argumentative essay on english as a second language

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Argumentative essays.

Argumentative Essays – Tips & Tricks

• Read the topic carefully. Underline the main point of the topic (such as Politics).
• Decide ‘for’ or ‘against’ (i.e. are you in favour or against?).
• Jot down all the RELEVANT & LOGICAL points related to your opinion. Spend 5-10 minutes doing this in the form of notes. No emotional reasons should be included. As we say in Urdu, don’t be “ jazbaati “.
• Starting – No quotes are needed; some books/resources will tell you to state your opinion at the start or by the end. In the paper, state it at the BEGINNING of your essay, most preferably in the opening paragraph.
• Ease into the topic then generally give your opinion. For example: “The trend of social media has greatly increased over the last four years. Nowadays, it has become a necessity for teenagers. I personally believe ……..”
• Start directly by exclaiming a valid point and giving your opinion. “Social Media, recently, has had a great negative/positive impact on teenagers. My personal opinion is that ……..”
• General “For” Argument – Include all valid points that are logical and EMPHASIZE on them – All points must be in favour of your opinion and they should be your STRONGEST points.
• Counter Argument – Pick out you’re strongest counter arguments and state them. Be completely logical and honest when pointing the counter arguments. The reason for this is that if you’re writing in favour, someone else will write against. You have to give both sides of the argument and prove yourself right.
• Disputing Counter Arguments – After writing the counter arguments, you must dispute them and prove them to be either wrong or not STRONG enough to win the argument. Here’s an example:

A counter argument could be “ Social media is required for teenagers, it forms a platform for conversations, discussions and sharing valued information “.

Disputing this counter argument “ Although it does provide a medium for communication, teenagers waste most of their precious time in procrastinating since they needlessly read comics/have useless discussions. Social media is one of main reasons why teenagers procrastinate. “

You can also add the fact that other mediums of communication such as e-mail, messaging are also available.

• Conclude your essay by restating your opinion in a different perspective, i.e. you could say, “Other resources of communication should be adopted such as messaging and teenagers should be encouraged to have outdoor activities rather than sit home and stick their heads to the computers.”
• After disputing you’re counter arguments – finish on a high by adding a strong ending sentence to conclude your essay. For example “Hence all these points show that Social media is indeed an unnecessary part of life which has been forcibly indulged into the life of teenagers.”
• You’re not listing points or stating your opinion. You’re trying to CONVINCE the examiner that you’re opinion is correct using LOGICAL points.
• Don’t get emotional and carried away over the course of your writing. Don’t be prejudiced.
• DO NOT EMPHASIZE TOO MUCH ON VOCABULARY. Sentence structures, punctuation, tenses are all equally as important as vocabulary. Don’t forcibly use strong words if you don’t know their correct usage.
• You’re not making a list of your points. Don’t use “firstly, secondly, thirdly and finally”. Remember, you’re language is being tested. Use good expressions and connectives such as “Furthermore, In addition to this”.

http://www.slideshare.net/englishbites/useful-argumentative-essay-words-and-phrases

Here is a great website concerning words and expressions. Do read it.

Difference b/w Discursive and Argumentative Essays:

In Discursive essays, you present a balanced argument that contains ‘for’ and ‘against’ points. You do not state your opinion.

In Argumentative, you give your opinion and convince the reader on your point of view.

Example Argumentative Essay:

Some people say that the Internet does more harm than good. What is your view? To majority of teenagers and working adults, the Internet has been regarded as one the most innovative achievements of humankind. Since the invention of the internet, its pervasive and life-altering influences can be felt in many aspects of people’s daily lives. While mostly beneficial in areas such as communication, trade and research, the internet has also caused a proliferation of vices such as pornography and hacking. Despite the negativity associated with the internet, I strongly believe that Internet does more good than harm.

Communication all over the world has been considerably improved thanks to the Internet. With the widespread availability of messengers and social networks like Yahoo and Facebook, people can easily communicate irrespective of their geographic locations. Gone are the days when international communication meant a delay of several days to months. Today, interaction through the Internet is not only much cheaper and more convenient than traditional modes of communication, it also has options to allow face to face interaction such as through the use of Skype. Now, family members and businesses can not only have instantaneous communication, they can also have the added personal touch even if they are in different continents or in any remote part of the world.

The Internet is one of the key contributors to the global free trade. When the transnational corporations want to open business in the other countries, they first have to contact partners in those countries before officially making a deal. In such case, the Internet certainly does a great job. Furthermore, the internet is instrumental in reducing operation costs for businesses where employees can be easily hired from developing countries and work remotely from their native land. For example, many transnational companies set up call centres in countries like Philippines or India where workers are cheaper to employ. The same benefits are applied to people’s daily lives. With the omnipresence of online shops, many people are able to save their precious time shopping. Instead, they have more time to do other important things such as helping their children do homework or having a short visit to their parents’ house.

On the other hand, objectors of the Internet argue that it spoils the young generation by spreading pornography and violence, which is considered rampant nowadays. There is no doubt that pornographic websites and violence videos are ubiquitous online, but whether the young is spoilt by it depends on the young themselves. Owing to the continual warning of using the Internet on many cyber education programs, the youths are supposed to know about all the boon and bane effect of surfing webs. Thus, once they have heightened awareness, there is likelihood that they will not be attacked by cyber hackers. Moreover there is a variety of information for their researches on line. Instead of spending hours of flipping over hundreds of books in the libraries, one may easily obtain necessary documentation within a second of mouse click.

Similar to any other technological inventions, the Internet has both pros and cons; nonetheless, its benefits far outweigh its harms. With recent upgrading Internet security software and substantial improvements on its use, I am firmly convinced the Internet is more a blessing than a curse.

Here are some pointers from the IGCSE Examiner Tips:

• Be clear about the difference between an argumentative and a discursive essay. When asked directly to give your own opinion you should commit yourself to a line of argument. When asked to give a range of possible views then you are being discursive and may or may not choose to say what you personally believe.
• Mention counter arguments – and dispute them. A strong argument includes refutation of the other point of view. This way you can show that you are not being purely ignorant or prejudiced in your response. It is important to show balance in presenting the argument.
•  If you are having difficulty finding enough points to support your stance you should consider arguing the opposite view – it might be easier!
• Aim for an effective introduction which captures attention and makes the topic and context clear
•  You should end on the side you are arguing for structure your essay so that you deal with the other side first and end strongly to clinch your argument with a final convincing point . Do not repeat yourself – ‘To sum up’ and ‘In conclusion’ are not strong endings as you won’t be saying anything new to convince your reader.
• It is generally advisable to argue your own personal viewpoint as it is likely to sound more convincing. It is however, possible, to argue effectively for or against an argument which you have never considered before, provided that you can marshal some evidence from the media, facts, statistics and experience. These are the areas from which you draw your supporting detail and illustration.
• Do not get too passionate about the topic as this will make your essay sound too emotional and subjective, and therefore less persuasive.
• Sometimes there is a single word in the question which alters the emphasis of the argument, for instance the word ‘compulsory’. Make sure you pay attention to the key words in questions when you are planning and answering – it is worth underlining key words to remind you.
• Try using personal pronouns – ‘I’, ‘you’ and ‘we’ can make your argument seem more authentic and inclusive.
• Do not start each paragraph with a numbered point- firstly, secondly, thirdly and so on- as this can get tedious for the reader and sound quite artificial if the ideas are not in fact sequential. Use other paragraph linking words, the ones which show whether your argument is continuing in the same direction (e.g. ‘furthermore’, ‘in addition’) or changing direction (e.g. ‘nevertheless’, ‘on the other hand’). The key is to make sure that your argument is “building” as you go. Use your connectives to help you take your reader with you so that they can follow your train of thought all the way through.
• Three-point structures (sometimes called tricolons) can sound authoritative, e.g. ‘involving the learners, the teachers and the parent’. More than three of anything becomes a list; fewer lacks persuasive impact and overuse of tricolons is rarely effective.

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where your rebuild Naaya

I have a confusion in writing an effective thesis statement.

how do you differentiate between the two topics?

I have only one confusion that at the end of all 3 body paragraphs we are supposed to write a counterargument or only in the last body paragraph?

It is often looked upon, that “reflective writing” contains, opinions, on a specific topic, while argumentative contains “real solid ‘arguments’ “, that is you argue on a specific idea, generally a stereotype. That being said, the sample provided, concludes, upon argumentative, and reflective, if the two aren’t to be referred to as one “body”, while referring to the sample. Accordingly, should it be then taken up from this, that argumentative can allow, opinions, perhaps that reflective sums up to the creative writing, partially?

It is just awesome Sir/Ma’am. It is really helpful. Even though it is good but I have a confusion, I have researched from different websites but no one has talked about the word limit and that how much words should be in one paragraph. It would be so nice of you if you can answer this question. Looking forward for your reply. Again it is a superb work piece. Thank you !

There is no set limit for the number of words in a particular paragraph. The word limit for the entire essay is mentioned in the question prompt — try to adhere to that given word limit and make sure that paragraphs are of almost uniform length.

I hope this answers your question.

Respected Sir/Maam I have a question that do the word limit matters?? like if it is 300 to 450 than is it compulsory to write in between them and also what if we cross the words limit..?? will our marks be deducted?? or does it matters to take care of this?? I shall be very thankful to you ….. Thanks for the entire essay writing tips…

1. Intro 2. For 3. For 4 .against and refute. 5. Conclusion Why is there two “for” para. ? This is the only doubt i have.

Hi! I am definitely not that good or capable to reply you’er question but in my point of view I think we write 5 paragraphs from which,

1.Intro 2.Now it depends that are you going for the topic or against it. For example if you want to go against the topic so you will write 2nd and 3rd para for against points and vice versa. 3.Again if you go with against so you will write this para accordingly. 4.According to the example I have given we will write “f or ” the topic whatever it is. 5.Conclusion. I hope this was helpful. I explained it in the simplest words I could.

u will be given a choice of 3 which r argumentative, narative or, descriptive

If I would write this in my exams…I will get at least 19/20 by the ICSE Examiner…Lol

dear your sentence structure is not correct.

Exquisitely explained!

Commendable effort👍

This is really helpful..

how do I know from the question if I should write openion or argumentative essay

Good question, Answer: it will ask to state your opinion and there must be two sides, this would give you the judgement to chosse argumentative essay or writing atleast what im aware of doing 511 english as second lang. IGCSE CAIE, to test this view cheack the past papers of your subject code whether 500 first lang. Or whatever cheack the past papers avalable to test this view, normally multiple past papers

but can you tell me that what is the correct way of writing an Argumentative essay that what should be the best way to give a better starting and ending??

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Argumentative Essay: Reasons You Should Learn English

If you plan on making your way in the world, learning a second language is imperative. English has a foothold as the “language of business,” and being so, has become the most commonly learnt second language amongst foreign language speakers. Not only is English significant in the business world, but in general, when people of differing native languages congregate, English is the language of everyday conversation. Again, this is because it’s most commonly taught in foreign schools, as English is the collective language spoken by 1.8 billion people worldwide, or 27% of the world’s population. By virtue of this, for those willing to make the effort, learning English proffers forth benefits that learning any other second language mightn’t. Highlighted below are some of these benefits, including employment opportunities; technical, economic and scientific innovation; and cultural understanding.

As the language of business, English will open up the world to you in nearly any field of employment. Because it’s so important to be bilingual, any company in any country of the world prefers a bilingual employee – and even more so, an English-speaking one – over an employee who speaks only his/her native tongue. In being bilingual in English, you will be able to communicate with others in all corners of the world (remember, over 27% of the world’s population speaks English), and you will be able to translate for those in your company who do not speak English. This makes you an exceedingly vital communication tool. Not only will you be an asset to your company, but you will reap many benefits as a result, such as a larger annual income, a better standard of living, and the opportunity to live just about anywhere in the world.

Along with being the language of business, English is the language of economic development, as well as technical and scientific innovation. The United States is the leader in technical innovation and economic development and, as a consequence, the language to know in making your way in these fields is English. English is also the language of science, so scientists must be fluent in order to communicate their findings with others. Being successful in any one of these prosperous fields requires fluency in English.

Lastly a great benefit to learning English is that it increases cultural understanding, not only of native English-speaking cultures, but of any other country whose second language is English. The film and music industries are largely English-driven. The art, traditions and culture of any country, especially those of native English-speaking countries, can be better understood if you have some knowledge of the English language. Being centuries-old and having been the native language of empirical powers and world leaders, English remains a great source of influence in human history, weaved into the narrative of many cultures, and sewn, like a cultural seed, throughout time.

If you endeavor to learn a second language, that language should be English. The benefits it proffers – including employment opportunities; technical, economic and scientific innovation; and cultural understanding – are exceeded by no other language in the world.

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• How to write an argumentative essay | Examples & tips

How to Write an Argumentative Essay | Examples & Tips

Published on July 24, 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on July 23, 2023.

An argumentative essay expresses an extended argument for a particular thesis statement . The author takes a clearly defined stance on their subject and builds up an evidence-based case for it.

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Table of contents

When do you write an argumentative essay, approaches to argumentative essays, introducing your argument, the body: developing your argument, concluding your argument, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about argumentative essays.

You might be assigned an argumentative essay as a writing exercise in high school or in a composition class. The prompt will often ask you to argue for one of two positions, and may include terms like “argue” or “argument.” It will frequently take the form of a question.

The prompt may also be more open-ended in terms of the possible arguments you could make.

Argumentative writing at college level

At university, the vast majority of essays or papers you write will involve some form of argumentation. For example, both rhetorical analysis and literary analysis essays involve making arguments about texts.

In this context, you won’t necessarily be told to write an argumentative essay—but making an evidence-based argument is an essential goal of most academic writing, and this should be your default approach unless you’re told otherwise.

Examples of argumentative essay prompts

At a university level, all the prompts below imply an argumentative essay as the appropriate response.

Your research should lead you to develop a specific position on the topic. The essay then argues for that position and aims to convince the reader by presenting your evidence, evaluation and analysis.

• Don’t just list all the effects you can think of.
• Do develop a focused argument about the overall effect and why it matters, backed up by evidence from sources.
• Don’t just provide a selection of data on the measures’ effectiveness.
• Do build up your own argument about which kinds of measures have been most or least effective, and why.
• Don’t just analyze a random selection of doppelgänger characters.
• Do form an argument about specific texts, comparing and contrasting how they express their thematic concerns through doppelgänger characters.

