socialized in the faith they abandoned. Todd called them “zombie Catholics.” His weakness for a zinging phrase makes them sound ghastlier than he perhaps intended, because he actually regarded the residual commitment of Catholic regions to social solidarity as an advantage in the age of neoliberal competition. The overrepresentation of the zombies in the Charlie marches exposed their hollowness: they were more concerned with maintaining France’s distribution of social power than with defending universal rights and freedoms.

If Catholicism’s implosion left the “zombies” relatively unscathed, French secularists did not fare anywhere near as well. Todd — an atheist himself — once believed that the French had coped with the death of God rather well. Life no longer had any meaning, but it carried on decently and comfortably enough. Yet it had now become clear to him that the “flying buttresses” of the Catholic Church had propped up atheism all along by giving it something to oppose.

Secularization bereaved well-educated and well-off secularists. Missing the thrill of metaphysical combat, they cast around for a new enemy to unite them. They found it in Islam — the religion of a marginalized minority in France, but one they now professed to see as a threat to Western civilization. Although the French critics of Charlie were right to allege that many of the correlations it drew between the marches and the past geography of religious allegiance and family structure were sloppy and lacking in causal power, its warnings about the rise and social anchorage of “Islamophobia” stand vindicated today — and not merely for France. In countries such as Britain, the conviction that Islam and Muslims pose a threat to Western societies differs from crasser forms of xenophobia in being a pathology of anxious elites, one spouted by newspaper columnists as often as it shouted by street brawlers.

Who’s Afraid of Russia?

“Russophobia” performs the same function in The Defeat of the West as “Islamophobia” did in Charlie . When this book gets translated into English, it will startle many readers with its fond portrait of Russia as the very model of a sovereign nation state. Casting an eye over its vital signs, Todd argues that the country compares favorably to the United States: its level of infant mortality is markedly lower and — if you subject the figures to judicious tweaking — it apparently trains more engineers, a distinctively French, almost Bonapartist criterion for a state’s success. Yes, Russia is a very authoritarian democracy, but there is no need to be too exercised about that: it has just the kind of polity you would expect its patriarchal and communitarian family patterns to generate. The important thing for him is that Russia is a “conservative” power largely content to live within its borders. It nurses no grand designs and its aging and stagnating population affords no demographic basis for expansion: Russia is not “interesting” in the “eyes of a geopolitician.”

Todd uses all the tools in his kit to cast Russia’s adversary as a “failed state.” Ukraine is a mess of different family types — what counts as laudable diversity in France becomes fragile artificiality here. Since the Orange Revolution of 2004, the rural West has tried to impose its peasant tongue on the urbanized and industrialized East, which naturally prefers the Russian language of science and high culture. Todd even takes Ukraine’s thriving trade in surrogate pregnancies as a sign of its imminent collapse, arguing that it shows a plummeting estimate of human life. Putin’s invasion becomes a preemptive strike to protect Russian speakers against the aggressive pawns of Washington. If the “suicidal” determination of the Ukrainians to subjugate the Crimea and the Donbass brought on the war, their “nihilism” has perpetuated it: conflict gives a rationale to their “levitating state,” which only Western subsidies keep aloft.

Todd’s Putin — an “intelligent” reader of world affairs, who gives “highly structured” speeches and outsmarts triflers like Emmanuel Macron with his “excellent” timing — bears little resemblance to the rambling spinner of historical fables who recently sat down with Tucker Carlson. Todd’s book gets more interesting when it moves from defending Russia’s war to asking why so many states came to see it as an existential matter for the West. It rightly criticizes the magical thinking which urged that sanctions would quickly collapse Russia’s war effort, or hoped that non-Western and nonaligned powers could be persuaded to enforce them. Even the United States does not have a sufficient industrial base to supply the Ukrainians with the tanks and shells that they would have needed to roll back Russian forces. So why the passion for this war?

Toward Point Zero

Once again Todd casts the West’s search for its enemies as the sign of a religious crisis. This time though, he points not to zombie Catholicism but to the implosion of Protestantism in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Scandinavian countries, who have been Ukraine’s cheerleaders in Europe. Writing for a French readership which imagines that its secular and republican model of state formation is normative, he emphasizes that states such as the United States and Great Britain had derived a sense of nationhood from the Bible long before the Bastille fell.

