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How to Write a Case Study: A Breakdown of Requirements

It can take months to develop a case study. First, a topic must be chosen. Then the researcher must state his hypothesis, and make certain it lines up with the chosen topic. Then all the research must be completed. The case study can require both quantitative and qualitative research, as well as interviews with subjects. Once that is all done, it is time to write the case study.

Not all case studies are written the same. Depending on the size and topic of the study, it could be hundreds of pages long. Regardless of the size, the case study should have four main sections. These sections are:

1. Introduction

2. Background

3. Presentation of Findings

4. Conclusion

The Introduction

The introduction should set the stage for the case study, and state the thesis for the report. The intro must clearly articulate what the study's intention is, as well as how you plan on explaining and answering the thesis.

Again, remember that a case study is not a formal scientific research report that will only be read by scientists. The case study must be able to be read and understood by the layperson, and should read almost as a story, with a clear narrative.

As the reader reads the introduction, they should fully understand what the study is about, and why it is important. They should have a strong foundation for the background they will learn about in the next section.

The introduction should not be long. You must be able to introduce your topic in one or two paragraphs. Ideally, the introduction is one paragraph of about 3-5 sentences.

The Background

The background should detail what information brought the researcher to pose his hypothesis. It should clearly explain the subject or subjects, as well as their background information. And lastly, the background must give the reader a full understanding of the issue at hand, and what process will be taken with the study. Photos and videos are always helpful when applicable.

When writing the background, the researcher must explain the research methods used, and why. The type of research used will be dependent on the type of case study. The reader should have a clear idea why a particular type of research is good for the field and type of case study.

For example, a case study that is trying to determine what causes PTSD in veterans will heavily use interviews as a research method. Directly interviewing subjects garners invaluable research for the researcher. If possible, reference studies that prove this.

Again, as with the introduction, you do not want to write an extremely long background. It is important you provide the right amount of information, as you do not want to bore your readers with too much information, and you don't want them under-informed.

How much background information should a case study provide? What would happen if the case study had too much background info?

What would happen if the case study had too little background info?

The Presentation of Findings

While a case study might use scientific facts and information, a case study should not read as a scientific research journal or report. It should be easy to read and understand, and should follow the narrative determined in the first step.

The presentation of findings should clearly explain how the topic was researched, and summarize what the results are. Data should be summarized as simply as possible so that it is understandable by people without a scientific background. The researcher should describe what was learned from the interviews, and how the results answered the questions asked in the introduction.

When writing up the report, it is important to set the scene. The writer must clearly lay out all relevant facts and detail the most important points. While this section may be lengthy, you do not want to overwhelm the reader with too much information.

The Conclusion

The final section of the study is the conclusion. The purpose of the study isn't necessarily to solve the problem, only to offer possible solutions. The final summary should be an end to the story.

Remember, the case study is about asking and answering questions. The conclusion should answer the question posed by the researcher, but also leave the reader with questions of his own. The researcher wants the reader to think about the questions posed in the study, and be free to come to their own conclusions as well.

When reading the conclusion, the reader should be able to have the following takeaways:

Was there a solution provided? If so, why was it chosen?

Was the solution supported with solid evidence?

Did the personal experiences and interviews support the solution?

The conclusion should also make any recommendations that are necessary. What needs to be done, and you exactly should do it? In the case of the vets with PTSD, once a cause is determined, who is responsible for making sure the needs of the veterans are met?

English Writing Standards For Case Studies

When writing the case study, it is important to follow standard academic and scientific rules when it comes to spelling and grammar.

Spelling and Grammar

It should go without saying that a thorough spell check should be done. Remember, many case studies will require words or terms that are not in standard online dictionaries, so it is imperative the correct spelling is used. If possible, the first draft of the case study should be reviewed and edited by someone other than yourself.

Case studies are normally written in the past tense, as the report is detailing an event or topic that has since passed. The report should be written using a very logical and clear tone. All case studies are scientific in nature and should be written as such.

The First Draft

You do not sit down and write the case study in one day. It is a long and detailed process, and it must be done carefully and with precision. When you sit down to first start writing, you will want to write in plain English, and detail the what, when and how.

When writing the first draft, note any relevant assumptions. Don't immediately jump to any conclusions; just take notes of any initial thoughts. You are not looking for solutions yet. In the first draft use direct quotes when needed, and be sure to identify and qualify all information used.

If there are any issues you do not understand, the first draft is where it should be identified. Make a note so you return to review later. Using a spreadsheet program like Excel or Google Sheets is very valuable during this stage of the writing process, and can help keep you and your information and data organized.

The Second Draft

To prepare the second draft, you will want to assemble everything you have written thus far. You want to reduce the amount of writing so that the writing is tightly written and cogent. Remember, you want your case study to be interesting to read.

When possible, you should consider adding images, tables, maps, or diagrams to the text to make it more interesting for the reader. If you use any of these, make sure you have permission to use them. You cannot take an image from the Internet and use it without permission.

Once you have completed the second draft, you are not finished! It is imperative you have someone review your work. This could be a coworker, friend, or trusted colleague. You want someone who will give you an honest review of your work, and is willing to give you feedback, whether positive or negative.

Remember, you cannot proofread enough! You do not want to risk all of your hard work and research, and end up with a final case study that has spelling or grammatical errors. One typo could greatly hurt your project and damage your reputation in your field.

All case studies should follow LIT – Logical – Inclusive – Thorough.

The case study obviously must be logical. There can be no guessing or estimating. This means that the report must state what was observed, but cannot include any opinion or assumptions that might come from such an observation.

For example, if a veteran subject arrives at an interview holding an empty liquor bottle and is slurring his words, that observation must be made. However, the researcher cannot make the inference that the subject was intoxicated. The report can only include the facts.

With the Genie case, researchers witnessed Genie hitting herself and practicing self-harm. It could be assumed that she did this when she was angry. However, this wasn't always the case. She would also hit herself when she was afraid, bored or apprehensive. It is essential that researchers not guess or infer.

In order for a report to be inclusive, it must contain ALL data and findings. The researcher cannot pick and choose which data or findings to use in the report.

Using the example above, if a veteran subject arrives for an interview holding an empty liquor bottle and is slurring his words; any and all additional information that can be garnered should be recorded. For instance, what the subject was wearing, what was his demeanor, was he able to speak and communicate, etc.

When observing a man who might be drunk, it can be easy to make assumptions. However, the researcher cannot allow personal biases or beliefs to sway the findings. Any and all relevant facts must be included, regardless of size or perceived importance. Remember, small details might not seem relevant at the time of the interview. But once it is time to catalog the findings, small details might become important.

The last tip is to be thorough. It is important to delve into every observation. The researcher shouldn't just write down what they see and move on. It is essential to detail as much as possible.

For example, when interviewing veteran subjects, there interview responses are not the only information that should be garnered from the interview. The interviewer should use all senses when detailing their subject.

How does the subject appear? Is he clean? How is he dressed?

How does his voice sound? Is he speaking clearly and making cohesive thoughts? Does his voice sound raspy? Does he speak with a whisper, or does he speak too loudly?

Does the subject smell? Is he wearing cologne, or can you smell that he hasn't bathed or washed his clothes? What do his clothes look like? Is he well dressed, or does he wear casual clothes?

What is the background of the subject? What are his current living arrangements? Does he have supportive family and friends? Is he a loner who doesn't have a solid support system? Is the subject working? If so, is he happy with the job? If he is not employed, why is that? What makes the subject unemployable?

Case Studies in Marketing

We have already determined that case studies are very valuable in the business world. This is particularly true in the marketing field, which includes advertising and public relations. While case studies are almost all the same, marketing case studies are usually more dependent on interviews and observations.

Well-Known Marketing Case Studies

DeBeers is a diamond company headquartered in Luxembourg, and based in South Africa. It is well known for its logo, "A diamond is forever", which has been voted the best advertising slogan of the 20 th century.

Many studies have been done about DeBeers, but none are as well known as their marketing case study, and how they positioned themselves to be the most successful and well-known diamond company in the world.

DeBeers developed the idea for a diamond engagement ring. They also invented the "eternity band", which is a ring that has diamonds going all around it, signifying that long is forever.

They also invented the three-stone ring, signifying the past, present and future. De Beers was the first company to attribute their products, diamonds to the idea of love and romance. They originated the idea that an engagement ring should cost two-months salary.

The two-month salary standard is particularly unique, in that it is totally subjective. A ring should mean the same whether the man makes $25,000 a year or $250,000. And yet, the standard sticks due to DeBeers incredible marketing skills.

The De Beers case study is one of the most famous studies when it comes to both advertising and marketing, and is used worldwide as the ultimate example of a successful ongoing marketing campaign.

Planning the Market Research

The most important parts of the marketing case study are:

1. The case study's questions

2. The study's propositions

3. How information and data will be analyzed

4. The logic behind what is being proposed

5. How the findings will be interpreted

The study's questions should be either "how" or "why" questions, and their definitions are the researchers first job. These questions will help determine the study's goals.

Not every case study has a proposition. If you are doing an exploratory study, you will not have propositions. Instead, you will have a stated purpose, which will determine whether your study is successful, or not.

How the information will be analyzed will depend on what the topic is. This would vary depending on whether it was a person, group, or organization. Event and place studies are done differently.

When setting up your research, you will want to follow case study protocol. The protocol should have the following sections:

1. An overview of the case study, including the objectives, topic and issues.

2. Procedures for gathering information and conducting interviews.

3. Questions that will be asked during interviews and data collection.

4. A guide for the final case study report.

When deciding upon which research methods to use, these are the most important:

1. Documents and archival records

2 . Interviews

3. Direct observations (and indirect when possible)

4. Indirect observations, or observations of subjects

5. Physical artifacts and tools

Documents could include almost anything, including letters, memos, newspaper articles, Internet articles, other case studies, or any other document germane to the study.

Developing the Case Study

Developing a marketing case study follows the same steps and procedures as most case studies. It begins with asking a question, "what is missing?"

1. What is the background of the case study? Who requested the study to be done and why? What industry is the study in, and where will the study take place? What marketing needs are you trying to address?

2. What is the problem that needs a solution? What is the situation, and what are the risks? What are you trying to prove?

3. What questions are required to analyze the problem? What questions might the reader of the study have?

4. What tools are required to analyze the problem? Is data analysis necessary? Can the study use just interviews and observations, or will it require additional information?

5. What is your current knowledge about the problem or situation? How much background information do you need to procure? How will you obtain this background info?

6. What other information do you need to know to successfully complete the study?

7. How do you plan to present the report? Will it be a simple written report, or will you add PowerPoint presentations or images or videos? When is the report due? Are you giving yourself enough time to complete the project?

Formulating the Marketing Case Study

1. What is the marketing problem? Most case studies begin with a problem that management or the marketing department is facing. You must fully understand the problem and what caused it. That is when you can start searching for a solution.

However, marketing case studies can be difficult to research. You must turn a marketing problem into a research problem. For example, if the problem is that sales are not growing, you must translate that to a research problem.

What could potential research problems be?

Research problems could be poor performance or poor expectations. You want a research problem because then you can find an answer. Management problems focus on actions, such as whether to advertise more, or change advertising strategies. Research problems focus on finding out how to solve the management problem.

Method of Inquiry

As with the research for most case studies, the scientific method is standard. It allows you to use existing knowledge as a starting point. The scientific method has the following steps:

1. Ask a question – formulate a problem

2. Do background research

3. Formulate a problem

4. Develop/construct a hypothesis

5. Make predictions based on the hypothesis

6. Do experiments to test the hypothesis

7 . Conduct the test/experiment

8 . Analyze and communicate the results

The above terminology is very similar to the research process. The main difference is that the scientific method is objective and the research process is subjective. Quantitative research is based on impartial analysis, and qualitative research is based on personal judgment.

Research Method

After selecting the method of inquiry, it is time to decide on a research method. There are two main research methodologies, experimental research and non-experimental research.

Experimental research allows you to control the variables and to manipulate any of the variables that influence the study.

Non-experimental research allows you to observe, but not intervene. You just observe and then report your findings.

Research Design

The design is the plan for how you will conduct the study, and how you will collect the data. The design is the scientific method you will use to obtain the information you are seeking.

Data Collection

There are many different ways to collect data, with the two most important being interviews and observation.

Interviews are when you ask people questions and get a response. These interviews can be done face-to-face, by telephone, the mail, email, or even the Internet. This category of research techniques is survey research. Interviews can be done in both experimental and non-experimental research.

Observation is watching a person or company's behavior. For example, by observing a persons buying behavior, you could predict how that person will make purchases in the future.

When using interviews or observation, it is required that you record your results. How you record the data will depend on which method you use. As with all case studies, using a research notebook is key, and will be the heart of the study.

Sample Design

When developing your case study, you won't usually examine an entire population; those are done by larger research projects. Your study will use a sample, which is a small representation of the population. When designing your sample, be prepared to answer the following questions:

1. From which type of population should the sample be chosen?

2. What is the process for the selection of the sample?

3. What will be the size of the sample?

There are two ways to select a sample from the general population; probability and non-probability sampling. Probability sampling uses random sampling of everyone in the population. Non-probability sampling uses the judgment of the researcher.

The last step of designing your sample is to determine the sample size. This can depend on cost and accuracy. Larger samples are better and more accurate, but they can also be costly.

Analysis of the Data

In order to use the data, it first must be analyzed. How you analyze the data should be decided upon as early in the process as possible, and will vary depending on the type of info you are collecting, and the form of measurement being used. As stated repeatedly, make sure you keep track of everything in the research notebook.

The Marketing Case Study Report

The final stage of the process is the marketing case study. The final study will include all of the information, as well as detail the process. It will also describe the results, conclusions, and any recommendations. It must have all the information needed so that the reader can understand the case study.

As with all case studies, it must be easy to read. You don't want to use info that is too technical; otherwise you could potentially overwhelm your reader. So make sure it is written in plain English, with scientific and technical terms kept to a minimum.

Using Your Case Study

Once you have your finished case study, you have many opportunities to get that case study in front of potential customers. Here is a list of the ways you can use your case study to help your company's marketing efforts.

1. Have a page on your website that is dedicated to case studies. The page should have a catchy name and list all of the company's case studies, beginning with the most recent. Next to each case study list its goals and results.

2. Put the case study on your home page. This will put your study front and center, and will be immediately visible when customers visit your web page. Make sure the link isn't hidden in an area rarely visited by guests. You can highlight the case study for a few weeks or months, or until you feel your study has received enough looks.

3. Write a blog post about your case study. Obviously you must have a blog for this to be successful. This is a great way to give your case study exposure, and it allows you to write the post directly addressing your audience's needs.

4 . Make a video from your case study. Videos are more popular than ever, and turning a lengthy case study into a brief video is a great way to get your case study in front of people who might not normally read a case study.

5. Use your case study on a landing page. You can pull quotes from the case study and use those on product pages. Again, this format works best when you use market segmentation.

