research paper for physics

Physics Magazine

Physical review journals, physics today.

• Other APS Publications
• March Meeting
• April Meeting
• Meeting Calendar
• Abstract Submission
• Meeting Archive
• Policies & Guidelines
• International Affairs
• Public Engagement
• Women in Physics
• Minorities in Physics
• LGBT Physicists
• Industrial Physics
• Renew Membership
• Member Directory
• My Member Profile
• Member Services
• APS Chapters
• Action Center
• Reports & Studies
• APS Statements
• Contact APS Government Affairs
• Physics Jobs
• Becoming a Physicist
• Career Guidance
• Tools for Career Advisors
• Statistical Data
• News & Announcements
• Press Releases
• Social Media
• Mission, Vision, Values
• Strategic Plan
• Society Governance
• Society History
• Donate to APS
• Become a Member

Publications

APS publications serve the international physics community with peer-reviewed research journals, news and commentary about the latest research published in the Physical Review journals, news about and for members, information about physics and its place in the world, and blogs covering science policy, as well as fun and educational science news.

The Physical Review journal collection of 17 leading peer-reviewed research journals includes Physical Review Letters , Physical Review X , Physical Review , and Reviews of Modern Physics .

Physical Review journals homepage

Physical Review Letters

Physical Review A

Physical Review D

Physical Review Accelerators & Beams

Physical Review Materials

Physical Review X

PRX Quantum

Physical Review B

Physical Review E

Physical Review Applied

Physical Review PER

Reviews of Modern Physics

Physical Review C

Physical Review Research

Physical Review Fluids

Spotlighting Exceptional Research Physics Magazine provides daily news and commentary about a selection of papers from the Physical Review journal collection with explanations that don’t rely on jargon and technical detail.

Recent Articles from Physics Magazine The Path to Making Batteries Green Lithium-Ion "Traffic Jam" Behind Reduced Battery Performance Electrochemists Wanted for Vocational Degrees

Signup for Weekly Email Alerts

Physics Today , published by the American Institute of Physics and provided to APS members as a member benefit, informs readers about science and its place in the world with authoritative feature articles, news stories, and analyses.

• Read Physics Today Online

APS News contains the news of APS and its units, as well as reports, announcements, and opinions from the society and its members.

Read the Current Issue

Bulletin of the American Physical Society

The technical programs of APS general and various unit meetings of the Society.

• Find an Abstract
• Submit an Abstract

Sustainability at APS

APS is committed to sustainability in all forms, from supporting scientists seeking climate solutions to ensuring quality physics education that advances the next generation's involvement in the field. APS supports the United Nations's Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) and the SDG Publisher's Compact.

Learn about the SDG Publisher's Compact

Publications Quick Links

• Find a Journal Article
• Submit a Journal Article
• Submit a Letter to APS News
• Journal RSS Feeds
• Committee on Scientific Publications

Unit Newsletters

Many units publish newsletters to keep members informed of their activities.

• View Unit Websites

Become an APS Member Submit a Meeting Abstract Submit a Manuscript Find a Journal Article Donate to APS

Renew Membership Join an APS Unit Update Contact Information

Information for

Librarians Authors Referees Media Students

The American Physical Society (APS) is a nonprofit membership organization working to advance the knowledge of physics.

© 2024 American Physical Society | Privacy Policy | Contact Us 1 Physics Ellipse, College Park, MD 20740-3844 | (301) 209-3200

International Journal of Theoretical Physics

International Journal of Theoretical Physics  is a single-blind peer-reviewed journal dedicated to the development and fostering of theoretical physics as an overarching and unifying conceptual, mathematical, methodological and computational framework for carrying out fundamental research in physics. Of particular interest are articles that:

•  introduce new and very broadly applicable theoretical methods
•  uncover connections between hitherto independent theoretical approaches
•  review recent research (or ongoing research programs) explicitly aimed at crossing disciplinary borders  
• Andreas Wipf

Latest articles

Orbits around a black bounce spacetime.

• Marcos V. de S. Silva
• Manuel E. Rodrigues

A Quantum Image Encryption and Watermarking Algorithm Based on QDCT and Baker map

• Nan-Run Zhou
• Meng-Meng Wang

Similarity Reductions on a (2 \(+\) 1)-Dimensional Variable-Coefficient Modified Kadomtsev-Petviashvili System Describing Certain Electromagnetic Waves in a Thin Film

• Xiao-Tian Gao

Secure Three-Party Quantum Summation based on W-class States

• Haozhen Situ

Logic Meets Wigner’s Friend (and their Friends)

• Alexandru Baltag
• Sonja Smets

Journal updates

New editor-in-chief and new aims-and-scope as of 2023, journal information.

• Astrophysics Data System (ADS)
• Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS)
• Current Contents/Physical, Chemical and Earth Sciences
• Google Scholar
• Japanese Science and Technology Agency (JST)
• Mathematical Reviews
• OCLC WorldCat Discovery Service
• Science Citation Index Expanded (SCIE)
• TD Net Discovery Service
• UGC-CARE List (India)

Rights and permissions

Springer policies

© Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature

• Find a journal
• Publish with us
• Track your research

• Diversity & Inclusion
• Community Values
• Visiting MIT Physics
• People Directory
• Faculty Awards
• History of MIT Physics
• Policies and Procedures
• Departmental Committees
• Academic Programs Team
• Finance Team
• Meet the Academic Programs Team
• Prospective Students
• Requirements
• Employment Opportunities
• Research Opportunities
• Graduate Admissions
• Doctoral Guidelines
• Financial Support
• Graduate Student Resources
• PhD in Physics, Statistics, and Data Science
• MIT LEAPS Program
• for Undergraduate Students
• for Graduate Students
• Mentoring Programs Info for Faculty
• Non-degree Programs
• Student Awards & Honors
• Astrophysics Observation, Instrumentation, and Experiment
• Astrophysics Theory
• Atomic Physics
• Condensed Matter Experiment
• Condensed Matter Theory
• High Energy and Particle Theory
• Nuclear Physics Experiment
• Particle Physics Experiment
• Quantum Gravity and Field Theory
• Quantum Information Science
• Strong Interactions and Nuclear Theory
• Center for Theoretical Physics
• Affiliated Labs & Centers
• Program Founder
• Competition
• Donor Profiles
• Patrons of Physics Fellows Society
• Giving Opportunties
• physics@mit Journal: Fall 2023 Edition
• Events Calendar
• Physics Colloquia
• Search for: Search

The Physics Department strives to be at the forefront of many areas where new physics can be found. Consequently, we work on problems where extreme conditions may reveal new behavior. We study the largest things in the universe: clusters of galaxies or even the entire universe itself. We study the smallest things in the universe: elementary particles or even the strings that may be the substructure of these particles. We study the hottest things in the universe: collisions of nuclei at relativistic velocities that make droplets of matter hotter than anything since the Big Bang. We study the coldest things in the universe: laser-cooled atoms so cold that their wave functions overlap resulting in a macroscopic collective state–the Bose-Einstein condensate. While we often study the simplest things, such as individual atoms, we study the most complicated things too: unusual materials like high temperature superconductors and those that are important in biology. By pushing the limits, we have the chance to observe new general principles and to test theories of the structure and behavior of matter and energy. The links at the left will lead you to overviews of the research done in the Physics Department, organized in four broad areas, as well as to the web pages of the faculty working in each area.

Accessibility Links

• Skip to content
• Skip to search IOPscience
• Skip to Journals list
• Accessibility help
• Accessibility Help

Click here to close this panel.

The Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft (DPG) with a tradition extending back to 1845 is the largest physical society in the world with more than 61,000 members. The DPG sees itself as the forum and mouthpiece for physics and is a non-profit organisation that does not pursue financial interests. It supports the sharing of ideas and thoughts within the scientific community, fosters physics teaching and would also like to open a window to physics for all those with a healthy curiosity.

The Institute of Physics (IOP) is a leading scientific society promoting physics and bringing physicists together for the benefit of all. It has a worldwide membership of around 50 000 comprising physicists from all sectors, as well as those with an interest in physics. It works to advance physics research, application and education; and engages with policy makers and the public to develop awareness and understanding of physics. Its publishing company, IOP Publishing, is a world leader in professional scientific communications.

New Journal of Physics (NJP) publishes important new research of the highest scientific quality with significance across a broad readership. The journal is owned and run by scientific societies, with the selection of content and the peer review managed by a prestigious international board of scientists.

Open all abstracts , in this tab

Caroline Cohen et al 2015 New J. Phys. 17 063001

The conical shape of a shuttlecock allows it to flip on impact. As a light and extended particle, it flies with a pure drag trajectory. We first study the flip phenomenon and the dynamics of the flight and then discuss the implications on the game. Lastly, a possible classification of different shots is proposed.

Ran Finkelstein et al 2023 New J. Phys. 25 035001

This tutorial introduces the theoretical and experimental basics of electromagnetically induced transparency (EIT) in thermal alkali vapors. We first give a brief phenomenological description of EIT in simple three-level systems of stationary atoms and derive analytical expressions for optical absorption and dispersion under EIT conditions. Then we focus on how the thermal motion of atoms affects various parameters of the EIT system. Specifically, we analyze the Doppler broadening of optical transitions, ballistic versus diffusive atomic motion in a limited-volume interaction region, and collisional depopulation and decoherence. Finally, we discuss the common trade-offs important for optimizing an EIT experiment and give a brief 'walk-through' of a typical EIT experimental setup. We conclude with a brief overview of current and potential EIT applications.

Roger Bach et al 2013 New J. Phys. 15 033018

Double-slit diffraction is a corner stone of quantum mechanics. It illustrates key features of quantum mechanics: interference and the particle-wave duality of matter. In 1965, Richard Feynman presented a thought experiment to show these features. Here we demonstrate the full realization of his famous thought experiment. By placing a movable mask in front of a double-slit to control the transmission through the individual slits, probability distributions for single- and double-slit arrangements were observed. Also, by recording single electron detection events diffracting through a double-slit, a diffraction pattern was built up from individual events.

J E Avron et al 2015 New J. Phys. 17 043009

We construct Lindbladians associated with controlled stochastic Hamiltonians in the weak coupling regime. This construction allows us to determine the power spectrum of the noise from measurements of dephasing rates. Moreover, by studying the derived equation it is possible to optimize the control as well as to test numerical algorithms that solve controlled stochastic Schrödinger equations. A few examples are worked out in detail.

Jarrod R McClean et al 2016 New J. Phys. 18 023023

Many quantum algorithms have daunting resource requirements when compared to what is available today. To address this discrepancy, a quantum-classical hybrid optimization scheme known as 'the quantum variational eigensolver' was developed (Peruzzo et al 2014 Nat. Commun. 5 4213 ) with the philosophy that even minimal quantum resources could be made useful when used in conjunction with classical routines. In this work we extend the general theory of this algorithm and suggest algorithmic improvements for practical implementations. Specifically, we develop a variational adiabatic ansatz and explore unitary coupled cluster where we establish a connection from second order unitary coupled cluster to universal gate sets through a relaxation of exponential operator splitting. We introduce the concept of quantum variational error suppression that allows some errors to be suppressed naturally in this algorithm on a pre-threshold quantum device. Additionally, we analyze truncation and correlated sampling in Hamiltonian averaging as ways to reduce the cost of this procedure. Finally, we show how the use of modern derivative free optimization techniques can offer dramatic computational savings of up to three orders of magnitude over previously used optimization techniques.

Dominic Horsman et al 2012 New J. Phys. 14 123011

In recent years, surface codes have become a leading method for quantum error correction in theoretical large-scale computational and communications architecture designs. Their comparatively high fault-tolerant thresholds and their natural two-dimensional nearest-neighbour (2DNN) structure make them an obvious choice for large scale designs in experimentally realistic systems. While fundamentally based on the toric code of Kitaev, there are many variants, two of which are the planar- and defect-based codes. Planar codes require fewer qubits to implement (for the same strength of error correction), but are restricted to encoding a single qubit of information. Interactions between encoded qubits are achieved via transversal operations, thus destroying the inherent 2DNN nature of the code. In this paper we introduce a new technique enabling the coupling of two planar codes without transversal operations, maintaining the 2DNN of the encoded computer. Our lattice surgery technique comprises splitting and merging planar code surfaces, and enables us to perform universal quantum computation (including magic state injection) while removing the need for braided logic in a strictly 2DNN design, and hence reduces the overall qubit resources for logic operations. Those resources are further reduced by the use of a rotated lattice for the planar encoding. We show how lattice surgery allows us to distribute encoded GHZ states in a more direct (and overhead friendly) manner, and how a demonstration of an encoded CNOT between two distance-3 logical states is possible with 53 physical qubits, half of that required in any other known construction in 2D.

Antonio Acín et al 2018 New J. Phys. 20 080201

Within the last two decades, quantum technologies (QT) have made tremendous progress, moving from Nobel Prize award-winning experiments on quantum physics (1997: Chu, Cohen-Tanoudji, Phillips; 2001: Cornell, Ketterle, Wieman; 2005: Hall, Hänsch-, Glauber; 2012: Haroche, Wineland) into a cross-disciplinary field of applied research. Technologies are being developed now that explicitly address individual quantum states and make use of the 'strange' quantum properties, such as superposition and entanglement. The field comprises four domains: quantum communication, where individual or entangled photons are used to transmit data in a provably secure way; quantum simulation, where well-controlled quantum systems are used to reproduce the behaviour of other, less accessible quantum systems; quantum computation, which employs quantum effects to dramatically speed up certain calculations, such as number factoring; and quantum sensing and metrology, where the high sensitivity of coherent quantum systems to external perturbations is exploited to enhance the performance of measurements of physical quantities. In Europe, the QT community has profited from several EC funded coordination projects, which, among other things, have coordinated the creation of a 150-page QT Roadmap ( http://qurope.eu/h2020/qtflagship/roadmap2016 ). This article presents an updated summary of this roadmap.

Shinsei Ryu et al 2010 New J. Phys. 12 065010

L S Liebovitch et al 2019 New J. Phys. 21 073022

Peace is not merely the absence of war and violence, rather 'positive peace' is the political, economic, and social systems that generate and sustain peaceful societies. Our international and multidisciplinary group is using physics inspired complex systems analysis methods to understand the factors and their interactions that together support and maintain peace. We developed causal loop diagrams and from them ordinary differential equation models of the system needed for sustainable peace. We then used that mathematical model to determine the attractors in the system, the dynamics of the approach to those attractors, and the factors and connections that play the most important role in determining the final state of the system. We used data science ('big data') methods to measure quantitative values of the peace factors from structured and unstructured (social media) data. We also developed a graphical user interface for the mathematical model so that social scientists or policy makers, can by themselves, explore the effects of changing the variables and parameters in these systems. These results demonstrate that complex systems analysis methods, previously developed and applied to physical and biological systems, can also be productively applied to analyze social systems such as those needed for sustainable peace.

Xuan Zuo et al 2024 New J. Phys. 26 031201

Hybrid quantum systems based on magnons in magnetic materials have made significant progress in the past decade. They are built based on the couplings of magnons with microwave photons, optical photons, vibration phonons, and superconducting qubits. In particular, the interactions among magnons, microwave cavity photons, and vibration phonons form the system of cavity magnomechanics (CMM), which lies in the interdisciplinary field of cavity QED, magnonics, quantum optics, and quantum information. Here, we review the experimental and theoretical progress of this emerging field. We first introduce the underlying theories of the magnomechanical coupling, and then some representative classical phenomena that have been experimentally observed, including magnomechanically induced transparency, magnomechanical dynamical backaction, magnon-phonon cross-Kerr nonlinearity, etc. We also discuss a number of theoretical proposals, which show the potential of the CMM system for preparing different kinds of quantum states of magnons, phonons, and photons, and hybrid systems combining magnomechanics and optomechanics and relevant quantum protocols based on them. Finally, we summarize this review and provide an outlook for the future research directions in this field.

Latest articles

Hongzheng Wu et al 2024 New J. Phys. 26 043020

We theoretically study the tunneling dynamics of two interacting spin–orbit-coupled (SOC) atoms trapped in a periodically perturbed double-well potential. We find that the phenomenon of coherent destruction of tunneling (CDT) can exist only for certain values of SOC, and two different mechanisms for the appearance of CDT are identified in this system. One is the conventional CDT resulting from quasi-energy degeneracy, while the other CDT originates from the dark Floquet state with zero quasi-energy for all values of the driving parameters. We discover that under double modulation combining the double-well potential shaking and a time-periodic Zeeman field, it is possible to realize spin-flipping single-atom Rabi tunneling and the CDT induced by the dark Floquet state at any value of SOC strength, which is not accessible with a single-drive field. Furthermore, we show that the detuning of Zeeman field with respect to the multiphoton energy is particularly significant in the case of the correlated two-particle tunneling mediated by SOC. We expect that these results will stimulate further exploration of the many-body dynamics in the interacting systems and expand the possibilities for manipulating the spin dynamics.