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An argumentative essay should be objective in its approach; your arguments should rely on logic and evidence, not on exaggeration or appeals to emotion.

There are many possible approaches to argumentative essays, but there are two common models that can help you start outlining your arguments: The Toulmin model and the Rogerian model.

Toulmin arguments

The Toulmin model consists of four steps, which may be repeated as many times as necessary for the argument:

• Make a claim
• Provide the grounds (evidence) for the claim
• Explain the warrant (how the grounds support the claim)
• Discuss possible rebuttals to the claim, identifying the limits of the argument and showing that you have considered alternative perspectives

The Toulmin model is a common approach in academic essays. You don’t have to use these specific terms (grounds, warrants, rebuttals), but establishing a clear connection between your claims and the evidence supporting them is crucial in an argumentative essay.

Say you’re making an argument about the effectiveness of workplace anti-discrimination measures. You might:

• Claim that unconscious bias training does not have the desired results, and resources would be better spent on other approaches
• Cite data to support your claim
• Explain how the data indicates that the method is ineffective
• Anticipate objections to your claim based on other data, indicating whether these objections are valid, and if not, why not.

Rogerian arguments

The Rogerian model also consists of four steps you might repeat throughout your essay:

• Discuss what the opposing position gets right and why people might hold this position
• Highlight the problems with this position
• Present your own position , showing how it addresses these problems
• Suggest a possible compromise —what elements of your position would proponents of the opposing position benefit from adopting?

This model builds up a clear picture of both sides of an argument and seeks a compromise. It is particularly useful when people tend to disagree strongly on the issue discussed, allowing you to approach opposing arguments in good faith.

Say you want to argue that the internet has had a positive impact on education. You might:

• Acknowledge that students rely too much on websites like Wikipedia
• Argue that teachers view Wikipedia as more unreliable than it really is
• Suggest that Wikipedia’s system of citations can actually teach students about referencing
• Suggest critical engagement with Wikipedia as a possible assignment for teachers who are skeptical of its usefulness.

You don’t necessarily have to pick one of these models—you may even use elements of both in different parts of your essay—but it’s worth considering them if you struggle to structure your arguments.

Regardless of which approach you take, your essay should always be structured using an introduction , a body , and a conclusion .

Like other academic essays, an argumentative essay begins with an introduction . The introduction serves to capture the reader’s interest, provide background information, present your thesis statement , and (in longer essays) to summarize the structure of the body.

Hover over different parts of the example below to see how a typical introduction works.

The spread of the internet has had a world-changing effect, not least on the world of education. The use of the internet in academic contexts is on the rise, and its role in learning is hotly debated. For many teachers who did not grow up with this technology, its effects seem alarming and potentially harmful. This concern, while understandable, is misguided. The negatives of internet use are outweighed by its critical benefits for students and educators—as a uniquely comprehensive and accessible information source; a means of exposure to and engagement with different perspectives; and a highly flexible learning environment.

The body of an argumentative essay is where you develop your arguments in detail. Here you’ll present evidence, analysis, and reasoning to convince the reader that your thesis statement is true.

In the standard five-paragraph format for short essays, the body takes up three of your five paragraphs. In longer essays, it will be more paragraphs, and might be divided into sections with headings.

Each paragraph covers its own topic, introduced with a topic sentence . Each of these topics must contribute to your overall argument; don’t include irrelevant information.

This example paragraph takes a Rogerian approach: It first acknowledges the merits of the opposing position and then highlights problems with that position.

Hover over different parts of the example to see how a body paragraph is constructed.

A common frustration for teachers is students’ use of Wikipedia as a source in their writing. Its prevalence among students is not exaggerated; a survey found that the vast majority of the students surveyed used Wikipedia (Head & Eisenberg, 2010). An article in The Guardian stresses a common objection to its use: “a reliance on Wikipedia can discourage students from engaging with genuine academic writing” (Coomer, 2013). Teachers are clearly not mistaken in viewing Wikipedia usage as ubiquitous among their students; but the claim that it discourages engagement with academic sources requires further investigation. This point is treated as self-evident by many teachers, but Wikipedia itself explicitly encourages students to look into other sources. Its articles often provide references to academic publications and include warning notes where citations are missing; the site’s own guidelines for research make clear that it should be used as a starting point, emphasizing that users should always “read the references and check whether they really do support what the article says” (“Wikipedia:Researching with Wikipedia,” 2020). Indeed, for many students, Wikipedia is their first encounter with the concepts of citation and referencing. The use of Wikipedia therefore has a positive side that merits deeper consideration than it often receives.

An argumentative essay ends with a conclusion that summarizes and reflects on the arguments made in the body.

No new arguments or evidence appear here, but in longer essays you may discuss the strengths and weaknesses of your argument and suggest topics for future research. In all conclusions, you should stress the relevance and importance of your argument.

Hover over the following example to see the typical elements of a conclusion.

The internet has had a major positive impact on the world of education; occasional pitfalls aside, its value is evident in numerous applications. The future of teaching lies in the possibilities the internet opens up for communication, research, and interactivity. As the popularity of distance learning shows, students value the flexibility and accessibility offered by digital education, and educators should fully embrace these advantages. The internet’s dangers, real and imaginary, have been documented exhaustively by skeptics, but the internet is here to stay; it is time to focus seriously on its potential for good.

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

• Ad hominem fallacy
• Post hoc fallacy
• Appeal to authority fallacy
• False cause fallacy
• Sunk cost fallacy

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An argumentative essay tends to be a longer essay involving independent research, and aims to make an original argument about a topic. Its thesis statement makes a contentious claim that must be supported in an objective, evidence-based way.

An expository essay also aims to be objective, but it doesn’t have to make an original argument. Rather, it aims to explain something (e.g., a process or idea) in a clear, concise way. Expository essays are often shorter assignments and rely less on research.

At college level, you must properly cite your sources in all essays , research papers , and other academic texts (except exams and in-class exercises).

Add a citation whenever you quote , paraphrase , or summarize information or ideas from a source. You should also give full source details in a bibliography or reference list at the end of your text.

The exact format of your citations depends on which citation style you are instructed to use. The most common styles are APA , MLA , and Chicago .

The majority of the essays written at university are some sort of argumentative essay . Unless otherwise specified, you can assume that the goal of any essay you’re asked to write is argumentative: To convince the reader of your position using evidence and reasoning.

In composition classes you might be given assignments that specifically test your ability to write an argumentative essay. Look out for prompts including instructions like “argue,” “assess,” or “discuss” to see if this is the goal.

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• Essay on Learning

Why Should You Learn A Foreign Language Argumentative Essay Examples

Type of paper: Argumentative Essay

Topic: Learning , Education , Knowledge , Politics , World , Linguistics , Europe , English

Words: 1900

Published: 01/24/2020

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Native English speakers sometimes do not realize that learning a second language is essential to enlarge their awareness of other people’s identities and culture as well as enlighten them about the importance of developing communication skills in a different language. Any child, teenager and even adult, no matter his or her nationality, has much to gain from learning a foreign language. Speaking the universal language – English – should be no excuse to hinder a person’s capacity to broaden his/ her mind and spirit through the challenging exercise of learning a second language. Another point that you need to take into account is that young learners of a new language are much better at acquiring native-like pronunciation in the foreign language than older learners, but it is not before children are 11-13 years old that they will be able to learn in a systemic way. So, there is no excuse for older learners to claim it is too late. The sooner you start, the easier the process may be, mainly in what concerns the acquisition of a good accent, but it is always good to find the time to invest in a language that is recognized as important, like Mandarin, Spanish, French or German, as all these languages connect you to Europe, Asia and South America, allowing you to have a communicating advantage in case you deal with these countries professionally. Even if your accent is not perfect, native speakers won’t worry about the detail, if you make the effort to communicate in their own language. You can be sure your chances of communicating well are increased if you try to speak someone’s native language. Therefore, no matter how old you are, what you ought to remember is that it is highly advisable, for a number of reasons, to take the challenge of learning a foreign language. Let us analyze in detail some of the most favorable personal gains it entails. To begin with, knowing different languages broadens your communication capacity and shows that you are socially open-minded and culturally active, which is not only appealing to other people, but also a sign of maturity. You become a much more interesting person. You can make new friends. Find love. Travel without restrictions or fears. Secondly, speaking another language stimulates your curiosity to communicate with different people in their own language and the process will unconsciously allow you to sympathize and understand better people who try to speak your own language as foreigners. This way you will develop a higher degree of tolerance and acceptance of the differing views of other people. You accept better what you can understand and the process of learning a new language is an invitation to open your world to other worlds, enlarging your inner borders until you create bridges. You gain in wisdom, general knowledge and independence, as you are not closed in a self-defensive position. You open the windows of your spirit to a wider spirit: multiculturalism. If you truly create this inner capacity to share other people’s language, culture and ultimately experiences, you will become a citizen of the world. Nowadays it is almost inexcusable to close borders, when the world is a global village. But there are advantages to consider other than the obvious personal ones. If you are sensible you will realize the tremendous benefits of learning another language. Eventually, you will experience professional benefits as all your efforts to master a new language will be an asset you take with you as a citizen and an employee. In fact, if you consider the possibility of studying abroad, or working abroad, knowing different languages is highly valued. In some countries where a second language is usually compulsory, like Portugal, job interviews are often conducted in English. Candidates who are not proficient or at least very good in the second language may lose their opportunity of getting the job or the internship they were aiming to achieve. In other words, candidates are expected to show their expertise in a field, showing at the same time their language skills. And this is a rule that cannot be ignored in most countries in Europe nowadays, neither should it be in English-speaking countries. Another reason why people should be aware of the importance of enrolling in a foreign language is the fact that the world has become a global village and, although English is still the most widely spoken language, there are other emerging languages that are equally important, or are becoming more and more important every day, due to financial and economical reasons. In Europe, where learning a new language – sometimes two languages – is compulsory at a very early age, this awareness is governmental, therefore political. According to Androulla Vassiliou, commissioner for Education, Culture, Multilingualism and Youth, "Linguistic and cultural diversity is one of the European Union's major assets," and he justifies it by explaining the goal : "Language learning facilitates communication between peoples and countries, as well as encouraging cross-border mobility and the integration of migrants" and concludes by saying: "I am happy to see that even our youngest citizens are being exposed to the joys of discovering foreign languages. I also encourage people to look beyond the most widely-used languages so they can appreciate Europe's incredible linguistic diversity." It is easy to conclude that if you are not part of the global solution you may become part of the problem. Any resistance to accept a global pattern may have high costs in your future and even jeopardize unique chances. Therefore, encouraging people to learn with «joy» a new language is an invitation to build bridges, instead of walls, among all nations. As Charlemagne once put it «to have another language is to possess a second soul ». It is curious to observe that, contrary to European and other countries’ policy towards languages, even official ones, «The U.S Constitution say nothing about language» according to Professor B. Spolsky. It is even more interesting to find the reasons why the U.S. attitude concerning, for example, bilingualism is not one of incentive and it is rather one of mistrust. After the I World War anti-German feelings lead to a high degree of xenophobia and the bigoted idea that teaching a second language at school was not a good idea. «Bilingualism was associated with inferior intelligence and lack of patriotism», explains Professor B. Spolsky, concluding that monolingualism became a rule. It was not before 1968 that The Bilingual Education Act opened a new road for the teaching of a second language, providing financial support for programs to teach students different languages. Unfortunately, after lots of ups and downs, this important Act expired in 2002, closing this precious assistance to help American students feel motivated to learn other languages. This restrictive policy is probably the reason why there is such a great mistrust and lack of appetite to develop linguistic knowledge among American students. It is, therefore, not surprising that some people defend that learning a foreign language is not essential if you master English. However, I strongly disagree. Professional and personal challenges are becoming wider and more and more global. Young people’s mobility is endless and the capacity to adapt to a new language and culture may dictate a successful or unsuccessful future career. This way, learning a foreign language is an incentive to broaden your mind and prepare you for a very demanding future. Being stubborn is unwise. It can even be dangerous if it leaves you in a weaker position. English-speaking citizens are in a privileged position to rule the communication systems in the world, but being lazy and self indulgent in what concerns learning foreign languages may become a handicap. Most English-speaking business people believe they can do business with other countries in English, as those understand English or use interpreters. But they are often at a disadvantage in meetings where their business partners discuss details in their own language and they do not understand a single word. Also when they need to socialize they are often left aside as they cannot understand what is being said. Socializing is, however, a privileged way to study your business and learn a lot of useful details that may help you secure a contract or make sales. You cannot do it if you feel an outcast amongst people speaking a language you cannot grip. You may also argue that you will never have to work abroad, as emigration is not in your plans. Therefore, you consider it is useless to learn a new language. But how can you predict your future? How do you know you will never need to cope with a sudden change in your destiny and be forced to move overseas? How can you be sure your company or enterprise won’t open a branch in Europe, Asia or Africa? Would you really miss the opportunity of being promoted, getting that ambitioned post, and becoming the new manager of a foreign company’s branch because you cannot or won’t accept to acknowledge the need to learn a foreign language? It is worth giving this point of view a thought the next time you claim there is no purpose in learning a new language. All in all, I believe that there are several advantages that should be taken into account by anyone resisting learning a new language. They are practical, professional, personal, even emotional or intellectual, but all of them are signs to guide you and motivate you to grab the opportunity of learning a foreign language. Even if the process is slow, even if there is some initial resistance, the final outcome is tremendously beneficial: knowing one or more foreign languages contributes to the promotion of intercultural dialogue and a much more inclusive society; it helps you fitting in any social environment, as your communicative skills improve and you can become a citizen of the world in personal, educational and professional terms. Last but not least, any person resisting the obvious advantages already exposed, will certainly be able to recognize that knowledge – the information, facts, ideas, principles, skills acquired through experience or education – can never be looked as a drawback as it always means a better informed and a better prepared mind. Knowledge makes you travel farther and faster in your own development as a human being. And it is not a heavy luggage to carry. Just the opposite. The more you know – and learning a new language is what knowledge is all about – the stronger and at the same time lighthearted and free you become. Maybe that is the meaning of the French proverb that says: «a man who knows two languages is worth two men».

http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-12-990_en.htm- European Commission Press Release: «Children In Europe start learning foreign languages at an increasingly early age» http://www.cal.org/resources/digest/digest_pdfs/does-the-us-needs-a-language-policy.pdf CALdigest – «Does The United States Need a Language Policy? » Bernard Spolsky, Professor Emeritus, Bar-Ilan University, Israel, 2010 Ferguson Fellow, Center for Applied Linguistics. http://noviceinlanguageland.wordpress.com/2012/01/03/20-quotes-for-foreign-language-learners/ 20 Quotes for Foreign Language Learners, January 3, 2012

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Interactions in EFL argumentative writing: effects of topic, L1 background, and L2 proficiency on interactional metadiscourse

• Published: 03 September 2020
• Volume 34 , pages 705–725, ( 2021 )

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• Hyung-Jo Yoon   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8553-3708 1  

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This study examined how students of English as a foreign language (EFL) with different first language (L1) backgrounds use interactional metadiscourse markers in argumentative writing. Specifically, to explore unique patterns of metadiscourse features that reflect context and development, the essays written by Chinese, Japanese, and Korean EFL students at three proficiency levels were analyzed for topic, L1 background, and L2 proficiency. For a comprehensive analysis of 1986 essays, I used a natural language processing tool that generates quantity scores for Hyland’s (2005) metadiscourse categories (i.e., hedges, boosters, attitude markers, self-mentions, reader pronouns, and directives). The results showed notable differences in the students’ use of metadiscourse features across topics, and significant variation was also found across different L1 groups. However, their use of interactional metadiscourse did not differ by L2 proficiency. A post hoc analysis of a parallel native-speaker corpus further revealed EFL students’ underuse of hedges and overuse of reader pronouns. Findings are discussed in terms of academic writing instruction, writing prompt development, and L2 learner categorization.