6. Post about your case studies on social media. You can share links on Twitter, Facebook and LinkedIn. Write a little interesting tidbit, enough to capture your client's interest, and then place the link.

7 . Use your case study in your email marketing. This is most effective if your email list is segmented, and you can direct your case study to those most likely to be receptive to it.

8. Use your case studies in your newsletters. This can be especially effective if you use segmentation with your newsletters, so you can gear the case study to those most likely to read and value it.

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Methodology

  • What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on May 8, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 20, 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organization, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

Table of contents

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyze the case, other interesting articles.

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

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requirements of a case study

Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

  • Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
  • Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
  • Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
  • Open up new directions for future research

TipIf your research is more practical in nature and aims to simultaneously investigate an issue as you solve it, consider conducting action research instead.

Unlike quantitative or experimental research , a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

Example of an outlying case studyIn the 1960s the town of Roseto, Pennsylvania was discovered to have extremely low rates of heart disease compared to the US average. It became an important case study for understanding previously neglected causes of heart disease.

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience or phenomenon.

Example of a representative case studyIn the 1920s, two sociologists used Muncie, Indiana as a case study of a typical American city that supposedly exemplified the changing culture of the US at the time.

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

  • Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
  • Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
  • Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews , observations , and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data.

Example of a mixed methods case studyFor a case study of a wind farm development in a rural area, you could collect quantitative data on employment rates and business revenue, collect qualitative data on local people’s perceptions and experiences, and analyze local and national media coverage of the development.

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

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In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis , with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyze its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

  • Normal distribution
  • Degrees of freedom
  • Null hypothesis
  • Discourse analysis
  • Control groups
  • Mixed methods research
  • Non-probability sampling
  • Quantitative research
  • Ecological validity

Research bias

  • Rosenthal effect
  • Implicit bias
  • Cognitive bias
  • Selection bias
  • Negativity bias
  • Status quo bias

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requirements of a case study

All You Wanted to Know About How to Write a Case Study

requirements of a case study

What do you study in your college? If you are a psychology, sociology, or anthropology student, we bet you might be familiar with what a case study is. This research method is used to study a certain person, group, or situation. In this guide from our dissertation writing service , you will learn how to write a case study professionally, from researching to citing sources properly. Also, we will explore different types of case studies and show you examples — so that you won’t have any other questions left.

What Is a Case Study?

A case study is a subcategory of research design which investigates problems and offers solutions. Case studies can range from academic research studies to corporate promotional tools trying to sell an idea—their scope is quite vast.

What Is the Difference Between a Research Paper and a Case Study?

While research papers turn the reader’s attention to a certain problem, case studies go even further. Case study guidelines require students to pay attention to details, examining issues closely and in-depth using different research methods. For example, case studies may be used to examine court cases if you study Law, or a patient's health history if you study Medicine. Case studies are also used in Marketing, which are thorough, empirically supported analysis of a good or service's performance. Well-designed case studies can be valuable for prospective customers as they can identify and solve the potential customers pain point.

Case studies involve a lot of storytelling – they usually examine particular cases for a person or a group of people. This method of research is very helpful, as it is very practical and can give a lot of hands-on information. Most commonly, the length of the case study is about 500-900 words, which is much less than the length of an average research paper.

The structure of a case study is very similar to storytelling. It has a protagonist or main character, which in your case is actually a problem you are trying to solve. You can use the system of 3 Acts to make it a compelling story. It should have an introduction, rising action, a climax where transformation occurs, falling action, and a solution.

Here is a rough formula for you to use in your case study:

Problem (Act I): > Solution (Act II) > Result (Act III) > Conclusion.

Types of Case Studies

The purpose of a case study is to provide detailed reports on an event, an institution, a place, future customers, or pretty much anything. There are a few common types of case study, but the type depends on the topic. The following are the most common domains where case studies are needed:

Types of Case Studies

  • Historical case studies are great to learn from. Historical events have a multitude of source info offering different perspectives. There are always modern parallels where these perspectives can be applied, compared, and thoroughly analyzed.
  • Problem-oriented case studies are usually used for solving problems. These are often assigned as theoretical situations where you need to immerse yourself in the situation to examine it. Imagine you’re working for a startup and you’ve just noticed a significant flaw in your product’s design. Before taking it to the senior manager, you want to do a comprehensive study on the issue and provide solutions. On a greater scale, problem-oriented case studies are a vital part of relevant socio-economic discussions.
  • Cumulative case studies collect information and offer comparisons. In business, case studies are often used to tell people about the value of a product.
  • Critical case studies explore the causes and effects of a certain case.
  • Illustrative case studies describe certain events, investigating outcomes and lessons learned.

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Case Study Format

The case study format is typically made up of eight parts:

  • Executive Summary. Explain what you will examine in the case study. Write an overview of the field you’re researching. Make a thesis statement and sum up the results of your observation in a maximum of 2 sentences.
  • Background. Provide background information and the most relevant facts. Isolate the issues.
  • Case Evaluation. Isolate the sections of the study you want to focus on. In it, explain why something is working or is not working.
  • Proposed Solutions. Offer realistic ways to solve what isn’t working or how to improve its current condition. Explain why these solutions work by offering testable evidence.
  • Conclusion. Summarize the main points from the case evaluations and proposed solutions. 6. Recommendations. Talk about the strategy that you should choose. Explain why this choice is the most appropriate.
  • Implementation. Explain how to put the specific strategies into action.
  • References. Provide all the citations.

How to Write a Case Study

Let's discover how to write a case study.

How to Write a Case Study

Setting Up the Research

When writing a case study, remember that research should always come first. Reading many different sources and analyzing other points of view will help you come up with more creative solutions. You can also conduct an actual interview to thoroughly investigate the customer story that you'll need for your case study. Including all of the necessary research, writing a case study may take some time. The research process involves doing the following:

  • Define your objective. Explain the reason why you’re presenting your subject. Figure out where you will feature your case study; whether it is written, on video, shown as an infographic, streamed as a podcast, etc.
  • Determine who will be the right candidate for your case study. Get permission, quotes, and other features that will make your case study effective. Get in touch with your candidate to see if they approve of being part of your work. Study that candidate’s situation and note down what caused it.
  • Identify which various consequences could result from the situation. Follow these guidelines on how to start a case study: surf the net to find some general information you might find useful.
  • Make a list of credible sources and examine them. Seek out important facts and highlight problems. Always write down your ideas and make sure to brainstorm.
  • Focus on several key issues – why they exist, and how they impact your research subject. Think of several unique solutions. Draw from class discussions, readings, and personal experience. When writing a case study, focus on the best solution and explore it in depth. After having all your research in place, writing a case study will be easy. You may first want to check the rubric and criteria of your assignment for the correct case study structure.

Read Also: 'CREDIBLE SOURCES: WHAT ARE THEY?'

Although your instructor might be looking at slightly different criteria, every case study rubric essentially has the same standards. Your professor will want you to exhibit 8 different outcomes:

  • Correctly identify the concepts, theories, and practices in the discipline.
  • Identify the relevant theories and principles associated with the particular study.
  • Evaluate legal and ethical principles and apply them to your decision-making.
  • Recognize the global importance and contribution of your case.
  • Construct a coherent summary and explanation of the study.
  • Demonstrate analytical and critical-thinking skills.
  • Explain the interrelationships between the environment and nature.
  • Integrate theory and practice of the discipline within the analysis.

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Case Study Outline

Let's look at the structure of an outline based on the issue of the alcoholic addiction of 30 people.

Introduction

  • Statement of the issue: Alcoholism is a disease rather than a weakness of character.
  • Presentation of the problem: Alcoholism is affecting more than 14 million people in the USA, which makes it the third most common mental illness there.
  • Explanation of the terms: In the past, alcoholism was commonly referred to as alcohol dependence or alcohol addiction. Alcoholism is now the more severe stage of this addiction in the disorder spectrum.
  • Hypotheses: Drinking in excess can lead to the use of other drugs.
  • Importance of your story: How the information you present can help people with their addictions.
  • Background of the story: Include an explanation of why you chose this topic.
  • Presentation of analysis and data: Describe the criteria for choosing 30 candidates, the structure of the interview, and the outcomes.
  • Strong argument 1: ex. X% of candidates dealing with anxiety and depression...
  • Strong argument 2: ex. X amount of people started drinking by their mid-teens.
  • Strong argument 3: ex. X% of respondents’ parents had issues with alcohol.
  • Concluding statement: I have researched if alcoholism is a disease and found out that…
  • Recommendations: Ways and actions for preventing alcohol use.

Writing a Case Study Draft

After you’ve done your case study research and written the outline, it’s time to focus on the draft. In a draft, you have to develop and write your case study by using: the data which you collected throughout the research, interviews, and the analysis processes that were undertaken. Follow these rules for the draft:

How to Write a Case Study

  • Your draft should contain at least 4 sections: an introduction; a body where you should include background information, an explanation of why you decided to do this case study, and a presentation of your main findings; a conclusion where you present data; and references.
  • In the introduction, you should set the pace very clearly. You can even raise a question or quote someone you interviewed in the research phase. It must provide adequate background information on the topic. The background may include analyses of previous studies on your topic. Include the aim of your case here as well. Think of it as a thesis statement. The aim must describe the purpose of your work—presenting the issues that you want to tackle. Include background information, such as photos or videos you used when doing the research.
  • Describe your unique research process, whether it was through interviews, observations, academic journals, etc. The next point includes providing the results of your research. Tell the audience what you found out. Why is this important, and what could be learned from it? Discuss the real implications of the problem and its significance in the world.
  • Include quotes and data (such as findings, percentages, and awards). This will add a personal touch and better credibility to the case you present. Explain what results you find during your interviews in regards to the problem and how it developed. Also, write about solutions which have already been proposed by other people who have already written about this case.
  • At the end of your case study, you should offer possible solutions, but don’t worry about solving them yourself.

Use Data to Illustrate Key Points in Your Case Study

Even though your case study is a story, it should be based on evidence. Use as much data as possible to illustrate your point. Without the right data, your case study may appear weak and the readers may not be able to relate to your issue as much as they should. Let's see the examples from essay writing service :

‍ With data: Alcoholism is affecting more than 14 million people in the USA, which makes it the third most common mental illness there. Without data: A lot of people suffer from alcoholism in the United States.

Try to include as many credible sources as possible. You may have terms or sources that could be hard for other cultures to understand. If this is the case, you should include them in the appendix or Notes for the Instructor or Professor.

Finalizing the Draft: Checklist

After you finish drafting your case study, polish it up by answering these ‘ask yourself’ questions and think about how to end your case study:

  • Check that you follow the correct case study format, also in regards to text formatting.
  • Check that your work is consistent with its referencing and citation style.
  • Micro-editing — check for grammar and spelling issues.
  • Macro-editing — does ‘the big picture’ come across to the reader? Is there enough raw data, such as real-life examples or personal experiences? Have you made your data collection process completely transparent? Does your analysis provide a clear conclusion, allowing for further research and practice?

Problems to avoid:

  • Overgeneralization – Do not go into further research that deviates from the main problem.
  • Failure to Document Limitations – Just as you have to clearly state the limitations of a general research study, you must describe the specific limitations inherent in the subject of analysis.
  • Failure to Extrapolate All Possible Implications – Just as you don't want to over-generalize from your case study findings, you also have to be thorough in the consideration of all possible outcomes or recommendations derived from your findings.

How to Create a Title Page and Cite a Case Study

Let's see how to create an awesome title page.

Your title page depends on the prescribed citation format. The title page should include:

  • A title that attracts some attention and describes your study
  • The title should have the words “case study” in it
  • The title should range between 5-9 words in length
  • Your name and contact information
  • Your finished paper should be only 500 to 1,500 words in length.With this type of assignment, write effectively and avoid fluff

Here is a template for the APA and MLA format title page:

There are some cases when you need to cite someone else's study in your own one – therefore, you need to master how to cite a case study. A case study is like a research paper when it comes to citations. You can cite it like you cite a book, depending on what style you need.

Citation Example in MLA ‍ Hill, Linda, Tarun Khanna, and Emily A. Stecker. HCL Technologies. Boston: Harvard Business Publishing, 2008. Print.
Citation Example in APA ‍ Hill, L., Khanna, T., & Stecker, E. A. (2008). HCL Technologies. Boston: Harvard Business Publishing.
Citation Example in Chicago Hill, Linda, Tarun Khanna, and Emily A. Stecker. HCL Technologies.

Case Study Examples

To give you an idea of a professional case study example, we gathered and linked some below.

Eastman Kodak Case Study

Case Study Example: Audi Trains Mexican Autoworkers in Germany

To conclude, a case study is one of the best methods of getting an overview of what happened to a person, a group, or a situation in practice. It allows you to have an in-depth glance at the real-life problems that businesses, healthcare industry, criminal justice, etc. may face. This insight helps us look at such situations in a different light. This is because we see scenarios that we otherwise would not, without necessarily being there. If you need custom essays , try our research paper writing services .

Get Help Form Qualified Writers

Crafting a case study is not easy. You might want to write one of high quality, but you don’t have the time or expertise. If you’re having trouble with your case study, help with essay request - we'll help. EssayPro writers have read and written countless case studies and are experts in endless disciplines. Request essay writing, editing, or proofreading assistance from our custom case study writing service , and all of your worries will be gone.

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How to write a business case study: your complete guide

Hanna Stechenko

Hanna Stechenko Manager, SEO Management

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Business case studies are powerful tools for marketing, teaching, and training. They help to create valuable learning experiences that can be shared with others.

A well-written business case study can also generate leads, increase customer loyalty, and boost sales.

But writing an effective and compelling case study can be easier said than done.

Great case studies aren’t something that you can write by yourself.

You’ll need help from existing clients who are willing to talk about their problems publicly, and you’ll need to safeguard their reputation while you tell their story.

It’s tricky.

In this article, we’ll take a closer look at how to write a business case study, including best practices, case study templates, real examples, and more.

Let’s jump in.

What is a business case study?

A business case study is an in-depth look at a specific company or organization that examines how a business solved a problem, achieved success, or faced failure.

Case studies are often used by businesses to demonstrate the effectiveness of their strategies and solutions.

They can also serve as inspiration for other organizations that may be considering similar approaches.

The idea is simple: Stakeholders evaluating a product may be able to see the value of that product by learning how other companies have tried and succeeded with it.

For that reason, 42% of marketers still list case studies as a top media format used to generate leads and sales.

Strong case studies are often based on interviews with actual customers to highlight the effectiveness of a specific feature, explain a certain use case, or emphasize benefits or results of note.

Done correctly, a case study combines customer testimonials, process information, and usage data to tell a unique story about how a product or service helped a company succeed.

That’s why case studies are sometimes known as customer success stories.

What makes a strong case study?

Before we jump into the details of how to make a great case study, let’s take a closer look at what a strong case study actually looks like.