Aiko Yamaguchi et al 2024 New J. Phys. 26 043019

We report the spectroscopic characterization of a Kerr parametric oscillator (KPO) based on the measurement of its reflection coefficient under a two-photon drive induced by flux modulation. The measured reflection spectra show good agreement with numerical simulations in terms of their dependence on the two-photon drive amplitude. The spectra can be interpreted as changes in system's eigenenergies, transition matrix elements, and the population of the eigenstates, although the linewidth of the resonance structure is not fully explained. We also show that the drive-amplitude dependence of the spectra can be explained analytically by using the concepts of Rabi splitting and the Stark shift. By comparing the experimentally obtained spectra with theory, we show that the two-photon drive amplitude at the device can be precisely determined, which is important for the application of KPOs in quantum information processing.

Hui-Min Zhao et al 2024 New J. Phys. 26 043018

We propose a scheme for realizing broadband and tunable transmission non-reciprocity by utilizing two-photon near-resonant transitions in thermal atoms as single-photon far-detuned transitions can be eliminated. Our basic idea is to largely reduce the Doppler broadenings on a pair of two-photon, probe and coupling, transitions and meanwhile make the only four-photon transition Doppler-free (velocity-dependent) for a forward (backward) probe field. One main advantage of this scheme lies in that the transmission non-reciprocity can be realized and manipulated in a frequency range typically exceeding 200 MHz with isolation ratio above 20 dB and insertion loss below 1.0 dB by modulating an assistant field in frequency and amplitude. The intersecting angle between four applied fields also serves as an effective control knob to optimize the nonreciprocal transmission of a forward or backward probe field, e.g. in a much wider frequency range approaching 1.4 GHz.

Francesca Fabiana Settembrini et al 2024 New J. Phys. 26 043017

In recent years, electro-optic sampling, which is based on Pockel's effect between an electromagnetic mode and a copropagating, phase-matched ultrashort probe, has been largely used for the investigation of broadband quantum states of light, especially in the mid-infrared and terahertz frequency range. The use of two mutually delayed femtosecond pulses at near-infrared frequencies allows the measurement of quantum electromagnetic radiation in different space-time points. Their correlation allows therefore direct access to the spectral content of a broadband quantum state at terahertz frequencies after Fourier transformation. In this work, we will prove experimentally and theoretically that when using strongly focused coherent ultrashort probes, the electro-optic sampling technique can be affected by the presence of a third-order nonlinear mixing of the probes' electric field at near-infrared frequencies. Moreover, we will show that these third-order nonlinear phenomena can also influence correlation measurements of the quantum electromagnetic radiation. We will prove that the four-wave mixing of the coherent probes' electric field with their own electromagnetic vacuum at near-infrared frequencies results in the generation of a higher-order nonlinear correlation term. The latter will be characterized experimentally, proving its local nature requiring the physical overlap of the two probes. The parameters regime where higher order nonlinear correlation results predominant with respect to electro-optic correlation of terahertz radiation is provided.

Shu-Min Wu et al 2024 New J. Phys. 26 043016

In this paper, we use the concepts of quantum entanglement and coherence to analyze the Unruh and anti-Unruh effects based on the model of Unruh–DeWitt detector. For the first time, we find that (i) the Unruh effect reduces quantum entanglement but enhances quantum coherence; (ii) the anti-Unruh effect enhances quantum entanglement but reduces quantum coherence. This surprising result refutes the notion that the Unruh effect can only destroy quantum entanglement and coherence simultaneously, and that the anti-Unruh can only protect quantum resources. Consequently, it opens up a new source for discovering experimental evidence supporting the existence of the Unruh and anti-Unruh effects.

Review articles

J Lambert and E S Sørensen 2023 New J. Phys. 25 081201

Recently, there has been considerable interest in the application of information geometry to quantum many body physics. This interest has been driven by three separate lines of research, which can all be understood as different facets of quantum information geometry. First, the study of topological phases of matter characterized by Chern number is rooted in the symplectic structure of the quantum state space, known in the physics literature as Berry curvature. Second, in the study of quantum phase transitions, the fidelity susceptibility has gained prominence as a universal probe of quantum criticality, even for systems that lack an obviously discernible order parameter. Finally, the study of quantum Fisher information in many body systems has seen a surge of interest due to its role as a witness of genuine multipartite entanglement and owing to its utility as a quantifier of quantum resources, in particular those useful in quantum sensing. Rather than a thorough review, our aim is to connect key results within a common conceptual framework that may serve as an introductory guide to the extensive breadth of applications, and deep mathematical roots, of quantum information geometry, with an intended audience of researchers in quantum many body and condensed matter physics.

Quentin Glorieux et al 2023 New J. Phys. 25 051201

Nonlinear optics has been a very dynamic field of research with spectacular phenomena discovered mainly after the invention of lasers. The combination of high intensity fields with resonant systems has further enhanced the nonlinearity with specific additional effects related to the resonances. In this paper we review a limited range of these effects which has been studied in the past decades using close-to-room-temperature atomic vapors as the nonlinear resonant medium. In particular we describe four-wave mixing and generation of nonclassical light in atomic vapors. One-and two-mode squeezing as well as photon correlations are discussed. Furthermore, we present some applications for optical and quantum memories based on hot atomic vapors. Finally, we present results on the recently developed field of quantum fluids of light using hot atomic vapors.

F Luoni et al 2021 New J. Phys. 23 101201

Realistic nuclear reaction cross-section models are an essential ingredient of reliable heavy-ion transport codes. Such codes are used for risk evaluation of manned space exploration missions as well as for ion-beam therapy dose calculations and treatment planning. Therefore, in this study, a collection of total nuclear reaction cross-section data has been generated within a GSI-ESA-NASA collaboration. The database includes the experimentally measured total nucleus–nucleus reaction cross-sections. The Tripathi, Kox, Shen, Kox–Shen, and Hybrid-Kurotama models are systematically compared with the collected data. Details about the implementation of the models are given. Literature gaps are pointed out and considerations are made about which models fit best the existing data for the most relevant systems to radiation protection in space and heavy-ion therapy.

S Al Kharusi et al 2021 New J. Phys. 23 031201

The next core-collapse supernova in the Milky Way or its satellites will represent a once-in-a-generation opportunity to obtain detailed information about the explosion of a star and provide significant scientific insight for a variety of fields because of the extreme conditions found within. Supernovae in our galaxy are not only rare on a human timescale but also happen at unscheduled times, so it is crucial to be ready and use all available instruments to capture all possible information from the event. The first indication of a potential stellar explosion will be the arrival of a bright burst of neutrinos. Its observation by multiple detectors worldwide can provide an early warning for the subsequent electromagnetic fireworks, as well as signal to other detectors with significant backgrounds so they can store their recent data. The supernova early warning system (SNEWS) has been operating as a simple coincidence between neutrino experiments in automated mode since 2005. In the current era of multi-messenger astronomy there are new opportunities for SNEWS to optimize sensitivity to science from the next galactic supernova beyond the simple early alert. This document is the product of a workshop in June 2019 towards design of SNEWS 2.0, an upgraded SNEWS with enhanced capabilities exploiting the unique advantages of prompt neutrino detection to maximize the science gained from such a valuable event.

Accepted manuscripts

Mäusezahl et al 

This tutorial provides a hands-on entry point about laser locking for atomic vapor research and related research such as laser cooling. We furthermore introduce common materials and methods for the fabrication of vapor cells as a tool for this research. Its aim is not to be exhaustive, but rather to provide an overview about the possible techniques that are actively employed in labs today. Some critical parameters of locked laser system for use with thermal atomic vapors are introduced and discussed. To exemplify this, we describe a versatile locking system that caters for many of the needs we found during our research with thermal atomic vapors. We also emphasize the compromises we took during our decision-making process.

Alaeian et al 

To facilitate the transition of quantum effects from the controlled laboratory environment to practical real-world applications, there is a pressing need for scalable platforms. One promising strategy involves integrating thermal vapors with nanostructures designed to manipulate atomic interactions. In this tutorial, we aim to gain deeper insights into this by examining the behavior of thermal vapors that
are confined within nanocavities or waveguides and exposed to near-resonant light. We explore the interactions between atoms in confined dense thermal vapors. Our investigation reveals deviations from the predictions of continuous electrodynamics models, including density-dependent line shifts and broadening effects. In particular, our results demonstrate that by carefully controlling the saturation of single atoms and the interactions among multiple atoms using nanostructures, along with controlling the geometry of the atomic cloud, it becomes possible to manipulate the effective optical nonlinearity of the entire atomic ensemble. This capability renders the hybrid thermal atom-nanophotonic platform a distinctive and valuable one for manipulating the collective effect and achieving substantial optical nonlinearities.

Lei et al 

The wavelengths and transition rates of W 40+ - W 42+ ions within the range of 40-140 Å, have been calculated using the Flexible Atomic Code of the Dirac-Fock-Slater method with a central potential. We investigated the charge state distribution of W 38+ - W 45+ ions at different temperatures by constructing an appropriate rate equation and demonstrate the importance of the dielectronic recombination process. Additionally, we simulated the emission spectra of W 40+ - W 42+ ions in a Tokamak plasma environment using collisional-radiative modeling. Our findings demonstrate strong agreement with experimental results and other related theoretical investigations. Finally, we propose certain pairs of transition lines as diagnostic tools for plasma temperature and density, leveraging the correlation between line intensity ratio and electron temperature and density.

In this paper, a statistical physical derivation of thermodynamically consistent fluid mechanical equations is presented for non-isothermal viscous molecular fluids. The coarse-graining process is based on (i) the adiabatic expansion of the one-particle probability density function around Local Thermodynamic Equilibrium, (ii) the assumption of decoupled particle positions and momenta, and (iii) the variational principle. It is shown that there exists a class of free energy functionals for which the conventional thermodynamic formalism can be naturally adopted for non-equilibrium scenarios, and describes entropy monotonic fluid flow in isolated systems. Furthermore, the analysis of the general continuum equations revealed the possibility of a non-local transport mode of energy in highly compressible dense fluids.

Conlon et al 

Quantum mechanics has withstood every experimental test thus far. However, it relies on ad-hoc postulates which require experimental verification. Over the past decade there has been a great deal of research testing these postulates, with numerous tests of Born's rule for determining probabilities and the complex nature of the Hilbert space being carried out. Although these tests are yet to reveal any significant deviation from textbook quantum theory, it remains important to conduct such tests in different configurations and using different quantum states. Here we perform the first such test using coherent states of light in a three-arm interferometer combined with homodyne detection. Our proposed configuration requires additional assumptions, but importantly allows us to use quantum states which exist in a larger Hilbert space compared to previous tests. For testing Born's rule, we find that the third order interference is bounded to be κ = 0.002 ± 0.004 and for testing whether quantum mechanics is complex or not we find a Peres parameter of F = 1.0000 ± 0.0003 (F = 1 corresponds to the expected complex quantum mechanics). We also design and implement a test of Glauber's theory of optical coherence.

More Accepted manuscripts

Trending on Altmetric

Journal links.

• Submit an article
• About the journal
• Editorial Board
• Author guidelines
• Review for this journal
• Publication charges
• News and editorial
• Journal collections

Journal information

• 1998-present New Journal of Physics doi: 10.1088/issn.1367-2630 Online ISSN: 1367-2630

• Position paper
• Open access
• Published: 28 November 2019

Physics education research for 21 st century learning

• Lei Bao   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3348-4198 1 &
• Kathleen Koenig 2  

Disciplinary and Interdisciplinary Science Education Research volume  1 , Article number:  2 ( 2019 ) Cite this article

38k Accesses

71 Citations

2 Altmetric

Metrics details

Education goals have evolved to emphasize student acquisition of the knowledge and attributes necessary to successfully contribute to the workforce and global economy of the twenty-first Century. The new education standards emphasize higher end skills including reasoning, creativity, and open problem solving. Although there is substantial research evidence and consensus around identifying essential twenty-first Century skills, there is a lack of research that focuses on how the related subskills interact and develop over time. This paper provides a brief review of physics education research as a means for providing a context towards future work in promoting deep learning and fostering abilities in high-end reasoning. Through a synthesis of the literature around twenty-first Century skills and physics education, a set of concretely defined education and research goals are suggested for future research, along with how these may impact the next generation physics courses and how physics should be taught in the future.

Introduction

Education is the primary service offered by society to prepare its future generation workforce. The goals of education should therefore meet the demands of the changing world. The concept of learner-centered, active learning has broad, growing support in the research literature as an empirically validated teaching practice that best promotes learning for modern day students (Freeman et al., 2014 ). It stems out of the constructivist view of learning, which emphasizes that it is the learner who needs to actively construct knowledge and the teacher should assume the role of a facilitator rather than the source of knowledge. As implied by the constructivist view, learner-centered education usually emphasizes active-engagement and inquiry style teaching-learning methods, in which the learners can effectively construct their understanding under the guidance of instruction. The learner-centered education also requires educators and researchers to focus their efforts on the learners’ needs, not only to deliver effective teaching-learning approaches, but also to continuously align instructional practices to the education goals of the times. The goals of introductory college courses in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) disciplines have constantly evolved from some notion of weed-out courses that emphasize content drilling, to the current constructivist active-engagement type of learning that promotes interest in STEM careers and fosters high-end cognitive abilities.

Following the conceptually defined framework of twenty-first Century teaching and learning, this paper aims to provide contextualized operational definitions of the goals for twenty-first Century learning in physics (and STEM in general) as well as the rationale for the importance of these outcomes for current students. Aligning to the twenty-first Century learning goals, research in physics education is briefly reviewed to provide a context towards future work in promoting deep learning and fostering abilities in high-end reasoning in parallel. Through a synthesis of the literature around twenty-first Century skills and physics education, a set of concretely defined education and research goals are suggested for future research. These goals include: domain-specific research in physics learning; fostering scientific reasoning abilities that are transferable across the STEM disciplines; and dissemination of research-validated curriculum and approaches to teaching and learning. Although this review has a focus on physics education research (PER), it is beneficial to expand the perspective to view physics education in the broader context of STEM learning. Therefore, much of the discussion will blend PER with STEM education as a continuum body of work on teaching and learning.

Education goals for twenty-first century learning

Education goals have evolved to emphasize student acquisition of essential “21 st Century skills”, which define the knowledge and attributes necessary to successfully contribute to the workforce and global economy of the 21st Century (National Research Council, 2011 , 2012a ). In general, these standards seek to transition from emphasizing content-based drilling and memorization towards fostering higher-end skills including reasoning, creativity, and open problem solving (United States Chamber of Commerce, 2017 ). Initiatives on advancing twenty-first Century education focus on skills that converge on three broad clusters: cognitive, interpersonal, and intrapersonal, all of which include a rich set of sub-dimensions.

Within the cognitive domain, multiple competencies have been proposed, including deep learning, non-routine problem solving, systems thinking, critical thinking, computational and information literacy, reasoning and argumentation, and innovation (National Research Council, 2012b ; National Science and Technology Council, 2018 ). Interpersonal skills are those necessary for relating to others, including the ability to work creatively and collaboratively as well as communicate clearly. Intrapersonal skills, on the other hand, reside within the individual and include metacognitive thinking, adaptability, and self-management. These involve the ability to adjust one’s strategy or approach along with the ability to work towards important goals without significant distraction, both essential for sustained success in long-term problem solving and career development.

Although many descriptions exist for what qualifies as twenty-first Century skills, student abilities in scientific reasoning and critical thinking are the most commonly noted and widely studied. They are highly connected with the other cognitive skills of problem solving, decision making, and creative thinking (Bailin, 1996 ; Facione, 1990 ; Fisher, 2001 ; Lipman, 2003 ; Marzano et al., 1988 ), and have been important educational goals since the 1980s (Binkley et al., 2010 ; NCET, 1987 ). As a result, they play a foundational role in defining, assessing, and developing twenty-first Century skills.