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Yoon, HJ. Interactions in EFL argumentative writing: effects of topic, L1 background, and L2 proficiency on interactional metadiscourse. Read Writ 34 , 705–725 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-020-10085-7

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Argumentative Writing in a Second Language

Perspectives on research and pedagogy, look inside, description.

Argumentative Writing in a Second Language is a collection on teaching argumentative writing, offering multiple vantage points drawn from the contributors' own teaching and research experiences. The value of learning how to compose argumentative texts cannot be overstated, and yet, very little attention has been allocated to the equally important topic of how argumentation is or can be taught in the L2 context. Thus, this volume shifts attention to teachers and argumentative writing instruction, especially within increasingly common multimodal and digital literacy settings. While doing so, it provides a comprehensive, wide-ranging view of the L2 argumentative writing landscape within an instructional lens.

Part I of the volume is topic-oriented and focuses on explorations of important issues and perspectives, while Part II features several chapters reporting classroom-based studies of a variety of instructional approaches that expand our understanding of how argumentative writing can be taught. The book will be of value to pre-service and in-service teachers in varying instructional contexts, as well as teacher educators and L2 writing scholars/researchers.

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• Published: 08 April 2022

Assessing critical thinking through L2 argumentative essays: an investigation of relevant and salient criteria from raters’ perspectives

• Takanori Sato   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1483-966X 1  

Language Testing in Asia volume  12 , Article number:  9 ( 2022 ) Cite this article

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Although some second language (L2) pedagogical approaches recognize critical thinking (CT) as an important skill, its assessment is challenging because it is not a well-defined construct with varying definitions. This study aimed to identify the relevant and salient features of argumentative essays that allow for the assessment of L2 students’ CT skills. This study implemented a convergent mixed-methods research design, collecting and analyzing both quantitative and qualitative data to collate the results. Five raters assessed 140 causal argumentative essays written by Japanese university students attending Content and Language Integrated Learning courses based on five criteria: Task Achievement, Coherence and Cohesion, Lexical Resource, Grammatical Range and Accuracy, and CT Skills. A standard multiple regression was conducted to examine the relationships among these criteria. Additionally, raters’ written verbal protocols were collected to identify the essay features to be considered when assessing students’ CT skills. The results indicated that raters’ judgments of students’ CT were closely linked to Task Achievement. Furthermore, their assessments were affected by the essay’s relevancy to the question, content development, logicality, and quality of ideas. This study’s findings help to conceptualize CT as a construct and should be incorporated into the assessment criteria of various L2 educational contexts.

Introduction

Some second language (L2) pedagogical approaches, including English for academic purposes (EAP) and Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL), stress the importance of critical thinking (CT) since the skills are vital in academia and help students engage with world knowledge (de Chazal, 2014 ; Mehisto & Ting, 2017 ). Being an integral part of such instructional approaches, the assessment of CT must be conducted to foster decisions on summative and formative purposes in the course. In this context, essay writing assignments are considered as an effective tool for assessing CT skills, as they provide students with time to carefully consider reasons for their assertions and refine their ideas (Nosich, 2022 ; Wade, 1995 ).

However, assessing CT through essay writing is challenging because “the term ‘critical thinking’ is a notoriously fuzzy construct in education” (Yuan & Stapleton, 2020 , p. 41) and “critical thinking as a concept is diffuse” (Wilson, 2016 , p. 257). While performance assessment requires rating scales to enable assessors to measure students’ L2 output (McNamara, 1996 ), the elusive construct of CT makes it difficult to clearly decide what to assess. Although numerous elements of CT have been explicated for general education (e.g., Paul & Elder, 2014 ), it has not been operationalized specifically for L2 pedagogical settings, and hence relevant and salient criteria have not been established for assessing L2 students’ CT through their essays. In particular, delineating this construct is warranted for argumentative writing, which is an imperative type of writing that L2 students are likely to engage in various academic contexts (Hirvela, 2017 ).

One effective approach to disentangling such an elusive construct is to investigate people’s intuitive judgments of it. In other words, studies on how essay readers evaluate the writers’ CT skills can provide empirical data that can help researchers identify relevant and salient features of the construct. Nevertheless, no existing studies have implemented this research approach to delineate CT for L2 writing assessment. Therefore, this study aimed to identify the features of argumentative essays that allow for the assessment of L2 students’ CT by investigating how readers rate and judge the writers’ CT skills through their argumentative essays. This study’s findings contribute to the conceptualization of CT as a construct and the development of rating scales for measuring it in L2 educational contexts.

Literature review

Ct theories and argumentative writing.

CT is known as a fuzzy and elusive concept because of its various competing definitions and interpretations (Wilson, 2016 ). Davies and Barnett ( 2015 ) indicate how widely CT has been defined by summarizing its concepts in three movements: the critical thinking movement, which focuses on argumentation skills and dispositions; the criticality movement, which addresses ethical actions and morality in society; and the critical pedagogy movement, which aims to overcome the oppression that restricts human freedom. One widely utilized definition for CT is “Critical thinking is a reasonable reflective thinking focused on deciding what to believe and do” (Ennis, 2011 , p. 10). This conception outlines 12 dispositions (e.g., trying to be well informed and being open-minded) and 16 abilities (e.g., analyzing arguments and judging the credibility of sources) that describe the characteristics of ideal critical thinkers. While argumentative skills are required to demonstrate reflective thinking, this view focuses on judgment formation and decision-making than the mechanisms of argumentation (Davies & Barnett, 2015 ). Ennis ( 2011 ) claims that CT “should be a very important part of our personal, civic, and vocational lives and should receive attention in our education system” (p. 10).

CT skills in L2 pedagogies are built on Ennis’s ( 2011 ) conception and focus on promoting argumentation and cognitive thinking skills. Dummett and Hughes ( 2019 ) defined CT in the English language teaching context as “a mindset that involves thinking reflectively (being curious), rationally (thinking analytically), and reasonably (coming to sensible conclusions)” [emphasis in original] (p. 4) and illustrated how it is associated with Anderson and Krathwohl’s ( 2001 ) categories of cognitive process dimensions. Anderson and Krathwohl ( 2001 ) specified six cognitive process categories that education should incorporate to help students improve their retention abilities and the transfer of learning. These categories are as follows: to remember (retrieving knowledge from memory), understand (building connections between prior and new knowledge), apply (using the acquired knowledge in new situations), analyze (breaking down concepts into constituent parts and verifying how they relate to each other), evaluate (making judgments using certain criteria), and create (making new products using previous learning experience). They are regarded as relevant skills for CT development that should be taught in EAP (de Chazal, 2014 ) and CLIL (Coyle et al., 2010 ). Among them, “analyze” and “evaluate” are most often associated with CT (de Chazal, 2014 ).

The ability to present arguments is an essential CT skill because it involves presenting one’s views with both reasons and evidence (Chaffee, 2019 ; Fisher, 2011 ; Nosich, 2022 ). As Cottrell ( 2017 ) states, “essays are exercises in critical thinking” (p. 161). Notably, in argumentative essay writing tasks—with or without source materials—students must not only present their ideas but also assess their own reasoning. At a minimum, essay writing involves remembering (retrieving relevant information), creating (writing an essay), and evaluating (critiquing one’s own ideas) (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001 ). As fundamental CT abilities, critiquing one’s own reasoning and engaging in dialectical thinking (Tanaka & Gilliland, 2017 ), as well as the need for refinement, make essay writing appropriate for assessing students’ CT skills (Wade, 1995 ).

CT assessment criteria

Scholars have proposed various criteria for assessing CT skills, including cognitive thinking and reasoning skills. Chaffee ( 2019 ) and Fisher ( 2011 ) provided two criteria focusing on reasoning: whether the reasons support its conclusion (validity) and whether the reasons are true and acceptable (truth). An argument that includes accurate reasons that fully support the writer’s claims is considered a sound argument. Furthermore, Paul and Elder ( 2014 ) proposed the following nine intellectual standards for assessing reasoning: (a) clarity of statements, (b) accuracy of information (i.e., truth), (c) precision of statements, (d) relevance of ideas, (e) depth of thoughts, (f) breadth of viewpoints, (g) logicalness (i.e., validity), (h) significance of information, and (i) fairness of arguments (see also Nosich, 2022 ). These were proposed for use by those who study CT to evaluate a given argument and improve the quality of their own reasoning. Thus, these criteria were not specifically designed for assessing the CT skills of L2 learners through their argumentative essays. Yanning ( 2017 ) developed a rating scale based on Paul and Elder’s ( 2014 ) standards and implemented it to measure Chinese students’ CT through their L2 argumentative essays. However, as the aim of the study was to gauge the effectiveness of a pedagogical approach, the appropriateness of the scale itself was not scrutinized.

Some scholars have proposed certain criteria to specifically assess CT skills through argumentative essays. Cottrell’s ( 2017 ) description of critical writers enlists the following features of essays that reflect CT skills: presenting arguments clearly to make them comprehensible to readers, selecting the most controversial points to discuss in detail, placing arguments in logical order to emphasize the most controversial points, and using discourse markers to help readers understand the arguments. Additionally, the Washington State University (WSU) Center for Teaching, Learning, and Technology ( 2009 ) developed a rating scale for CT skills displayed in argumentative essays consisting of seven criteria with detailed descriptors. The rating scale examines students’ (a) identification of an issue, (b) consideration of the issue’s context, (c) presentation and assessment of supporting evidence, (d) integration of diverse perspectives, (e) presentation of their own perspectives, (f) identification of implications and consequences, and (g) communication of the message. These criteria were identified based on the practical experiences of WSU’s staff members. This scale has also been included in writing-intensive courses in a U.S. university’s general education curriculum (Morozov, 2011 ). Although Cottrell’s ( 2017 ) description and WSU’s rating scale connect CT skills with writing abilities, they were neither developed specifically to assess L2 learners’ CT skills nor based on research. Hence, these criteria, developed for native English speakers, do not necessarily consider the characteristics of L2 students’ writing.

Finally, Stapleton ( 2001 ) created a scheme to quantify CT as displayed in argumentative passages written in English by Japanese university students. This covers the key elements of CT and examines the numbers of (a) arguments presented (opinions and their reasons), (b) evidence given in support of each reason, (c) presentation of opposing arguments, (d) refutations of these counterarguments, and (e) any potential fallacies. Nevertheless, the quantified outcomes here do not necessarily reflect the essay’s CT level or logical quality. For example, presenting numerous pieces of supporting evidence does not mean that the writer possesses high CT skills. Thus, the scheme cannot readily be adopted to measure L2 students’ level of CT displayed in their argumentative essays.

In summary, a wide range of criteria has been suggested to assess CT skills based on theories conceptualizing CT. A significant limitation of the current CT criteria is that they are neither empirically derived nor supported for use in L2 educational contexts. Therefore, it remains unclear whether the suggested criteria are relevant to and salient in L2 essay writing assessments and whether other important criteria exist that have not yet been acknowledged.

Conceptualizing constructs for the development of a rating scale

Investigating raters’ intuitive judgments of CT skills is helpful in forming its conceptualization in L2 educational contexts. An empirical investigation of raters’ judgments would reveal the construct’s components and facilitate the development of a rating scale. Researchers have identified the influential features of various constructs in applied linguistics, including oral fluency (e.g., Bosker et al., 2013 ), accentedness and comprehensibility (e.g., Saito et al., 2017 ), oral communicative ability (Sato, 2012 ; Sato & McNamara, 2019 ; McNamara, 1990 ), and writing proficiency (e.g., Cumming et al., 2001 ). These studies scrutinized raters’ intuitive judgments of the targeted constructs without using descriptors and rigorous training to assess them.

Furthermore, they identified the influential components of raters’ intuitive judgments of the constructs using one of the following three approaches. The first approach investigated the correlation between raters’ judgments and objective measurements of the linguistic features of the performances (Bosker et al., 2013 ; Saito et al., 2017 ). The second approach examined the relationship between raters’ judgments and their ratings of specific performance features (Sato, 2012 ; McNamara, 1990 ). The third approach required raters to judge performances and verbalize their rating process to identify features that affected their judgments (Sato & McNamara, 2019 ; Cumming et al., 2001 ). The first and second approaches identify features that unconsciously influence raters’ judgments (e.g., McNamara, 1990 ). However, they do not consider the influence of other factors. The third approach compensates for this limitation. Nonetheless, analyzing verbal protocols may not be sufficient because raters’ reports may not accurately represent the actual factors that affected their judgments (Gass & Mackey, 2017 ).

These studies have had important implications for the development of rating scales for oral fluency as well as overall speaking and writing proficiency. However, investigation of raters’ judgments in the context of assessing L2 learners’ CT through argumentative essay writing has not been conducted yet.

Theoretical background

Rating scales are tools, composed of criteria which assess test-takers’ performance. Consequently, it is important to shortlist criteria that should be included in the scales by operationally defining the target construct and specifying its constituents. In general, a theory explicating the target construct is an important frame of reference for operationally defining it (Bachman & Palmer, 2010 ). However, there is no agreed theory of writing explaining the construct of L2 writing itself (Knoch, 2022 ), and none of the CT assessment models was developed specifically for L2 writing based on research (e.g., Paul & Elder, 2014 ). In this context, the empirically identified components of CT contribute to conceptualizing it for L2 writing assessment and can be included as features into a rating scale.