To create a great case study, you’ll need each of the following:

  • Clear, compelling storylines. A good case study should include a clear story line that conveys the problem, solution, and the impact of the solution.
  • A strong presentation of data. Demonstrate how your product or service has made an impact on the customer’s business with documented facts and figures.
  • Credible client testimonials. Include feedback from real clients and users about how your product or service solved their issue. With permission, use a person’s real name and job title and personal experience to add credibility to your case study.
  • Streamlined visuals. Graphics, photos, charts and/or videos can help illustrate results in an engaging and easy to understand way.
  • Call to action. Always include a link to more information or a contact form at the end of your case study.

While all of these components are essential to great case studies, they aren’t always easy to acquire. Be prepared to dig for information and work closely with customers to build compelling content.

Why use case studies at all?

Great case studies can take some time to create.

Considering budgets and deadlines, why should you even bother using them when you could create more landing pages, buy more ads, or write more blog posts?

It’s a fair point to consider.

Case studies come with a unique set of benefits for your marketing strategy that other forms of content simply can’t fill.

1. They can last a long time

A single case study can be used as sales and marketing collateral as long as the feature products or services are still relevant.

If your products have a long lifespan, the same piece of content may be useful for months or years.

2. They’re relatively inexpensive

Case studies are relatively inexpensive to produce compared to other forms of marketing, such as white papers, e-books, and long-form blog content.

3. They drastically boost your credibility

Done correctly, case studies demonstrate the effectiveness of your products and services from the perspective of customers who have benefited directly from using them.

In a sense, case studies represent your products and services through the eyes of customers who have already taken the proverbial leap of faith.

When speaking to prospects and leads who aren’t fully bought in, they can minimize risk and offer assurances in a way that no other piece of sales and marketing collateral can match.

With all of that preliminary information out of the way, let’s take a closer look at how to actually build an effective case study.

Before you start: Understanding stakes and obstacles

The strongest case studies are usually created in collaboration between two companies: Your organization and that of a current or former customer with whom you have a good relationship.

At a high level, the process is straightforward:

  • Question creation . Your team compiles a list of interview questions designed to tell a compelling story for new, prospective customers.
  • Interview. Your team interviews a representative or stakeholder from the customer-partner organization.
  • Draft. After the interview is complete, your team transforms the interview into a complete narrative.
  • Feedback round. The customer-partner reviews the draft and provides feedback and input.
  • Final draft. Your team makes corrections based on that feedback and resubmits for final approval.
  • Final approval. The customer-partner approves the draft.
  • Publish. Your team creates marketing collateral and publishes or shares the case study.

Simple, right?

Unfortunately, the process is rarely this smooth.

There are several outlying factors that can stop your case in its tracks or prevent it from ever seeing the light of day.

Here are some factors that you’ll need to consider before you start the case study process.

1. Relationship

Potential interview targets are more likely to agree to an interview if they have a strong relationship with someone on your team, like an account manager or a longtime sales rep.

Without a way to get your foot in the door, your interview request may be politely declined.

2. Availability

People are busy.

It’s not uncommon for the interval between reviews and approvals to take weeks at a time.

Because case study drafts need to be approved by both parties, expect delays while your drafts are circulated through your partner organizations.

3. Branding

Even if your product or service helped an organization overcome a huge obstacle, they may not want to talk about that weakness in a public forum.

Many companies are very cautious about anything that portrays their brand in an unfavorable light.

4. Legality

If your customer-partner doesn’t like what you’ve written, they may simply forbid you to use their name, logos, or data as part of your case study.

Moving forward without their permission could cause legal issues and damage customer relationships.

5. Approval

Sometimes, it’s impossible to get final approvals from the appropriate individuals in the customer-partner organization.

If HR or legal needs to sign off on the final product before it can be officially released, it could take weeks or months before that final approval comes through.

Above all else, remember: The customer-partner that agrees to help you create a case study is doing you a favor.

Most of the time, the customer-partner receives no benefit from the time and effort spent creating this piece.

They can’t use it to sell their own services, and they may reveal information and data that demonstrates a weakness in their management or internal process.

Keep that information in mind as you select your customer partners.

Be sure to treat these partners with care and respect, as a bad case study experience can damage a healthy customer relationship.

Step 1: Planning and prep

Business case studies will usually fall under the domain of your marketing team, but you’ll need to be specific when assigning project tasks and responsibilities.

Here’s what you need in order to create a case study:

  • Internal project stakeholder. This individual oversees the project internally. They assign tasks, handle outreach, and oversee the production and delivery of the case study.
  • External project stakeholder. The individual at the customer organization who agrees to help. This person may or may not be the individual who is interviewed by your organization.
  • Interviewer. The individual who conducts the interview.
  • Writer. The individual who writes the case study.
  • Project manager. The individual who manages the case study project and ensures that deadlines are met.
  • Internal editor or approver. The individual who reviews the case study and provides feedback or final approvals.
  • External editor or approver. The individual at the customer organization who reviews the case study and provides feedback or final approvals.
  • Designer. The individual who formats the case study, provides data-based graphics and illustration, or produces the final product file (typically a PDF or web page) with the case study and all relevant content.

Sometimes, these roles are combined.

The internal project stakeholder may also manage the product and provide editorial feedback after the case study is written.

Or, if you’re working with a freelancer for this process, they may conduct the interview, write the draft, and furnish a final design.

Next, consider your goals:

  • Why are you writing this case study? Do you have a specific goal, such as boosting lead generation or improving customer lifetime value (CLV)?
  • If your case study is angled to grow business with existing customers, you may select different features from case studies meant to introduce prospective customers to your products.
  • This could include add-on services or premium product features.
  • Do you have any new products, services or updates you’d like to share with the world?
  • Do you have a new positioning strategy?

After you’ve defined your objectives, it’s time to start considering who you might want to interview.

1. Make your list specific

Include the company name, any relevant notes and the name of the intended stakeholders to be interviewed.

2. Only include notable candidates

Make sure that your interview targets have experienced substantial or notable results with your product.

Look for clients who have experienced exceptional and transformative outcomes while using your product or service.

3. Consider existing relationships

Look for clients that already have a strong working relationship with you.

If they regularly work with an account manager or are in constant contact with specific team members, consider bringing those individuals into the conversation early.

Once you have your targets, reach out, explain your project, and see if the customer is interested in participating.

When you ask for an interview, be sure to mention the following details:

  • The purpose of the case study and what you’re ultimately trying to accomplish.
  • A brief overview of the case study process (including the interview process and what happens next).
  • Timeframes and estimated deadlines.
  • A general idea of the kinds of questions they may be asked.
  • Explain scenarios for how and where the case study may be used (you’ll need their permission to share it with your audiences).
  • Thank them for their time.

If they agree, start scheduling your timeline.

Work backwards from the date you’d like to publish, then build in dates for reviews and edits. Also create a flexible internal deadline for securing a client interview.

Since you’ll need to align your schedule with that of your interviewee, pinpointing an actual interview date can take some time.

Step 2: The interview process

As we mentioned above: Most of the time, the customer-partner that agrees to help you with your case study receives no major benefit from the project.

It helps you, but it doesn’t usually help them.

With that in mind, your goal during the interview process is to make things as easy, streamlined, and stress-free as possible.

One major step that you can take to calm nerves and prevent misunderstandings is to send an interview questionnaire prior to your interview.

This will help your customer-partner understand your main objectives and prepare their responses in advance.

Here are a few sample questions you might use:

  • How many team members use our product/service? Which departments?
  • What were your challenges before using our product/service/process?
  • What made you leave your previous solution for our product?
  • How do you use our product/service/process?
  • What features or tools have been the most helpful for your business?
  • If you asked us for help, how did we provide you with what you need? We’d like to understand this from your perspective.
  • How have you benefited from our offering–and what have been your greatest results to date? Please provide specific metrics, if possible.
  • What surprised you most about using our product/service/process?
  • How have your customers or clients benefited from your use of our products or services?
  • Is there anything else you would like us to know?

When you sit down to interview the client, it’s easiest to follow the interview questions that you sent over and simply record their responses.

However, don’t just stick to the script during the actual interview . Listen and actively engage with your interviewee.

Ask follow-up questions. Clarify details. Explore the answers in real time with your interviewee.

Use the opportunity to dig deeper and gather all the information you need to tell the right story to your prospects and leads.

You might also use a tool like Otter.ai to record and capture the transcript at the same time, but be sure to have your customer-partner sign a recording permission release if you intend to use sound bytes from that recording as part of your final case study.

Step 3: Writing your business case study

Ideally, the interview is the last piece of information you need before writing your case study.

All of the background information and preliminary work should be done as part of the interview preparation.

When you finish speaking with the customer-partner, it’s time to consolidate your notes and write the draft.

Before you begin, take a moment to review your overall objectives and the story that you want to tell. From there, select a format for your case study and start the draft.

Regardless of the modules, headings, or illustrations that you use, the case study should cover what life was like before the customer started using your product or service and what happened after they adopted those products/services into their workflow.

Sample case study outline

1. introduction.

A brief description of the case study’s contents (bullet point key metrics and successes).

2. Company overview

A brief description of the featured company — what they do, who their customers are, what they sell, etc. Include brief background/context as to how they use your product, service or process.

3. Problem / Challenge

Describe the business problem or opportunity that your customer was facing before they started using your product or service.

Include strong quotes and fully illustrate why the issue was a problem that needed to be solved.

4. Solution

Explain how the customer used your product to solve their problem.

Share their decision-making process, how they arrived at your solution, what convinced them to purchase, and how they implemented that solution internally.

Share benefits and features that stood out to them. Reinforce these details with quotes from your interview.

Summarize the outcome from the customer’s implementation of your product, service, or process.

Recap their wins, as well as the major improvements that they have seen over both the short and long term.

Add data and metrics, where relevant. Include quotes about how the current solution empowers the company and solves their problems.

6. About us

Share a brief explanation of your company and the products or services you provide.

7. Call-to-action (CTA)

Add a call to action with the appropriate contact information (or a contact button, if this is a web-based case study) so that users can get in touch for additional information after reading the case study.

When it’s time to start writing, gather all relevant information and relevant links (white papers, other case studies, sales and spec sheets, etc.) to make sure you have access to the full scope of information related to the products and services mentioned in your case study.

Your goal isn’t to overload the reader by explaining everything. Instead, focus on creating a benefits-driven story around the features that your products and services provide.

Use data and details to provide precise information at key points.

It’s likely that you will need to bridge the information gap between your interviewee and your target audience.

Since your clients know you understand your product or service, they’re likely to answer your questions in broader terms.

However, your readers will not be as familiar with your organization and may only have limited experience with what you sell.

Instead, you’ll need to provide context as you write. If your business has buyer personas or ideal customer profiles (ICP), it’s a great idea to keep those on hand.

It’s also important to reserve enough writing time to get creative. Thoughtfully work your way through your materials to come up with the type of angle that will make your case study worthwhile.

Best practices

  • Start with an attention-grabbing, relevant headline.
  • Avoid lengthy explanations unless you’re working on a more complex case study.
  • If you’re writing a business case study that’s complicated because of the subject matter or necessary background information, consider starting the content with an executive summary to improve readability.
  • Only include a table of contents for lengthier case studies.
  • Write in the third person.
  • Avoid alienating your readers by assuming they’ll understand technical details. Skip the jargon and explain every acronym to hold their attention the entire way.
  • A good business case study is a story. Make sure it has a strong beginning, middle, and end. A conversational tone often works best.
  • Keep it focused. Don’t highlight a million wins for a single case study. Pick one or two combinations of challenges and solutions instead. If you include more, you might dilute your message or bore your readers.
  • Always include direct quotes for an added dose of personality, energy, and human connection.
  • Include stats or metrics whenever possible, such as increased revenue, the number of new customers gained, or a measurable boost in traffic.
  • If you’re in a very visual industry like graphic design, advertising, fashion, or interior design, include on-brand images where relevant.
  • Standard case study length: Roughly 500-1000 words.
  • Long-form case study: Roughly 1500-2000 words.
  • Make your customer-partner the hero. While your products and services are key to customer success, they are ultimately there to aid the customer in the important work that they do.

Revise and review

Once you’ve completed your case study draft, take a few minutes to re-read everything and ensure that the draft tells the right story.

  • Double-check that all facts and figures are correct.
  • Set it aside for a time and get some distance. Return to the draft with a fresh perspective.
  • Pass it to your colleagues, including internal stakeholders and approvers, for feedback.
  • Provide enough details and context so that readers can see customer benefits and how your solution can help them succeed.

Seek client approval

When you’re satisfied with your case study, it’s time to send a copy of the draft to your client for their review and approval.

This is an important step in ensuring maximum transparency and visibility.

Your customer partner should know exactly what you plan to share and have enough time to share it with key stakeholders from their marketing and/or legal department.

It is highly likely that your customer-partner will request changes.

Some changes may be simple (such as clarifying job roles), but others may be more drastic.

Your customer partner may request that you remember sensitive data and details or phrase issues in a more favorable light.

Most organizations seek to avoid bad press and prefer not to point out key weaknesses in their internal processes and strategies.

Be prepared to soften your language or advocate to keep key data points in place.

This is often one of the most critical parts of the case study process. Proceed with caution and choose your battles wisely.

While you can push back on suggested changes, remember that your customer-partner can rescind the use of their name and information in your case study.

Though you can choose to publish anyway (with names and titles omitted), your case study would be far less influential as a result.

Regardless of the potential gains from a case study, it’s not worth poisoning a relationship with a customer that actively uses and promotes your product.

Step 4: Marketing your case study

When you have the finished product, it’s time to share and promote your case study. Think about using these channels:

  • A dedicated landing page.
  • The resources section of your website.
  • Your company blog.
  • One or a series of marketing emails.
  • Social media.
  • Custom infographic.

Requiring readers to fill out a short online form to get the download may allow sales and marketing teams to connect with potential leads.

If you do go the gated route, be sure the conditions of opting in are crystal clear. And feature a couple of non-gated case studies on your site for everyone who’d prefer to skip the forms.

Regardless of how you market your case study, don’t forget about your sales team!

Sales reps will get a lot of use out of your case studies.

They can feature them as links in their email signatures and include them in sales emails and proposals for new clients and potential customers.

Ready to get started? Try out this case study presentation template .

Good case study examples (and why they work)

If you’re struggling with case studies, you can find plenty of great examples around the internet.

Start reading well-executed case studies to learn more about what makes them work.

Below, you’ll find a selection of three very different but successful case studies.

PandaDoc case study

Intro : Before diving into the body of the case study, we briefly introduced the company, TPD, and highlighted three major metrics for a promising start.

The problem: We quickly engaged readers with our conversational tone. We also invited them to walk in TPD’s shoes through empathetic language and relatable context.