The literature for critical thinking is extensive (Bangert-Drowns & Bankert, 1990 ; Facione, 1990 ; Glaser, 1941 ). Various definitions exist with common underlying principles. Broadly defined, critical thinking is the application of the cognitive skills and strategies that aim for and support evidence-based decision making. It is the thinking involved in solving problems, formulating inferences, calculating likelihoods, and making decisions (Halpern, 1999 ). It is the “reasonable reflective thinking focused on deciding what to believe or do” (Ennis, 1993 ). Critical thinking is recognized as a way to understand and evaluate subject matter; producing reliable knowledge and improving thinking itself (Paul, 1990 ; Siegel, 1988 ).

The notion of scientific reasoning is often used to label the set of skills that support critical thinking, problem solving, and creativity in STEM. Broadly defined, scientific reasoning includes the thinking and reasoning skills involved in inquiry, experimentation, evidence evaluation, inference and argument that support the formation and modification of concepts and theories about the natural world; such as the ability to systematically explore a problem, formulate and test hypotheses, manipulate and isolate variables, and observe and evaluate consequences (Bao et al., 2009 ; Zimmerman, 2000 ). Critical thinking and scientific reasoning share many features, where both emphasize evidence-based decision making in multivariable causal conditions. Critical thinking can be promoted through the development of scientific reasoning, which includes student ability to reach a reliable conclusion after identifying a question, formulating hypotheses, gathering relevant data, and logically testing and evaluating the hypothesis. In this way, scientific reasoning can be viewed as a scientific domain instantiation of critical thinking in the context of STEM learning.

In STEM learning, cognitive aspects of the twenty-first Century skills aim to develop reasoning skills, critical thinking skills, and deep understanding, all of which allow students to develop well connected expert-like knowledge structures and engage in meaningful scientific inquiry and problem solving. Within physics education, a core component of STEM education, the learning of conceptual understanding and problem solving remains a current emphasis. However, the fast-changing work environment and technology-driven world require a new set of core knowledge, skills, and habits of mind to solve complex interdisciplinary problems, gather and evaluate evidence, and make sense of information from a variety of sources (Tanenbaum, 2016 ). The education goals in physics are transitioning towards ability fostering as well as extension and integration with other STEM disciplines. Although curriculum that supports these goals is limited, there are a number of attempts, particularly in developing active learning classrooms and inquiry-based laboratory activities, which have demonstrated success. Some of these are described later in this paper as they provide a foundation for future work in physics education.

Interpersonal skills, such as communication and collaboration, are also essential for twenty-first Century problem-solving tasks, which are often open-ended, complex, and team-based. As the world becomes more connected in a multitude of dimensions, tackling significant problems involving complex systems often goes beyond the individual and requires working with others who are increasingly from culturally diverse backgrounds. Due to the rise of communication technologies, being able to articulate thoughts and ideas in a variety of formats and contexts is crucial, as well as the ability to effectively listen or observe to decipher meaning. Interpersonal skills can be promoted by integrating group-learning experiences into the classroom setting, while providing students with the opportunity to engage in open-ended tasks with a team of peer learners who may propose more than one plausible solution. These experiences should be designed such that students must work collaboratively and responsibly in teams to develop creative solutions, which are later disseminated through informative presentations and clearly written scientific reports. Although educational settings in general have moved to providing students with more and more opportunities for collaborative learning, a lack of effective assessments for these important skills has been a limiting factor for producing informative research and widespread implementation. See Liu ( 2010 ) for an overview of measurement instruments reported in the research literature.

Intrapersonal skills are based on the individual and include the ability to manage one’s behavior and emotions to achieve goals. These are especially important for adapting in the fast-evolving collaborative modern work environment and for learning new tasks to solve increasingly challenging interdisciplinary problems, both of which require intellectual openness, work ethic, initiative, and metacognition, to name a few. These skills can be promoted using instruction which, for example, includes metacognitive learning strategies, provides opportunities to make choices and set goals for learning, and explicitly connects to everyday life events. However, like interpersonal skills, the availability of relevant assessments challenges advancement in this area. In this review, the vast amount of studies on interpersonal and intrapersonal skills will not be discussed in order to keep the main focus on the cognitive side of skills and reasoning.

The purpose behind discussing twenty-first Century skills is that this set of skills provides important guidance for establishing essential education goals for modern society and learners. However, although there is substantial research evidence and consensus around identifying necessary twenty-first Century skills, there is a lack of research that focuses on how the related subskills interact and develop over time (Reimers & Chung, 2016 ), with much of the existing research residing in academic literature that is focused on psychology rather than education systems (National Research Council, 2012a ). Therefore, a major and challenging task for discipline-based education researchers and educators is to operationally define discipline-specific goals that align with the twenty-first Century skills for each of the STEM fields. In the following sections, this paper will provide a limited vision of the research endeavors in physics education that can translate the past and current success into sustained impact for twenty-first Century teaching and learning.

Proposed education and research goals

Physics education research (PER) is often considered an early pioneer in discipline-based education research (National Research Council, 2012c ), with well-established, broad, and influential outcomes (e.g., Hake, 1998 ; Hsu, Brewe, Foster, & Harper, 2004 ; McDermott & Redish, 1999 ; Meltzer & Thornton, 2012 ). Through the integration of twenty-first Century skills with the PER literature, a set of broadly defined education and research goals is proposed for future PER work:

Discipline-specific deep learning: Cognitive and education research involving physics learning has established a rich literature on student learning behaviors along with a number of frameworks. Some of the popular frameworks include conceptual understanding and concept change, problem solving, knowledge structure, deep learning, and knowledge integration. Aligned with twenty-first Century skills, future research in physics learning should aim to integrate the multiple areas of existing work, such that they help students develop well integrated knowledge structures in order to achieve deep leaning in physics.

Fostering scientific reasoning for transfer across STEM disciplines: The broad literature in physics learning and scientific reasoning can provide a solid foundation to further develop effective physics education approaches, such as active engagement instruction and inquiry labs, specifically targeting scientific inquiry abilities and reasoning skills. Since scientific reasoning is a more domain-general cognitive ability, success in physics can also more readily inform research and education practices in other STEM fields.

Research, development, assessment, and dissemination of effective education approaches: Developing and maintaining a supportive infrastructure of education research and implementation has always been a challenge, not only in physics but in all STEM areas. The twenty-first Century education requires researchers and instructors across STEM to work together as an extended community in order to construct a sustainable integrated STEM education environment. Through this new infrastructure, effective team-based inquiry learning and meaningful assessment can be delivered to help students develop a comprehensive skills set including deep understanding and scientific reasoning, as well as communication and other non-cognitive abilities.

The suggested research will generate understanding and resources to support education practices that meet the requirements of the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS), which explicitly emphasize three areas of learning including disciplinary core ideas, crosscutting concepts, and practices (National Research Council, 2012b ). The first goal for promoting deep learning of disciplinary knowledge corresponds well to the NGSS emphasis on disciplinary core ideas, which play a central role in helping students develop well integrated knowledge structures to achieve deep understanding. The second goal on fostering transferable scientific reasoning skills supports the NGSS emphasis on crosscutting concepts and practices. Scientific reasoning skills are crosscutting cognitive abilities that are essential to the development of domain-general concepts and modeling strategies. In addition, the development of scientific reasoning requires inquiry-based learning and practices. Therefore, research on scientific reasoning can produce a valuable knowledge base on education means that are effective for developing crosscutting concepts and promoting meaningful practices in STEM. The third research goal addresses the challenge in the assessment of high-end skills and the dissemination of effective educational approaches, which supports all NGSS initiatives to ensure sustainable development and lasting impact. The following sections will discuss the research literature that provides the foundation for these three research goals and identify the specific challenges that will need to be addressed in future work.

Promoting deep learning in physics education

Physics education for the twenty-first Century aims to foster high-end reasoning skills and promote deep conceptual understanding. However, many traditional education systems place strong emphasis on only problem solving with the expectation that students obtain deep conceptual understanding through repetitive problem-solving practices, which often doesn’t occur (Alonso, 1992 ). This focus on problem solving has been shown to have limitations as a number of studies have revealed disconnections between learning conceptual understanding and problem-solving skills (Chiu, 2001 ; Chiu, Guo, & Treagust, 2007 ; Hoellwarth, Moelter, & Knight, 2005 ; Kim & Pak, 2002 ; Nakhleh, 1993 ; Nakhleh & Mitchell, 1993 ; Nurrenbern & Pickering, 1987 ; Stamovlasis, Tsaparlis, Kamilatos, Papaoikonomou, & Zarotiadou, 2005 ). In fact, drilling in problem solving may actually promote memorization of context-specific solutions with minimal generalization rather than transitioning students from novices to experts.

Towards conceptual understanding and learning, many models and definitions have been established to study and describe student conceptual knowledge states and development. For example, students coming into a physics classroom often hold deeply rooted, stable understandings that differ from expert conceptions. These are commonly referred to as misconceptions or alternative conceptions (Clement, 1982 ; Duit & Treagust, 2003 ; Dykstra Jr, Boyle, & Monarch, 1992 ; Halloun & Hestenes, 1985a , 1985b ). Such students’ conceptions are context dependent and exist as disconnected knowledge fragments, which are strongly situated within specific contexts (Bao & Redish, 2001 , 2006 ; Minstrell, 1992 ).

In modeling students’ knowledge structures, DiSessa’s proposed phenomenological primitives (p-prim) describe a learner’s implicit thinking, cued from specific contexts, as an underpinning cognitive construct for a learner’s expressed conception (DiSessa, 1993 ; Smith III, DiSessa, & Roschelle, 1994 ). Facets, on the other hand, map between the implicit p-prim and concrete statements of beliefs and are developed as discrete and independent units of thought, knowledge, or strategies used by individuals to address specific situations (Minstrell, 1992 ). Ontological categories, defined by Chi, describe student reasoning in the most general sense. Chi believed that these are distinct, stable, and constraining, and that a core reason behind novices’ difficulties in physics is that they think of physics within the category of matter instead of processes (Chi, 1992 ; Chi & Slotta, 1993 ; Chi, Slotta, & De Leeuw, 1994 ; Slotta, Chi, & Joram, 1995 ). More details on conceptual learning and problem solving are well summarized in the literature (Hsu et al., 2004 ; McDermott & Redish, 1999 ), from which a common theme emerges from the models and definitions. That is, learning is context dependent and students with poor conceptual understanding typically have locally connected knowledge structures with isolated conceptual constructs that are unable to establish similarities and contrasts between contexts.

Additionally, this idea of fragmentation is demonstrated through many studies on student problem solving in physics and other fields. It has been shown that a student’s knowledge organization is a key aspect for distinguishing experts from novices (Bagno, Eylon, & Ganiel, 2000 ; Chi, Feltovich, & Glaser, 1981 ; De Jong & Ferguson-Hesler, 1986 ; Eylon & Reif, 1984 ; Ferguson-Hesler & De Jong, 1990 ; Heller & Reif, 1984 ; Larkin, McDermott, Simon, & Simon, 1980 ; Smith, 1992 ; Veldhuis, 1990 ; Wexler, 1982 ). Expert’s knowledge is organized around core principles of physics, which are applied to guide problem solving and develop connections between different domains as well as new, unfamiliar situations (Brown, 1989 ; Perkins & Salomon, 1989 ; Salomon & Perkins, 1989 ). Novices, on the other hand, lack a well-organized knowledge structure and often solve problems by relying on surface features that are directly mapped to certain problem-solving outcomes through memorization (Chi, Bassok, Lewis, Reimann, & Glaser, 1989 ; Hardiman, Dufresne, & Mestre, 1989 ; Schoenfeld & Herrmann, 1982 ).

This lack of organization creates many difficulties in the comprehension of basic concepts and in solving complex problems. This leads to the common complaint that students’ knowledge of physics is reduced to formulas and vague labels of the concepts, which are unable to substantively contribute to meaningful reasoning processes. A novice’s fragmented knowledge structure severely limits the learner’s conceptual understanding. In essence, these students are able to memorize how to approach a problem given specific information but lack the understanding of the underlying concept of the approach, limiting their ability to apply this approach to a novel situation. In order to achieve expert-like understanding, a student’s knowledge structure must integrate all of the fragmented ideas around the core principle to form a coherent and fully connected conceptual framework.

Towards a more general theoretical consideration, students’ alternative conceptions and fragmentation in knowledge structures can be viewed through both the “naïve theory” framework (e.g., Posner, Strike, Hewson, & Gertzog, 1982 ; Vosniadou, Vamvakoussi, & Skopeliti, 2008 ) and the “knowledge in pieces” (DiSessa, 1993 ) perspective. The “naïve theory” framework considers students entering the classroom with stable and coherent ideas (naïve theories) about the natural world that differ from those presented by experts. In the “knowledge in pieces” perspective, student knowledge is constructed in real-time and incorporates context features with the p-prims to form the observed conceptual expressions. Although there exists an ongoing debate between these two views (Kalman & Lattery, 2018 ), it is more productive to focus on their instructional implications for promoting meaningful conceptual change in students’ knowledge structures.

In the process of learning, students may enter the classroom with a range of initial states depending on the population and content. For topics with well-established empirical experiences, students often have developed their own ideas and understanding, while on topics without prior exposure, students may create their initial understanding in real-time based on related prior knowledge and given contextual features (Bao & Redish, 2006 ). These initial states of understanding, regardless of their origin, are usually different from those of experts. Therefore, the main function of teaching and learning is to guide students to modify their initial understanding towards the experts’ views. Although students’ initial understanding may exist as a body of coherent ideas within limited contexts, as students start to change their knowledge structures throughout the learning process, they may evolve into a wide range of transitional states with varying levels of knowledge integration and coherence. The discussion in this brief review on students’ knowledge structures regarding fragmentation and integration are primarily focused on the transitional stages emerged through learning.

The corresponding instructional goal is then to help students more effectively develop an integrated knowledge structure so as to achieve a deep conceptual understanding. From an educator’s perspective, Bloom’s taxonomy of education objectives establishes a hierarchy of six levels of cognitive skills based on their specificity and complexity: Remember (lowest and most specific), Understand, Apply, Analyze, Evaluate, and Create (highest and most general and complex) (Anderson et al., 2001 ; Bloom, Engelhart, Furst, Hill, & Krathwohl, 1956 ). This hierarchy of skills exemplifies the transition of a learner’s cognitive development from a fragmented and contextually situated knowledge structure (novice with low level cognitive skills) to a well-integrated and globally networked expert-like structure (with high level cognitive skills).

As a student’s learning progresses from lower to higher cognitive levels, the student’s knowledge structure becomes more integrated and is easier to transfer across contexts (less context specific). For example, beginning stage students may only be able to memorize and perform limited applications of the features of certain contexts and their conditional variations, with which the students were specifically taught. This leads to the establishment of a locally connected knowledge construct. When a student’s learning progresses from the level of Remember to Understand, the student begins to develop connections among some of the fragmented pieces to form a more fully connected network linking a larger set of contexts, thus advancing into a higher level of understanding. These connections and the ability to transfer between different situations form the basis of deep conceptual understanding. This growth of connections leads to a more complete and integrated cognitive structure, which can be mapped to a higher level on Bloom’s taxonomy. This occurs when students are able to relate a larger number of different contextual and conditional aspects of a concept for analyzing and evaluating to a wider variety of problem situations.

Promoting the growth of connections would appear to aid in student learning. Exactly which teaching methods best facilitate this are dependent on the concepts and skills being learned and should be determined through research. However, it has been well recognized that traditional instruction often fails to help students obtain expert-like conceptual understanding, with many misconceptions still existing after instruction, indicating weak integration within a student’s knowledge structure (McKeachie, 1986 ).

Recognizing the failures of traditional teaching, various research-informed teaching methods have been developed to enhance student conceptual learning along with diagnostic tests, which aim to measure the existence of misconceptions. Most advances in teaching methods focus on the inclusion of inquiry-based interactive-engagement elements in lecture, recitations, and labs. In physics education, these methods were popularized after Hake’s landmark study demonstrated the effectiveness of interactive-engagement over traditional lectures (Hake, 1998 ). Some of these methods include the use of peer instruction (Mazur, 1997 ), personal response systems (e.g., Reay, Bao, Li, Warnakulasooriya, & Baugh, 2005 ), studio-style instruction (Beichner et al., 2007 ), and inquiry-based learning (Etkina & Van Heuvelen, 2001 ; Laws, 2004 ; McDermott, 1996 ; Thornton & Sokoloff, 1998 ). The key approach of these methods aims to improve student learning by carefully targeting deficits in student knowledge and actively encouraging students to explore and discuss. Rather than rote memorization, these approaches help promote generalization and deeper conceptual understanding by building connections between knowledge elements.