This study aimed to identify the features of argumentative essays that allow for the assessment of CT by investigating how readers judge the writers’ CT skills. More specifically, the study addresses the following research questions (RQs):

What is the relationship between rater judgments of students’ CT skills and their ratings using the assessment criteria for L2 writing proficiency?

What essay features do raters consider when judging students’ CT skills?

The second and third approaches (see the “Conceptualizing Constructs for the Development of a Rating Scale” section) were applied to answer RQs 1 and 2, respectively. RQ1 is concerned with raters’ intuitive judgments of writers’ CT skills corresponding to any criteria used to measure L2 writing proficiency. Additionally, to explore any influential features other than the criteria uncovered by RQ1, a verbal protocol analysis was employed for RQ2. Therefore, this study aims to conceptualize CT by combining both research approaches and compensating for their limitations.

Methodology

The present study is exploratory research employing inductive reasoning, as its purpose is to identify the relevant and salient CT features of argumentative essays without applying existing CT theoretical frameworks. This study implemented a convergent mixed-methods research design, which involves the collection and analysis of both quantitative and qualitative data to merge the results (Creswell, 2015 ). More specifically, the scores for students’ argumentative essays awarded by five raters were analyzed to examine the relationships among the assessment criteria. Additionally, the raters’ verbal protocol data were analyzed to reveal the essay features that influenced the raters’ judgments of the students’ CT skills.

Participants

Eighty-nine first- and second-year university students who attended CLIL courses participated in this study and took both pre- and post-test (see the “Data Collection Instrument” section). They were from two elementary, three lower-intermediate, and two upper-intermediate English courses. Based on their Test of English for Academic Purposes scores (a placement test), it was determined that the students’ proficiency grades were roughly equivalent to levels A2 to B1 of the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) (Council of Europe, 2001 ). In the CLIL courses, the students were taught an academic subject selected by each instructor (e.g., Japanese culture and world Englishes) and encouraged to use the four English language skills (reading, listening, speaking, and writing). CT development is an explicit aim stated in the course syllabus, although the degree to which it was covered in the classes depended on each instructor. Moreover, details about CT—including its definition and assessment—were not included in the syllabus. The students signed an informed consent form to agree to have their essays used for research purposes.

Five native English speakers with work experience as examiners of the International English Language Testing System (IELTS) participated in the study as raters. Table  1 shows their background information. All raters had a Master’s degree and at least 16 years’ experience in English language teaching and 6 years’ experience as IELTS examiners. They were chosen because this research examined the effectiveness of the CLIL program using the IELTS rating scale.

Data collection instrument

This study used students’ performance data derived from a course evaluation project that examined the effectiveness of a CLIL program offered at a private Japanese university. Students of seven 28-class (14-week) CLIL courses underwent identical speaking and writing tests on two occasions: during the 2nd/3rd class (pre-test) and the 27th class (post-test). This study then used the students’ essays in the pre- and post-writing tests and their subsequent ratings in its analysis.

Pre- and post-tests to measure students’ productive skills were developed for the course evaluation. A timed-independent writing task was developed by the researcher along with his colleague, in which students were instructed to write an essay to answer the following prompt: “What motivates students to study their subject at university? Give specific details and examples to explain your answer.” They were asked to write approximately 300 words in 30 min using either a computer or pen and paper. This is a causal argumentative essay task in which students are required to speculate on the possible causes of a given phenomenon (Ramage et al., 2015 ). The task was considered suitable to elicit students’ CT skills because it involved critiquing and refining one’s reasoning while formulating arguments. Moreover, a similar writing task has also been employed by some well-known English proficiency tests (e.g., IELTS and the Test of English as a Foreign Language) to assess argumentation of L2 learners (Hirvela, 2017 ). The topic was selected because it was assumed that students do not need any specialized background knowledge to respond to it, but rather are able to use their creativity and personal examples to construct their argument.

Data collection procedure

Students were informed that the test’s purpose was to examine improvements in their productive language skills following a one-semester CLIL course. They were also told that their test results would not affect their grades in this course. However, they were not informed that their CT skills would be assessed through the tests.

The handwritten essays were typed in Microsoft Word, and the same formatting style was applied to all of them, including those typed by the students themselves (Times New Roman, 12-point, single-spaced). Then, two essays each from the 70 students, who had produced, were collected, and hence a total of 140 essays (70 each from the pre- and post-tests) were procured. These students were chosen from among those who wrote more than 120 words, as it would have been difficult to assess multiple linguistic features and CT skills in shorter essays. Furthermore, the sample comprised approximately an equal number of students randomly selected from each of the three English courses (elementary: n = 23, lower-intermediate: n = 24, and upper-intermediate: n = 23). The essays ranged between 121 and 356 words, with an average word count of 205.6.

Next, the five raters were given the 140 essays for assessment. Each essay was scored by two to three of the five raters, with the connectivity required for a Rasch analysis being established. Each rater was requested to assess 60 essays. The five raters were asked to rate the essays using the IELTS Task 2 Writing band descriptors (public version) (British Council, n.d. ), which consist of four criteria: Task Achievement, Coherence and Cohesion, Lexical Resource, and Grammatical Range and Accuracy. The IELTS scale was used because it includes a wide range of writing proficiency components with detailed descriptors. Additionally, as Plakans and Gebril ( 2017 ) claim, argumentation could be measured by these criteria. Although the IELTS rating scale includes 10 levels (0–9), this study only used six (1–6) because the students’ proficiency was not high enough for them to obtain scores above seven.

In addition to assessing the essays according to the IELTS criteria, the raters were also asked to judge the level of each student’s CT skills. The following two definitions of CT from online English dictionaries were provided:

“The objective analysis and evaluation of an issue in order to form a judgement” (Oxford Dictionary).

“The process of thinking carefully about a subject or idea, without allowing feelings or opinions to affect you” (Cambridge Dictionary).

These definitions include the key elements of CT addressed in L2 pedagogies, such as careful thinking (reflective thinking), objective analysis and evaluation (rational thinking), and judgment formation (reasonable thinking) (Dummett & Hughes, 2019 ). Definitions from English dictionaries, rather than those found in the CT literature, were provided because they are concise and easy to understand. The raters scored the students’ CT skills using a six-level semantic differential scale ranging from one “Poor” to six “Excellent” with unspecified midpoints. Descriptors and training in using the scale were not provided because this study’s main aim was to investigate raters’ interpretation of students’ CT without the influence of any pre-existing rating scale. The raters were informed that this criterion was adopted for research purposes rather than for course evaluation.

Each rater performed a retrospective written verbal protocol (Gass & Mackey, 2017 ) by writing comments on eight to 10 randomly selected essays. The raters were asked to indicate which part of the students’ essays influenced the judgments of their CT skills and explain how these identified portions influenced the scores assigned using Microsoft Word’s comment function immediately after scoring the essays. In total, 103 comments were given to 18 essays. Unfortunately, a written verbal protocol could undermine the validity of the reports because the raters would be able to write about things that they did not think about while actually rating students’ CT skills. However, an oral concurrent verbal protocol could not be adopted because the raters concurrently scored other features of the essays, whereas the focus of this study was only on CT.

Data analysis

The scores given to the 140 essays were statistically analyzed to answer RQ1. First, the rater reliability was confirmed using the many-facet Rasch measurement. The pre- and post-test data were separately analyzed using the FACETS 3.83.0 software (Linacre, 2019 ). Rater infit mean-square values, which indicate rater reliability, were within the acceptable range (0.7–1.3). This suggests that all the raters scored the students’ argumentative essays consistently using the IELTS band descriptors and a scale for assessing CT skills. Second, a multiple regression (MR) was conducted using the raw scores to examine the relative importance of the four IELTS criteria (the predictor variables) in predicting the raters’ judgments of students’ CT skills (the outcome variable). As there is no hypothesis about the strength of the predictors, this study performed a standard MR simultaneously with all predictors. The pre- and post-test data were separately analyzed using SPSS Statistics version 26. The assumptions for the MR (the number of data cases, multicollinearity, normality, linearity, and homoscedasticity) were examined. This study had 150 data points each in the pre- and post-tests, which was larger than the required 15 cases of data per predictor (Field, 2018 ). As the variance inflation factor values ranged from 1.89 to 2.74, staying far under 10, multicollinearity was not present among the predictor variables. The last three assumptions were examined using the scatterplots of residual, histogram, and P-P plot. All the assumptions were satisfied except for normally distributed errors for both the pre- and post-tests. However, the violation of this assumption is not of great concern because of the amount of data in this study (Field, 2018 ).

The raters’ verbal protocol data were then analyzed to answer RQ2. Thematic analysis, which involves identifying themes within the data (Braun & Clarke, 2013 ), was carried out to identify the features of students’ argumentative essays affecting their CT scores as assessed by the raters. First, each of the raters’ comments was read to generate initial codes that grouped similar concepts. Second, coding categories, based on the generated codes, were developed, with all comments being sorted into the developed categories using NVivo 11. Third, the coding categories were reexamined and collated to identify any overarching themes. Therefore, the analysis was inductive, with the identified themes being linked to the data. Finally, a PhD student in applied linguistics was asked to code 30% of the data to ensure inter-coder reliability. The kappa coefficient was 0.71, demonstrating adequate agreement. Disagreements were resolved through subsequent discussions, and the categories were finalized.

This section will present the results of the MR answering RQ1 (identifying the relationship between rater judgments of students’ CT skills and their ratings of other criteria for L2 writing proficiency) and the thematic analysis answering RQ2 (exploring the essay features that the raters consider while judging students’ CT skills).

Relationship between CT and other criteria

Tables  2 and 3 present the descriptive statistics of the scores on each criterion and the results of the MR analyses, respectively. The regression results indicate that the Task Achievement scores made the largest contribution to the raters’ intuitive judgments of CT skills in both the pre- and post-tests ( β s = .39 and .30, p s = .000 and .002, respectively). Additionally, the contribution of Lexical Resource was statistically significant and found to be the second largest predictor in the post-test ( β = .29, p = .006). In contrast, the other criteria had minor contributions and were not significant ( p s > .05). Overall, the four IELTS criteria explained 47% and 33% of the variance in CT skills in the pre- and post-tests, respectively, suggesting that elements other than the IELTS criteria explain rater judgments of CT. To summarize, the raters’ judgments of participants’ CT skills were explained by their Task Achievement scores most strongly, followed by the Lexical Resources scores.

Influential features on rater judgments of CT

Table  4 shows the findings of the thematic analysis of the comments written by the raters. The following five features, representing the criteria used by the raters to judge the students’ CT skills, were explored: Relevancy, Content Development, Logicality, Quality of Ideas, and Other Features. The first category, Relevancy, concerned the question of whether the written ideas were addressing the given question (What motivates students to study their subject at the university?). The raters positively evaluated essays that maintain their focus on the question and negatively judged pieces of content deviated from it. Second, Content Development referred to how deeply students discussed their ideas by including supporting details and examples. Essays with a sufficient amount of details, examples, and ideas were considered as those displaying high CT skills. Third, the raters noted the logicality of the arguments, the link between written ideas, and coherence. The raters considered that high CT skills were demonstrated by logical connections among ideas, especially the link between the writers’ main claim and supporting evidence. Fourth, the raters evaluated the quality of ideas focusing on the validity and originality of ideas as well as on the width of perspective presented in the essays. Students discussing well-thought and original ideas from multiple points of view were regarded as those possessing high CT skills, whereas those presenting poor and ubiquitous thoughts based only on their own personal experience were evaluated otherwise. Finally, linguistic accuracy and miscellaneous features were categorized as Other Features.

Three raters (R1, R2, and R3) made some comments on linguistic errors found in the essays. For example, R3 pointed out linguistic accuracy by saying, “Despite the inaccuracies in language and grammar, the student is able to present a weak link between motivation and being able to pursue one’s own interests.” However, linguistic features were not regarded as an independent factor that influences rater judgments of students’ CT skills. First, comments on linguistic errors were not prevalent within the protocol data (5.2% of all the comments). Second, half of the comments on linguistic errors were in although clauses or despite phrases as in the example above, suggesting that the influence of linguistic features may be weaker than that of the other features presented in Table  4 .

To illustrate the essay features that affected raters’ judgments of students’ CT skills, three essays, and the corresponding raters’ feedback, are presented in Tables  5 , 6 , and 7 . These essays received positive, positive and negative, and negative comments, respectively. Additionally, they included a wide range of features, as presented in Table  4 .

Table  5 presents the body paragraph of the essay written by Student 15 in the pre-test. The essay was rated by R1, R3, and R5, and the scores for CT skills given by the raters were 5, 4, and 3.5, respectively. The body paragraph contained two factors that motivate students to study their subjects at the university and supporting details. Comments 1 to 3 were given to the first factor, while Comments 4 to 6 were given to the second factor.

In the essay, Student 15 argues that curiosity motivates students to study at the university and explains it by providing a negative case in which students are not curious about math, which eventually leads to less concentration, interest, and motivation. In the latter half of the paragraph, she points out that positive feelings toward learning motivate students to study and presents a concrete example of how learning leads to more interest in the subjects. Overall, the raters’ comments on Student 15’s CT skills were positive. Raters appeared to perceive that both factors were supported by logical reasoning and relevant examples, which positively contributed to their judgments of her CT skills. For example, a chain of reasoning explaining why curiosity is important (from second to fifth sentences) was perceived as logical and connected to motivation for studying. The second argument (positive feelings toward learning) was also judged to be connected to motivation by R3 and R6. Furthermore, Comment 6 made by R5 indicates that the originality of the idea was part of CT from the raters’ perspective. The example of learning about Chinese literature was considered original and evaluated positively. Simply presenting ubiquitous arguments and supporting details may give the impression that students did not consider the given question carefully.

Table  6 presents the entire essay written by Student 69 in the post-test. The essay was rated by R1, R3, and R5, and the scores for CT skills given by the raters were 3, 3.5, and 3, respectively. It contained two factors that motivate students to study at the university and supporting details. Comments 1 to 3 were given to the first factor, while Comments 4 to 6 were given to the second factor.