As a “good student” of Max Weber, he then adds the argument that their prosperity initially derived from Protestant habits of self-regulation and industry. No wonder, then, that their gradual but irreversible secularization is proving socially corrosive and politically destabilizing. Initially, this process strengthened democracy by producing a generation or two of “zombie Protestants,” who redirected their religious zeal toward the creation of welfare states. Even zombies, however, cannot live forever. “Phantasmal” Protestantism has given way to “point zero,” sweeping away what Todd wistfully regards as America’s once-benevolent WASP elite. It has been replaced by gangs of Washington insiders, whose only bond is their addiction to military grandstanding and the rentier profits of empire. Todd makes moralizing use of demographic data to suggest that dechristianization is sickening Protestant societies, as their godly industriousness degenerates into mere greed. The contrast between svelte Frenchmen and obese Americans suggests that the latter’s self-control has disappeared along with their God.

Weber would not have set so much store on waistlines. The breezy crudity with which Todd discusses Christianity blunts his insistence on its importance. For instance, his choice of gay marriage and the acceptance of transgender people as indicators of its passing is strangely arbitrary (not to mention echoing Russian diatribes against Western decadence). The emphasis on dechristianization is also inconsistent: he does not explain why it has not shaken Russia — where Orthodoxy is just as much in suspension — to the same extent.

All the same, Todd is surely right that societies flounder without the kind of public doctrine that churches once provided. It allows him to give a particularly shrewd account of the United Kingdom. He sees its Lilliputian bellicosity as a desperate attempt to revive its vanished standing as an elect nation. Although an inveterate enemy of the single currency and the neoliberal European Union, Todd is unimpressed by Brexit, which he presents as a symptom of a fraying Britishness, rather than a revival of it. Its leaders have fled this disarray by posturing as defenders of the West, even though decades of deindustrialization have so sapped its military that they cannot even emulate the French and make themselves “hated in Africa.” Boris Johnson embraced and armed Volodymyr Zelensky with an alacrity that surprised even the Americans.

From Ukraine to Gaza

While The Defeat of the West is less scientific and more anecdotal than Todd’s earlier books, it remains thoroughly “anthropological” in its insistence on the power of a political unconscious. To understand the decisions of individual politicians, one should consider the unseen and deep-seated structures that influence them. The risk of such an approach is that the analyst will find in the unconscious whatever they find amusing or convenient to put there. Todd’s book contains too many examples of such whimsy to mention. Let one example stand for many: he speculates that Antony Blinken’s Jewish roots in antisemitic Ukraine might be motivating him to keep it embroiled in a ruinous war as a “just punishment” for persecuting his ancestors. Todd’s references to his own Jewish ancestry hardly excuse such conspiratorial flourishes.

Todd has often essentialized and overdetermined the world as he finds it, a tendency evident in The Defeat of the West . His admittedly gripping portrait of America and Europe’s post-Christian nihilism is so overwhelming that it leaves little space for solutions. Only the Germans inspire him with some hope. Although Todd has always classed Germany as an authoritarian society and disliked its efforts to foist economic austerity on the European Union, he loathes American power more. He has long hoped that Germany might shed its status as an “inert” nation and team up with the Russians to break NATO’s hold over Europe, which has allowed America to “robotize” its political and economic elites. Todd impatiently anticipates Ukraine’s defeat primarily because it might reopen the opportunity for such an alliance, which seems neither a very plausible nor inviting prospect.

Whatever the outcome of the war in Ukraine, it seems unlikely to vindicate Todd’s fading reputation as a prophet. For all their confused values and stuttering economies, European societies remain stronger and wealthier than his gloomy prognostications or his loaded comparisons with Russia allow. Perhaps the “nihilism” and the “narcissism” which characterize their politics are in the eye of the beholder. By contrast, the war in Gaza, which began just as Todd wrote the coda to his book, is vindicating some of its wilder flourishes. The unconditional support of America’s elderly political elite for Israel’s invasion does indeed suggest they are in the grip of a psychic crisis which finds expression in a “need for violence.” The “childish simplicity” with which President Biden likened Israel to Ukraine as beleaguered bastions of freedom show how quickly Western values can become discredited by their addled defenders. The “irrational” commitment of America’s military materiel to the destruction of Gaza’s cities — which met with the protracted, if uneasy, acquiescence of its European allies and the mainstream media — suggests that all is not well with the West.