Based on the literature, including Bloom’s taxonomy and the new education standards that emphasize twenty-first Century skills, a common focus on teaching and learning can be identified. This focus emphasizes helping students develop connections among fragmented segments of their knowledge pieces and is aligned with the knowledge integration perspective, which focuses on helping students develop and refine their knowledge structure toward a more coherently organized and extensively connected network of ideas (Lee, Liu, & Linn, 2011 ; Linn, 2005 ; Nordine, Krajcik, & Fortus, 2011 ; Shen, Liu, & Chang, 2017 ). For meaningful learning to occur, new concepts must be integrated into a learner’s existing knowledge structure by linking the new knowledge to already understood concepts.

Forming an integrated knowledge structure is therefore essential to achieving deep learning, not only in physics but also in all STEM fields. However, defining what connections must occur at different stages of learning, as well as understanding the instructional methods necessary for effectively developing such connections within each STEM disciplinary context, are necessary for current and future research. Together these will provide the much needed foundational knowledge base to guide the development of the next generation of curriculum and classroom environment designed around twenty-first Century learning.

Developing scientific reasoning with inquiry labs

Scientific reasoning is part of the widely emphasized cognitive strand of twenty-first Century skills. Through development of scientific reasoning skills, students’ critical thinking, open-ended problem-solving abilities, and decision-making skills can be improved. In this way, targeting scientific reasoning as a curricular objective is aligned with the goals emphasized in twenty-first Century education. Also, there is a growing body of research on the importance of student development of scientific reasoning, which have been found to positively correlate with course achievement (Cavallo, Rozman, Blickenstaff, & Walker, 2003 ; Johnson & Lawson, 1998 ), improvement on concept tests (Coletta & Phillips, 2005 ; She & Liao, 2010 ), engagement in higher levels of problem solving (Cracolice, Deming, & Ehlert, 2008 ; Fabby & Koenig, 2013 ); and success on transfer (Ates & Cataloglu, 2007 ; Jensen & Lawson, 2011 ).

Unfortunately, research has shown that college students are lacking in scientific reasoning. Lawson ( 1992 ) found that ~ 50% of intro biology students are not capable of applying scientific reasoning in learning, including the ability to develop hypotheses, control variables, and design experiments; all necessary for meaningful scientific inquiry. Research has also found that traditional courses do not significantly develop these abilities, with pre-to-post-test gains of 1%–2%, while inquiry-based courses have gains around 7% (Koenig, Schen, & Bao, 2012 ; Koenig, Schen, Edwards, & Bao, 2012 ). Others found that undergraduates have difficulty developing evidence-based decisions and differentiating between and linking evidence with claims (Kuhn, 1992 ; Shaw, 1996 ; Zeineddin & Abd-El-Khalick, 2010 ). A large scale international study suggested that learning of physics content knowledge with traditional teaching practices does not improve students’ scientific reasoning skills (Bao et al., 2009 ).

Aligned to twenty-first Century learning, it is important to implement curriculum that is specifically designed for developing scientific reasoning abilities within current education settings. Although traditional lectures may continue for decades due to infrastructure constraints, a unique opportunity can be found in the lab curriculum, which may be more readily transformed to include hands-on minds-on group learning activities that are ideal for developing students’ abilities in scientific inquiry and reasoning.

For well over a century, the laboratory has held a distinctive role in student learning (Meltzer & Otero, 2015 ). However, many existing labs, which haven’t changed much since the late 1980s, have received criticism for their outdated cookbook style that lacks effectiveness in developing high-end skills. In addition, labs have been primarily used as a means for verifying the physical principles presented in lecture, and unfortunately, Hofstein and Lunetta ( 1982 ) found in an early review of the literature that research was unable to demonstrate the impact of the lab on student content learning.

About this same time, a shift towards a constructivist view of learning gained popularity and influenced lab curriculum development towards engaging students in the process of constructing knowledge through science inquiry. Curricula, such as Physics by Inquiry (McDermott, 1996 ), Real-Time Physics (Sokoloff, Thornton, & Laws, 2011 ), and Workshop Physics (Laws, 2004 ), were developed with a primary focus on engaging students in cognitive conflict to address misconceptions. Although these approaches have been shown to be highly successful in improving deep learning of physics concepts (McDermott & Redish, 1999 ), the emphasis on conceptual learning does not sufficiently impact the domain general scientific reasoning skills necessitated in the goals of twenty-first Century learning.

Reform in science education, both in terms of targeted content and skills, along with the emergence of knowledge regarding human cognition and learning (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000 ), have generated renewed interest in the potential of inquiry-based lab settings for skill development. In these types of hands-on minds-on learning, students apply the methods and procedures of science inquiry to investigate phenomena and construct scientific claims, solve problems, and communicate outcomes, which holds promise for developing both conceptual understanding and scientific reasoning skills in parallel (Trowbridge, Bybee, & Powell, 2000 ). In addition, the availability of technology to enhance inquiry-based learning has seen exponential growth, along with the emergence of more appropriate research methodologies to support research on student learning.

Although inquiry-based labs hold promise for developing students’ high-end reasoning, analytic, and scientific inquiry abilities, these educational endeavors have not become widespread, with many existing physics laboratory courses still viewed merely as a place to illustrate the physical principles from the lecture course (Meltzer & Otero, 2015 ). Developing scientific ideas from practical experiences, however, is a complex process. Students need sufficient time and opportunity for interaction and reflection on complex, investigative tasks. Blended learning, which merges lecture and lab (such as studio style courses), addresses this issue to some extent, but has experienced limited adoption, likely due to the demanding infrastructure resources, including dedicated technology-intensive classroom space, equipment and maintenance costs, and fully committed trained staff.

Therefore, there is an immediate need to transform the existing standalone lab courses, within the constraints of the existing education infrastructure, into more inquiry-based designs, with one of its primary goals dedicated to developing scientific reasoning skills. These labs should center on constructing knowledge, along with hands-on minds-on practical skills and scientific reasoning, to support modeling a problem, designing and implementing experiments, analyzing and interpreting data, drawing and evaluating conclusions, and effective communication. In particular, training on scientific reasoning needs to be explicitly addressed in the lab curriculum, which should contain components specifically targeting a set of operationally-defined scientific reasoning skills, such as ability to control variables or engage in multivariate causal reasoning. Although effective inquiry may also implicitly develop some aspects of scientific reasoning skills, such development is far less efficient and varies with context when the primary focus is on conceptual learning.

Several recent efforts to enhance the standalone lab course have shown promise in supporting education goals that better align with twenty-first Century learning. For example, the Investigative Science Learning Environment (ISLE) labs involve a series of tasks designed to help students develop the “habits of mind” of scientists and engineers (Etkina et al., 2006 ). The curriculum targets reasoning as well as the lab learning outcomes published by the American Association of Physics Teachers (Kozminski et al., 2014 ). Operationally, ISLE methods focus on scaffolding students’ developing conceptual understanding using inquiry learning without a heavy emphasis on cognitive conflict, making it more appropriate and effective for entry level students and K-12 teachers.

Likewise, Koenig, Wood, Bortner, and Bao ( 2019 ) have developed a lab curriculum that is intentionally designed around the twenty-first Century learning goals for developing cognitive, interpersonal, and intrapersonal abilities. In terms of the cognitive domain, the lab learning outcomes center on critical thinking and scientific reasoning but do so through operationally defined sub-skills, all of which are transferrable across STEM. These selected sub-skills are found in the research literature, and include the ability to control variables and engage in data analytics and causal reasoning. For each targeted sub-skill, a series of pre-lab and in-class activities provide students with repeated, deliberate practice within multiple hypothetical science-based scenarios followed by real inquiry-based lab contexts. This explicit instructional strategy has been shown to be essential for the development of scientific reasoning (Chen & Klahr, 1999 ). In addition, the Karplus Learning Cycle (Karplus, 1964 ) provides the foundation for the structure of the lab activities and involves cycles of exploration, concept introduction, and concept application. The curricular framework is such that as the course progresses, the students engage in increasingly complex tasks, which allow students the opportunity to learn gradually through a progression from simple to complex skills.

As part of this same curriculum, students’ interpersonal skills are developed, in part, through teamwork, as students work in groups of 3 or 4 to address open-ended research questions, such as, What impacts the period of a pendulum? In addition, due to time constraints, students learn early on about the importance of working together in an efficient manor towards a common goal, with one set of written lab records per team submitted after each lab. Checkpoints built into all in-class activities involve Socratic dialogue between the instructor and students and promote oral communication. This use of directed questioning guides students in articulating their reasoning behind decisions and claims made, while supporting the development of scientific reasoning and conceptual understanding in parallel (Hake, 1992 ). Students’ intrapersonal skills, as well as communication skills, are promoted through the submission of individual lab reports. These reports require students to reflect upon their learning over each of four multi-week experiments and synthesize their ideas into evidence-based arguments, which support a claim. Due to the length of several weeks over which students collect data for each of these reports, the ability to organize the data and manage their time becomes essential.

Despite the growing emphasis on research and development of curriculum that targets twenty-first Century learning, converting a traditionally taught lab course into a meaningful inquiry-based learning environment is challenging in current reform efforts. Typically, the biggest challenge is a lack of resources; including faculty time to create or adapt inquiry-based materials for the local setting, training faculty and graduate student instructors who are likely unfamiliar with this approach, and the potential cost of new equipment. Koenig et al. ( 2019 ) addressed these potential implementation barriers by designing curriculum with these challenges in mind. That is, the curriculum was designed as a flexible set of modules that target specific sub-skills, with each module consisting of pre-lab (hypothetical) and in-lab (real) activities. Each module was designed around a curricular framework such that an adopting institution can use the materials as written, or can incorporate their existing equipment and experiments into the framework with minimal effort. Other non-traditional approaches have also been experimented with, such as the work by Sobhanzadeh, Kalman, and Thompson ( 2017 ), which targets typical misconceptions by using conceptual questions to engage students in making a prediction, designing and conducting a related experiment, and determining whether or not the results support the hypothesis.

Another challenge for inquiry labs is the assessment of skills-based learning outcomes. For assessment of scientific reasoning, a new instrument on inquiry in scientific thinking analytics and reasoning (iSTAR) has been developed, which can be easily implemented across large numbers of students as both a pre- and post-test to assess gains. iSTAR assesses reasoning skills necessary in the systematical conduct of scientific inquiry, which includes the ability to explore a problem, formulate and test hypotheses, manipulate and isolate variables, and observe and evaluate the consequences (see www.istarassessment.org ). The new instrument expands upon the commonly used classroom test of scientific reasoning (Lawson, 1978 , 2000 ), which has been identified with a number of validity weaknesses and a ceiling effect for college students (Bao, Xiao, Koenig, & Han, 2018 ).

Many education innovations need supporting infrastructures that can ensure adoption and lasting impact. However, making large-scale changes to current education settings can be risky, if not impossible. New education approaches, therefore, need to be designed to adapt to current environmental constraints. Since higher-end skills are a primary focus of twenty-first Century learning, which are most effectively developed in inquiry-based group settings, transforming current lecture and lab courses into this new format is critical. Although this transformation presents great challenges, promising solutions have already emerged from various research efforts. Perhaps the biggest challenge is for STEM educators and researchers to form an alliance to work together to re-engineer many details of the current education infrastructure in order to overcome the multitude of implementation obstacles.

This paper attempts to identify a few central ideas to provide a broad picture for future research and development in physics education, or STEM education in general, to promote twenty-first Century learning. Through a synthesis of the existing literature within the authors’ limited scope, a number of views surface.

Education is a service to prepare (not to select) the future workforce and should be designed as learner-centered, with the education goals and teaching-learning methods tailored to the needs and characteristics of the learners themselves. Given space constraints, the reader is referred to the meta-analysis conducted by Freeman et al. ( 2014 ), which provides strong support for learner-centered instruction. The changing world of the twenty-first Century informs the establishment of new education goals, which should be used to guide research and development of teaching and learning for present day students. Aligned to twenty-first Century learning, the new science standards have set the goals for STEM education to transition towards promoting deep learning of disciplinary knowledge, thereby building upon decades of research in PER, while fostering a wide range of general high-end cognitive and non-cognitive abilities that are transferable across all disciplines.

Following these education goals, more research is needed to operationally define and assess the desired high-end reasoning abilities. Building on a clear definition with effective assessments, a large number of empirical studies are needed to investigate how high-end abilities can be developed in parallel with deep learning of concepts, such that what is learned can be generalized to impact the development of curriculum and teaching methods which promote skills-based learning across all STEM fields. Specifically for PER, future research should emphasize knowledge integration to promote deep conceptual understanding in physics along with inquiry learning to foster scientific reasoning. Integration of physics learning in contexts that connect to other STEM disciplines is also an area for more research. Cross-cutting, interdisciplinary connections are becoming important features of the future generation physics curriculum and defines how physics should be taught collaboratively with other STEM courses.

This paper proposed meaningful areas for future research that are aligned with clearly defined education goals for twenty-first Century learning. Based on the existing literature, a number of challenges are noted for future directions of research, including the need for:

clear and operational definitions of goals to guide research and practice

concrete operational definitions of high-end abilities for which students are expected to develop

effective assessment methods and instruments to measure high-end abilities and other components of twenty-first Century learning

a knowledge base of the curriculum and teaching and learning environments that effectively support the development of advanced skills

integration of knowledge and ability development regarding within-discipline and cross-discipline learning in STEM

effective means to disseminate successful education practices

The list is by no means exhaustive, but these themes emerge above others. In addition, the high-end abilities discussed in this paper focus primarily on scientific reasoning, which is highly connected to other skills, such as critical thinking, systems thinking, multivariable modeling, computational thinking, design thinking, etc. These abilities are expected to develop in STEM learning, although some may be emphasized more within certain disciplines than others. Due to the limited scope of this paper, not all of these abilities were discussed in detail but should be considered an integral part of STEM learning.

Finally, a metacognitive position on education research is worth reflection. One important understanding is that the fundamental learning mechanism hasn’t changed, although the context in which learning occurs has evolved rapidly as a manifestation of the fast-forwarding technology world. Since learning is a process at the interface between a learner’s mind and the environment, the main focus of educators should always be on the learner’s interaction with the environment, not just the environment. In recent education developments, many new learning platforms have emerged at an exponential rate, such as the massive open online courses (MOOCs), STEM creative labs, and other online learning resources, to name a few. As attractive as these may be, it is risky to indiscriminately follow trends in education technology and commercially-incentivized initiatives before such interventions are shown to be effective by research. Trends come and go but educators foster students who have only a limited time to experience education. Therefore, delivering effective education is a high-stakes task and needs to be carefully and ethically planned and implemented. When game-changing opportunities emerge, one needs to not only consider the winners (and what they can win), but also the impact on all that is involved.

Based on a century of education research, consensus has settled on a fundamental mechanism of teaching and learning, which suggests that knowledge is developed within a learner through constructive processes and that team-based guided scientific inquiry is an effective method for promoting deep learning of content knowledge as well as developing high-end cognitive abilities, such as scientific reasoning. Emerging technology and methods should serve to facilitate (not to replace) such learning by providing more effective education settings and conveniently accessible resources. This is an important relationship that should survive many generations of technological and societal changes in the future to come. From a physicist’s point of view, a fundamental relation like this can be considered the “mechanics” of teaching and learning. Therefore, educators and researchers should hold on to these few fundamental principles without being distracted by the surfacing ripples of the world’s motion forward.

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable.

Abbreviations

American Association of Physics Teachers

Investigative Science Learning Environment

Inquiry in Scientific Thinking Analytics and Reasoning

Massive open online course

New Generation Science Standards

• Physics education research

Science Technology Engineering and Math

Alonso, M. (1992). Problem solving vs. conceptual understanding. American Journal of Physics , 60 (9), 777–778. https://doi.org/10.1119/1.17056 .

Article   Google Scholar  

Anderson, L. W., Krathwohl, D. R., Airasian, P. W., Cruikshank, K. A., Mayer, R. E., Pintrich, P. R., … Wittrock, M. C. (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives, abridged edition . White Plains: Longman.

Ates, S., & Cataloglu, E. (2007). The effects of students’ reasoning abilities on conceptual understandings and problem-solving abilities in introductory mechanics. European Journal of Physics , 28 , 1161–1171.

Bagno, E., Eylon, B.-S., & Ganiel, U. (2000). From fragmented knowledge to a knowledge structure: Linking the domains of mechanics and electromagnetism. American Journal of Physics , 68 (S1), S16–S26.