Challenges, solutions, and results: We took readers on a storytelling journey to help our case study flow. We gave them enough information to understand the “why”, but never bogged them down with unnecessary details. We were also sure to include supporting quotes and specific, measurable results in these critical sections.

Pull quote: We reserved the very best quote as the only pull quote, ensuring it would receive the attention it deserves.

Format: Finally, every time we mentioned a new company, we gave it a hyperlink to help readers save time.

Trello case study

Unicef + trello: helping others when they need it most.

Facts and figures : Trello opens the case study with great at-a-glance information, sharing insights into UNICEF as an organization and their relationship with Trello products.

Challenges, solutions, and results: This case study takes readers through a detailed narrative, providing statistics and metrics whenever possible. Readers are immersed into the story of exactly how UNICEF used Trello to help thousands of people during a natural disaster, offering enough detail to spark use case inspiration for other Trello users.

Photos: Trello included photos of actual UNICEF employees working remotely around the globe. The pictures gave the case study a personal feel, which could help readers better identify with the story.

Readers are reminded of the unique challenges of working together while apart to start considering how Trello might be able to help them find the solutions they need. Remember, the best case studies are relatable to all of your prospects!

Format: Its structure makes this longer case study easy to read. Sections of text are kept short while bullet points and pull quotes provide visual breaks.

Finally, hyperlinks to organizations’ websites open in separate tabs to help prevent losing case study readers along the way.

Stripe case study

Simplepractice launches automatic payments offering for clinicians with stripe.

Intro: In just two sentences, Stripe successfully manages to explain what SimplePractice is, what they offer, who they serve, how they serve them, and the benefits those clients gain.

While it’s not necessary to be this brief, readers will be more likely to read your entire intro if it’s on the shorter side.

Sidebar : The sidebar draws eyes to keep reading with two impressive metrics and a brightly-hued CTA button to “contact sales”.

Challenge and solution: These sections read like a story, with each sentence enticing the reader to continue to the next. It’s also great that a quote from SimplePractice’s COO is used to add context, emphasizing the gravity of their challenge.

Results: Stripe gives a lot of detail here for a strong close to the case study. After explaining how their offering brought ease to SimplePractice’s business, they went on to share detailed specifics on what made things easier and in what ways.

They also explained how their offering improved the businesses of SimplePractice’s clients. It’s highly persuasive for readers to understand they have the opportunity to not only benefit their own companies but also those of their clients.

Pull quote: The case study ends with a strong pull quote in a can’t-miss-it color.

Format: Stripe has a great case study format.

Wrapping up

The truth is: No matter how much you talk up your product, you’re a biased participant in any conversation. You have an ulterior motive, and that makes any direct claims you make about your product or service questionable.

Why? Because you want to sell your product!

Case studies offer an alternative way to soften your messaging by allowing prospects and potential buyers to hear from the people who use your products in real-world, everyday situations.

By placing your customers and their experiences at the front of your marketing, you can use trust and relatability to bridge a gap in a way that numbers and data just can’t provide.

Your customers already have great stories about how your solutions have transformed the work that they do.

Help them speak and share those stories with the people who need to hear them most with a case study.

Good luck? Be sure to check out other marketing tips and tricks on the PandaDoc blog .

Frequently asked questions

What is the best business case study format.

The best business case study format depends on the nature of the results and what you’re trying to achieve. You can figure that out by carefully reviewing your customer success stories and interviews.

  • What stands out the most?
  • What are you trying to achieve?
  • How can you use your layout to guide readers through your story?
  • What is your industry or what is the industry of your featured client?

Pro tip : Some interviews are more quotable than others. If you have too many great quotes to include them in your featured sections, consider adding a few pull quotes to your layout.

How do I create a business case study outline?

To create a business case study outline, list all of your featured sections and use bullet points to note subsections and what should be covered.

Most case studies feature the following sections:

  • Introduction
  • Brief Description of Customer’s Business
  • Problem/Challenge/Opportunity
  • Results/Conclusion
  • About Us / Boilerplate
  • Call-to-Action (CTA).

But outlines aren’t just for traditional case studies. Use outlines to guide your infographic and video versions too.

What are some case study best practices?

Best practices for writing case studies include:

  • Crafting short, easy-to-digest sections.
  • Weaving in a narrative for engaging storytelling.
  • Starting with an engaging headline.
  • Writing in layman’s terms.
  • Explaining any necessary acronyms.
  • Including any supporting metrics or statistics.
  • Using direct quotes to bring your customer’s story to life.

Also, be sure to get the approval of your client and their marketing team after you’ve had time to review your first draft and fact-check all information.

Where can I find a good case study design template?

You can find a good case study design template on PandaDoc.

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Originally published October 27, 2022, updated March 30, 2023

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Home » Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide

Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide

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Case Study Research

A case study is a research method that involves an in-depth examination and analysis of a particular phenomenon or case, such as an individual, organization, community, event, or situation.

It is a qualitative research approach that aims to provide a detailed and comprehensive understanding of the case being studied. Case studies typically involve multiple sources of data, including interviews, observations, documents, and artifacts, which are analyzed using various techniques, such as content analysis, thematic analysis, and grounded theory. The findings of a case study are often used to develop theories, inform policy or practice, or generate new research questions.

Types of Case Study

Types and Methods of Case Study are as follows:

Single-Case Study

A single-case study is an in-depth analysis of a single case. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to understand a specific phenomenon in detail.

For Example , A researcher might conduct a single-case study on a particular individual to understand their experiences with a particular health condition or a specific organization to explore their management practices. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of a single-case study are often used to generate new research questions, develop theories, or inform policy or practice.

Multiple-Case Study

A multiple-case study involves the analysis of several cases that are similar in nature. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to identify similarities and differences between the cases.

For Example, a researcher might conduct a multiple-case study on several companies to explore the factors that contribute to their success or failure. The researcher collects data from each case, compares and contrasts the findings, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as comparative analysis or pattern-matching. The findings of a multiple-case study can be used to develop theories, inform policy or practice, or generate new research questions.

Exploratory Case Study

An exploratory case study is used to explore a new or understudied phenomenon. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to generate hypotheses or theories about the phenomenon.

For Example, a researcher might conduct an exploratory case study on a new technology to understand its potential impact on society. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as grounded theory or content analysis. The findings of an exploratory case study can be used to generate new research questions, develop theories, or inform policy or practice.

Descriptive Case Study

A descriptive case study is used to describe a particular phenomenon in detail. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to provide a comprehensive account of the phenomenon.

For Example, a researcher might conduct a descriptive case study on a particular community to understand its social and economic characteristics. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of a descriptive case study can be used to inform policy or practice or generate new research questions.

Instrumental Case Study

An instrumental case study is used to understand a particular phenomenon that is instrumental in achieving a particular goal. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to understand the role of the phenomenon in achieving the goal.

For Example, a researcher might conduct an instrumental case study on a particular policy to understand its impact on achieving a particular goal, such as reducing poverty. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of an instrumental case study can be used to inform policy or practice or generate new research questions.

Case Study Data Collection Methods

Here are some common data collection methods for case studies:

Interviews involve asking questions to individuals who have knowledge or experience relevant to the case study. Interviews can be structured (where the same questions are asked to all participants) or unstructured (where the interviewer follows up on the responses with further questions). Interviews can be conducted in person, over the phone, or through video conferencing.

Observations

Observations involve watching and recording the behavior and activities of individuals or groups relevant to the case study. Observations can be participant (where the researcher actively participates in the activities) or non-participant (where the researcher observes from a distance). Observations can be recorded using notes, audio or video recordings, or photographs.

Documents can be used as a source of information for case studies. Documents can include reports, memos, emails, letters, and other written materials related to the case study. Documents can be collected from the case study participants or from public sources.

Surveys involve asking a set of questions to a sample of individuals relevant to the case study. Surveys can be administered in person, over the phone, through mail or email, or online. Surveys can be used to gather information on attitudes, opinions, or behaviors related to the case study.

Artifacts are physical objects relevant to the case study. Artifacts can include tools, equipment, products, or other objects that provide insights into the case study phenomenon.

How to conduct Case Study Research

Conducting a case study research involves several steps that need to be followed to ensure the quality and rigor of the study. Here are the steps to conduct case study research:

  • Define the research questions: The first step in conducting a case study research is to define the research questions. The research questions should be specific, measurable, and relevant to the case study phenomenon under investigation.
  • Select the case: The next step is to select the case or cases to be studied. The case should be relevant to the research questions and should provide rich and diverse data that can be used to answer the research questions.
  • Collect data: Data can be collected using various methods, such as interviews, observations, documents, surveys, and artifacts. The data collection method should be selected based on the research questions and the nature of the case study phenomenon.
  • Analyze the data: The data collected from the case study should be analyzed using various techniques, such as content analysis, thematic analysis, or grounded theory. The analysis should be guided by the research questions and should aim to provide insights and conclusions relevant to the research questions.
  • Draw conclusions: The conclusions drawn from the case study should be based on the data analysis and should be relevant to the research questions. The conclusions should be supported by evidence and should be clearly stated.
  • Validate the findings: The findings of the case study should be validated by reviewing the data and the analysis with participants or other experts in the field. This helps to ensure the validity and reliability of the findings.
  • Write the report: The final step is to write the report of the case study research. The report should provide a clear description of the case study phenomenon, the research questions, the data collection methods, the data analysis, the findings, and the conclusions. The report should be written in a clear and concise manner and should follow the guidelines for academic writing.

Examples of Case Study

Here are some examples of case study research:

  • The Hawthorne Studies : Conducted between 1924 and 1932, the Hawthorne Studies were a series of case studies conducted by Elton Mayo and his colleagues to examine the impact of work environment on employee productivity. The studies were conducted at the Hawthorne Works plant of the Western Electric Company in Chicago and included interviews, observations, and experiments.
  • The Stanford Prison Experiment: Conducted in 1971, the Stanford Prison Experiment was a case study conducted by Philip Zimbardo to examine the psychological effects of power and authority. The study involved simulating a prison environment and assigning participants to the role of guards or prisoners. The study was controversial due to the ethical issues it raised.
  • The Challenger Disaster: The Challenger Disaster was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the Space Shuttle Challenger explosion in 1986. The study included interviews, observations, and analysis of data to identify the technical, organizational, and cultural factors that contributed to the disaster.
  • The Enron Scandal: The Enron Scandal was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the Enron Corporation’s bankruptcy in 2001. The study included interviews, analysis of financial data, and review of documents to identify the accounting practices, corporate culture, and ethical issues that led to the company’s downfall.
  • The Fukushima Nuclear Disaster : The Fukushima Nuclear Disaster was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the nuclear accident that occurred at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant in Japan in 2011. The study included interviews, analysis of data, and review of documents to identify the technical, organizational, and cultural factors that contributed to the disaster.

Application of Case Study

Case studies have a wide range of applications across various fields and industries. Here are some examples:

Business and Management

Case studies are widely used in business and management to examine real-life situations and develop problem-solving skills. Case studies can help students and professionals to develop a deep understanding of business concepts, theories, and best practices.

Case studies are used in healthcare to examine patient care, treatment options, and outcomes. Case studies can help healthcare professionals to develop critical thinking skills, diagnose complex medical conditions, and develop effective treatment plans.

Case studies are used in education to examine teaching and learning practices. Case studies can help educators to develop effective teaching strategies, evaluate student progress, and identify areas for improvement.

Social Sciences

Case studies are widely used in social sciences to examine human behavior, social phenomena, and cultural practices. Case studies can help researchers to develop theories, test hypotheses, and gain insights into complex social issues.

Law and Ethics

Case studies are used in law and ethics to examine legal and ethical dilemmas. Case studies can help lawyers, policymakers, and ethical professionals to develop critical thinking skills, analyze complex cases, and make informed decisions.

Purpose of Case Study

The purpose of a case study is to provide a detailed analysis of a specific phenomenon, issue, or problem in its real-life context. A case study is a qualitative research method that involves the in-depth exploration and analysis of a particular case, which can be an individual, group, organization, event, or community.

The primary purpose of a case study is to generate a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the case, including its history, context, and dynamics. Case studies can help researchers to identify and examine the underlying factors, processes, and mechanisms that contribute to the case and its outcomes. This can help to develop a more accurate and detailed understanding of the case, which can inform future research, practice, or policy.

Case studies can also serve other purposes, including:

  • Illustrating a theory or concept: Case studies can be used to illustrate and explain theoretical concepts and frameworks, providing concrete examples of how they can be applied in real-life situations.
  • Developing hypotheses: Case studies can help to generate hypotheses about the causal relationships between different factors and outcomes, which can be tested through further research.
  • Providing insight into complex issues: Case studies can provide insights into complex and multifaceted issues, which may be difficult to understand through other research methods.
  • Informing practice or policy: Case studies can be used to inform practice or policy by identifying best practices, lessons learned, or areas for improvement.

Advantages of Case Study Research

There are several advantages of case study research, including:

  • In-depth exploration: Case study research allows for a detailed exploration and analysis of a specific phenomenon, issue, or problem in its real-life context. This can provide a comprehensive understanding of the case and its dynamics, which may not be possible through other research methods.
  • Rich data: Case study research can generate rich and detailed data, including qualitative data such as interviews, observations, and documents. This can provide a nuanced understanding of the case and its complexity.
  • Holistic perspective: Case study research allows for a holistic perspective of the case, taking into account the various factors, processes, and mechanisms that contribute to the case and its outcomes. This can help to develop a more accurate and comprehensive understanding of the case.
  • Theory development: Case study research can help to develop and refine theories and concepts by providing empirical evidence and concrete examples of how they can be applied in real-life situations.
  • Practical application: Case study research can inform practice or policy by identifying best practices, lessons learned, or areas for improvement.
  • Contextualization: Case study research takes into account the specific context in which the case is situated, which can help to understand how the case is influenced by the social, cultural, and historical factors of its environment.

Limitations of Case Study Research

There are several limitations of case study research, including:

  • Limited generalizability : Case studies are typically focused on a single case or a small number of cases, which limits the generalizability of the findings. The unique characteristics of the case may not be applicable to other contexts or populations, which may limit the external validity of the research.
  • Biased sampling: Case studies may rely on purposive or convenience sampling, which can introduce bias into the sample selection process. This may limit the representativeness of the sample and the generalizability of the findings.
  • Subjectivity: Case studies rely on the interpretation of the researcher, which can introduce subjectivity into the analysis. The researcher’s own biases, assumptions, and perspectives may influence the findings, which may limit the objectivity of the research.
  • Limited control: Case studies are typically conducted in naturalistic settings, which limits the control that the researcher has over the environment and the variables being studied. This may limit the ability to establish causal relationships between variables.
  • Time-consuming: Case studies can be time-consuming to conduct, as they typically involve a detailed exploration and analysis of a specific case. This may limit the feasibility of conducting multiple case studies or conducting case studies in a timely manner.
  • Resource-intensive: Case studies may require significant resources, including time, funding, and expertise. This may limit the ability of researchers to conduct case studies in resource-constrained settings.