In the essay, Student 69 argues that students’ dreams and Grade Point Averages (GPAs) motivate them to study at the university. First, she claims that university students’ dreams motivate them to study by providing a personal example in which she is able to study science hard because being a scientist is her dream for the future. Second, the student mentions that GPA is an incentive to study as students cannot study at the laboratory they wish if they have a low GPA. Raters acknowledged that her arguments successfully addressed the question (Comments 1 and 3). However, they negatively commented that the supporting evidence was based primarily on the student’s personal experience, therefore considering it egocentric. Although the support for the second factor was positively judged by R5 (as the student explains how low GPA influences all university students and not only herself), R3 commented that the argument should have been supported with more logical reasoning. The inclusion of her personal feeling (“If I could not enter the room which we are not interesting in, I’m very sad and I can’t do my best.”) may have made the second factor sound less logical and coherent. Finally, R1 wrote that the essay does not display the student’s CT skills (Comment 6). In a different essay, he also noted: “Perhaps it is difficult to show great CT skills with this task, as they are not really analyzing a text or doing any research.” This suggests that R1 appears to believe that timed independent essay writing cannot appropriately elicit the writer’s CT skills.

Table  7 presents the body paragraphs in the essay written by Student 50 in the pre-test. The essay was rated by R2 and R4, and the scores for CT skills given by the raters were 2 and 3, respectively. The comments refer to the entire essay.

In his essay, Student 50 discusses three points of personal dream plan for future, plan to travel abroad, and desire to make friends. However, he fails to explain clearly and explicitly how the three points motivate students to study. R2 perceived that these points were not relevant to the question and evaluated that the student did not engage in the topic appropriately. R2 also mentioned that it was difficult to rate the student’s CT skills because of the irrelevant opinions presented. Although his arguments are based solely on his personal experience as in Student 69’s essay, this feature was not mentioned by the raters. Furthermore, R4 commented that the three points raised by the student are basic and universal, which influenced his rating of the student’s CT skills. As discussed above, the presentation of universal opinions may negatively affect the raters’ impression of the writer’s CT skills. Nevertheless, it was not clear how the raters judged the extent to which written thoughts were universal or original.

RQ1 asked: “What is the relationship between rater judgments of students’ CT skills and their ratings on the criteria used to measure L2 writing proficiency?” The results indicate that raters’ judgments of students’ CT skills are most strongly explained by Task Achievement scores, although Lexical Resource scores were found to be another significant predictor in the post-test.

Task Achievement measures how adequately a student addresses all parts of the task, presents their position, and develops their main ideas with relevant details (British Council, n.d. ). Therefore, in the argumentative essay task used in this study, this criterion concerned itself with the extent to which students adequately answered the prompt and supported their answers by giving relevant and specific details, as well as examples. As some literature indicates, these elements are related to CT. Specifically, these are equivalent to two intellectual standards proposed by Paul and Elder ( 2014 ): relevance (how well the idea is connected to the question) and clarity (how well the idea is explained and elaborated). Moreover, Task Achievement appears to involve some aspects recognized in Stapleton’s ( 2001 ) scheme: the presence of arguments (opinions and their reasons) and supporting evidence. This finding suggests that the raters’ judgment of writers’ CT skills might be influenced by the content of argument more than how it is presented even in learners’ essays including linguistic errors.

This study found a weak relationship between CT skills and the linguistic features displayed in the participants’ essays, suggesting that demonstrating a high linguistic quality does not guarantee positive judgments of CT skills from readers. This supports the claim made by de Chazal ( 2014 ) that language proficiency is not a predictor of CT ability. However, using diverse and accurate vocabulary, measured by the Lexical Resource criterion, may lead to better impressions of one’s CT skills on readers. This may be since diverse vocabulary results in development of an idea, which was judged as a relevant element of CT. Additionally, errors in vocabulary in the L2 students’ essays might have undermined the clarity and comprehensibility of the content. As the clarity of statement is a fundamental element in the sense that other elements cannot be evaluated unless the content is written clearly (Nosich, 2022 ; Paul & Elder, 2014 ), the use of vocabulary influencing accurate conveyance of messages could be a linguistic feature relevant to CT skills especially in L2 argumentative writing. However, it remains unknown why Lexical Resource scores were not a significant predictor of CT in the pre-test.

To further examine the essay features that contributed to raters’ judgments of CT, RQ2 asked, “What essay features do raters consider when judging students’ CT skills?” The analysis of the protocol data revealed five categories: relevancy to the question, content development, logicality, quality of ideas, and other features. The first two categories support the results of RQ1 and align with the concepts of relevancy and clarity in Paul and Elder’s ( 2014 ) criteria. Few comments on linguistic features also partially concur with the outcome of RQ1. Overall, the raters seemed to construe CT skills displayed through the writing task as argumentation skills as emphasized in critical thinking movement (Davies & Barnett, 2015 ) and the CT literature (e.g., Cottrell, 2017 ; Fisher, 2011 ; Nosich, 2022 ).

Rater judgments of CT skills also included elements that were not addressed by the Task Achievement criterion: logicality and quality of ideas (see Table  4 ). Comments on logicality (logical structure, connection between ideas, and reasons supporting claims) showed that raters seemed to focus on the logical reasoning supporting students’ claims and fallacies, which is regarded as an assessment criterion for both arguments and CT skills (Paul & Elder, 2014 ; Stapleton, 2001 ). This is partly addressed by the Coherence and Cohesion criterion in the IELTS rating scale (logical sequencing of information and ideas) (British Council, n.d. ). This feature was considered as an essential component of CT in the argumentative writing task, in which “an author states a claim, uses some form of evidence—data, reasons, examples, etc.—to support the claim, and shows how the evidence supports the claim” (Hirvela & Belcher, 2021 , p. 1). The central purpose of the writing task could influence the raters’ attention to logicality. Moreover, the raters might have applied their critical reading skills, which involve appraising the degree to which the students adequately justified their opinions (Wallace & Wray, 2021 ).

The quality of ideas was primarily related to the range of perspectives displayed in the essay and their originality. First, supporting a claim by simply citing personal experience was judged negatively and regarded as egocentric (see Table  6 ). In contrast, raters positively evaluated writers who explained how a certain factor motivates university students in general, not solely for them, to study at university. This suggests that the type of evidence used influences rater judgments of a writer’s CT, and anecdotal evidence can be perceived less persuasive than other types, including causal evidence (Hornikx & Hoeken, 2007 ). Additionally, supporting claims via personal experiences can be perceived as failing to consider the question from other perspectives. This may negatively influence the judgment of a writer’s CT skills, as engaging in broader thinking by seeing situations from different perspectives has been identified as a key component of CT (Chaffee, 2019 ; Nosich, 2022 ; Paul & Elder, 2014 ). Second, raters positively judged original thoughts but negatively evaluated common and universal ideas. This is related to a disposition of critical thinkers known as intellectual autonomy (Paul & Elder, 2014 ), which entails having authorship of one’s own thoughts rather than simply accepting or borrowing those of others. Raters’ focus on originality of thought resonates with a conceptualization of CT given by academics of history, philosophy, and literary/cultural studies in Moore’s ( 2013 ) study. In particular, originality may be relevant to tasks involving creating or producing ideas (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001 ), including the argumentative writing used in this study.

It was found that raters neither mentioned all of the features recognized in the literature nor focused on the same features in the essays written by different students. For example, the raters seldom commented on the accuracy of supporting evidence (Paul & Elder, 2014 ) and did not comment on the breadth of thinking or the inclusion of counterarguments in the essays (Stapleton, 2001 ; Washington State University Center for Teaching, Learning, and Technology, 2009 ). This may be because only a few students supported their ideas using evidence other than personal experiences and included counterarguments that challenged their own points. It suggests that relevant and salient CT criteria depend on writing tasks (e.g., independent or integrated). In this study, the raters’ foci might be narrower than theoretical models because the students were required to write an argument, without any external resources, in a short period of time. Furthermore, raters focused on the essay’s relevancy to the question in those written by students who obtained low CT scores (Table  7 ) and focused more on logicality and the quality of ideas in essays written by those who obtained medium to high CT scores (Table  5 ). This suggests that the essay features influencing raters’ judgments depend, not only on CT features displayed in the essays, but also on the students’ overall CT level.

This study investigated five raters’ judgments of students’ CT skills through reading and rating their argumentative essays, thereby revealing the features of the essays that contributed to their judgments. The results indicate that the raters’ intuitive perceptions of students’ CT skills were linked to the Task Achievement and, partly, Lexical Resource criteria in the IELTS (British Council, n.d. ). Additionally, raters’ written comments revealed that their judgments of the writers’ CT skills were affected by the essay’s relevancy to the question, content development, logicality, and quality of ideas.

The findings of this study help to delineate the CT skills addressed in L2 pedagogies so that they can be assessed through argumentative essays. In particular, test developers and teachers who are keen to assess test-takers’ CT skills could incorporate the explored features into the assessment criteria. Since there are distinct elements pertinent to CT skills, it is possible to address them in different criteria for assessing essays. If a pre-established rating scale needs to be adopted because of practical constraints, the Task Achievement category in the IELTS rating scale (British Council, n.d. ), addressing relevancy and content development, can be a viable option as scores predict students’ CT skills to some degree. However, it is recommended to incorporate other features explored by this study into rating scales for a more precise measurement of CT skills, because positive judgments from raters are likely to require more than what the Task Achievement category comprehends, such as logicality, range of perspectives (or types of evidence), and originality of ideas. Logicality can be assessed through the category of coherence, which typically focuses on progression of ideas and logical sequencing (Knoch, 2007 ). Although it already entails some components of logicality explored in the study, the category can explicitly mention the connection between a claim and supporting evidence to measure CT more precisely. The quality of ideas and originality could be evaluated though the category of content. While some existing content categories address relevancy and content development (e.g., Jacobs et al., 1981 ), the creativity of ideas and their ability to create interest can also be addressed in the criterion (see Bae et al., 2016 ), although the assessment of these features is highly subjective.

It is also possible to create a single-independent assessment criterion for CT by including all the features discovered by the study. This option is beneficial because the same features are not necessarily relevant and salient across different proficiency levels. This study indicated that raters focused on the essay’s relevancy to the question written by students who obtained low CT scores and focused more on logicality and quality of ideas in the essays written by those who obtained medium to high CT scores. This finding suggests that descriptors for low CT levels should focus on the essay’s relevancy to the topic, while descriptors for higher levels should address the logicality and originality in the content.

This study’s findings also have some implications for classroom-based assessment activities, especially for self- and peer-assessment (Brown & Abeywickrama, 2019 ). In the EAP and CLIL classrooms, which emphasize cultivating CT skills, self- and peer-assessment is recognized as a useful activity for improving students’ task performance (e.g., Coyle et al., 2010 ; Ferris, 2018 ). The explored features can be incorporated into the development of checklists, which convey the students the construct in a simple manner and are suitable for use in self- and peer-assessment (Green, 2021 ). For instance, after reading their own or peers’ argumentative essays, students could be asked to respond to statements such as “The essay discusses the given prompt without any irrelevant piece of content,” or “The essay includes opinions from various perspectives” by indicating yes or no. Can-do statements can also be created based on the study’s findings for self-assessment, including statements such as “I can give sufficient examples supporting my opinion” or “I can connect ideas logically.” In so doing, students can grasp the elusive concept of CT and realize the characteristics of highly evaluated essays without deeply learning about the definition of CT itself.

This study has some limitations. First, this study collected data from only five native English speakers who have worked as IELTS examiners. Because of this small sample size, it is difficult to generalize these findings in broader contexts, including readers with different backgrounds. Moreover, the raters did not necessarily have a deep understanding of CT and exhibited raters’ bias in their ratings. Second, this study collected data from students with relatively low English proficiency levels. Students with higher English proficiency may display a wider range of features related to CT skills, including reflecting on their own supporting evidence (Chason et al., 2017 ). Third, written verbal protocol data may suffer from non-veridicality, such that the results reported may have included features that raters did not actually consider while rating or may not have comprehensively included all of the features that they considered (Gass & Mackey, 2017 ). Post-marking interviews should have been conducted to triangulate the findings. Fourth, the assigned essay topic and writing task also had some limitations. Whether or not the students were able to demonstrate their CT skills through the topic was not determined. In other words, the topic’s appropriateness was not examined. Lastly, only one type of writing assignment (timed, independent, causal argumentative essay writing) was employed to examine the relevant criteria for measuring CT skills. As noted by R1, the task adopted in this study did not involve any analysis and research, meaning that it may not always be suitable to assess CT. Using other types of essays, such as source-based argumentative writing (Plakans & Ohta, 2021 ), might reveal different dimensions of CT, that is, different essay features might have been found to be relevant to raters’ judgments of CT skills.

Therefore, further research is recommended to investigate the way in which CT skills are related to various essay writing tasks, including integrated writing tasks or research projects, which can be done by examining rater judgments and collecting data that compensate for limitations of verbal protocols (e.g., interviews). Such research will help in revealing the elusive concept of CT skills in L2 pedagogies.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Abbreviations

Common European Framework of Reference

Content and Language Integrated Learning

• Critical thinking

English for academic purposes

Grade point average

International English Language Testing System

Second language

Multiple regression

Research question

Washington State University

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Sato, T. Assessing critical thinking through L2 argumentative essays: an investigation of relevant and salient criteria from raters’ perspectives. Lang Test Asia 12 , 9 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40468-022-00159-4

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• Second language writing
• Argumentative writing
• Assessment criteria
• Rating scale development

Choose Your Test

Sat / act prep online guides and tips, 3 strong argumentative essay examples, analyzed.

General Education

Need to defend your opinion on an issue? Argumentative essays are one of the most popular types of essays you’ll write in school. They combine persuasive arguments with fact-based research, and, when done well, can be powerful tools for making someone agree with your point of view. If you’re struggling to write an argumentative essay or just want to learn more about them, seeing examples can be a big help.

After giving an overview of this type of essay, we provide three argumentative essay examples. After each essay, we explain in-depth how the essay was structured, what worked, and where the essay could be improved. We end with tips for making your own argumentative essay as strong as possible.

What Is an Argumentative Essay?

An argumentative essay is an essay that uses evidence and facts to support the claim it’s making. Its purpose is to persuade the reader to agree with the argument being made.

A good argumentative essay will use facts and evidence to support the argument, rather than just the author’s thoughts and opinions. For example, say you wanted to write an argumentative essay stating that Charleston, SC is a great destination for families. You couldn’t just say that it’s a great place because you took your family there and enjoyed it. For it to be an argumentative essay, you need to have facts and data to support your argument, such as the number of child-friendly attractions in Charleston, special deals you can get with kids, and surveys of people who visited Charleston as a family and enjoyed it. The first argument is based entirely on feelings, whereas the second is based on evidence that can be proven.