Bailin, S. (1996). Critical thinking. In J. J. Chambliss (Ed.), Philosophy of education: An encyclopedia , (vol. 1671, pp. 119–123). Routledge.

Bangert-Drowns, R. L., & Bankert, E. (1990). Meta-analysis of effects of explicit instruction for critical thinking. Research report. ERIC Number: ED328614.

Google Scholar  

Bao, L., Cai, T., Koenig, K., Fang, K., Han, J., Wang, J., … Wu, N. (2009). Learning and scientific reasoning. Science , 323 , 586–587. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1167740 .

Bao, L., & Redish, E. F. (2001). Concentration analysis: A quantitative assessment of student states. American Journal of Physics , 69 (S1), S45–S53.

Bao, L., & Redish, E. F. (2006). Model analysis: Representing and assessing the dynamics of student learning. Physical Review Special Topics-Physics Education Research , 2 (1), 010103.

Bao, L., Xiao, Y., Koenig, K., & Han, J. (2018). Validity evaluation of the Lawson classroom test of scientific reasoning. Physical Review Physics Education Research , 14 (2), 020106.

Beichner, R. J., Saul, J. M., Abbott, D. S., Morse, J. J., Deardorff, D., Allain, R. J., … Risley, J. S. (2007). The student-centered activities for large enrollment undergraduate programs (SCALE-UP) project. Research-Based Reform of University Physics , 1 (1), 2–39.

Binkley, M., Erstad, O., Herman, J., Raizen, S., Ripley, M., & Rumble, M. (2010). Draft White paper defining 21st century skills . Melbourne: ACTS.

Bloom, B. S., Engelhart, M. D., Furst, E. J., Hill, W. H., & Krathwohl, D. R. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: Handbook 1: Cognitive domain . New York: Longman.

Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (2000). How people learn , (vol. 11). Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Brown, A. (1989). Analogical learning and transfer: What develops? In S. Vosniadu, & A. Ortony (Eds.), Similarity and analogical reasoning , (pp. 369–412). New York: Cambridge U.P.

Chapter   Google Scholar  

Cavallo, A. M. L., Rozman, M., Blickenstaff, J., & Walker, N. (2003). Learning, reasoning, motivation, and epistemological beliefs: Differing approaches in college science courses. Journal of College Science Teaching , 33 (3), 18–22.

Chen, Z., & Klahr, D. (1999). All other things being equal: Acquisition and transfer of the control of variables strategy. Child Development , 70 , 1098–1120.

Chi, M. T., Bassok, M., Lewis, M. W., Reimann, P., & Glaser, R. (1989). Self-explanations: How students study and use examples in learning to solve problems. Cognitive Science , 13 (2), 145–182.

Chi, M. T., Feltovich, P. J., & Glaser, R. (1981). Categorization and representation of physics problems by experts and novices. Cognitive Science , 5 (2), 121–152.

Chi, M. T., & Slotta, J. D. (1993). The ontological coherence of intuitive physics. Cognition and Instruction , 10 (2–3), 249–260.

Chi, M. T., Slotta, J. D., & De Leeuw, N. (1994). From things to processes: A theory of conceptual change for learning science concepts. Learning and Instruction , 4 (1), 27–43.

Chi, M. T. H. (1992). Conceptual change within and across ontological categories: Examples from learning and discovery in science. In R. N. Giere (Ed.), Cognitive models of science . Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

Chiu, M. H. (2001). Algorithmic problem solving and conceptual understanding of chemistry by students at a local high school in Taiwan. Proceedings-National Science Council Republic of China Part D Mathematics Science and Technology Education , 11 (1), 20–38.

Chiu, M.-H., Guo, C. J., & Treagust, D. F. (2007). Assessing students’ conceptual understanding in science: An introduction about a national project in Taiwan. International Journal of Science Education , 29 (4), 379–390.

Clement, J. (1982). Students’ preconceptions in introductory mechanics. American Journal of Physics , 50 (1), 66–71.

Coletta, V. P., & Phillips, J. A. (2005). Interpreting FCI scores: Normalized gain, preinstruction scores, and scientific reasoning ability. American Journal of Physics , 73 (12), 1172–1182.

Cracolice, M. S., Deming, J. C., & Ehlert, B. (2008). Concept learning versus problem solving: A cognitive difference. Journal of Chemical Education , 85 (6), 873.

De Jong, T., & Ferguson-Hesler, M. G. M. (1986). Cognitive structure of good and poor problem solvers in physics. Journal of Educational Psychology , 78 , 279–288.

DiSessa, A. A. (1993). Toward an epistemology of physics. Cognition and Instruction , 10 (2–3), 105–225.

Duit, R., & Treagust, D. F. (2003). Conceptual change: A powerful framework for improving science teaching and learning. International Journal of Science Education , 25 (6), 671–688.

Dykstra Jr., D. I., Boyle, C. F., & Monarch, I. A. (1992). Studying conceptual change in learning physics. Science Education , 76 (6), 615–652.

Ennis, R. (1993). Critical thinking assessment. Theory Into Practice , 32 (3), 179–186.

Etkina, E., & Van Heuvelen, A. (2001). Investigative science learning environment: Using the processes of science and cognitive strategies to learn physics. In Proceedings of the 2001 physics education research conference , (pp. 17–21). Rochester.

Etkina, E., Van Heuvelen, A., White-Brahmia, S., Brookes, D. T., Gentile, M., Murthy, S., … Warren, A. (2006). Scientific abilities and their assessment. Physical Review Special Topics-Physics Education Research , 2 (2), 020103.

Eylon, B.-S., & Reif, F. (1984). Effects of knowledge organization on task performance. Cognition and Instruction , 1 (1), 5–44.

Fabby, C., & Koenig, K. (2013). Relationship of scientific reasoning to solving different physics problem types. In Proceedings of the 2013 Physics Education Research Conference, Portland, OR .

Facione, P. A. (1990). Critical thinking: A statement of expert consensus for purposes of educational assessment and instruction – The Delphi report . Millbrae: California Academic Press.

Ferguson-Hesler, M. G. M., & De Jong, T. (1990). Studying physics texts: Differences in study processes between good and poor solvers. Cognition and Instruction , 7 (1), 41–54.

Fisher, A. (2001). Critical thinking: An introduction . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Freeman, S., Eddy, S. L., McDonough, M., Smith, M. K., Okoroafor, N., Jordt, H., & Wenderoth, M. P. (2014). Active learning increases student performance in science, engineering, and mathematics. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , 111 (23), 8410–8415.

Glaser, E. M. (1941). An experiment in the development of critical thinking . New York: Teachers College, Columbia University.

Hake, R. R. (1992). Socratic pedagogy in the introductory physics laboratory. The Physics Teacher , 30 , 546.

Hake, R. R. (1998). Interactive-engagement versus traditional methods: A six-thousand-student survey of mechanics test data for introductory physics courses. American Journal of Physics , 66 (1), 64–74.

Halloun, I. A., & Hestenes, D. (1985a). The initial knowledge state of college physics students. American Journal of Physics , 53 (11), 1043–1055.

Halloun, I. A., & Hestenes, D. (1985b). Common sense concepts about motion. American Journal of Physics , 53 (11), 1056–1065.

Halpern, D. F. (1999). Teaching for critical thinking: Helping college students develop the skills and dispositions of a critical thinker. New Directions for Teaching and Learning , 80 , 69–74. https://doi.org/10.1002/tl.8005 .

Hardiman, P. T., Dufresne, R., & Mestre, J. P. (1989). The relation between problem categorization and problem solving among experts and novices. Memory & Cognition , 17 (5), 627–638.

Heller, J. I., & Reif, F. (1984). Prescribing effective human problem-solving processes: Problem description in physics. Cognition and Instruction , 1 (2), 177–216.

Hoellwarth, C., Moelter, M. J., & Knight, R. D. (2005). A direct comparison of conceptual learning and problem solving ability in traditional and studio style classrooms. American Journal of Physics , 73 (5), 459–462.

Hofstein, A., & Lunetta, V. N. (1982). The role of the laboratory in science teaching: Neglected aspects of research. Review of Educational Research , 52 (2), 201–217.

Hsu, L., Brewe, E., Foster, T. M., & Harper, K. A. (2004). Resource letter RPS-1: Research in problem solving. American Journal of Physics , 72 (9), 1147–1156.

Jensen, J. L., & Lawson, A. (2011). Effects of collaborative group composition and inquiry instruction on reasoning gains and achievement in undergraduate biology. CBE - Life Sciences Education , 10 , 64–73.

Johnson, M. A., & Lawson, A. E. (1998). What are the relative effects of reasoning ability and prior knowledge on biology achievement in expository and inquiry classes? Journal of Research in Science Teaching , 35 (1), 89–103.

Kalman, C., & Lattery, M. (2018). Three active learning strategies to address mixed student epistemologies and promote conceptual change. Frontiers in ICT , 5 (19), 1–9.

Karplus, R. (1964). The science curriculum improvement study. Journal of College Science Teaching , 2 (4), 293–303.

Kim, E., & Pak, S.-J. (2002). Students do not overcome conceptual difficulties after solving 1000 traditional problems. American Journal of Physics , 70 (7), 759–765.

Koenig, K., Schen, M., & Bao, L. (2012). Explicitly targeting pre-service teacher scientific reasoning abilities and understanding of nature of science through an introductory science course. Science Educator , 21 (2), 1–9.

Koenig, K., Schen, M., Edwards, M., & Bao, L. (2012). Addressing STEM retention through a scientific thought and methods course. Journal of College Science Teaching , 41 , 23–29.

Koenig, K., Wood, K., Bortner, L., & Bao, L. (2019). Modifying traditional labs to target scientific reasoning. Journal of College Science Teaching , 48 (5), 28-35.

Kozminski, J., Beverly, N., Deardorff, D., Dietz, R., Eblen-Zayas, M., Hobbs, R., … Zwickl, B. (2014). AAPT recommendations for the undergraduate physics laboratory curriculum , (pp. 1–29). American Association of Physics Teachers Retrieved from https://www.aapt.org/Resources/upload/LabGuidlinesDocument_EBendorsed_nov10.pdf .

Kuhn, D. (1992). Thinking as argument. Harvard Educational Review , 62 (2), 155–178.

Larkin, J., McDermott, J., Simon, D. P., & Simon, H. A. (1980). Expert and novice performance in solving physics problems. Science , 208 (4450), 1335–1342.

Laws, P. W. (2004). Workshop physics activity guide, module 4: Electricity and magnetism. In Workshop physics activity guide . Wiley-VCH.

Lawson, A. E. (1978), The development and validation of a classroom test of formal reasoning, Journal of Research in Science Teaching , 15 (1), 11–24.

Lawson, A. E. (1992). The development of reasoning among college biology students - a review of research. Journal of College Science Teaching , 21 , 338–344.

Lawson, A. E. (2000). Classroom test of scientific reasoning: Multiple choice version, based on Lawson, A. E. 1978. Development and validation of the classroom test of formal reasoning. Journal of Research in Science Teaching , 15 (1), 11–24.

Lee, H. S., Liu, O. L., & Linn, M. C. (2011). Validating measurement of knowledge integration in science using multiple-choice and explanation items. Applied Measurement in Education , 24 (2), 115–136.

Linn, M. C. (2005). The knowledge integration perspective on learning and instruction. In R. K. Sawyer (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of the learning sciences , (pp. 243–264). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511816833.016 .

Lipman, M. (2003). Thinking in education , (2nd ed., ). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Liu, X. (2010). Science and engineering education sources. Using and developing measurement instruments in science education: A Rasch modeling approach . Charlotte: IAP Information Age Publishing.

Marzano, R. J., Brandt, R. S., Hughes, C. S., Jones, B. F., Presseisen, B. Z., Rankin, S. C., et al. (1988). Dimensions of thinking, a framework for curriculum and instruction . Alexandria: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Mazur, E. (1997). Peer instruction: A user’s manual . Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall.

McDermott, L. C. (1996). Physics by Inquiry: An Introduction to the Physical Sciences . John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY.

McDermott, L. C., & Redish, E. F. (1999). Resource letter: PER-1: Physics education research. American Journal of Physics , 67 (9), 755–767.

McKeachie, W. J. (1986). Teaching and learning in the college classroom: A review of the research literature . Ann Arbor: National Center for Research to Improve Postsecondary Teaching and Learning.

Meltzer, D. E., & Otero, V. K. (2015). A brief history of physics education in the United States. American Journal of Physics , 83 (5), 447–458.

Meltzer, D. E., & Thornton, R. K. (2012). Resource letter ALIP-1: Active-learning instruction in physics. American Journal of Physics , 80 (6), 478–496.

Minstrell, J. (1992). Facets of students’ knowledge and relevant instruction. In R. Duit, F. Goldberg, & H. Niedderer (Eds.), Proceedings of the international workshop: Research in physics learning- theoretical issues and empirical studies , (pp. 110–128). The Institute for Science Education.

Nakhleh, M. B. (1993). Are our students conceptual thinkers or algorithmic problem solvers? Identifying conceptual students in general chemistry. Journal of Chemical Education , 70 (1), 52. https://doi.org/10.1021/ed070p52 .

Nakhleh, M. B., & Mitchell, R. C. (1993). Concept learning versus problem solving: There is a difference. Journal of Chemical Education , 70 (3), 190. https://doi.org/10.1021/ed070p190 .

National Research Council (2011). Assessing 21st century skills: Summary of a workshop . Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/13215 .

Book   Google Scholar  

National Research Council (2012a). Education for life and work: Developing transferable knowledge and skills in the 21st century . Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.

National Research Council (2012b). A framework for K-12 science education: Practices, crosscutting concepts, and core ideas . Washington, DC: National Academies Press.

National Research Council (2012c). Discipline-based education research: Understanding and improving learning in undergraduate science and engineering . Washington, DC: National Academies Press.

National Science & Technology Council (2018). Charting a course for success: America’s strategy for STEM education . Washington, DC: Office of Science and Technology Policy.

NCET. (1987). Critical thinking as defined by the National Council for excellence in critical thinking, statement by Michael Scriven & Richard Paul, presented at the 8th annual conference on critical thinking and education reform. Retrieved December 4, 2018, from http://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/defining-critical-thinking/766 .

Nordine, J., Krajcik, J., & Fortus, D. (2011). Transforming energy instruction in middle school to support integrated understanding and future learning. Science Education , 95 (4), 670–699.

Nurrenbern, S. C., & Pickering, M. (1987). Concept learning versus problem solving: Is there a difference? Journal of Chemical Education , 64 (6), 508.

Paul, R. (1990). Critical thinking: What every person needs to survive in a rapidly changing world . Rohnert Park: Center for Critical Thinking and Moral Critique.

Perkins, D. N., & Salomon, G. (1989). Are cognitive skills context-bound? Educational Researcher , 18 (1), 16–25.

Posner, G., Strike, K., Hewson, P., & Gertzog, W. (1982). Accommodation of a scientific conception: Toward a theory of conceptual change. Science Education , 66 (2), 211–227.

Reay, N. W., Bao, L., Li, P., Warnakulasooriya, R., & Baugh, G. (2005). Toward the effective use of voting machines in physics lectures. American Journal of Physics , 73 (6), 554–558.

Reimers, F. M., & Chung, C. K. (Eds.) (2016). Teaching and learning for the twenty-first century: Educational goals, policies and curricula from six nations . Cambridge: Harvard Education Press.

Salomon, G., & Perkins, D. N. (1989). Rocky roads to transfer: Rethinking mechanism of a neglected phenomenon. Educational Psychologist , 24 (2), 113–142.

Schoenfeld, A. H., & Herrmann, D. J. (1982). Problem perception and knowledge structure in expert and novice mathematical problem solvers. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition , 8 (5), 484.

Shaw, V. F. (1996). The cognitive processes in informal reasoning. Thinking and Reasoning , 2 (1), 51–80.

She, H., & Liao, Y. (2010). Bridging scientific reasoning and conceptual change through adaptive web-based learning. Journal of Research in Science Teaching , 47 (1), 91–119.

Shen, J., Liu, O. L., & Chang, H.-Y. (2017). Assessing students’ deep conceptual understanding in physical sciences: An example on sinking and floating. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education , 15 (1), 57–70. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-015-9680-z .

Siegel, H. (1988). Educating reason: Rationality, critical thinking and education , (vol. 1). New York: Routledge.