About the author

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Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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What the Case Study Method Really Teaches

  • Nitin Nohria

requirements of a case study

Seven meta-skills that stick even if the cases fade from memory.

It’s been 100 years since Harvard Business School began using the case study method. Beyond teaching specific subject matter, the case study method excels in instilling meta-skills in students. This article explains the importance of seven such skills: preparation, discernment, bias recognition, judgement, collaboration, curiosity, and self-confidence.

During my decade as dean of Harvard Business School, I spent hundreds of hours talking with our alumni. To enliven these conversations, I relied on a favorite question: “What was the most important thing you learned from your time in our MBA program?”

  • Nitin Nohria is the George F. Baker Jr. Professor at Harvard Business School and the former dean of HBS.

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requirements of a case study

Introduction to Gathering Requirements and Creating Use Cases

requirements of a case study

Published in:

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Filed under:

  • Development Process
  • Project Management
  • Testing and Quality Control

Studies indicate that between 40% and 60% of all defects found in software projects can be traced back to errors made while gathering requirements.

This is huge! Finding problems while they are just in the planning stages is MUCH easier to deal with than finding them after the code has been written. So, how can developers avoid these errors and create a solid design for their software? This article will describe various methods for gathering software requirements and writing Use Cases - the first two steps in the software development process.

Imagine you are about to build a house…

You're not sure exactly what you want to build, but you know you want a “nice” house, a “big” house, and you know that you have a budget of $200,000. So, the first thing you do is go to the lumberyard and purchase various materials - lumber, windows, doors, drywall, roofing and cement blocks. You get the materials delivered and you grab the first 2x4 and start building the house. Blueprints? Who needs them? Heck, you know what you are doing and you've been inside a lot of houses right? This notion, of course, seems absurd, but that's exactly the way most software applications are built today. Developers talk to the client for a few minutes, get a general idea of what the client needs, and then sit down at the computer and start to code…

Wait a minute! There are better ways to do this! You may want to say, “But I don't have time to figure all these things out, I've got to get this done! The deadlines are tight on this project!” Before you do, take a moment to consider how much quicker it is to fix a problem early in the process, rather than later. The earlier you discover the problems, the less time is wasted and the fewer things are affected. If we take a look back at the house example, think about this: how much quicker and cheaper would it be to change the blueprint and build a two-story house rather than to build a one-story house and then rip off the roof to add the second story? The typical outcome of incomplete requirements is a huge gap between what the developers think they are supposed to build and what the users think they will get. This, of course, makes the software take longer to build and drives the cost up.

So, let's take a look at what exactly software requirements are and what techniques we can use to collect them.

Requirements

There are basically two types of software requirements - Functional and Non-Functional. As the name implies, Functional requirements describe the functionality of the product. They describe exactly what tasks the software must perform. Functional requirements define the scope of the system, the product boundaries, and its connections to adjacent systems. Functional requirements also define the business rules. Business rules are the rules that the system must conform to, based on the individual business. This includes defining the data that must be tracked. The business rules are the most important type of functional requirements and most of your requirements will be of this type.

Non-Functional requirements describe the look and feel of the system. This includes the visual properties of the system, its usability, and the performance requirements - how big, how fast, etc. Non-Functional requirements also include the product's intended operating environment and any maintainability, portability and security issues. Non-Functional requirements also include cultural and political issues as well as legal requirements that the software must conform to.

It's important to point out that various sources, such as books and web sites, describe the different types of software requirements using other categories, often with contradictory terminology. The important part, however, is not which category the requirements fall into, but that all the requirements in the business process have been identified and documented.

So, now that we know what types of information we should be collecting, let's take a look at the characteristics of good requirements. Good requirements have the following attributes. They are:

  • Complete - they very thoroughly describe the criteria
  • Correct - they are accurate and true
  • Feasible - they can be accomplished and individual requirements do not contradict each other.
  • Necessary - they are truly needed for the system to function properly and they are really what the client wants.
  • Prioritized - in the case that not all parts of the system can be implemented at the same time, it's important to be able to distinguish “absolutely necessary” from “nice to have”.
  • Unambiguous - they are clear and cannot be misinterpreted
  • Verifiable - once implemented, it can be confirmed that the system has met the requirement through observation and testing

Looking at the above list, it's obvious that quality and accuracy are extremely important. One way to assure quality is to create a single checkpoint that each requirement must pass through. Thus, a single person or a group of people must eventually individually approve every requirement no matter where it originated. Having a single quality checkpoint is especially important in large or complex projects. In addition, it's vital to make sure that the requirements are not too general, and that they are comprehensive and completely clear. Keep in mind that the person collecting the requirements might not always be the same person who will be writing the actual code.

So, where and how do we find out about the requirements for a system? The best places are from:

  • Domain Experts - people who are very knowledgeable and work in the area of the system that is being built
  • Users - people who will actually be the ones using the system once it's built
  • Existing processes and programs - both manual processes and existing programs
  • Find out the limitations of existing systems and software
  • Find out where the users' time is spent
  • Find out what they like and don't like
  • Sit down with the users WHILE they are performing their tasks. Be sure to ask questions to get a clear idea of what they are doing.
  • Review similar software programs - if there is a similar or competing program, this can be a great resource

It's important that you set up meetings with these people and interview them in order to extract the information. This, of course, is not always an easy task, depending on the people involved and how well they can communicate about what they do and how they do it. More information about dealing with the customer while collecting requirements can be found in the “Customers vs. Code” column in this issue of Component Developer Magazine .

So, now we know what information we are looking for and we know where to get it. The next items we'll discuss are the various methodologies for collecting requirements. These techniques include cards, simple requirement lists, matrices and templates, as well as complex software programs for requirements management. Often, a combination of techniques works the best, since each method has strengths and weaknesses.

One methodology for collecting requirements is to write each requirement on a separate 5" x 7" index card. Using these cards is an excellent way to begin the requirements collection process, and the cards have some other advantages, as well. They are a fast and easy way to group, reorganize and discard ideas. Additionally, they can easily be sorted and distributed among different people or groups. There are several different techniques that involve using these cards - CRC cards, XP Story Cards and Volere Snow Cards.

With CRC cards, the Class, Responsibility and Collaboration for each requirement are recorded. Using the requirement, identify the Class by finding the noun in the statement. The nouns usually indicate the classes in the system. The Responsibility is anything the class knows or does, and can usually be identified by the verb in the requirement statement. The Collaboration occurs when the class needs information it doesn't have - it describes the interaction between other classes and objects.

XP Story Cards is a technique used in Extreme Programming. This involves the customer (not the programmer) writing a short, simple story on each card. Each card should hold approximately one week of programming work for a single programmer.

Finally, Volere Snow Cards are cards that are preprinted with a variety of information about each requirement (see Figure 1 ). See the sidebar for web site addresses to obtain information about each of these processes.

Figure 1 - Volere Snow Cards

Another technique for collecting requirements involves simply keeping a list of requirements. As this list grows, it is grouped into logical elements from the business domain. For example, you may have requirements that fall into the following categories: customers, products and billing. Once this list has been compiled, the next step often is to create a Requirements Trace Matrix. This matrix simply takes the list of requirements, grouped by category, and puts them into a matrix that has other information (see Figure 2 ). One effective technique is to store this information on a system that can easily be shared and modified by each team member. Office Collaboration (part of Microsoft Office) or a Wiki Web (see sidebar) is perfect for this.

Figure 2 - RequirementsTrace Matrix

Finally, a third methodology involves using a predefined template containing various groups of information about the project. These templates are extremely useful, since they insure that all the necessary information has been gathered and that nothing has been overlooked. Two such templates are the Vision and Scope Document and the Volere Specification (see sidebar for web links). These templates contain extensive information about the project - the actual requirements are just a small portion. In addition to sections for various types of requirements, they also include items such as the vision of the solution, the scope of the project, the product constraints, success factors and more. If the list of requirements is large, it's useful to create separate documents, perhaps using requirement trace matrices, for the requirement portion of the template and reference these external documents within the template.

As we've seen, there are many different ways to collect requirements. The important thing is to find a technique that works well for you.

So, now that we have a complete organized list of requirements, I guess we're ready to start coding, right? Whoa, not so fast! The requirements really just give us an outline of what we are trying to build. Use Cases are the next step in the design process. Use cases integrate the requirements into a comprehensive package that describes the interaction of the user with the system. So, what exactly are Use Cases, and how do we build them?

A quick search in your browser for “Use Case Template” will yield many different template styles. Find a template that best captures the requirements for your application.

Use Cases begin where the Requirements Gathering process leaves off. The requirements determine what Use Cases the system will have, and many of the requirements will become the business logic in the Use Cases. Of course, as Use Cases are being developed, you will have many questions - this is where the Domain Experts and Users again play an important part in the software design process. Other Stakeholders will also have valuable input. Stakeholders are people who have an interest in the system (perhaps the owners of the company that the system is being designed for), but unlike the Users, Stakeholders may not have any direct contact with the system being built. Use Cases are also extremely valuable since the stakeholders of the application can easily understand them. Therefore, they help to eliminate misunderstandings about the scope and functionality of the system.

Basically, there are two parts to developing Use Cases - the text document and the accompanying UML diagrams. Most developers begin the process by filling out a Use Case template for each of the Use Cases.

Perhaps the easiest way to understand how to create a Use Case is by looking at an example. Let's consider a very simple web application that allows a user to go to a web site and purchase movie tickets. First, we'll gather the requirements of the system, and from this requirements list, we then can fill out the Use Case template.

Let's examine each section of the Use Case and discuss its function. The Overview section, as its name implies, is simply one or two sentences describing the overall scenario that the Use Case covers. In this example, as seen in Figure 3 , the Overview would be: This scenario describes a Customer purchasing movie tickets online. The Notes describe any relevant information the reader should know about the Use Case. In our case, a note may be: “The customer must be able to access this site using any web browser.”

Figure 3 - Use Case Template showing the Overview, Notes, Actors and Preconditions

The Actors section lists the actors involved in the scenario. Remember that the actors are not always people, but instead may be other programs, systems or equipment. In our example, the actor is simply the customer who is buying the tickets. Alternatively, you can name the actors (like “John” or “Jane”) and then use the name in the Scenario.

The Preconditions list any events that must happen prior to the event that the use case covers. In our example, the precondition is that the customer has navigated to our web site, researched the movie she wants to see, and is now ready to order tickets.

The Scenario is the most important part of the Use Case; in fact, all the other sections of the Use Case are there to support the Scenario. There are several different techniques for presenting this information, but I think the easiest and clearest way is how it is shown in Figure 4 - in a tabular format with two columns. (Note that Figure 4 shows only the first 3 steps in the scenario. The scenario shows step-by-step the interaction between the actor and the system. The first column shows what the actor does, and the second column shows the reaction of the system. A common mistake is shown in Figure 5 . Each Action MUST HAVE a System Reaction. If a given action does not elicit a response from the system, then the Action should simply continue until a system reaction is evoked, as shown in Figure 6 .

Figure 4 - Use Case Template showing the Scenario section

Looking at Figure 7 , you will see that the next section in the Use Case template is the Scenario Notes. These are notes about any of the information covered in the Scenario. This is also a good place to put any questions about the Scenario. Post Conditions cover anything that must be addressed after the Scenario ends. For example, these may include anything the system needs to do to “reset” itself, or where the system takes the user next. Exceptions detail any rare business situations that would affect the Scenario. Often times, Exceptions start with "The above scenario doesn't apply when…". Required GUI and GUI Sketches are where interface sketches or proof-of-concepts are shown. If you are updating an existing program, screen shots of the existing program may be put here. In the Dependencies and Relations section, you should list any related Use Cases. In our example, we have two related Use Cases.

Figure 7 - Use Case Template showing the Scenario Notes, Post Conditions, Exceptions, Required GUI and GUI Sketches, and Dependencies and Relations

For creating Use Cases, a tool that allows collaboration among the designers, as well as the ability to link documents, is extremely beneficial. For these reasons, both the Wiki Web and Office Collaboration are good tools for creating Use Cases.

Use Case Diagrams

With a Use Case Diagram, the relationships between the Use Cases are obvious. As seen in Figure 8 , the Actor is represented as a stick figure (whether an actual person, or not), and each Use Case is represented as an oval. The arrows show the relationship between the Actor and Use Cases and between the various Use Cases.

Figure 8 - Use Case Diagram

There are various drawing tools that enable drawing Use Case Diagrams, as well as other UML diagrams. Three of the most common are Visual UML, Rational Rose and Visio. See the sidebar for links to these products.

So, now we've explored collecting requirements as well as creating Use Cases. I'll be the first to admit that collecting requirements and writing Use Cases can be really tedious, especially for a large project. However, I see it as a necessary part of the development process, and I think that once you get comfortable with these design processes, you will view them as a necessary tool for software design. Good planning is an essential component for producing high quality software. It's one thing to just sit down and write a stand-alone application without good planning, but writing a well designed, object oriented, flexible, COM/COM+ scalable Web application without proper planning is almost impossible!

Often, programmers, as well as customers, feel like they aren't being “productive” when they are working on the design instead of producing code. However, applications that are well-planned and built with a solid design are actually less time consuming to build, more flexible and scalable, and easier to maintain than those built by trial and error. An added benefit is that after requirements have been collected and Use Cases have been produced, it is much easier to accurately estimate the cost of programming the project.

The final step in the design process is producing UML models. We will discuss this in the next issue of Component Developer Magazine .

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requirements of a case study

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Assignments

  • Annotated Bibliography
  • Analyzing a Scholarly Journal Article
  • Group Presentations
  • Dealing with Nervousness
  • Using Visual Aids
  • Grading Someone Else's Paper
  • Types of Structured Group Activities
  • Group Project Survival Skills
  • Leading a Class Discussion
  • Multiple Book Review Essay
  • Reviewing Collected Works
  • Writing a Case Analysis Paper
  • Writing a Case Study
  • About Informed Consent
  • Writing Field Notes
  • Writing a Policy Memo
  • Writing a Reflective Paper
  • Writing a Research Proposal
  • Generative AI and Writing
  • Acknowledgments

Definition and Introduction

Case analysis is a problem-based teaching and learning method that involves critically analyzing complex scenarios within an organizational setting for the purpose of placing the student in a “real world” situation and applying reflection and critical thinking skills to contemplate appropriate solutions, decisions, or recommended courses of action. It is considered a more effective teaching technique than in-class role playing or simulation activities. The analytical process is often guided by questions provided by the instructor that ask students to contemplate relationships between the facts and critical incidents described in the case.

Cases generally include both descriptive and statistical elements and rely on students applying abductive reasoning to develop and argue for preferred or best outcomes [i.e., case scenarios rarely have a single correct or perfect answer based on the evidence provided]. Rather than emphasizing theories or concepts, case analysis assignments emphasize building a bridge of relevancy between abstract thinking and practical application and, by so doing, teaches the value of both within a specific area of professional practice.