The standard five paragraph format is common, but not required, for argumentative essays. These essays typically follow one of two formats: the Toulmin model or the Rogerian model.

• The Toulmin model is the most common. It begins with an introduction, follows with a thesis/claim, and gives data and evidence to support that claim. This style of essay also includes rebuttals of counterarguments.
• The Rogerian model analyzes two sides of an argument and reaches a conclusion after weighing the strengths and weaknesses of each.

3 Good Argumentative Essay Examples + Analysis

Below are three examples of argumentative essays, written by yours truly in my school days, as well as analysis of what each did well and where it could be improved.

Argumentative Essay Example 1

Proponents of this idea state that it will save local cities and towns money because libraries are expensive to maintain. They also believe it will encourage more people to read because they won’t have to travel to a library to get a book; they can simply click on what they want to read and read it from wherever they are. They could also access more materials because libraries won’t have to buy physical copies of books; they can simply rent out as many digital copies as they need.

However, it would be a serious mistake to replace libraries with tablets. First, digital books and resources are associated with less learning and more problems than print resources. A study done on tablet vs book reading found that people read 20-30% slower on tablets, retain 20% less information, and understand 10% less of what they read compared to people who read the same information in print. Additionally, staring too long at a screen has been shown to cause numerous health problems, including blurred vision, dizziness, dry eyes, headaches, and eye strain, at much higher instances than reading print does. People who use tablets and mobile devices excessively also have a higher incidence of more serious health issues such as fibromyalgia, shoulder and back pain, carpal tunnel syndrome, and muscle strain. I know that whenever I read from my e-reader for too long, my eyes begin to feel tired and my neck hurts. We should not add to these problems by giving people, especially young people, more reasons to look at screens.

Second, it is incredibly narrow-minded to assume that the only service libraries offer is book lending. Libraries have a multitude of benefits, and many are only available if the library has a physical location. Some of these benefits include acting as a quiet study space, giving people a way to converse with their neighbors, holding classes on a variety of topics, providing jobs, answering patron questions, and keeping the community connected. One neighborhood found that, after a local library instituted community events such as play times for toddlers and parents, job fairs for teenagers, and meeting spaces for senior citizens, over a third of residents reported feeling more connected to their community. Similarly, a Pew survey conducted in 2015 found that nearly two-thirds of American adults feel that closing their local library would have a major impact on their community. People see libraries as a way to connect with others and get their questions answered, benefits tablets can’t offer nearly as well or as easily.

While replacing libraries with tablets may seem like a simple solution, it would encourage people to spend even more time looking at digital screens, despite the myriad issues surrounding them. It would also end access to many of the benefits of libraries that people have come to rely on. In many areas, libraries are such an important part of the community network that they could never be replaced by a simple object.

The author begins by giving an overview of the counter-argument, then the thesis appears as the first sentence in the third paragraph. The essay then spends the rest of the paper dismantling the counter argument and showing why readers should believe the other side.

What this essay does well:

• Although it’s a bit unusual to have the thesis appear fairly far into the essay, it works because, once the thesis is stated, the rest of the essay focuses on supporting it since the counter-argument has already been discussed earlier in the paper.
• This essay includes numerous facts and cites studies to support its case. By having specific data to rely on, the author’s argument is stronger and readers will be more inclined to agree with it.
• For every argument the other side makes, the author makes sure to refute it and follow up with why her opinion is the stronger one. In order to make a strong argument, it’s important to dismantle the other side, which this essay does this by making the author's view appear stronger.
• This is a shorter paper, and if it needed to be expanded to meet length requirements, it could include more examples and go more into depth with them, such as by explaining specific cases where people benefited from local libraries.
• Additionally, while the paper uses lots of data, the author also mentions their own experience with using tablets. This should be removed since argumentative essays focus on facts and data to support an argument, not the author’s own opinion or experiences. Replacing that with more data on health issues associated with screen time would strengthen the essay.
• Some of the points made aren't completely accurate , particularly the one about digital books being cheaper. It actually often costs a library more money to rent out numerous digital copies of a book compared to buying a single physical copy. Make sure in your own essay you thoroughly research each of the points and rebuttals you make, otherwise you'll look like you don't know the issue that well.

Argumentative Essay Example 2

There are multiple drugs available to treat malaria, and many of them work well and save lives, but malaria eradication programs that focus too much on them and not enough on prevention haven’t seen long-term success in Sub-Saharan Africa. A major program to combat malaria was WHO’s Global Malaria Eradication Programme. Started in 1955, it had a goal of eliminating malaria in Africa within the next ten years. Based upon previously successful programs in Brazil and the United States, the program focused mainly on vector control. This included widely distributing chloroquine and spraying large amounts of DDT. More than one billion dollars was spent trying to abolish malaria. However, the program suffered from many problems and in 1969, WHO was forced to admit that the program had not succeeded in eradicating malaria. The number of people in Sub-Saharan Africa who contracted malaria as well as the number of malaria deaths had actually increased over 10% during the time the program was active.

One of the major reasons for the failure of the project was that it set uniform strategies and policies. By failing to consider variations between governments, geography, and infrastructure, the program was not nearly as successful as it could have been. Sub-Saharan Africa has neither the money nor the infrastructure to support such an elaborate program, and it couldn’t be run the way it was meant to. Most African countries don't have the resources to send all their people to doctors and get shots, nor can they afford to clear wetlands or other malaria prone areas. The continent’s spending per person for eradicating malaria was just a quarter of what Brazil spent. Sub-Saharan Africa simply can’t rely on a plan that requires more money, infrastructure, and expertise than they have to spare.

Additionally, the widespread use of chloroquine has created drug resistant parasites which are now plaguing Sub-Saharan Africa. Because chloroquine was used widely but inconsistently, mosquitoes developed resistance, and chloroquine is now nearly completely ineffective in Sub-Saharan Africa, with over 95% of mosquitoes resistant to it. As a result, newer, more expensive drugs need to be used to prevent and treat malaria, which further drives up the cost of malaria treatment for a region that can ill afford it.

Instead of developing plans to treat malaria after the infection has incurred, programs should focus on preventing infection from occurring in the first place. Not only is this plan cheaper and more effective, reducing the number of people who contract malaria also reduces loss of work/school days which can further bring down the productivity of the region.

One of the cheapest and most effective ways of preventing malaria is to implement insecticide-treated bed nets (ITNs).  These nets provide a protective barrier around the person or people using them. While untreated bed nets are still helpful, those treated with insecticides are much more useful because they stop mosquitoes from biting people through the nets, and they help reduce mosquito populations in a community, thus helping people who don’t even own bed nets.  Bed nets are also very effective because most mosquito bites occur while the person is sleeping, so bed nets would be able to drastically reduce the number of transmissions during the night. In fact, transmission of malaria can be reduced by as much as 90% in areas where the use of ITNs is widespread. Because money is so scarce in Sub-Saharan Africa, the low cost is a great benefit and a major reason why the program is so successful. Bed nets cost roughly 2 USD to make, last several years, and can protect two adults. Studies have shown that, for every 100-1000 more nets are being used, one less child dies of malaria. With an estimated 300 million people in Africa not being protected by mosquito nets, there’s the potential to save three million lives by spending just a few dollars per person.

Reducing the number of people who contract malaria would also reduce poverty levels in Africa significantly, thus improving other aspects of society like education levels and the economy. Vector control is more effective than treatment strategies because it means fewer people are getting sick. When fewer people get sick, the working population is stronger as a whole because people are not put out of work from malaria, nor are they caring for sick relatives. Malaria-afflicted families can typically only harvest 40% of the crops that healthy families can harvest. Additionally, a family with members who have malaria spends roughly a quarter of its income treatment, not including the loss of work they also must deal with due to the illness. It’s estimated that malaria costs Africa 12 billion USD in lost income every year. A strong working population creates a stronger economy, which Sub-Saharan Africa is in desperate need of.  

This essay begins with an introduction, which ends with the thesis (that malaria eradication plans in Sub-Saharan Africa should focus on prevention rather than treatment). The first part of the essay lays out why the counter argument (treatment rather than prevention) is not as effective, and the second part of the essay focuses on why prevention of malaria is the better path to take.

• The thesis appears early, is stated clearly, and is supported throughout the rest of the essay. This makes the argument clear for readers to understand and follow throughout the essay.
• There’s lots of solid research in this essay, including specific programs that were conducted and how successful they were, as well as specific data mentioned throughout. This evidence helps strengthen the author’s argument.
• The author makes a case for using expanding bed net use over waiting until malaria occurs and beginning treatment, but not much of a plan is given for how the bed nets would be distributed or how to ensure they’re being used properly. By going more into detail of what she believes should be done, the author would be making a stronger argument.
• The introduction of the essay does a good job of laying out the seriousness of the problem, but the conclusion is short and abrupt. Expanding it into its own paragraph would give the author a final way to convince readers of her side of the argument.

Argumentative Essay Example 3

There are many ways payments could work. They could be in the form of a free-market approach, where athletes are able to earn whatever the market is willing to pay them, it could be a set amount of money per athlete, or student athletes could earn income from endorsements, autographs, and control of their likeness, similar to the way top Olympians earn money.

Proponents of the idea believe that, because college athletes are the ones who are training, participating in games, and bringing in audiences, they should receive some sort of compensation for their work. If there were no college athletes, the NCAA wouldn’t exist, college coaches wouldn’t receive there (sometimes very high) salaries, and brands like Nike couldn’t profit from college sports. In fact, the NCAA brings in roughly $1 billion in revenue a year, but college athletes don’t receive any of that money in the form of a paycheck. Additionally, people who believe college athletes should be paid state that paying college athletes will actually encourage them to remain in college longer and not turn pro as quickly, either by giving them a way to begin earning money in college or requiring them to sign a contract stating they’ll stay at the university for a certain number of years while making an agreed-upon salary.  

Supporters of this idea point to Zion Williamson, the Duke basketball superstar, who, during his freshman year, sustained a serious knee injury. Many argued that, even if he enjoyed playing for Duke, it wasn’t worth risking another injury and ending his professional career before it even began for a program that wasn’t paying him. Williamson seems to have agreed with them and declared his eligibility for the NCAA draft later that year. If he was being paid, he may have stayed at Duke longer. In fact, roughly a third of student athletes surveyed stated that receiving a salary while in college would make them “strongly consider” remaining collegiate athletes longer before turning pro.

Paying athletes could also stop the recruitment scandals that have plagued the NCAA. In 2018, the NCAA stripped the University of Louisville's men's basketball team of its 2013 national championship title because it was discovered coaches were using sex workers to entice recruits to join the team. There have been dozens of other recruitment scandals where college athletes and recruits have been bribed with anything from having their grades changed, to getting free cars, to being straight out bribed. By paying college athletes and putting their salaries out in the open, the NCAA could end the illegal and underhanded ways some schools and coaches try to entice athletes to join.

People who argue against the idea of paying college athletes believe the practice could be disastrous for college sports. By paying athletes, they argue, they’d turn college sports into a bidding war, where only the richest schools could afford top athletes, and the majority of schools would be shut out from developing a talented team (though some argue this already happens because the best players often go to the most established college sports programs, who typically pay their coaches millions of dollars per year). It could also ruin the tight camaraderie of many college teams if players become jealous that certain teammates are making more money than they are.

They also argue that paying college athletes actually means only a small fraction would make significant money. Out of the 350 Division I athletic departments, fewer than a dozen earn any money. Nearly all the money the NCAA makes comes from men’s football and basketball, so paying college athletes would make a small group of men--who likely will be signed to pro teams and begin making millions immediately out of college--rich at the expense of other players.

Those against paying college athletes also believe that the athletes are receiving enough benefits already. The top athletes already receive scholarships that are worth tens of thousands per year, they receive free food/housing/textbooks, have access to top medical care if they are injured, receive top coaching, get travel perks and free gear, and can use their time in college as a way to capture the attention of professional recruiters. No other college students receive anywhere near as much from their schools.

People on this side also point out that, while the NCAA brings in a massive amount of money each year, it is still a non-profit organization. How? Because over 95% of those profits are redistributed to its members’ institutions in the form of scholarships, grants, conferences, support for Division II and Division III teams, and educational programs. Taking away a significant part of that revenue would hurt smaller programs that rely on that money to keep running.

While both sides have good points, it’s clear that the negatives of paying college athletes far outweigh the positives. College athletes spend a significant amount of time and energy playing for their school, but they are compensated for it by the scholarships and perks they receive. Adding a salary to that would result in a college athletic system where only a small handful of athletes (those likely to become millionaires in the professional leagues) are paid by a handful of schools who enter bidding wars to recruit them, while the majority of student athletics and college athletic programs suffer or even shut down for lack of money. Continuing to offer the current level of benefits to student athletes makes it possible for as many people to benefit from and enjoy college sports as possible.

This argumentative essay follows the Rogerian model. It discusses each side, first laying out multiple reasons people believe student athletes should be paid, then discussing reasons why the athletes shouldn’t be paid. It ends by stating that college athletes shouldn’t be paid by arguing that paying them would destroy college athletics programs and cause them to have many of the issues professional sports leagues have.

• Both sides of the argument are well developed, with multiple reasons why people agree with each side. It allows readers to get a full view of the argument and its nuances.
• Certain statements on both sides are directly rebuffed in order to show where the strengths and weaknesses of each side lie and give a more complete and sophisticated look at the argument.
• Using the Rogerian model can be tricky because oftentimes you don’t explicitly state your argument until the end of the paper. Here, the thesis doesn’t appear until the first sentence of the final paragraph. That doesn’t give readers a lot of time to be convinced that your argument is the right one, compared to a paper where the thesis is stated in the beginning and then supported throughout the paper. This paper could be strengthened if the final paragraph was expanded to more fully explain why the author supports the view, or if the paper had made it clearer that paying athletes was the weaker argument throughout.

3 Tips for Writing a Good Argumentative Essay

Now that you’ve seen examples of what good argumentative essay samples look like, follow these three tips when crafting your own essay.

#1: Make Your Thesis Crystal Clear

The thesis is the key to your argumentative essay; if it isn’t clear or readers can’t find it easily, your entire essay will be weak as a result. Always make sure that your thesis statement is easy to find. The typical spot for it is the final sentence of the introduction paragraph, but if it doesn’t fit in that spot for your essay, try to at least put it as the first or last sentence of a different paragraph so it stands out more.