Slotta, J. D., Chi, M. T., & Joram, E. (1995). Assessing students’ misclassifications of physics concepts: An ontological basis for conceptual change. Cognition and Instruction , 13 (3), 373–400.

Smith III, J. P., DiSessa, A. A., & Roschelle, J. (1994). Misconceptions reconceived: A constructivist analysis of knowledge in transition. The Journal of the Learning Sciences , 3 (2), 115–163.

Smith, M. U. (1992). Expertise and organization of knowledge: Unexpected differences among genetic counselors, faculty members and students on problem categorization tasks. Journal of Research in Science Teaching , 29 (2), 179–205.

Sobhanzadeh, M., Kalman, C. S., & Thompson, R. I. (2017). Labatorials in introductory physics courses. European Journal of Physics , 38 , 1–18.

Sokoloff, D. R., Thornton, R. K., & Laws, P. W. (2011). RealTime physics: Active learning laboratories . New York: Wiley.

Stamovlasis, D., Tsaparlis, G., Kamilatos, C., Papaoikonomou, D., & Zarotiadou, E. (2005). Conceptual understanding versus algorithmic problem solving: Further evidence from a national chemistry examination. Chemistry Education Research and Practice , 6 (2), 104–118.

Tanenbaum, C. (2016). STEM 2026: A vision for innovation in STEM education . Washington, DC: US Department of Education.

Thornton, R. K., & Sokoloff, D. R. (1998). Assessing student learning of Newton’s laws: The force and motion conceptual evaluation and the evaluation of active learning laboratory and lecture curricula. American Journal of Physics , 66 (4), 338–352.

Trowbridge, L. W., Bybee, R. W., & Powell, J. C. (2000). Teaching secondary school science: Strategies for developing scientific literacy . Upper Saddle River: Merrill-Prentice Hall.

United States Chamber of Commerce (2017). Bridging the soft skills gap: How the business and education sectors are partnering to prepare students for the 21 st century workforce . Washington DC: Center for Education and Workforce, U.S. Chamber of Commerce Foundation.

Veldhuis, G. H. (1990). The use of cluster analysis in categorization of physics problems. Science Education , 74 (1), 105–118.

Vosniadou, S., Vamvakoussi, X., & Skopeliti, I. (2008). The framework theory approach to the problem of conceptual change. In S. Vosniadou (Ed.), International handbook of research on conceptual change . New York: Routledge.

Wexler, P. (1982). Structure, text, and subject: A critical sociology of school knowledge. In M. W. Apple (Ed.), Cultural and economic reproduction in education: Essays on class, ideology and the state . London: Routledge & Regan Paul.

Zeineddin, A., & Abd-El-Khalick, F. (2010). Scientific reasoning and epistemological commitments: Coordination of theory and evidence among college science students. Journal of Research in Science Teaching , 47 (9), 1064–1093.

Zimmerman, C. (2000). The development of scientific reasoning skills. Developmental Review , 20 (1), 99–149.

Download references

Acknowledgements

The research is supported in part by NSF Awards DUE-1431908 and DUE-1712238. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this paper are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.

The research is supported in part by NSF Awards DUE-1431908 and DUE-1712238.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, 43210, USA

University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, 45221, USA

Kathleen Koenig

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

LB developed the concept, wrote a significant portion of the review and position, and synthesized the paper. KK wrote and edited a significant portion of the paper. Both authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Lei Bao .

Ethics declarations

Competing interests.

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher’s note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ ), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Bao, L., Koenig, K. Physics education research for 21 st century learning. Discip Interdscip Sci Educ Res 1 , 2 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1186/s43031-019-0007-8

Download citation

Received : 17 April 2019

Accepted : 13 June 2019

Published : 28 November 2019

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s43031-019-0007-8

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Twenty-first century learning
• STEM education
• Scientific reasoning
• Deep learning

Astronomy Post-Doc and Professor Publish Paper on Dark Matter and Galaxies

A paper titled "Hooks & Bends in the Radial Acceleration Relation: Discriminatory Tests for Dark Matter and MOND" by a team of Pomona College researchers was published April 16 in the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society (MNRAS).

Lead author Francisco Mercado is the first post-doctoral research fellow in physics and astronomy at Pomona College and is currently teaching Astronomy 2—Introduction to Galaxies and Cosmology. Jorge Moreno , associate professor of physics and astronomy, is Mercado’s supervisor and also one of the paper’s authors. Mercado and Moreno have collaborated on research into dark matter and galaxies over the past nine years.

The study presents results from computer simulations that support the idea that dark matter—matter that no one has yet directly detected, but which many physicists think must be there in order to explain several aspects of the observable universe—exists.

The work addresses a fundamental debate in astrophysics: does invisible dark matter need to exist to explain how the universe works the way it does, or can physicists explain how things work based solely on the matter we can directly observe? Currently, many physicists think something like dark matter must exist in order to explain the motions of stars and galaxies.

“Our paper shows how we can use real, observed relationships as a basis to test two different models to describe the universe,” says Mercado. “We put forth a powerful test to discriminate between the two models.”

The test involved running computer simulations with both types of matter, normal and dark, to explain the presence of intriguing features measured in real galaxies.

The findings yield intriguing features in galaxies that “are expected to appear in a universe with dark matter but would be difficult to explain in a universe without it,” says Mercado. “We show that such features appear in observations of many real galaxies. If we take these data at face value, this reaffirms the position of the dark matter model as the model that best describes the universe we live in.”

The features describe patterns in the motions of stars and gas in galaxies that seem to only be possible in a universe with dark matter.

These features also appear in observations made by proponents of a dark matter-free universe. “The observations we examined—the very observations where we found these features—were in fact conducted by adherents of dark matter-free theories,” says Moreno. “Despite their obvious presence, little-to-no analysis was performed on these features by that community. It took folks like us, scientists working with both regular and dark matter, to start the conversation.”

Mailing Address

Pomona College 333 N. College Way Claremont , CA 91711

Get in touch

Give back to pomona.

Part of   The Claremont Colleges

115+ Innovative Physics Project Ideas For Students In 2023

Physics, the study of matter, energy, and the fundamental forces that govern the universe, holds a special place in our understanding of the natural world. It is not just a subject confined to the classroom; it permeates every aspect of our lives, including the business world, where innovations in technology and energy efficiency rely heavily on the principles of physics.

In this blog, we will explore the best and most interesting physics project ideas. Whether you are a beginner or an advanced student, we will cover plenty of physics projects. We will discuss 31+ physics project ideas for beginners, 35+ for intermediate students, and 32+ for advanced learners. In addition to it we have also discuss 13+ of the best physics project ideas for college students, ensuring there’s something for everyone.

Moreover, We will also provide you with valuable tips for completing your physics projects efficiently, making your learning experience both enjoyable and informational. So, stay tuned with us and choose the right physics project ideas.

An Quick Overview Of Physics

Table of Contents

In this section, we will talk about the definition of the famous Germany-born physician, he is a popular physics writer who gives numerous laws and theories in physics, such as the theory of relativity, general theory of relativity and photoelectric effect. Moreover, we will also discuss the meaning of physics.

Definition of Physics:

What is physics.

Physics is the study of how things work in the world. It helps us understand the rules that govern everything, from how objects move to how light and electricity behave. Physicists explore the fundamental nature of the world, seeking answers to questions about energy, matter, and forces. In simple terms, physics solves the secrets of the physical world around us.

5 Main Branches Of Physics That Every Students Must Know

Here are 5 main branches of physics that every student must know: 

1. Classical Mechanics

Classical mechanics is the part of physics that looks at how things we use every day move. It helps us understand how things move, fall, and collide. For example, it explains why a ball falls to the ground when dropped and how a car accelerates and stops.

2. Electromagnetism

Electromagnetism explores the behavior of electric charges and magnets. It explains how electricity flows through wires, how magnets attract or repel each other, and powers devices like phones and computers. Understanding electromagnetism is crucial for modern technology.

3. Thermodynamics

Thermodynamics focuses on heat, energy, and temperature. It explains how engines work, how heat transfers, and why ice melts when it gets warm. This branch is vital in designing efficient machines and understanding energy conservation.

4. Quantum Mechanics

Quantum mechanics deals with the smallest particles of the universe, like atoms and subatomic particles. It’s essential for understanding the behavior of matter at the tiniest scales and is the basis for technologies like semiconductors and lasers.

5. Relativity

Relativity, developed by Einstein, explores the behavior of objects moving at very high speeds or in strong gravitational fields. It revolutionized our understanding of space, time, and gravity. GPS systems, for instance, rely on Einstein’s theories to provide accurate navigation.

20+ Creative Nursing Project Topics You Must Try In 2023

Things That Students Must Have Before Starting Physics Projects

Here are some things that students must have before starting physics projects:

• Students should have a fundamental understanding of physics concepts and principles related to their project.
• Gather necessary books, articles, or online resources to support your project’s research and learning.
• Depending on the project, access to appropriate lab equipment and materials may be required.
• Understand and implement safety protocols and precautions relevant to the experiment or project.
• Seek guidance from a teacher, mentor, or experienced physicist to clarify doubts and ensure the project’s success.

Physics Project Ideas From Beginners To Advance Level For 2023

Here are some of the best physics project ideas for physics students. Students can choose the project according to their knowledge and experience level:

31+ Physics Project Ideas For Beginners-Level Students

Here are some  physics project ideas that beginner-level students should try in 2023: 

1. Simple Pendulum Experiment

2. Newton’s Laws of Motion Demonstrations

3. Investigating Magnetic Fields

4. Building a Homemade Electromagnet

5. Exploring Static Electricity

6. Boyle’s Law Experiments

7. Archimedes’ Principle and Buoyancy

8. Investigating Refraction of Light

9. Constructing a Simple Circuit

10. Ohm’s Law Demonstrations

11. Investigating Sound Waves

12. The Doppler Effect Exploration

13. Investigating Thermal Conductivity

14. Building a Solar Oven

15. Investigating Projectile Motion

16. Exploring Simple Machines

17. Investigating Elasticity

18. Investigating the Conservation of Energy

19. Magnetic Levitation Experiments

20. Investigating Radio Waves

21. Building a Simple Telescope

22. Investigating Wave Interference

23. Investigating Nuclear Decay

24. Investigating Air Pressure

25. Investigating Fluid Dynamics

26. Investigating the Photoelectric Effect

27. Investigating Magnetic Levitation

28. Investigating Simple Harmonic Motion

29. Investigating Optics and Light

30. Investigating Quantum Mechanics Concepts

31. Investigating Special Relativity Concepts

32. Investigating Thermodynamics Principles

35+ Physics Project Ideas For Intermediate-Level Students

Here are some  physics project ideas that intermediate-level students should try in 2023: 

33. Electric Motor Construction

34. Solar-Powered Water Heater

35. Investigating Magnetic Fields

36. Pendulum Harmonics Analysis

37. Homemade Wind Turbine

38. Refraction in Different Mediums

39. Investigating Newton’s Laws

40. DIY Spectrometer

41. Sound Waves and Frequency

42. Light Polarization

43. Magnetic Levitation Experiment

44. Building a Simple Telescope

45. Investigating Static Electricity

46. Investigating Resonance

47. Solar Cell Efficiency Analysis

48. DIY Electromagnetic Generator

49. Investigating Projectile Motion

50. Exploring Quantum Mechanics

51. Water Rocket Launch

52. Investigating Heat Transfer

53. Radio Wave Propagation

54. Simple Harmonic Motion Experiment

55. Investigating Ferrofluids

56. Cloud Chamber for Particle Detection

57. Investigating Faraday’s Laws

58. Homemade Geiger Counter

59. Magnetic Field Mapping

60. Investigating Optical Illusions

61. Wave Interference Patterns

62. Investigating Galvanic Cells

63. Solar Still for Water Purification

64. Investigating Electroplating

65. Investigating Bernoulli’s Principle

66. DIY Magnetic Railgun

67. Investigating Nuclear Decay

68. Investigating Black Holes

32+ Physics Project Ideas For Advance-Level Students

Here are some  physics project ideas that advance-level students should try in 2023: 

69. Quantum Entanglement Experiment

70.Fusion Reactor Prototype

71. Gravitational Wave Detection

72. Superconductivity Demonstrations

73. Particle Accelerator Design

74. Quantum Computing Algorithms

75. Cosmic Microwave Background Analysis

76. Quantum Teleportation Setup

77. Advanced Plasma Physics Experiment

78. Exoplanet Detection Using Spectroscopy

79. Antimatter Production Study

80. Quantum Hall Effect Investigation

81. String Theory Simulation

82. Dark Matter Detection Experiment

83. Advanced Laser Spectroscopy

84. Neutrino Oscillation Measurement

85. Advanced Quantum Cryptography

86. High-Energy Particle Collisions

87. Hawking Radiation Simulation

88. Nanotechnology in Quantum Dots

89. Exotic Materials Synthesis

90. Advanced Space-time Curvature Analysis

91. Neutron Star Density Study

92. Quantum Field Theory Calculations

93. Bose-Einstein Condensate Experiment

94. Quantum Gravity Research

95. Advanced Quantum Optics

96. Plasma Fusion Energy Production

97. Black Hole Thermodynamics

98. Holography in High Energy Physics

99. Quantum Phase Transitions

100. Quantum Information Processing

101. Topological Insulator Investigations

13+ Best Physics Project Ideas For College Students

Here are some of the best and most interesting physics project ideas for college students:

102. Quantum Entanglement Experiments

103. Superconductivity and Its Applications

104. Nuclear Fusion Reactor Design

105. Advanced Laser Spectroscopy

106. Gravitational Wave Detection

107. Particle Physics and High-Energy Colliders

108. Quantum Computing Prototypes

109. Advanced Astrophysical Observations

110. Plasma Physics and Fusion Energy

111. Quantum Field Theory Investigations

112. Advanced Materials for Space Exploration

113. Black Hole Dynamics and Research

114. Advanced Quantum Optics Experiments

115. Nanotechnology Applications in Physics

116. Quantum Cryptography and Secure Communication Systems

Tips For Completing The Physics Project Efficiently 

Here we discuss some tips to completing the physics projects efficiently: 

1. Choose The Physics Project Idea

Pick a physics project topic that you find interesting and exciting. When you like what you’re studying, it makes working on the project easier and more efficient.

2. Make a Proper Plan

Start by making a proper plan and the techniques that are needed. Write down what you need to do, what materials you’ll need, and when you’ll finish each part. Planning helps you stay organized and avoid last-minute rushes.

3. Find Good Information

Before you start, find good information about your topic. Use books or trusted websites to get the facts. Good information is like a strong foundation for your project.

4. Be Careful with Experiments

Be careful while performing the experiments for the projects. Follow the instructions closely, measure things accurately, and do the experiments more than once if needed. Being careful makes sure your results are trustworthy.

5. Organize The Collected Information

Keep your data neat and tidy. Use tables, pictures, or charts to show what you found out. When your information is organized, it’s easier for others to understand.

We discussed various physics project ideas, students can choose according to their interests and requirements. We started by explaining what physics is all about, its meaning, and how it helps us understand the world. Then, we explored the 5 main branches of physics to give you a clear explanation of what this subject covers.

But the real fun began with the 110+ project ideas we shared, suitable for beginners, intermediate, advanced, and college students. These projects are your chance to get hands-on with physics and learn in a practical way.

To help you succeed, we also shared some useful tips. So, in 2023, explore all these project and choose wisely which one will continue. All the best for your physics projects.

Related Posts

Step by Step Guide on The Best Way to Finance Car

The Best Way on How to Get Fund For Business to Grow it Efficiently

Help | Advanced Search

Physics > Atmospheric and Oceanic Physics

Title: comparison of two-moment and three-moment bulk microphysics schemes in thunderstorm simulations over indian subcontinent.

Abstract: We have performed three-dimensional thunderstorm real simulations using the two-moment and three-moment bulk microphysics schemes in the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model. We have analyzed three cases to understand the potential differences between the double-moment (Morrison-2M) and National Taiwan University triple-moment (NTU-3M) microphysics parameterizations in capturing the characteristics of lightning events over the Indian subcontinent. Despite general resemblances in these schemes, the simulations reveal distinct differences in storm structure, cloud hydrometeors formation, and precipitation. The lightning flash counts from the in situ lightning detection network (LDN) are also used to compare the simulation of storms. The Lightning Potential Index (LPI) is computed for Morrison-2M and NTU-3M microphysics schemes and compared it with the Lightning Detection Network (LDN) observation. In most cases, the Morrison-2M shows more LPI than the NTU-3M scheme. Both the schemes also differ in simulating rainfall and other thermodynamical, dynamical, and microphysical parameters in the model. Here, we have attempted to identify the basic differences between these two schemes, which may be responsible for the discrepancies in the simulations. In particular, the Morrison-2M produced much higher surface precipitation rates. The effects on the size distributions cloud hydrometeors between two microphysical schemes are important to simulate the biases in the precipitation and lightning flash counts. The inclusions of ice crystal shapes are responsible for many of the key differences between the two microphysics simulations. Different approaches in treating cloud ice, snow, and graupel may have an impact on the simulation of lightning and precipitation. Results show that the simulation of lightning events is sensitive to microphysical parameterization schemes in NWP models.