Given this, the purpose of a case analysis paper is to present a structured and logically organized format for analyzing the case situation. It can be assigned to students individually or as a small group assignment and it may include an in-class presentation component. Case analysis is predominately taught in economics and business-related courses, but it is also a method of teaching and learning found in other applied social sciences disciplines, such as, social work, public relations, education, journalism, and public administration.

Ellet, William. The Case Study Handbook: A Student's Guide . Revised Edition. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Publishing, 2018; Christoph Rasche and Achim Seisreiner. Guidelines for Business Case Analysis . University of Potsdam; Writing a Case Analysis . Writing Center, Baruch College; Volpe, Guglielmo. "Case Teaching in Economics: History, Practice and Evidence." Cogent Economics and Finance 3 (December 2015). doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/23322039.2015.1120977.

How to Approach Writing a Case Analysis Paper

The organization and structure of a case analysis paper can vary depending on the organizational setting, the situation, and how your professor wants you to approach the assignment. Nevertheless, preparing to write a case analysis paper involves several important steps. As Hawes notes, a case analysis assignment “...is useful in developing the ability to get to the heart of a problem, analyze it thoroughly, and to indicate the appropriate solution as well as how it should be implemented” [p.48]. This statement encapsulates how you should approach preparing to write a case analysis paper.

Before you begin to write your paper, consider the following analytical procedures:

  • Review the case to get an overview of the situation . A case can be only a few pages in length, however, it is most often very lengthy and contains a significant amount of detailed background information and statistics, with multilayered descriptions of the scenario, the roles and behaviors of various stakeholder groups, and situational events. Therefore, a quick reading of the case will help you gain an overall sense of the situation and illuminate the types of issues and problems that you will need to address in your paper. If your professor has provided questions intended to help frame your analysis, use them to guide your initial reading of the case.
  • Read the case thoroughly . After gaining a general overview of the case, carefully read the content again with the purpose of understanding key circumstances, events, and behaviors among stakeholder groups. Look for information or data that appears contradictory, extraneous, or misleading. At this point, you should be taking notes as you read because this will help you develop a general outline of your paper. The aim is to obtain a complete understanding of the situation so that you can begin contemplating tentative answers to any questions your professor has provided or, if they have not provided, developing answers to your own questions about the case scenario and its connection to the course readings,lectures, and class discussions.
  • Determine key stakeholder groups, issues, and events and the relationships they all have to each other . As you analyze the content, pay particular attention to identifying individuals, groups, or organizations described in the case and identify evidence of any problems or issues of concern that impact the situation in a negative way. Other things to look for include identifying any assumptions being made by or about each stakeholder, potential biased explanations or actions, explicit demands or ultimatums , and the underlying concerns that motivate these behaviors among stakeholders. The goal at this stage is to develop a comprehensive understanding of the situational and behavioral dynamics of the case and the explicit and implicit consequences of each of these actions.
  • Identify the core problems . The next step in most case analysis assignments is to discern what the core [i.e., most damaging, detrimental, injurious] problems are within the organizational setting and to determine their implications. The purpose at this stage of preparing to write your analysis paper is to distinguish between the symptoms of core problems and the core problems themselves and to decide which of these must be addressed immediately and which problems do not appear critical but may escalate over time. Identify evidence from the case to support your decisions by determining what information or data is essential to addressing the core problems and what information is not relevant or is misleading.
  • Explore alternative solutions . As noted, case analysis scenarios rarely have only one correct answer. Therefore, it is important to keep in mind that the process of analyzing the case and diagnosing core problems, while based on evidence, is a subjective process open to various avenues of interpretation. This means that you must consider alternative solutions or courses of action by critically examining strengths and weaknesses, risk factors, and the differences between short and long-term solutions. For each possible solution or course of action, consider the consequences they may have related to their implementation and how these recommendations might lead to new problems. Also, consider thinking about your recommended solutions or courses of action in relation to issues of fairness, equity, and inclusion.
  • Decide on a final set of recommendations . The last stage in preparing to write a case analysis paper is to assert an opinion or viewpoint about the recommendations needed to help resolve the core problems as you see them and to make a persuasive argument for supporting this point of view. Prepare a clear rationale for your recommendations based on examining each element of your analysis. Anticipate possible obstacles that could derail their implementation. Consider any counter-arguments that could be made concerning the validity of your recommended actions. Finally, describe a set of criteria and measurable indicators that could be applied to evaluating the effectiveness of your implementation plan.

Use these steps as the framework for writing your paper. Remember that the more detailed you are in taking notes as you critically examine each element of the case, the more information you will have to draw from when you begin to write. This will save you time.

NOTE : If the process of preparing to write a case analysis paper is assigned as a student group project, consider having each member of the group analyze a specific element of the case, including drafting answers to the corresponding questions used by your professor to frame the analysis. This will help make the analytical process more efficient and ensure that the distribution of work is equitable. This can also facilitate who is responsible for drafting each part of the final case analysis paper and, if applicable, the in-class presentation.

Framework for Case Analysis . College of Management. University of Massachusetts; Hawes, Jon M. "Teaching is Not Telling: The Case Method as a Form of Interactive Learning." Journal for Advancement of Marketing Education 5 (Winter 2004): 47-54; Rasche, Christoph and Achim Seisreiner. Guidelines for Business Case Analysis . University of Potsdam; Writing a Case Study Analysis . University of Arizona Global Campus Writing Center; Van Ness, Raymond K. A Guide to Case Analysis . School of Business. State University of New York, Albany; Writing a Case Analysis . Business School, University of New South Wales.

Structure and Writing Style

A case analysis paper should be detailed, concise, persuasive, clearly written, and professional in tone and in the use of language . As with other forms of college-level academic writing, declarative statements that convey information, provide a fact, or offer an explanation or any recommended courses of action should be based on evidence. If allowed by your professor, any external sources used to support your analysis, such as course readings, should be properly cited under a list of references. The organization and structure of case analysis papers can vary depending on your professor’s preferred format, but its structure generally follows the steps used for analyzing the case.

Introduction

The introduction should provide a succinct but thorough descriptive overview of the main facts, issues, and core problems of the case . The introduction should also include a brief summary of the most relevant details about the situation and organizational setting. This includes defining the theoretical framework or conceptual model on which any questions were used to frame your analysis.

Following the rules of most college-level research papers, the introduction should then inform the reader how the paper will be organized. This includes describing the major sections of the paper and the order in which they will be presented. Unless you are told to do so by your professor, you do not need to preview your final recommendations in the introduction. U nlike most college-level research papers , the introduction does not include a statement about the significance of your findings because a case analysis assignment does not involve contributing new knowledge about a research problem.

Background Analysis

Background analysis can vary depending on any guiding questions provided by your professor and the underlying concept or theory that the case is based upon. In general, however, this section of your paper should focus on:

  • Providing an overarching analysis of problems identified from the case scenario, including identifying events that stakeholders find challenging or troublesome,
  • Identifying assumptions made by each stakeholder and any apparent biases they may exhibit,
  • Describing any demands or claims made by or forced upon key stakeholders, and
  • Highlighting any issues of concern or complaints expressed by stakeholders in response to those demands or claims.

These aspects of the case are often in the form of behavioral responses expressed by individuals or groups within the organizational setting. However, note that problems in a case situation can also be reflected in data [or the lack thereof] and in the decision-making, operational, cultural, or institutional structure of the organization. Additionally, demands or claims can be either internal and external to the organization [e.g., a case analysis involving a president considering arms sales to Saudi Arabia could include managing internal demands from White House advisors as well as demands from members of Congress].

Throughout this section, present all relevant evidence from the case that supports your analysis. Do not simply claim there is a problem, an assumption, a demand, or a concern; tell the reader what part of the case informed how you identified these background elements.

Identification of Problems

In most case analysis assignments, there are problems, and then there are problems . Each problem can reflect a multitude of underlying symptoms that are detrimental to the interests of the organization. The purpose of identifying problems is to teach students how to differentiate between problems that vary in severity, impact, and relative importance. Given this, problems can be described in three general forms: those that must be addressed immediately, those that should be addressed but the impact is not severe, and those that do not require immediate attention and can be set aside for the time being.

All of the problems you identify from the case should be identified in this section of your paper, with a description based on evidence explaining the problem variances. If the assignment asks you to conduct research to further support your assessment of the problems, include this in your explanation. Remember to cite those sources in a list of references. Use specific evidence from the case and apply appropriate concepts, theories, and models discussed in class or in relevant course readings to highlight and explain the key problems [or problem] that you believe must be solved immediately and describe the underlying symptoms and why they are so critical.

Alternative Solutions

This section is where you provide specific, realistic, and evidence-based solutions to the problems you have identified and make recommendations about how to alleviate the underlying symptomatic conditions impacting the organizational setting. For each solution, you must explain why it was chosen and provide clear evidence to support your reasoning. This can include, for example, course readings and class discussions as well as research resources, such as, books, journal articles, research reports, or government documents. In some cases, your professor may encourage you to include personal, anecdotal experiences as evidence to support why you chose a particular solution or set of solutions. Using anecdotal evidence helps promote reflective thinking about the process of determining what qualifies as a core problem and relevant solution .

Throughout this part of the paper, keep in mind the entire array of problems that must be addressed and describe in detail the solutions that might be implemented to resolve these problems.

Recommended Courses of Action

In some case analysis assignments, your professor may ask you to combine the alternative solutions section with your recommended courses of action. However, it is important to know the difference between the two. A solution refers to the answer to a problem. A course of action refers to a procedure or deliberate sequence of activities adopted to proactively confront a situation, often in the context of accomplishing a goal. In this context, proposed courses of action are based on your analysis of alternative solutions. Your description and justification for pursuing each course of action should represent the overall plan for implementing your recommendations.

For each course of action, you need to explain the rationale for your recommendation in a way that confronts challenges, explains risks, and anticipates any counter-arguments from stakeholders. Do this by considering the strengths and weaknesses of each course of action framed in relation to how the action is expected to resolve the core problems presented, the possible ways the action may affect remaining problems, and how the recommended action will be perceived by each stakeholder.

In addition, you should describe the criteria needed to measure how well the implementation of these actions is working and explain which individuals or groups are responsible for ensuring your recommendations are successful. In addition, always consider the law of unintended consequences. Outline difficulties that may arise in implementing each course of action and describe how implementing the proposed courses of action [either individually or collectively] may lead to new problems [both large and small].

Throughout this section, you must consider the costs and benefits of recommending your courses of action in relation to uncertainties or missing information and the negative consequences of success.

The conclusion should be brief and introspective. Unlike a research paper, the conclusion in a case analysis paper does not include a summary of key findings and their significance, a statement about how the study contributed to existing knowledge, or indicate opportunities for future research.

Begin by synthesizing the core problems presented in the case and the relevance of your recommended solutions. This can include an explanation of what you have learned about the case in the context of your answers to the questions provided by your professor. The conclusion is also where you link what you learned from analyzing the case with the course readings or class discussions. This can further demonstrate your understanding of the relationships between the practical case situation and the theoretical and abstract content of assigned readings and other course content.

Problems to Avoid

The literature on case analysis assignments often includes examples of difficulties students have with applying methods of critical analysis and effectively reporting the results of their assessment of the situation. A common reason cited by scholars is that the application of this type of teaching and learning method is limited to applied fields of social and behavioral sciences and, as a result, writing a case analysis paper can be unfamiliar to most students entering college.

After you have drafted your paper, proofread the narrative flow and revise any of these common errors:

  • Unnecessary detail in the background section . The background section should highlight the essential elements of the case based on your analysis. Focus on summarizing the facts and highlighting the key factors that become relevant in the other sections of the paper by eliminating any unnecessary information.
  • Analysis relies too much on opinion . Your analysis is interpretive, but the narrative must be connected clearly to evidence from the case and any models and theories discussed in class or in course readings. Any positions or arguments you make should be supported by evidence.
  • Analysis does not focus on the most important elements of the case . Your paper should provide a thorough overview of the case. However, the analysis should focus on providing evidence about what you identify are the key events, stakeholders, issues, and problems. Emphasize what you identify as the most critical aspects of the case to be developed throughout your analysis. Be thorough but succinct.
  • Writing is too descriptive . A paper with too much descriptive information detracts from your analysis of the complexities of the case situation. Questions about what happened, where, when, and by whom should only be included as essential information leading to your examination of questions related to why, how, and for what purpose.
  • Inadequate definition of a core problem and associated symptoms . A common error found in case analysis papers is recommending a solution or course of action without adequately defining or demonstrating that you understand the problem. Make sure you have clearly described the problem and its impact and scope within the organizational setting. Ensure that you have adequately described the root causes w hen describing the symptoms of the problem.
  • Recommendations lack specificity . Identify any use of vague statements and indeterminate terminology, such as, “A particular experience” or “a large increase to the budget.” These statements cannot be measured and, as a result, there is no way to evaluate their successful implementation. Provide specific data and use direct language in describing recommended actions.
  • Unrealistic, exaggerated, or unattainable recommendations . Review your recommendations to ensure that they are based on the situational facts of the case. Your recommended solutions and courses of action must be based on realistic assumptions and fit within the constraints of the situation. Also note that the case scenario has already happened, therefore, any speculation or arguments about what could have occurred if the circumstances were different should be revised or eliminated.

Bee, Lian Song et al. "Business Students' Perspectives on Case Method Coaching for Problem-Based Learning: Impacts on Student Engagement and Learning Performance in Higher Education." Education & Training 64 (2022): 416-432; The Case Analysis . Fred Meijer Center for Writing and Michigan Authors. Grand Valley State University; Georgallis, Panikos and Kayleigh Bruijn. "Sustainability Teaching using Case-Based Debates." Journal of International Education in Business 15 (2022): 147-163; Hawes, Jon M. "Teaching is Not Telling: The Case Method as a Form of Interactive Learning." Journal for Advancement of Marketing Education 5 (Winter 2004): 47-54; Georgallis, Panikos, and Kayleigh Bruijn. "Sustainability Teaching Using Case-based Debates." Journal of International Education in Business 15 (2022): 147-163; .Dean,  Kathy Lund and Charles J. Fornaciari. "How to Create and Use Experiential Case-Based Exercises in a Management Classroom." Journal of Management Education 26 (October 2002): 586-603; Klebba, Joanne M. and Janet G. Hamilton. "Structured Case Analysis: Developing Critical Thinking Skills in a Marketing Case Course." Journal of Marketing Education 29 (August 2007): 132-137, 139; Klein, Norman. "The Case Discussion Method Revisited: Some Questions about Student Skills." Exchange: The Organizational Behavior Teaching Journal 6 (November 1981): 30-32; Mukherjee, Arup. "Effective Use of In-Class Mini Case Analysis for Discovery Learning in an Undergraduate MIS Course." The Journal of Computer Information Systems 40 (Spring 2000): 15-23; Pessoa, Silviaet al. "Scaffolding the Case Analysis in an Organizational Behavior Course: Making Analytical Language Explicit." Journal of Management Education 46 (2022): 226-251: Ramsey, V. J. and L. D. Dodge. "Case Analysis: A Structured Approach." Exchange: The Organizational Behavior Teaching Journal 6 (November 1981): 27-29; Schweitzer, Karen. "How to Write and Format a Business Case Study." ThoughtCo. https://www.thoughtco.com/how-to-write-and-format-a-business-case-study-466324 (accessed December 5, 2022); Reddy, C. D. "Teaching Research Methodology: Everything's a Case." Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods 18 (December 2020): 178-188; Volpe, Guglielmo. "Case Teaching in Economics: History, Practice and Evidence." Cogent Economics and Finance 3 (December 2015). doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/23322039.2015.1120977.