Also make sure that your thesis makes clear what side of the argument you’re on. After you’ve written it, it’s a great idea to show your thesis to a couple different people--classmates are great for this. Just by reading your thesis they should be able to understand what point you’ll be trying to make with the rest of your essay.

#2: Show Why the Other Side Is Weak

When writing your essay, you may be tempted to ignore the other side of the argument and just focus on your side, but don’t do this. The best argumentative essays really tear apart the other side to show why readers shouldn’t believe it. Before you begin writing your essay, research what the other side believes, and what their strongest points are. Then, in your essay, be sure to mention each of these and use evidence to explain why they’re incorrect/weak arguments. That’ll make your essay much more effective than if you only focused on your side of the argument.

#3: Use Evidence to Support Your Side

Remember, an essay can’t be an argumentative essay if it doesn’t support its argument with evidence. For every point you make, make sure you have facts to back it up. Some examples are previous studies done on the topic, surveys of large groups of people, data points, etc. There should be lots of numbers in your argumentative essay that support your side of the argument. This will make your essay much stronger compared to only relying on your own opinions to support your argument.

Summary: Argumentative Essay Sample

Argumentative essays are persuasive essays that use facts and evidence to support their side of the argument. Most argumentative essays follow either the Toulmin model or the Rogerian model. By reading good argumentative essay examples, you can learn how to develop your essay and provide enough support to make readers agree with your opinion. When writing your essay, remember to always make your thesis clear, show where the other side is weak, and back up your opinion with data and evidence.

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Christine graduated from Michigan State University with degrees in Environmental Biology and Geography and received her Master's from Duke University. In high school she scored in the 99th percentile on the SAT and was named a National Merit Finalist. She has taught English and biology in several countries.

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Exercise 6: Writing an essay for examination from 2024 (Ultimate Guide)

Exercise 6 of the Reading and Writing paper of the IGCSE English as a Second Language (ESL) exam (0510/0511/0991/0993) is always a formal or semi-formal writing. It can be an article, an essay, a report, or a review.

In this article, you will discover how to write an almost-perfect essay that impresses the examiner and gets you the highest band. So, are you ready? Let’s dive in!

So, what is an essay?

An essay is a short piece of writing on a particular subject. The purpose of an essay is to present an argument or point of view about a particular topic and give examples or reasons to support it. The topic will be a question or an issue which people generally have different opinions about.

The essay could present both sides of the argument, or just one, depending on the instructions given in the task. So, if the instructions ask you to give your opinion, you can address just this one point of view, or you can discuss the arguments for and against. But if the task instructions state that arguments for and against should be included, then you should address both points of view.

The Tone and Register of an Essay

In the exam, the essay is usually for your teacher, so the tone and register should be formal or semi-formal . Therefore, it should avoid language that is too idiomatic and colloquial.

Now, before diving into the details of how to write a successful essay, let’s first explore a few differences between articles and essays.

Differences between an article and an essay

An essay is very similar to an article with only a few key differences.

An article is usually published in a newspaper or a magazine, so as far as the exam is concerned, the audience is often students at your school (school magazine article), or sometimes your teacher or the local newspaper.

The audience of an essay is often your teacher (who requested the essay in the first place).

An article is generally written to inform and persuade the reader that a certain viewpoint is correct.

An essay is generally written as a response to a question or a proposition (often by your teacher). It presents an argument or point of view about a particular topic and gives examples or reasons to support it.

Tone and style:

Articles generally have a more objective tone and style, focusing on presenting information in a neutral or balanced manner.

Essays are generally subjective, reflecting the writer’s opinion and perspective.

An article may have a heading to grab the reader’s attention (though not compulsory in the exam).

An essay does not require a heading.

The format of a one-sided argument essay

A one-sided argument essay can have two formats, depending on whether you include a counterargument from the opposing viewpoint or not.

Paragraph 1:  Introduction (including your opinion)

Paragraph 2:  First point supporting your opinion with an explanation

Paragraph 3:  Second point supporting your opinion with an explanation

Paragraph 4:  State a counterargument (an idea from the opposing viewpoint) and counter the counterargument (i.e., explain why this counterargument is invalid). In other words, state a point made by people who have a different opinion from yours and explain why they are wrong.

Paragraph 5:  Conclusion (including your opinion again but in different words)

Paragraph 2:  One or two points supporting your opinion with an explanation

Paragraph 3:  One or two points (different from those of the previous paragraph) supporting your opinion with an explanation

Paragraph 4:  Conclusion (including your opinion again but in different words)

The format of a two-sided argument essay

Paragraph 1:  Introduction (without your opinion)

Paragraph 2:  One side of the argument

Paragraph 3:  The other side of the argument

Paragraph 4:  Conclusion (including your opinion)

Introduction

The purpose of the introduction is to  inform the reader  about the main point (topic) of the essay and  engage the reader  to make them interested in the topic. The main components of an effective introduction are:

• Topic sentence

Start your essay with a brief topic sentence that outlines the argument that the essay will discuss. Give  forceful statements  rather than “I think that”, “maybe” or “perhaps”. For example, “Teenagers love fast food.”, “Nowadays, music plays an indispensable role in our lives.”, etc.

To write an effective topic sentence, you might  use adverbial time phrases  and  generalizations . Here are some examples of each.

Adverbial time phrases

• Nowadays/these days/currently
• Every day/week/year
• Recently/for many years/decades
• In the past
• 10 years ago
• In the last (few/five) (days/weeks/months/years/decades)

Generalization

• A large number of / The vast majority (of)
• Several/some
• Not many/hardly any/ few
• In almost all cases
• In the majority of cases
• In a large number of cases
• In most cases
• In some cases
• On the whole/ Overall
• Rhetorical question(s)

Use rhetorical questions (questions that don’t require an answer but make your reader think) to get the reader interested in the topic and encourage them to read on. For example:

• How much longer do animals have to suffer?
• Could you live with yourself if you missed out on this opportunity?
• How could we possibly stand the …?
• What would happen if …?
• Could your conscience cope with …?
• Is it really worth …?
• Do you want to be part of …?
• Should students do sport at school?
• Should teenagers completely avoid fast food?
• We all love convenience food. But is it the best thing for our waistlines, our wallets and our world?
• Your opinion (if it is a one-sided argument essay)

If you are writing a two-sided argument essay,  DO NOT  give your opinion in the introduction.

If you are writing a one-sided argument essay, you MUST give your opinion (whether you support or oppose the viewpoint expressed in the statement).

Here are some opinion phrases to help you express your opinion.

• In my opinion/view
• From my perspective
• From my point of view
• I concur/agree
• I believe/think (that)
• It seems to me that
• I am in favour of
• I am against the idea of
• I am strongly opposed to
• I disagree/cannot accept

You may also kill two birds with one stone and begin your essay with a rhetorical question that introduces the topic to the reader, thus acting as a topic sentence. Here are some examples.

“Have you ever thought how school life would be if the school day started later? In my perspective, this will have countless benefits.”

“Should students do sport at school? This is a question which people have different opinions about.”

One-sided essay structure:

Body paragraph 1:  First idea supporting your opinion with an explanation

Body paragraph 2:  Second idea supporting your opinion with an explanation ( should be different from the first idea )

Body paragraph 3:  State a counterargument (an idea from the opposing viewpoint)  AND  counter the counterargument (i.e., explain why this counterargument is invalid). In other words, state a point made by people who have a different opinion from yours and explain why they are wrong.

Body Paragraph 1:  one or two points supporting your opinion with an explanation

Body Paragraph 2:  one or two points (different from those of the previous paragraph) supporting your opinion with an explanation

When introducing the counterargument in the 3 rd  body paragraph, use any of the following phrases.

• Opponents of this idea claim/assert/argue that …
• Those who disagree/are against these ideas may say/insist that …
• Some people allege/argue/contend that …
• Some people may suggest/point out that …
• A common counterargument is that …
• It can be argued that …

When countering the counterargument in the 3 rd  body paragraph, use any of the following phrases depending on the context.

• Although true to a certain extent, …
• While this may be true to some extent, …
• While it is true that …, it is important to consider…
• While some may believe that … recent studies have shown that …
• What this invalid argument misses is …
• What these people fail to notice/take note of is …
• The evidence, however, disproves this argument because …
• However, upon closer examination, it becomes clear that …
• However, a closer analysis reveals that …
• However, this flawed argument overlooks the fact that …

Two-sided essay structure:

Body paragraph 1:  One side of the argument either in favour or against ( mention 2 different ideas )

Body paragraph 2:  The other side of the argument either in favour or against ( mention 2 different ideas )

General guidelines for both kinds of essays:

• Read the question carefully  and  draft a plan  for your essay in the blank space below the question using a pencil. Here are some steps to follow.
• Separate the blank space into two parts, one for and one against.
• Jot down any points that come to your mind in the correct part, along with any interesting vocabulary or expressions suitable for the task. Remember to write briefly and in bullet points.
• Decide whether you will write a one-sided essay or a two-sided essay. If the instructions in the question state that you must include arguments for and against, then choose the best 2 points supporting each side and write a two-sided essay. If it’s not mentioned that you must include arguments for and against, then the choice is yours.
• Consider how you will begin your essay and how you will engage the reader at the start. For example, write some variations of the topic sentence and rhetorical questions that you could use.
• Choose the most effective ones and begin writing. Remember to  spend no more than 5 minutes on the plan.
• Start your body paragraphs with a topic sentence rather than just jumping into the advantages or disadvantages (especially if you’re writing a two-sided essay). This helps to organize your writing and makes the purpose of the paragraph clear to the reader. For example, in an essay discussing the advantages and disadvantages of fast food, it is better to start your first body paragraph with a topic sentence like “There are some obvious advantages of fast food. Firstly, …” rather than just getting into the first point and writing, “To begin with, it’s quite tasty.”.
• You can use the few prompts given in the question, but it is better to  use your own ideas  if you want to get higher marks. If, however, you are out of ideas, use the ideas in the question and make sure to paraphrase them (write them in different words) and develop them well.
• Support your ideas with reasons, evidence, or examples . Keep in mind that the examiner knows the evidence or examples will be made up and doesn’t expect these to be correct. Yes, you can make up your own statistics! Just make sure it’s not overly unrealistic.
• Keep to the topic  (don’t wander away from the main subject of the essay). Remind yourself constantly by looking again at the question.
• Use a variety of linking words and cohesive devices  (mainly formal) to create a smooth and logical flow in your writing. Here are some examples.

When presenting the first point (used in the 1 st  body paragraph of both one-sided essays and two-sided essays)

• There are some obvious advantages of
• Those in support of … believe that …
• People who think … say that …
• The main argument in favour of/against is
• The main point/reason is
• The most important point/reason is
• The first point/reason is
• First of all
• First and foremost

When  adding  more points to the same side of the argument

• In addition,
• Furthermore,
• Additionally,
• Not only … but also…
• As well as.
• Another noteworthy point is …
• Apart from that
• What is more

When  contrasting  ideas (typically used to introduce the opposite viewpoint in the 2 nd  body paragraph of a two-sided essay

• Some people argue that …
• Nevertheless
• Even though
• In spite of
• On the other hand
• On the contrary
• By contrast

When giving examples

• For example
• For instance
• One clear example is
• To illustrate
• In other words

When reasoning:

• Results and consequences: as a result, consequently, therefore, thus, hence, for this reason, as a result (of), which means that, etc.
• Reasons and causes: owing to, because (of), on account of, due to, since, as, etc.   

When highlighting and stressing

• Particularly
• In particular
• Specifically

The purpose of the conclusion is to  sum up what you have said  and  express (or re-express) your opinion.

In the conclusion:

• Briefly summarize your main points using concluding phrases. Here are some examples.
• In conclusion
• To conclude
• To reiterate
• On the whole
• All things considered
• After weighing the benefits and drawbacks
• I believe that …
• Thus, I am of the opinion that …
• Given these points

Remember to use different words from those used to express the points in the body.

• Give your final opinion (regardless of whether it’s a one-sided or a two-sided essay) and any solution or suggestion if applicable.

The solution or suggestion might be part of your opinion if you’re writing a two-sided essay and want to take a balanced view on the issue rather than siding with one side. For example, “Overall, I believe eating fast food occasionally isn’t a problem, but fresh home-cooked food is best.” Use the opinion phrases stated earlier in the Introduction section to express your opinion, and if it’s a one-sided essay, make sure to use different words from those used in the introduction.

• End with a strong, impactful statement that leaves the reader with something to think about. This could be a rhetorical question or a statement that encourages the reader to decide what they think about the same viewpoint. For example:
• “To conclude, I wholeheartedly believe that everyone should pursue higher education. Why not embrace this invaluable opportunity to fast-track your career, build your confidence, and broaden your social circle?”
• “Overall, I believe eating fast food occasionally isn’t a problem, but fresh home-cooked food is best. Do you not think so?”
• “After weighing the benefits and the drawbacks, it is apparent that convenience food, while palatable, may negatively impact other areas of your life. Think about this before you reach for your next snack!”

It’s worth mentioning that this step is PREFERABLE . So don’t stress too much about ending your essay with an impactful statement or a rhetorical question. Just make sure that the conclusion reflects the argument presented in the main body of the essay and that your final opinion is clear to the reader.