Submission history

Access paper:.

• Other Formats

References & Citations

• INSPIRE HEP
• Google Scholar
• Semantic Scholar

BibTeX formatted citation

Bibliographic and Citation Tools

Code, data and media associated with this article, recommenders and search tools.

• Institution

arXivLabs: experimental projects with community collaborators

arXivLabs is a framework that allows collaborators to develop and share new arXiv features directly on our website.

Both individuals and organizations that work with arXivLabs have embraced and accepted our values of openness, community, excellence, and user data privacy. arXiv is committed to these values and only works with partners that adhere to them.

Have an idea for a project that will add value for arXiv's community? Learn more about arXivLabs .

• cmns.umd.edu
• eng.umd.edu

CEEE Publishes Paper About “Cool” Technology

Ceee publishes paper about “cool” technology.

• elastocaloric cooling
• solid-state refrigerants
• shape memory alloys

A research team from the University of Maryland’s Center for Environmental Energy Engineering (CEEE) presents elastocaloric cooling as an eco-friendly alternative to conventional compression systems in an article published in the June 2024 issue of the “International Journal of Refrigeration.” Because conventional chemical refrigerants contribute to global warming, researchers are looking toward solid-state refrigerants. Elastocaloric cooling is one of the most promising solid-state technologies.  

In their article, “Elastocaloric Cooling: A Pathway Towards Future Cooling Technology,” the researchers note that the technology offers the “potential for energy savings and significant temperature lift compared to other solid-state cooling technologies.” Elastocaloric cooling takes advantage of the superelasticity of shape memory alloys that release heat when stretched and absorb heat when compressed. The result is efficient cooling with zero direct global emissions. 

The paper was written by a CEEE research team, including mechanical engineering doctoral students Het Mevada and Boyang Liu; postdoctoral research associate Lei Gao; CEEE director Reinhard Radermacher and co-director Yunho Hwang , who are both mechanical engineering professors; and Professor Ichiro Takeuchi of the Department of Materials Science and Engineering. 

The paper introduces a new non-dimensional performance parameter to evaluate different elastocaloric prototypes and discusses key aspects necessary to achieve potentially high-performance elastocaloric devices. The research team also proposes an approach for future elastocaloric device development.

The full article is available for free download through June 1, 2024. 

Published April 19, 2024

Recent Stories

Stories / Apr 19, 2024

Celebrating Asian, Pacific Islander, and Desi American Engineers

Stories / Apr 18, 2024

AVS Mid-Atlantic Chapter DC Regional Meeting - May 9th, 2024

Stories / Apr 10, 2024

Dean's Circle Spotlight: Investing in Ideas, and Access

Seven Current and Former Maryland MSE Students to Attend 73rd...

Stories / Mar 26, 2024

International Energy Cooperation Center Established at...

Stories / Mar 15, 2024

Agents of Positive Change: Highlighting Women Maryland Engineers

Stories / Mar 13, 2024

Edo Waks Recipient of 2024 MURI Award

Stories / Mar 8, 2024

Milchberg Lecture

share this!

April 22, 2024

This article has been reviewed according to Science X's editorial process and policies . Editors have highlighted the following attributes while ensuring the content's credibility:

fact-checked

trusted source

Q&A: Paper, plastics and penalties. How audits can improve curbside recycling

by The Ohio State University

For decades, curbside recycling has been a fixture in U.S. neighborhoods as a way to empower ordinary citizens to protect their environment and reduce waste. It's a system, though, that relies on consumers to know what items are recyclable—and which ones can contaminate a delicate ecosystem.

New research from faculty at The Ohio State University Max M. Fisher College of Business examines the effectiveness of one tool that recycling companies, organizations and municipalities can use to limit contamination: curbside recycling audits.

"Our objective was to examine how different forms of curbside audits impacted households' recycling performance," said Erin McKie, assistant professor of operations and business analytics at Fisher and lead author of the paper.

"Specifically, we wanted to find out how curbside feedback of varying severity influenced recycling quality (as measured using household contamination rates) and participation (as measured using recycling cart set-out rates)."

McKie, along with Aravind Chandrasekaran, the Fisher Distinguished Professor of Operations, and Sriram Venkataraman, associate professor at the Darla Moore School of Business at the University of South Carolina, authored the study, which was recently published in Production and Operations Management .

Q&A with Erin McKie:

I've heard most of our recycling ends up in landfills…is this true, and why?

If recycling is too expensive compared to other disposal methods, such as landfilling, then yes, materials may be landfilled. However, the direct landfilling of recyclables is not as widespread of a phenomenon as often suggested by the media. Curbside recycling programs generate nearly $1 billion dollars in community revenues and recover millions of pounds of materials for reuse annually.

At the same time, markets for recyclable materials are extremely dynamic and profit margins can be very thin. According to industry experts, approximately 100 curbside programs have been canceled in the U.S. in recent years, with even more scaling back their programs. Hence, the threat of program cancellation resulting in landfilled materials is very real and always present.

What are the biggest threats to recycling?

Contamination is one of the largest cost drivers and, accordingly, one of the biggest threats to the recycling industry . It is caused by household-level sorting errors—i.e. when unaccepted or non-recyclable materials are placed in recycling bins. About 20-25% of collected recyclables are contaminated.

Removing contaminants to meet industry quality standards costs material recovery facilities (MRFs) millions of dollars per year in operational costs. These costs can stem from increased plant downtime (a moderately sized MRF can lose $10,000 for every 10 minutes it is shut down due to contaminants), increased labor sorting fees, spoilage, etc.

In short, contamination is often what causes thousands of tons of otherwise recyclable materials to be burned or landfilled, thereby polluting the environment and costing communities millions in foregone recycling revenues. Contamination can make recycling a revenue-negative effort.

Another factor that leads communities to abandon recycling is the lack of program participation. In order for recycling to be profitable, residents must both recycle well and recycle often.

So, to get a better idea of how well households are recycling, you reviewed curbside audits conducted by a consulting group in Columbus, Ohio. During the auditing process, inspectors examined recycling bins for things that didn't belong. What did the auditors do when they found a contaminant?

If a contaminant was found, then one of two possible outcomes occurred:

• The household received a cart warning, wherein their recycling bin was tagged with an information card highlighting which item(s) were improperly recycled. We refer to this as an information-only approach to correct household behaviors.
• The household received a cart refusal, wherein their recycling bin was tagged with an information card, and, in addition, the household's recycling bin was not emptied. In this case, the resident was required to remove the contaminant to receive service in the future. We refer to this approach as an information-plus-penalty approach to correct household behaviors.

Did people take offense at being penalized for trying to recycle something that isn't recyclable?

No, we found that the information-plus-penalty mechanisms (cart refusals) were very effective. Specifically, households that received this punitive feedback reduced their contamination severity by 59% and were 75% less likely to commit a violation in the future.

Additionally, we found that household recycling participation behavior did not decrease after households received a punitive feedback mechanism.

Was this surprising?

Yes! While the use of curbside auditing mechanisms is promising, recycling industry stakeholders (e.g., recycling education organizations, MRFs, and local community leaders) remain divided on the use of cart audits. Several stakeholders fear that punitive mechanisms such as the cart refusal, in particular, will discourage participation.

However, we found that the opposite occurred―households recycled more when they received either form of feedback (including cart refusal).

Prior to our analysis, we were unaware of any industry or academic study that had examined the granular, household-level effect of these feedback mechanisms to settle this debate.

What were some of the caveats from the research?

While we show that the cart refusal mechanism is effective, to be leveraged, a municipality must first have the political willpower to implement this type of punitive measure.

Second, there are conditions in which the mechanism is more/less effective, for example:

• It is more effective when administered to households with moderate to high education and income levels, and low to moderate population densities.
• It is most effective at reducing the presence of aspirational contaminants (e.g., to-go containers, plastic bags). We did not find evidence that suggested it would work well on more egregious contaminant categories (e.g., trash, bagged and bulky items).
• It is also less effective when administered in areas with older populations and high population densities.

How can this research help recycling organizations and municipalities with their efforts?

In short, the results from our research show that information in the form of cart refusals can help increase the amount of materials captured, in addition to improving captured material quality.

By using the most effective feedback mechanism identified through this study, either exclusively or paired with a courtesy warning, recycling stakeholders can better protect the future of U.S. community recycling programs.

Provided by The Ohio State University

Explore further

Feedback to editors

Artificial intelligence helps scientists engineer plants to fight climate change

9 hours ago

Ultrasensitive photonic crystal detects single particles down to 50 nanometers

10 hours ago

Scientists map soil RNA to fungal genomes to understand forest ecosystems

11 hours ago

Researchers show it's possible to teach old magnetic cilia new tricks

Mantle heat may have boosted Earth's crust 3 billion years ago

Study suggests that cells possess a hidden communication system

Researcher finds that wood frogs evolved rapidly in response to road salts

Imaging technique shows new details of peptide structures

12 hours ago

Cows' milk particles used for effective oral delivery of drugs

New research confirms plastic production is directly linked to plastic pollution

Relevant physicsforums posts, interesting anecdotes in the history of physics, cover songs versus the original track, which ones are better.

16 hours ago

Great Rhythm Sections in the 21st Century

Apr 24, 2024

Biographies, history, personal accounts

Apr 23, 2024

History of Railroad Safety - Spotlight on current derailments

Apr 21, 2024

For WW2 buffs!

Apr 20, 2024

More from Art, Music, History, and Linguistics

Related Stories

Report finds Americans throw three-quarters of their recyclables into the trash

Jan 15, 2024

Curbside collection improves organic waste composting, reduces methane emissions

Mar 26, 2024

Can toothpaste tubes be recycled across the US? It's getting closer

Apr 12, 2024

Communities should reconsider walking away from curbside recycling, study shows

May 22, 2023

Recycling: what you can and can't recycle and why it's so confusing

Jun 1, 2023

Improve recycling compliance by using this technique in public service announcements

Nov 10, 2021

Recommended for you

Social change may explain decline in genetic diversity of the Y chromosome at the end of the Neolithic period

14 hours ago

Study finds rekindling old friendships as scary as making new ones

Understanding the spread of behavior: How long-tie connections accelerate the speed of social contagion

Which countries are more at risk in the global supply chain?

Apr 19, 2024

Many prisoners go years without touching a smartphone—it means they struggle to navigate life on the outside

Data-driven music: Converting climate measurements into music

Apr 18, 2024

Let us know if there is a problem with our content

Use this form if you have come across a typo, inaccuracy or would like to send an edit request for the content on this page. For general inquiries, please use our contact form . For general feedback, use the public comments section below (please adhere to guidelines ).

Please select the most appropriate category to facilitate processing of your request

Thank you for taking time to provide your feedback to the editors.

Your feedback is important to us. However, we do not guarantee individual replies due to the high volume of messages.

E-mail the story

Your email address is used only to let the recipient know who sent the email. Neither your address nor the recipient's address will be used for any other purpose. The information you enter will appear in your e-mail message and is not retained by Phys.org in any form.

Newsletter sign up

Get weekly and/or daily updates delivered to your inbox. You can unsubscribe at any time and we'll never share your details to third parties.

More information Privacy policy

Donate and enjoy an ad-free experience

We keep our content available to everyone. Consider supporting Science X's mission by getting a premium account.

E-mail newsletter

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

• View all journals
• Explore content
• About the journal
• Publish with us
• Sign up for alerts

Collection  06 March 2024

Physics Top 100 of 2023

This collection highlights the most downloaded* physics research papers published by Scientific Reports in 2023. Featuring authors from around the world, these papers highlight valuable research from an international community.

You can also view the journal's overall Top 100 or the Top 100 within various subject areas . *Data obtained from SN Insights, which is based on Digital Science’s Dimensions.

Geometric and physical interpretation of the action principle

• Gabriele Carcassi
• Christine A. Aidala

Hidden chamber discovery in the underground Hellenistic necropolis of Neapolis by muography

• Valeri Tioukov
• Kunihiro Morishima
• Giovanni De Lellis

Synthesis of prebiotic organics from CO 2 by catalysis with meteoritic and volcanic particles

• Sophia Peters
• Dmitry A. Semenov
• Oliver Trapp

Alpha radiation from polymetallic nodules and potential health risks from deep-sea mining

• Jessica B. Volz
• Walter Geibert
• Sabine Kasten

Geomagnetic disturbance associated with increased vagrancy in migratory landbirds

• Benjamin A. Tonelli
• Casey Youngflesh
• Morgan W. Tingley

Distribution of energy in the ideal gas that lacks equipartition

• Dmitry M. Naplekov
• Vladimir V. Yanovsky

Quantization of events in the event-universe and the emergence of quantum mechanics

• Felix Benninger
• Andrei Khrennikov

Proposal for a Lorenz qubit

• Michael R. Geller

Coherent control of light-induced torque on four-level tripod atom systems

• Ali Mehdinejad

Variational quantum non-orthogonal optimization

• Pablo Bermejo

Graphene oxide classification and standardization

• Katarzyna Z. Donato
• A. H. Castro Neto

Semiconductivity induced by spin–orbit coupling in Pb 9 Cu(PO 4 ) 6 O

• Jianrong Ye

The influence of solar-modulated regional circulations and galactic cosmic rays on global cloud distribution

• Vinay Kumar
• Surendra K. Dhaka
• Shigeo Yoden

Revisiting self-interference in Young’s double-slit experiments

• Sangbae Kim
• Byoung S. Ham

Improvements in 2D p-type WSe 2 transistors towards ultimate CMOS scaling

• Naim Hossain Patoary
• Ivan Sanchez Esqueda

DNA sequencing at the picogram level to investigate life on Mars and Earth

• Jyothi Basapathi Raghavendra
• Maria-Paz Zorzano
• Javier Martin-Torres

Entanglement detection with artificial neural networks

• Uman Khalid
• Hyundong Shin

Epoxidized graphene grid for highly efficient high-resolution cryoEM structural analysis

• Junso Fujita
• Fumiaki Makino
• Tsuyoshi Inoue

Physically informed machine-learning algorithms for the identification of two-dimensional atomic crystals

• Laura Zichi

A quadratic time-dependent quantum harmonic oscillator

• E. García Herrera
• B. M. Rodríguez-Lara

Time domain double slit interference of electron produced by XUV synchrotron radiation

• T. Kaneyasu
• Y. Hikosaka

Observing cosmic-ray extensive air showers with a silicon imaging detector

• Satoshi Kawanomoto
• Michitaro Koike
• Tsuyoshi Terai

A robophysical model of spacetime dynamics

• Shengkai Li
• Hussain N. Gynai
• Daniel I. Goldman

DFT-aided machine learning-based discovery of magnetism in Fe-based bimetallic chalcogenides

• Dharmendra Pant
• Suresh Pokharel
• Ranjit Pati

Quantum-aided secure deep neural network inference on real quantum computers

• Julie McCann

Practical overview of image classification with tensor-network quantum circuits

• Diego Guala
• Shaoming Zhang
• Juan Miguel Arrazola

Long distance entanglement and high-dimensional quantum teleportation in the Fermi–Hubbard model

• Sanaa Abaach
• Zakaria Mzaouali
• Morad El Baz

Nuclear shell-model simulation in digital quantum computers

• A. Pérez-Obiol
• A. M. Romero
• B. Juliá-Díaz

Investigation of interfacial strength in nacre-mimicking tungsten heavy alloys for nuclear fusion applications

• J. V. Haag IV
• M. Murayama

Characterization of interaction phenomena of electromagnetic waves with metamaterials via microwave near-field visualization technique

• Zhirayr Baghdasaryan
• Arsen Babajanyan

Perpendicular magnetic anisotropy, tunneling magnetoresistance and spin-transfer torque effect in magnetic tunnel junctions with Nb layers