Writing Tip

Ca se Study and Case Analysis Are Not the Same!

Confusion often exists between what it means to write a paper that uses a case study research design and writing a paper that analyzes a case; they are two different types of approaches to learning in the social and behavioral sciences. Professors as well as educational researchers contribute to this confusion because they often use the term "case study" when describing the subject of analysis for a case analysis paper. But you are not studying a case for the purpose of generating a comprehensive, multi-faceted understanding of a research problem. R ather, you are critically analyzing a specific scenario to argue logically for recommended solutions and courses of action that lead to optimal outcomes applicable to professional practice.

To avoid any confusion, here are twelve characteristics that delineate the differences between writing a paper using the case study research method and writing a case analysis paper:

  • Case study is a method of in-depth research and rigorous inquiry ; case analysis is a reliable method of teaching and learning . A case study is a modality of research that investigates a phenomenon for the purpose of creating new knowledge, solving a problem, or testing a hypothesis using empirical evidence derived from the case being studied. Often, the results are used to generalize about a larger population or within a wider context. The writing adheres to the traditional standards of a scholarly research study. A case analysis is a pedagogical tool used to teach students how to reflect and think critically about a practical, real-life problem in an organizational setting.
  • The researcher is responsible for identifying the case to study; a case analysis is assigned by your professor . As the researcher, you choose the case study to investigate in support of obtaining new knowledge and understanding about the research problem. The case in a case analysis assignment is almost always provided, and sometimes written, by your professor and either given to every student in class to analyze individually or to a small group of students, or students select a case to analyze from a predetermined list.
  • A case study is indeterminate and boundless; a case analysis is predetermined and confined . A case study can be almost anything [see item 9 below] as long as it relates directly to examining the research problem. This relationship is the only limit to what a researcher can choose as the subject of their case study. The content of a case analysis is determined by your professor and its parameters are well-defined and limited to elucidating insights of practical value applied to practice.
  • Case study is fact-based and describes actual events or situations; case analysis can be entirely fictional or adapted from an actual situation . The entire content of a case study must be grounded in reality to be a valid subject of investigation in an empirical research study. A case analysis only needs to set the stage for critically examining a situation in practice and, therefore, can be entirely fictional or adapted, all or in-part, from an actual situation.
  • Research using a case study method must adhere to principles of intellectual honesty and academic integrity; a case analysis scenario can include misleading or false information . A case study paper must report research objectively and factually to ensure that any findings are understood to be logically correct and trustworthy. A case analysis scenario may include misleading or false information intended to deliberately distract from the central issues of the case. The purpose is to teach students how to sort through conflicting or useless information in order to come up with the preferred solution. Any use of misleading or false information in academic research is considered unethical.
  • Case study is linked to a research problem; case analysis is linked to a practical situation or scenario . In the social sciences, the subject of an investigation is most often framed as a problem that must be researched in order to generate new knowledge leading to a solution. Case analysis narratives are grounded in real life scenarios for the purpose of examining the realities of decision-making behavior and processes within organizational settings. A case analysis assignments include a problem or set of problems to be analyzed. However, the goal is centered around the act of identifying and evaluating courses of action leading to best possible outcomes.
  • The purpose of a case study is to create new knowledge through research; the purpose of a case analysis is to teach new understanding . Case studies are a choice of methodological design intended to create new knowledge about resolving a research problem. A case analysis is a mode of teaching and learning intended to create new understanding and an awareness of uncertainty applied to practice through acts of critical thinking and reflection.
  • A case study seeks to identify the best possible solution to a research problem; case analysis can have an indeterminate set of solutions or outcomes . Your role in studying a case is to discover the most logical, evidence-based ways to address a research problem. A case analysis assignment rarely has a single correct answer because one of the goals is to force students to confront the real life dynamics of uncertainly, ambiguity, and missing or conflicting information within professional practice. Under these conditions, a perfect outcome or solution almost never exists.
  • Case study is unbounded and relies on gathering external information; case analysis is a self-contained subject of analysis . The scope of a case study chosen as a method of research is bounded. However, the researcher is free to gather whatever information and data is necessary to investigate its relevance to understanding the research problem. For a case analysis assignment, your professor will often ask you to examine solutions or recommended courses of action based solely on facts and information from the case.
  • Case study can be a person, place, object, issue, event, condition, or phenomenon; a case analysis is a carefully constructed synopsis of events, situations, and behaviors . The research problem dictates the type of case being studied and, therefore, the design can encompass almost anything tangible as long as it fulfills the objective of generating new knowledge and understanding. A case analysis is in the form of a narrative containing descriptions of facts, situations, processes, rules, and behaviors within a particular setting and under a specific set of circumstances.
  • Case study can represent an open-ended subject of inquiry; a case analysis is a narrative about something that has happened in the past . A case study is not restricted by time and can encompass an event or issue with no temporal limit or end. For example, the current war in Ukraine can be used as a case study of how medical personnel help civilians during a large military conflict, even though circumstances around this event are still evolving. A case analysis can be used to elicit critical thinking about current or future situations in practice, but the case itself is a narrative about something finite and that has taken place in the past.
  • Multiple case studies can be used in a research study; case analysis involves examining a single scenario . Case study research can use two or more cases to examine a problem, often for the purpose of conducting a comparative investigation intended to discover hidden relationships, document emerging trends, or determine variations among different examples. A case analysis assignment typically describes a stand-alone, self-contained situation and any comparisons among cases are conducted during in-class discussions and/or student presentations.

The Case Analysis . Fred Meijer Center for Writing and Michigan Authors. Grand Valley State University; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Ramsey, V. J. and L. D. Dodge. "Case Analysis: A Structured Approach." Exchange: The Organizational Behavior Teaching Journal 6 (November 1981): 27-29; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods . 6th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2017; Crowe, Sarah et al. “The Case Study Approach.” BMC Medical Research Methodology 11 (2011):  doi: 10.1186/1471-2288-11-100; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research: Design and Methods . 4th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publishing; 1994.

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Requirement Analysis: how to use this startup-friendly approach + a case study

by Turgay Çelik

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In our previous blog posts, we explained why we decided to develop the Badges App and how we evaluated the feasibility of our idea at OpsGenie :

Since we found that our idea is worth developing, the next step is analyzing the requirements.

Requirement analysis — a very well studied area of software engineering — is the process of determining user expectations for a product, or briefly defining the product scope. There are tons of available resources on requirements analysis methodologies, characteristics of good requirements and tracing requirements. Instead of repeating the literature, we are going to summarize the critical points in a startup thinking way.

We know, startup guys generally don’t like terms like “process”, “proof of concept”, “requirements”, “scope”, “schedule”, “design”, “documentation” or “maintainability”. Generally they are impatient and they just want to code and release. We accept that agility is vital in our world and we have to try, fail and recover fast. But benefiting from the heritage of the software world will help us on the way to success. The key point is keeping it agile.

Following a process is not an objective, it is a tool that helps us achieve our goals. So, let’s see how we can adopt classical approaches to our world in the context of requirements management.

The Project Management Triangle is a model of the constraints of software management. Despite the fact that it is an old concept from the 1950's, I think it is still relevant.

In summary, project management triangle says that the quality of work is constrained by the project’s budget , deadlines and features . There is a trade-off among these three constraints to achieve the necessary project quality. So we can say that software development is a multi-objective optimization problem .

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We don’t like to constrain ourselves by classical approaches, so let’s adapt the old Project Management Triangle to the new startup world. Recall the Startup Success Factors that we mentioned at Feasibility Analysis post .

Here is how we map these success factors to the classical project management triangle:

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As shown in the table above, all startup success factors relate to various project management triangle constraints. Since these three constraints are in a trade-off, we can say that keeping the scope neat is vital for the success of a startup.

To define a neat scope, we have to perform a good requirement analysis before starting the development. Please note that this does not mean we are going to perform a fully detailed requirement analysis just like defined in waterfall process. We are going to do it in agile way.

Tips for Requirement Analysis

In this section, we will provide important tips that you should keep in mind:

Inspect Alternative/Similar Products In Depth

As always, don’t reinvent the wheel. Check what others do to meet your objectives. Even you may end up realizing that your product does not seem to have business impact that you were thinking before.

This is a good sign to pivot your idea. It may seem like a failure, but remember, we have to fail as fast as possible .

Document your requirements

You don’t have to use a requirements management tool such as IBM Rational DOORS . But a short, bulleted requirements document will help negotiate with the stakeholders.

Keep Your (Potential) Customers In the Loop

I think this is one of the most important things about requirements development. A capability that you think that is killer may not make sense to the customers.

To keep your potential customers in the loop, you have to follow an iterative approach. You can do this by shipping an initial version of your product — Minimum Viable Product (MVP) — and evolving it according to customer feedback.

For example, Amazon Web Services team utilizes this approach frequently. They ship a service with minimum capabilities and evolve it based on customer feedback.

Another approach is to develop mock applications that just provide a dummy user interface (UI) to help potential customer to understand the product features and give feedback. You can use products like InvisionApp to produce these mocks.

Requirements Management is a Continuous Process

You don’t have to spend months for requirements analysis at the beginning of a project, and please don’t — it is not the agile way.

At the beginning, your objective is to define boundaries of the system, negotiate with the team and other stakeholders, and prepare the definition of the Minimum Viable Product. The requirements should be detailed or can even evolve during iterations of development.

Group your requirements

After you create a list all of your requirements, group them (divide and conquer) to form sets of related features. Grouping requirements to feature groups will ease your life during development phase and even it can help you to define bounded contexts , microservice architectures, and so on.

Think About UX

It is not necessary to say that User Experience (UX) is a very important factor in the success of a product anymore; today it is so obvious. But we have to still remind that User Experience is not just about fancy User Interfaces.

As the name implies, it is all about the “experience” and it is hard to improve a system’s UX after it is developed.

Think about UX starting from requirements analysis, it could even be a motivation during the feasibility analysis phase to develop a new product if available alternatives in the market lack good UX.

User Experience affects the business requirements. For example, if you are developing an e-commerce application, designing a fast responding customer support system is about improving the User Experience.

Be Agnostic of Implementation Technologies As Much As Possible

Of course this is not applicable if you are developing an infrastructure or a library for a specific technology :)

Don’t fall into “If all you have is a hammer, everything looks like a nail” trap. Find new tools and utilities instead of limiting product capabilities to the technologies that you are familiar with or that you enjoy playing with.

In enterprise companies, requirements analysis is generally performed by non-software engineers who are generally known as business analysts or systems engineers. This separation has some disadvantages, especially in terms of transferring requirements to development teams, but I think it also has some advantages.

In my opinion, the biggest advantage of independent analysis teams is that they are agnostic of the technologies that will be used during development.

But in the startup world, most probably as a team member (or even as a founder), you have to wear multiple hats: analyst, developer, hiring manager, or even more interesting roles that you were not imagining when you get in this path. So, if you are wearing the analyst hat at the moment, try to be agnostic of the technologies that you are planning to use during implementation.

We consistently hear expressions like “but Spring Framework does not support …” and “This causes a lot of work on the front-end” during requirement analysis.

Considering these kind of limitations at the start degrades the quality of the end product. Let’s define the ultimate capability and evolve it during development if necessary.

Ultimate capability is the final goal to reach, you can implement a more simple form of it when you start and evolve it in future versions. But knowing the point that we want to reach will help us to define our vision for the growth of the product.

For example, think about “pinch-to-zoom” capability of mobile phones. It seems like a trivial capability but it was a revolution when Steve Jobs first demonstrated it . If the designers of iPhone didn’t think out-of-the-box and stuck to the available technologies and methods, we would not have this great functionality today. We know that it is an exaggerated example, but the main point is, don’t let the technology you would like to use limit you, you can move to other technologies if this will help you to create a niche product.

Requirements Analysis for Badges App

We performed requirements analysis according to the practices that we summarized above:

  • We defined an initial set of requirements
  • We shared the requirements with our initial customer — The OpsGenie team — and updated the requirements according to the team’s comments.
  • At OpsGenie, we use Atlassian’s JIRA for issue tracking. To track the requirements, we created an issue with “New Feature” type for each requirement in JIRA.
  • We grouped related requirements with JIRA Epics . Some of our epics are User Operations, Group Operations, Badge Operations, Endorsement and 3rd Party Tool Integration.
  • In further steps of development, we created detailed issues for daily tasks, as Agile practices recommend. We linked each task with one or more requirements to keep traceability of development activities with requirements.
  • Each epic contains a set of requirements (such as a New Feature), Development Tasks, and Bugs.

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Writing A Case Study

Case Study Examples

Barbara P

Brilliant Case Study Examples and Templates For Your Help

15 min read

Published on: Jun 26, 2019

Last updated on: Nov 29, 2023

Case Study Examples

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A Complete Case Study Writing Guide With Examples

Simple Case Study Format for Students to Follow

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It’s no surprise that writing a case study is one of the most challenging academic tasks for students. You’re definitely not alone here!

Most people don't realize that there are specific guidelines to follow when writing a case study. If you don't know where to start, it's easy to get overwhelmed and give up before you even begin.

Don't worry! Let us help you out!

We've collected over 25 free case study examples with solutions just for you. These samples with solutions will help you win over your panel and score high marks on your case studies.

So, what are you waiting for? Let's dive in and learn the secrets to writing a successful case study.

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An Overview of Case Studies

A case study is a research method used to study a particular individual, group, or situation in depth. It involves analyzing and interpreting data from a variety of sources to gain insight into the subject being studied. 

Case studies are often used in psychology, business, and education to explore complicated problems and find solutions. They usually have detailed descriptions of the subject, background info, and an analysis of the main issues.

The goal of a case study is to provide a comprehensive understanding of the subject. Typically, case studies can be divided into three parts, challenges, solutions, and results. 

Here is a case study sample PDF so you can have a clearer understanding of what a case study actually is:

Case Study Sample PDF

How to Write a Case Study Examples

Learn how to write a case study with the help of our comprehensive case study guide.