Points to keep in mind

• Read the task carefully to make sure that the ideas and supporting information you include are relevant to the topic. Students often lose focus and write about wider, more general issues associated with the topic, which significantly affects their marks.
• Organize your essay into 4-5 paragraphs . Leave a line between paragraphs or indent the first line of each new paragraph. Don’t do both!
• Take care of spelling, punctuation, and grammar . This is important as the examiner will look at the accuracy of your language.
• Use a combination of simple, compound, and complex sentences . A series of long sentences will make your writing difficult to read, and a series of short simple sentences will make your writing boring to read. Balance is the key.
• Use a wide range of formal vocabulary, including some advanced and less commonly used ones .
• Include a range of topic-related vocabulary to show that you have a good understanding of the topic.
• Use a wide variety of formal linking words to link ideas in sentences and paragraphs.  Examples have been mentioned earlier.
• Use advanced punctuation sparingly  (1-3 in the whole essay), for example, colon (:) and semicolon (;).
• Include language appropriate for expressing opinions, agreeing, and disagreeing. In addition to mentioning your opinion in the introduction and/or conclusion, your viewpoint can also be included in the body paragraphs (whether it’s a one-sided or a two-sided essay) by:
• Mentioning personal examples or experiences (which implies that you agree with this point of view)
• Explicitly agreeing while presenting a point in the body paragraph. Here is an example: “People who think sports lessons are a good idea say that students need exercise, and I agree that doing sports helps to make you healthy and avoid getting overweight.”
• Aim to complete towards the maximum word limit  (approximately 160 words). Exceeding the word limit slightly (15-20 words) is fine as long as you write accurately and complete the task within the correct time. If you exceed the word limit by any number of words, be it even 100, no marks will be cut directly, but you increase your chances of making more mistakes and spending more time than required for this exercise, which may affect your mark indirectly. If you write towards the lower limit or below, you are highly unlikely to achieve the highest band for Content as your content is not well developed.
• Spend about 30 minutes on this exercise : the initial 5 minutes for planning and the last 2-3 minutes for checking your work for simple spelling, punctuation, and grammatical mistakes.
• Write legibly

Don’ts

• Do not write a heading.
• Avoid colloquial or ‘chatty’ language (which includes informal vocabulary, abbreviations, or slang such as how r u, OMG, BTW, etc.).
• Avoid listing  (firstly, secondly, thirdly, etc.). There is no problem in writing “firstly”, but avoid writing “secondly” and “thirdly”.
• Avoid repetition of vocabulary and beginning your sentences with the same words . Sometimes, students write 3 or more sentences in a row starting with “The”!
• Avoid including too many different ideas in your essay. It is better to include fewer ideas and develop one or two in greater depth rather than writing many ideas which are not well-developed.
• Avoid writing an overlong introduction and conclusion. It would be more effective to utilize the limited word count to develop your ideas within the body of the essay. Also, avoid pre-learned language for these parts of the essay, as this may not be totally relevant or might sound unnatural.
• It’s preferable to avoid contractions , but they can be used as the essay can have a semi-formal tone and register. In both cases, remember to be consistent throughout. So, if you used contractions, use them throughout your whole essay, and if not, avoid them altogether.

Practice a lot of past papers and get feedback on your writing. We know that essay writing is newly added to the syllabus, but you can still practice writing essays in response to past years’ article writing questions as they are very similar.

Finally, don’t forget to check out our samples page and if you find this helpful, please share it with your friends.

Good luck! Go get that A*!

15 responses to “Exercise 6: Writing an essay for examination from 2024 (Ultimate Guide)”

Thank you so much for giving us the ideas how to write an essay. Specially, phrases how to begin sentences from each paragraph

You’re welcome 🙂 We’re glad it helped!

Wonderful materials for my students who are going to take the exam next May. Thank you so much

Thank you so much for your kind feedback! We’re glad our notes are benefiting your students! Good luck to them!

Thank you so much for your help! Could you also post some sample essays, it would be very helpful for us!!

Hi Sara, thank you for your comment! We will definitely consider adding them after completing the review writing notes which we are currently working on.

What do you mean by do not write a heading? Do you mean we shouldn’t have a title for the essay?

Yes, an essay doesn’t require a title. Trying to come up with one will use up your exam time unnecessarily.

Is there going to be direct deduction of marks if written?

yes no title in essay

Hello, I’m having my exam in 4 months and I can’t believe I didn’t know about this website before, seriously I wholeheartedly appreciate what you do, I heard there’s a service where you can correct or give feedback on pieces of writings and grade them, is it available?

Thank you so much for your nice comment! We really appreciate it! Our marking service was available, but unfortunately, it is now suspended as it requires a lot of time and effort, which we can’t provide at the moment. We apologize for this! And we wish you good luck with your exam!

THANK YOU SO MUCH FOR YOUR EFFORT AND TIME CREATING THESE SUPER AMAZING NOTES AND TIPS FOR WRITING EXERCISES

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Learning a Second Language Essay

Language is one of the most important tools in our interaction with others. Without language, it is highly unlikely that the human civilization would have developed as it has over the millenniums. For most people, being able to communicate in one language is sufficient. This is especially so if the language is English, French or Germany, all of which are internationally recognized languages.

While it is true that one can be able to comfortably go through life with the knowledge of one language, the person greatly limits his/her potential. This is because there are many advantages to be gained from being proficient in more than one language. This paper shall argue that every person should learn at least one second language so as to reap the benefits that such an undertaking brings to the individual.

We live in a world that is slowly being turned into a global village as a result of advances in transport and communication. Through the process known as globalization, major integration of economies and cultures is becoming rife. In such a world, people are constantly being forced to interact with others who come from different cultural backgrounds.

While in some cases these people from different cultures share a language, there are many instances where there is a language difference. If one has learnt at least one additional language, there is a higher possibility that communication between the people from varying cultures will be possible. As such, acquisition of an additional language will assist in bringing about harmony in a multicultural society.

Scientific studies have proved that learning of a second language may result in the enhancement of the intellectual capabilities of an individual. As a result of learning a second language, a person’s performance in arithmetic as well as his reading skills is greatly increased. This improvement is attributed to the fact that learning a new language results in divergent thinking in the person.

The divergent thinking develops since learning a new language involves not only obtaining a new vocabulary but also learning a different manner of constructing thoughts. Considering the fact that a higher intellectual capability is desirable since it increases the chances of a person succeeding in life, everyone should learn an additional language.

Being proficient in more than one language can give a person an advantage when they are applying for a job. This is because an additional language increases the versatility of an individual therefore making him a greater asset to an organization. Some organizations specifically deal with clients who do not converse in English.

It will therefore be a huge benefit for the organization if it can have a person who can converse in the native language of the clients. Having the knowledge of an additional language can therefore result in the career development of the individual.

This paper set out to argue that everyone should learn an addition language. To reinforce this assertion, this paper has discussed the various merits that acquisition of an additional language can have to not only the individual but the society at large. This paper has demonstrates that learning an additional language can result in the creation of a more harmonious global society.

In addition to this, this paper has shown that learning a different language develops one’s mental ability making them better thinkers and also increasing the individual’s chances to develop their career. For this reasons, everyone should learn at least one second language.

• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2018, May 17). Learning a Second Language. https://ivypanda.com/essays/learning-a-second-language/

"Learning a Second Language." IvyPanda , 17 May 2018, ivypanda.com/essays/learning-a-second-language/.

IvyPanda . (2018) 'Learning a Second Language'. 17 May.

IvyPanda . 2018. "Learning a Second Language." May 17, 2018. https://ivypanda.com/essays/learning-a-second-language/.

1. IvyPanda . "Learning a Second Language." May 17, 2018. https://ivypanda.com/essays/learning-a-second-language/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Learning a Second Language." May 17, 2018. https://ivypanda.com/essays/learning-a-second-language/.

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Argumentative Essays

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The Modes of Discourse—Exposition, Description, Narration, Argumentation (EDNA)—are common paper assignments you may encounter in your writing classes. Although these genres have been criticized by some composition scholars, the Purdue OWL recognizes the wide spread use of these approaches and students’ need to understand and produce them.

What is an argumentative essay?

The argumentative essay is a genre of writing that requires the student to investigate a topic; collect, generate, and evaluate evidence; and establish a position on the topic in a concise manner.

Please note : Some confusion may occur between the argumentative essay and the expository essay. These two genres are similar, but the argumentative essay differs from the expository essay in the amount of pre-writing (invention) and research involved. The argumentative essay is commonly assigned as a capstone or final project in first year writing or advanced composition courses and involves lengthy, detailed research. Expository essays involve less research and are shorter in length. Expository essays are often used for in-class writing exercises or tests, such as the GED or GRE.

Argumentative essay assignments generally call for extensive research of literature or previously published material. Argumentative assignments may also require empirical research where the student collects data through interviews, surveys, observations, or experiments. Detailed research allows the student to learn about the topic and to understand different points of view regarding the topic so that she/he may choose a position and support it with the evidence collected during research. Regardless of the amount or type of research involved, argumentative essays must establish a clear thesis and follow sound reasoning.

The structure of the argumentative essay is held together by the following.

• A clear, concise, and defined thesis statement that occurs in the first paragraph of the essay.

In the first paragraph of an argument essay, students should set the context by reviewing the topic in a general way. Next the author should explain why the topic is important ( exigence ) or why readers should care about the issue. Lastly, students should present the thesis statement. It is essential that this thesis statement be appropriately narrowed to follow the guidelines set forth in the assignment. If the student does not master this portion of the essay, it will be quite difficult to compose an effective or persuasive essay.

• Clear and logical transitions between the introduction, body, and conclusion.

Transitions are the mortar that holds the foundation of the essay together. Without logical progression of thought, the reader is unable to follow the essay’s argument, and the structure will collapse. Transitions should wrap up the idea from the previous section and introduce the idea that is to follow in the next section.

• Body paragraphs that include evidential support.

Each paragraph should be limited to the discussion of one general idea. This will allow for clarity and direction throughout the essay. In addition, such conciseness creates an ease of readability for one’s audience. It is important to note that each paragraph in the body of the essay must have some logical connection to the thesis statement in the opening paragraph. Some paragraphs will directly support the thesis statement with evidence collected during research. It is also important to explain how and why the evidence supports the thesis ( warrant ).

However, argumentative essays should also consider and explain differing points of view regarding the topic. Depending on the length of the assignment, students should dedicate one or two paragraphs of an argumentative essay to discussing conflicting opinions on the topic. Rather than explaining how these differing opinions are wrong outright, students should note how opinions that do not align with their thesis might not be well informed or how they might be out of date.

• Evidential support (whether factual, logical, statistical, or anecdotal).

The argumentative essay requires well-researched, accurate, detailed, and current information to support the thesis statement and consider other points of view. Some factual, logical, statistical, or anecdotal evidence should support the thesis. However, students must consider multiple points of view when collecting evidence. As noted in the paragraph above, a successful and well-rounded argumentative essay will also discuss opinions not aligning with the thesis. It is unethical to exclude evidence that may not support the thesis. It is not the student’s job to point out how other positions are wrong outright, but rather to explain how other positions may not be well informed or up to date on the topic.

• A conclusion that does not simply restate the thesis, but readdresses it in light of the evidence provided.

It is at this point of the essay that students may begin to struggle. This is the portion of the essay that will leave the most immediate impression on the mind of the reader. Therefore, it must be effective and logical. Do not introduce any new information into the conclusion; rather, synthesize the information presented in the body of the essay. Restate why the topic is important, review the main points, and review your thesis. You may also want to include a short discussion of more research that should be completed in light of your work.

A complete argument

Perhaps it is helpful to think of an essay in terms of a conversation or debate with a classmate. If I were to discuss the cause of World War II and its current effect on those who lived through the tumultuous time, there would be a beginning, middle, and end to the conversation. In fact, if I were to end the argument in the middle of my second point, questions would arise concerning the current effects on those who lived through the conflict. Therefore, the argumentative essay must be complete, and logically so, leaving no doubt as to its intent or argument.

The five-paragraph essay

A common method for writing an argumentative essay is the five-paragraph approach. This is, however, by no means the only formula for writing such essays. If it sounds straightforward, that is because it is; in fact, the method consists of (a) an introductory paragraph (b) three evidentiary body paragraphs that may include discussion of opposing views and (c) a conclusion.

Longer argumentative essays

Complex issues and detailed research call for complex and detailed essays. Argumentative essays discussing a number of research sources or empirical research will most certainly be longer than five paragraphs. Authors may have to discuss the context surrounding the topic, sources of information and their credibility, as well as a number of different opinions on the issue before concluding the essay. Many of these factors will be determined by the assignment.

English As A Second Language Essay Example

• Pages: 3 (726 words)
• Published: April 5, 2017
• Type: Essay

Nowadays, all people say that English is the most essential and easiest language that people could use to communicate in different countries. As I read thoroughly the two articles, which are called “ English seen as a Co-star among Global Language” and “Can English be Dethroned”, I’ve found out that people more commonly accept using English as a second language in the 21st century. We all understand the fact that English has been growing in popularity largely as economic globalization is getting bigger. The benefits of English as a common language for communication and interaction far outweigh any possible disadvantages that it might have.

English is a global language not because the world shows respect to it by accepting it as a global language because it has the characteristics of a global language. The very fact that people

have linguistic diversity in the US makes it necessary to follow the single language system to ease out the gap in communication. This argument is well presented in the article ‘Can English Be Dethroned? ’ The essay answers the question favorably as it suggests English can never be dethroned from its unique position among languages.

Globalization has caused it to this high support, and there is no doubt that the language cannot be removed from its number one position in a global village. This neglecting of boundaries and barriers have made communication unable to be avoided; creating the need for a common language is also inescapable. Especially back in my country, still wearing our traditional longyi and htamein, which wrap around our waist represent that we are still native language speaker, from the point of view of western people;

however, we have adopted English as a common language that promoted our self to the world.

This argument refers to the importance of English in the global world to climb the ladders of success. Therefore, it is not possible to dethrone English. Moreover, in view of the advancement of technology, social media, traveling and communication, the most important to have a common language is to communicate: English is the best option from various choices since it is known and used by the majority of the people of the world. Especially, back in my country (Burma), tourism has been the largest income of the country.

In order to have good business, tourism companies have been developing teaching English as a second language to the employees. A Common language would go a long way to improve the political relations among countries of the world and improve trade and foreign commerce, thereby improving the economy of the people of the world as a whole. “English has taken root in diplomacy and gradually economic relations and the media” Reader’s choice, Split Edition. This is also a persuasive quote because in a world without economic barriers, a common language is a must.

There is the outgrowth of a virtual world, the social media where distances between countries are not at all an issue. For example in my country people who work for trading goods from countries to countries such as Burma to Singapore, all the traders communicate through the common language of English and the work gets done easily. There is an eagerness among the Burmese, Chinese, Koreans, etc, to improve their skills in the language since English helps them gain entry into

foreign markets.

I strongly think that without English as the common language, communication will be way too culturally neutral because looking at the argument “ Cultural imperialism is much more subtle than economic imperialism,” and author’s response that “It would be wrong to say that the world domination of English is something deliberately organized and supported by the Anglo-Saxon powers, hand in glove with political initiatives or the penetration of the world economy by their transnational firms.

To supports my belief, English can very well be adopted as culturally neutral medium of communication to contribute to the success of 21st century. Also the Yale linguist Stephen Anderson agrees to the fact that English only acts a medium and to influence the world culturally when he states, "The notion that English shouldn't, needn't and probably won't displace local languages seems natural to me. " All these arguments very well support the conclusion of only English has the potential to rise in the culturally neutral way as common language of communication.

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