• Pravin Khanal
• Wei-Gang Wang

Quantum AI simulator using a hybrid CPU–FPGA approach

• Teppei Suzuki
• Tsubasa Miyazaki
• Takahiro Otsuka

Externally-triggerable optical pump-probe scanning tunneling microscopy with a time resolution of tens-picosecond

• Katsuya Iwaya
• Munenori Yokota
• Hidemi Shigekawa

Forty thousand kilometers under quantum protection

• N. S. Kirsanov
• V. A. Pastushenko
• V. M. Vinokur

Quantum causality emerging in a delayed-choice quantum Cheshire Cat experiment with neutrons

• Richard Wagner
• Wenzel Kersten
• Yuji Hasegawa

Additional flight delays and magnetospheric–ionospheric disturbances during solar storms

Quantum face recognition protocol with ghost imaging

• Vahid Salari
• Dilip Paneru
• Ebrahim Karimi

Variational quantum approximate support vector machine with inference transfer

• Siheon Park
• Daniel K. Park
• June-Koo Kevin Rhee

A novel method for extracting metals from asteroids using non-aqueous deep eutectic solvents

• Rodolfo Marin Rivera
• Philip Bird
• Andrew P. Abbott

Heterostrain and temperature-tuned twist between graphene/ h -BN bilayers

Observations of the delayed-choice quantum eraser using coherent photons

Study the charging process of moving quantum batteries inside cavity

• Maryam Hadipour
• Soroush Haseli
• Maryam Rashidi

Imaging and identification of single nanoplastic particles and agglomerates

• Ambika Shorny
• Fritz Steiner
• Sarah M. Skoff

A solvable model for symmetry-breaking phase transitions

• Shatrughna Kumar
• Boris A. Malomed

CMOS-compatible ising machines built using bistable latches coupled through ferroelectric transistor arrays

• Antik Mallick
• Zijian Zhao
• Nikhil Shukla

Improving Josephson junction reproducibility for superconducting quantum circuits: junction area fluctuation

• Anastasiya A. Pishchimova
• Nikita S. Smirnov
• Ilya A. Rodionov

CryoFIB milling large tissue samples for cryo-electron tomography

Optimization of shadow evaporation and oxidation for reproducible quantum Josephson junction circuits

• Dmitry O. Moskalev
• Evgeniy V. Zikiy

Efficient noise mitigation technique for quantum computing

• Mohamad Hussein Naim
• Fadi Kurdahi

Genetic algorithm optimization of broadband operation in a noise-like pulse fiber laser

• Coraline Lapre
• Fanchao Meng
• John M. Dudley

Entanglement and quantum correlation measures for quantum multipartite mixed states

• Arthur Vesperini
• Ghofrane Bel-Hadj-Aissa
• Roberto Franzosi

Highly efficient graphene terahertz modulator with tunable electromagnetically induced transparency-like transmission

• Myunghwan Kim
• Seong-Han Kim
• Chul-Sik Kee

Quantum neural network cost function concentration dependency on the parametrization expressivity

• Lucas Friedrich
• Jonas Maziero

Dephasing by optical phonons in GaN defect single-photon emitters

• Farhan Rana

Effects of Ni/Co doping on structural and electronic properties of 122 and 112 families of Eu based iron pnictides

• Joanna Stępień
• Damian Rybicki
• Danilo Oliveira De Souza

Exploring the evidence of Middle Amazonian aquifer sedimentary outburst residues in a Martian chaotic terrain

• J. Alexis P. Rodriguez
• Mary Beth Wilhelm
• Denise Buckner

A universal variational quantum eigensolver for non-Hermitian systems

• Huanfeng Zhao
• Tzu-Chieh Wei

Large area MoS 2 thin film growth by direct sulfurization

• Kai-Yao Yang
• Hong-Thai Nguyen
• Hsiang-Chen Wang

Utilizing photonic band gap in triangular silicon carbide structures for efficient quantum nanophotonic hardware

• Pranta Saha
• Sridhar Majety
• Marina Radulaski

Impact of deoxygenation/reoxygenation processes on the superconducting properties of commercial coated conductors

• Pablo Cayado
• Marco Bonura
• Carmine Senatore

3D metamaterial ultra-wideband absorber for curved surface

• Mahdi Norouzi
• Saughar Jarchi
• Gholamhosein Moloudian

A fully fiber-integrated ion trap for portable quantum technologies

• Xavier Fernandez-Gonzalvo
• Matthias Keller

Microscopic-scale magnetic recording of brain neuronal electrical activity using a diamond quantum sensor

• Nikolaj Winther Hansen
• James Luke Webb
• Ulrik Lund Andersen

Observation of plasma inflows in laser-produced Sn plasma and their contribution to extreme-ultraviolet light output enhancement

• Kentaro Tomita
• Katsunobu Nishihara

Spin-flip-driven anomalous Hall effect and anisotropic magnetoresistance in a layered Ising antiferromagnet

• Dong Gun Oh
• Jong Hyuk Kim
• Young Jai Choi

Survivability of the lichen Xanthoria parietina in simulated Martian environmental conditions

• Christian Lorenz
• Elisabetta Bianchi
• Mickaël Baqué

Fluorescence and phosphorescence lifetime imaging reveals a significant cell nuclear viscosity and refractive index changes upon DNA damage

• Ellen Clancy
• Siva Ramadurai
• Stanley W. Botchway

Entropy defect in thermodynamics

• George Livadiotis
• David J. McComas

Design and optimization of broadband metamaterial absorber based on manganese for visible applications

• Shimaa I. Sayed
• K. R. Mahmoud
• Roaa I. Mubarak

A reconfigurable graphene patch antenna inverse design at terahertz frequencies

• Mohammad Mashayekhi
• Pooria Kabiri
• Mohammad Soleimani

Precision dual-comb spectroscopy using wavelength-converted frequency combs with low repetition rates

• Yohei Sugiyama
• Tsubasa Kashimura
• Feng-Lei Hong

Study comparing the tribological behavior of propylene glycol and water dispersed with graphene nanopowder

• A. Haribabu
• Raviteja Surakasi
• Sasan Zahmatkesh

Tunable growth of one-dimensional graphitic materials: graphene nanoribbons, carbon nanotubes, and nanoribbon/nanotube junctions

In-situ atomic level observation of the strain response of graphene lattice

• Jz-Yuan Juo
• Bong Gyu Shin
• Soon Jung Jung

Control of magnetic states and spin interactions in bilayer CrCl 3 with strain and electric fields: an ab initio study

• Ali Ebrahimian
• Anna Dyrdał
• Alireza Qaiumzadeh

Ultrathin acoustic metamaterial as super absorber for broadband low-frequency underwater sound

• Xindong Zhou
• Xiaochen Wang
• Fengxian Xin

Speed limit of quantum metrology

• Yusef Maleki
• Bahram Ahansaz
• Alireza Maleki

Spin Seebeck effect mediated reversal of vortex-Nernst effect in superconductor-ferromagnet bilayers

• Himanshu Sharma
• Zhenchao Wen
• Masaki Mizuguchi

Frequency-domain interferometry for the determination of time delay between two extreme-ultraviolet wave packets generated by a tandem undulator

Sustainable colonization of Mars using shape optimized structures and in situ concrete

• Omid Karimzade Soureshjani
• Ali Massumi
• Gholamreza Nouri

New insights into APCVD grown monolayer MoS 2 using time-domain terahertz spectroscopy

• Saloni Sharma
• Pooja Chauhan
• Bipin Kumar Gupta

Testing entanglement of annihilation photons

• Alexander Ivashkin
• Dzhonrid Abdurashitov
• Igor Tkachev

Characterisation of a single photon event camera for quantum imaging

• Victor Vidyapin
• Yingwen Zhang
• Benjamin Sussman

Automatic detection of multilayer hexagonal boron nitride in optical images using deep learning-based computer vision

• Fereshteh Ramezani
• Sheikh Parvez
• Bradley M. Whitaker

Taking advantage of noise in quantum reservoir computing

Higher-order topological corner state in a reconfigurable breathing kagome lattice consisting of magnetically coupled LC resonators

• Kenichi Yatsugi
• Shrinathan Esakimuthu Pandarakone
• Hideo Iizuka

Impact of the South Atlantic Anomaly on radiation exposure at flight altitudes during solar minimum

• Matthias M. Meier
• Thomas Berger
• Michael Wirtz

Initial results of the meteorological data from the first 325 sols of the Tianwen-1 mission

• Chunsheng Jiang

Stacked SiGe nanosheets p-FET for Sub-3 nm logic applications

• Chun-Lin Chu
• Shu-Han Hsu
• Szu-Hung Chen

Direct evidence of terahertz emission arising from anomalous Hall effect

• Venkatesh Mottamchetty
• Rahul Gupta

Thermodynamic determination of the equilibrium first-order phase-transition line hidden by hysteresis in a phase diagram

• Keisuke Matsuura
• Yo Nishizawa
• Fumitaka Kagawa

Panoramic dental tomosynthesis imaging by use of CBCT projection data

• Taejin Kwon
• Seungryong Cho

Magnetic field and nuclear spin influence on the DNA synthesis rate

• Sergey V. Stovbun
• Dmitry V. Zlenko
• Anatoly L. Buchachenko

Comparison of cubesat and microsat catastrophic failures in function of radiation and debris impact risk

• Isabel Lopez-Calle
• Alexander I. Franco

2D tunable all-solid-state random laser in the visible

• Bhupesh Kumar
• Patrick Sebbah

Highly sensitive label-free biosensor: graphene/CaF 2 multilayer for gas, cancer, virus, and diabetes detection with enhanced quality factor and figure of merit

• Behnam Jafari
• Elnaz Gholizadeh
• Saeed Golmohammadi

Highly nonlinear optic nucleic acid thin-solid film to generate short pulse laser

• Marjan Ghasemi
• Pulak Chandra Debnath
• Kyunghwan Oh

Trapping and manipulating skyrmions in two-dimensional films by surface acoustic waves

• Yu Miyazaki
• Tomoyuki Yokouchi
• Yuki Shiomi

Direct observation of electric field-induced magnetism in a molecular magnet

• M. Lewkowitz
• Ali Sirusi Arvij

[ 18 F]Tosyl fluoride as a versatile [ 18 F]fluoride source for the preparation of 18 F-labeled radiopharmaceuticals

• John A. Katzenellenbogen

Quick links

• Explore articles by subject
• Guide to authors
• Editorial policies

Facility for Rare Isotope Beams

At michigan state university, frib researchers lead team to merge nuclear physics experiments and astronomical observations to advance equation-of-state research, world-class particle-accelerator facilities and recent advances in neutron-star observation give physicists a new toolkit for describing nuclear interactions at a wide range of densities..

For most stars, neutron stars and black holes are their final resting places. When a supergiant star runs out of fuel, it expands and then rapidly collapses on itself. This act creates a neutron star—an object denser than our sun crammed into a space 13 to  18 miles wide. In such a heavily condensed stellar environment, most electrons combine with protons to make neutrons, resulting in a dense ball of matter consisting mainly of neutrons. Researchers try to understand the forces that control this process by creating dense matter in the laboratory through colliding neutron-rich nuclei and taking detailed measurements.

A research team—led by William Lynch and Betty Tsang at FRIB—is focused on learning about neutrons in dense environments. Lynch, Tsang, and their collaborators used 20 years of experimental data from accelerator facilities and neutron-star observations to understand how particles interact in nuclear matter under a wide range of densities and pressures. The team wanted to determine how the ratio of neutrons to protons influences nuclear forces in a system. The team recently published its findings in Nature Astronomy .

“In nuclear physics, we are often confined to studying small systems, but we know exactly what particles are in our nuclear systems. Stars provide us an unbelievable opportunity, because they are large systems where nuclear physics plays a vital role, but we do not know for sure what particles are in their interiors,” said Lynch, professor of nuclear physics at FRIB and in the Michigan State University (MSU) Department of Physics and Astronomy. “They are interesting because the density varies greatly within such large systems.  Nuclear forces play a dominant role within them, yet we know comparatively little about that role.” 

When a star with a mass that is 20-30 times that of the sun exhausts its fuel, it cools, collapses, and explodes in a supernova. After this explosion, only the matter in the deepest part of the star’s interior coalesces to form a neutron star. This neutron star has no fuel to burn and over time, it radiates its remaining heat into the surrounding space. Scientists expect that matter in the outer core of a cold neutron star is roughly similar to the matter in atomic nuclei but with three differences: neutron stars are much larger, they are denser in their interiors, and a larger fraction of their nucleons are neutrons. Deep within the inner core of a neutron star, the composition of neutron star matter remains a mystery. 

  “If experiments could provide more guidance about the forces that act in their interiors, we could make better predictions of their interior composition and of phase transitions within them. Neutron stars present a great research opportunity to combine these disciplines,” said Lynch.

Accelerator facilities like FRIB help physicists study how subatomic particles interact under exotic conditions that are more common in neutron stars. When researchers compare these experiments to neutron-star observations, they can calculate the equation of state (EOS) of particles interacting in low-temperature, dense environments. The EOS describes matter in specific conditions, and how its properties change with density. Solving EOS for a wide range of settings helps researchers understand the strong nuclear force’s effects within dense objects, like neutron stars, in the cosmos. It also helps us learn more about neutron stars as they cool.

“This is the first time that we pulled together such a wealth of experimental data to explain the equation of state under these conditions, and this is important,” said Tsang, professor of nuclear science at FRIB. “Previous efforts have used theory to explain the low-density and low-energy end of nuclear matter. We wanted to use all the data we had available to us from our previous experiences with accelerators to obtain a comprehensive equation of state.”   

Researchers seeking the EOS often calculate it at higher temperatures or lower densities. They then draw conclusions for the system across a wider range of conditions. However, physicists have come to understand in recent years that an EOS obtained from an experiment is only relevant for a specific range of densities. As a result, the team needed to pull together data from a variety of accelerator experiments that used different measurements of colliding nuclei to replace those assumptions with data. “In this work, we asked two questions,” said Lynch. “For a given measurement, what density does that measurement probe? After that, we asked what that measurement tells us about the equation of state at that density.”   

In its recent paper, the team combined its own experiments from accelerator facilities in the United States and Japan. It pulled together data from 12 different experimental constraints and three neutron-star observations. The researchers focused on determining the EOS for nuclear matter ranging from half to three times a nuclei’s saturation density—the density found at the core of all stable nuclei. By producing this comprehensive EOS, the team provided new benchmarks for the larger nuclear physics and astrophysics communities to more accurately model interactions of nuclear matter.

The team improved its measurements at intermediate densities that neutron star observations do not provide through experiments at the GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research in Germany, the RIKEN Nishina Center for Accelerator-Based Science in Japan, and the National Superconducting Cyclotron Laboratory (FRIB’s predecessor). To enable key measurements discussed in this article, their experiments helped fund technical advances in data acquisition for active targets and time projection chambers that are being employed in many other experiments world-wide.   

In running these experiments at FRIB, Tsang and Lynch can continue to interact with MSU students who help advance the research with their own input and innovation. MSU operates FRIB as a scientific user facility for the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science (DOE-SC), supporting the mission of the DOE-SC Office of Nuclear Physics. FRIB is the only accelerator-based user facility on a university campus as one of 28 DOE-SC user facilities .  Chun Yen Tsang, the first author on the Nature Astronomy  paper, was a graduate student under Betty Tsang during this research and is now a researcher working jointly at Brookhaven National Laboratory and Kent State University. 

“Projects like this one are essential for attracting the brightest students, which ultimately makes these discoveries possible, and provides a steady pipeline to the U.S. workforce in nuclear science,” Tsang said.

The proposed FRIB energy upgrade ( FRIB400 ), supported by the scientific user community in the 2023 Nuclear Science Advisory Committee Long Range Plan , will allow the team to probe at even higher densities in the years to come. FRIB400 will double the reach of FRIB along the neutron dripline into a region relevant for neutron-star crusts and to allow study of extreme, neutron-rich nuclei such as calcium-68. 

Eric Gedenk is a freelance science writer.

Michigan State University operates the Facility for Rare Isotope Beams (FRIB) as a user facility for the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science (DOE-SC), supporting the mission of the DOE-SC Office of Nuclear Physics. Hosting what is designed to be the most powerful heavy-ion accelerator, FRIB enables scientists to make discoveries about the properties of rare isotopes in order to better understand the physics of nuclei, nuclear astrophysics, fundamental interactions, and applications for society, including in medicine, homeland security, and industry.

The U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science is the single largest supporter of basic research in the physical sciences in the United States and is working to address some of today’s most pressing challenges. For more information, visit energy.gov/science.