Case Study Examples for Students

Quite often, students are asked to present case studies in their academic journeys. The reason instructors assign case studies is for students to sharpen their critical analysis skills, understand how companies make profits, etc.

Below are some case study examples in research, suitable for students:

Case Study Example in Software Engineering

Qualitative Research Case Study Sample

Software Quality Assurance Case Study

Social Work Case Study Example

Ethical Case Study

Case Study Example PDF

These examples can guide you on how to structure and format your own case studies.

Struggling with formatting your case study? Check this case study format guide and perfect your document’s structure today.

Business Case Study Examples

A business case study examines a business’s specific challenge or goal and how it should be solved. Business case studies usually focus on several details related to the initial challenge and proposed solution. 

To help you out, here are some samples so you can create case studies that are related to businesses: 

Here are some more business case study examples:

Business Case Studies PDF

Business Case Studies Example

Typically, a business case study discovers one of your customer's stories and how you solved a problem for them. It allows your prospects to see how your solutions address their needs. 

Medical Case Study Examples

Medical case studies are an essential part of medical education. They help students to understand how to diagnose and treat patients. 

Here are some medical case study examples to help you.

Medical Case Study Example

Nursing Case Study Example

Want to understand the various types of case studies? Check out our types of case study blog to select the perfect type.

Psychology Case Study Examples 

Case studies are a great way of investigating individuals with psychological abnormalities. This is why it is a very common assignment in psychology courses. 

By examining all the aspects of your subject’s life, you discover the possible causes of exhibiting such behavior. 

For your help, here are some interesting psychology case study examples:

Psychology Case Study Example

Mental Health Case Study Example

Sales Case Study Examples

Case studies are important tools for sales teams’ performance improvement. By examining sales successes, teams can gain insights into effective strategies and create action plans to employ similar tactics.

By researching case studies of successful sales campaigns, sales teams can more accurately identify challenges and develop solutions.

Sales Case Study Example

Interview Case Study Examples

Interview case studies provide businesses with invaluable information. This data allows them to make informed decisions related to certain markets or subjects.

Interview Case Study Example

Marketing Case Study Examples

Marketing case studies are real-life stories that showcase how a business solves a problem. They typically discuss how a business achieves a goal using a specific marketing strategy or tactic.

They typically describe a challenge faced by a business, the solution implemented, and the results achieved.

This is a short sample marketing case study for you to get an idea of what an actual marketing case study looks like.

 Here are some more popular marketing studies that show how companies use case studies as a means of marketing and promotion:

“Chevrolet Discover the Unexpected” by Carol H. Williams

This case study explores Chevrolet's “ DTU Journalism Fellows ” program. The case study uses the initials “DTU” to generate interest and encourage readers to learn more. 

Multiple types of media, such as images and videos, are used to explain the challenges faced. The case study concludes with an overview of the achievements that were met.

Key points from the case study include:

  • Using a well-known brand name in the title can create interest.
  • Combining different media types, such as headings, images, and videos, can help engage readers and make the content more memorable.
  • Providing a summary of the key achievements at the end of the case study can help readers better understand the project's impact.

“The Met” by Fantasy

“ The Met ” by Fantasy is a fictional redesign of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City, created by the design studio Fantasy. The case study clearly and simply showcases the museum's website redesign.

The Met emphasizes the website’s features and interface by showcasing each section of the interface individually, allowing the readers to concentrate on the significant elements.

For those who prefer text, each feature includes an objective description. The case study also includes a “Contact Us” call-to-action at the bottom of the page, inviting visitors to contact the company.

Key points from this “The Met” include:

  • Keeping the case study simple and clean can help readers focus on the most important aspects.
  • Presenting the features and solutions with a visual showcase can be more effective than writing a lot of text.
  • Including a clear call-to-action at the end of the case study can encourage visitors to contact the company for more information.

“Better Experiences for All” by Herman Miller

Herman Miller's minimalist approach to furniture design translates to their case study, “ Better Experiences for All ”, for a Dubai hospital. The page features a captivating video with closed-captioning and expandable text for accessibility.

The case study presents a wealth of information in a concise format, enabling users to grasp the complexities of the strategy with ease. It concludes with a client testimonial and a list of furniture items purchased from the brand.

Key points from the “Better Experiences” include:

  • Make sure your case study is user-friendly by including accessibility features like closed captioning and expandable text.
  • Include a list of products that were used in the project to guide potential customers.

“NetApp” by Evisort 

Evisort's case study on “ NetApp ” stands out for its informative and compelling approach. The study begins with a client-centric overview of NetApp, strategically directing attention to the client rather than the company or team involved.

The case study incorporates client quotes and explores NetApp’s challenges during COVID-19. Evisort showcases its value as a client partner by showing how its services supported NetApp through difficult times. 

  • Provide an overview of the company in the client’s words, and put focus on the customer. 
  • Highlight how your services can help clients during challenging times.
  • Make your case study accessible by providing it in various formats.

“Red Sox Season Campaign,” by CTP Boston

The “ Red Sox Season Campaign ” showcases a perfect blend of different media, such as video, text, and images. Upon visiting the page, the video plays automatically, there are videos of Red Sox players, their images, and print ads that can be enlarged with a click.

The page features an intuitive design and invites viewers to appreciate CTP's well-rounded campaign for Boston's beloved baseball team. There’s also a CTA that prompts viewers to learn how CTP can create a similar campaign for their brand.

Some key points to take away from the “Red Sox Season Campaign”: 

  • Including a variety of media such as video, images, and text can make your case study more engaging and compelling.
  • Include a call-to-action at the end of your study that encourages viewers to take the next step towards becoming a customer or prospect.

“Airbnb + Zendesk” by Zendesk

The case study by Zendesk, titled “ Airbnb + Zendesk : Building a powerful solution together,” showcases a true partnership between Airbnb and Zendesk. 

The article begins with an intriguing opening statement, “Halfway around the globe is a place to stay with your name on it. At least for a weekend,” and uses stunning images of beautiful Airbnb locations to captivate readers.

Instead of solely highlighting Zendesk's product, the case study is crafted to tell a good story and highlight Airbnb's service in detail. This strategy makes the case study more authentic and relatable.

Some key points to take away from this case study are:

  • Use client's offerings' images rather than just screenshots of your own product or service.
  • To begin the case study, it is recommended to include a distinct CTA. For instance, Zendesk presents two alternatives, namely to initiate a trial or seek a solution.

“Influencer Marketing” by Trend and WarbyParker

The case study "Influencer Marketing" by Trend and Warby Parker highlights the potential of influencer content marketing, even when working with a limited budget. 

The “Wearing Warby” campaign involved influencers wearing Warby Parker glasses during their daily activities, providing a glimpse of the brand's products in use. 

This strategy enhanced the brand's relatability with influencers' followers. While not detailing specific tactics, the case study effectively illustrates the impact of third-person case studies in showcasing campaign results.

Key points to take away from this case study are:

  • Influencer marketing can be effective even with a limited budget.
  • Showcasing products being used in everyday life can make a brand more approachable and relatable.
  • Third-person case studies can be useful in highlighting the success of a campaign.

Marketing Case Study Example

Marketing Case Study Template

Now that you have read multiple case study examples, hop on to our tips.

Tips to Write a Good Case Study

Here are some note-worthy tips to craft a winning case study 

  • Define the purpose of the case study This will help you to focus on the most important aspects of the case. The case study objective helps to ensure that your finished product is concise and to the point.
  • Choose a real-life example. One of the best ways to write a successful case study is to choose a real-life example. This will give your readers a chance to see how the concepts apply in a real-world setting.
  • Keep it brief. This means that you should only include information that is directly relevant to your topic and avoid adding unnecessary details.
  • Use strong evidence. To make your case study convincing, you will need to use strong evidence. This can include statistics, data from research studies, or quotes from experts in the field.
  • Edit and proofread your work. Before you submit your case study, be sure to edit and proofread your work carefully. This will help to ensure that there are no errors and that your paper is clear and concise.

There you go!

We’re sure that now you have secrets to writing a great case study at your fingertips! This blog teaches the key guidelines of various case studies with samples. So grab your pen and start crafting a winning case study right away!

Having said that, we do understand that some of you might be having a hard time writing compelling case studies.

But worry not! Our expert case study writing service is here to take all your case-writing blues away! 

With 100% thorough research guaranteed, our professional essay writing service can craft an amazing case study within 6 hours! 

So why delay? Let us help you shine in the eyes of your instructor!

Barbara P (Literature, Marketing)

Dr. Barbara is a highly experienced writer and author who holds a Ph.D. degree in public health from an Ivy League school. She has worked in the medical field for many years, conducting extensive research on various health topics. Her writing has been featured in several top-tier publications.

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Guidelines To Writing A Clinical Case Report

What is a clinical case report.

A case report is a detailed report of the symptoms, signs, diagnosis, treatment, and follow-up of an individual patient. Case reports usually describe an unusual or novel occurrence and as such, remain one of the cornerstones of medical progress and provide many new ideas in medicine. Some reports contain an extensive review of the relevant literature on the topic. The case report is a rapid short communication between busy clinicians who may not have time or resources to conduct large scale research.

WHAT ARE THE REASONS FOR PUBLISHING A CASE REPORT?

The most common reasons for publishing a case are the following: 1) an unexpected association between diseases or symptoms; 2) an unexpected event in the course observing or treating a patient; 3) findings that shed new light on the possible pathogenesis of a disease or an adverse effect; 4) unique or rare features of a disease; 5) unique therapeutic approaches; variation of anatomical structures.

Most journals publish case reports that deal with one or more of the following:

  • Unusual observations
  • Adverse response to therapies
  • Unusual combination of conditions leading to confusion
  • Illustration of a new theory
  • Question regarding a current theory
  • Personal impact.

STRUCTURE OF A CASE REPORT[ 1 , 2 ]

Different journals have slightly different formats for case reports. It is always a good idea to read some of the target jiurnals case reports to get a general idea of the sequence and format.

In general, all case reports include the following components: an abstract, an introduction, a case, and a discussion. Some journals might require literature review.

The abstract should summarize the case, the problem it addresses, and the message it conveys. Abstracts of case studies are usually very short, preferably not more than 150 words.

Introduction

The introduction gives a brief overview of the problem that the case addresses, citing relevant literature where necessary. The introduction generally ends with a single sentence describing the patient and the basic condition that he or she is suffering from.

This section provides the details of the case in the following order:

  • Patient description
  • Case history
  • Physical examination results
  • Results of pathological tests and other investigations
  • Treatment plan
  • Expected outcome of the treatment plan
  • Actual outcome.

The author should ensure that all the relevant details are included and unnecessary ones excluded.

This is the most important part of the case report; the part that will convince the journal that the case is publication worthy. This section should start by expanding on what has been said in the introduction, focusing on why the case is noteworthy and the problem that it addresses.

This is followed by a summary of the existing literature on the topic. (If the journal specifies a separate section on literature review, it should be added before the Discussion). This part describes the existing theories and research findings on the key issue in the patient's condition. The review should narrow down to the source of confusion or the main challenge in the case.

Finally, the case report should be connected to the existing literature, mentioning the message that the case conveys. The author should explain whether this corroborates with or detracts from current beliefs about the problem and how this evidence can add value to future clinical practice.

A case report ends with a conclusion or with summary points, depending on the journal's specified format. This section should briefly give readers the key points covered in the case report. Here, the author can give suggestions and recommendations to clinicians, teachers, or researchers. Some journals do not want a separate section for the conclusion: it can then be the concluding paragraph of the Discussion section.

Notes on patient consent

Informed consent in an ethical requirement for most studies involving humans, so before you start writing your case report, take a written consent from the patient as all journals require that you provide it at the time of manuscript submission. In case the patient is a minor, parental consent is required. For adults who are unable to consent to investigation or treatment, consent of closest family members is required.

Patient anonymity is also an important requirement. Remember not to disclose any information that might reveal the identity of the patient. You need to be particularly careful with pictures, and ensure that pictures of the affected area do not reveal the identity of the patient.

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CSDM 2016: Complex Systems Design & Management pp 187–201 Cite as

Requirements Quality Analysis: A Successful Case Study in the Industry

  • Elena Gallego 5 ,
  • Hugo-Guillermo Chalé-Góngora 6 ,
  • Juan Llorens 5 ,
  • José Fuentes 7 ,
  • José Álvarez 5 ,
  • Gonzalo Génova 5 &
  • Anabel Fraga 5  
  • Conference paper
  • First Online: 09 December 2016

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This case study analyses the applicability of a Quality Improvement Process that will enhance the quality of the requirements using an existing requirement specification to seed the Knowledge Base with the organization know–how. This Knowledge Base drives the quality assessment and directs the requirement authors to the areas that can be improved. The updated specification feeds back into the Knowledge Base thereby institutionalizing continuous process improvement into Alstom. The case study has been developed by means of a Proof of Concepts using the RQS suit tools to gather the knowledge (KM), analyse the quality (RQA) and authoring requirements (RAT).

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  • Quality Improvement Process

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Elena Gallego, Juan Llorens, José Álvarez, Gonzalo Génova & Anabel Fraga

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Correspondence to Elena Gallego , Hugo-Guillermo Chalé-Góngora , José Fuentes , José Álvarez , Gonzalo Génova or Anabel Fraga .

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Gallego, E. et al. (2017). Requirements Quality Analysis: A Successful Case Study in the Industry. In: Fanmuy, G., Goubault, E., Krob, D., Stephan, F. (eds) Complex Systems Design & Management. CSDM 2016. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-49103-5_14

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Spring 2024 Memo Case Study Submission #1 Deliverable Requirements

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Tensions experienced by case managers working in home care for older adults in Quebec: first level analysis of an institutional ethnography

  • Alexandra Ethier 1 ,
  • Marie-France Dubois 2 ,
  • Virginie Savaria 1 &
  • Annie Carrier 1  

BMC Health Services Research volume  24 , Article number:  296 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Case managers play a vital role in integrating the necessary services to optimise health-related goals and outcomes. Studies suggest that in home care, case managers encounter tensions in their day-to-day work, that is, disjuncture between what they should do, in theory, and what they actually do, in practice. However, direct exploration of these tensions is lacking. As such, this study aimed to describe the tensions encountered by case managers in public home care for older adults in Quebec and their influence on day-to-day work.

An institutional ethnography was conducted through observations of work, interviews and a survey with case managers working in home care in Quebec. Data were analysed using institutional ethnography first-level analysis procedures. This included mapping the work sequences as well as identifying the tensions experienced by case managers through the words they used.

Three main tensions were identified. First, case managers perceive that, despite working to return hospitalised older adults at home safely, their work also aims to help free up hospital beds. Thus, they often find themselves needing to respond quickly to hospital-related inquiries or expedite requests for home care services. Second, they are supposed to delegate the care to “partners” (e.g., private organisations). However, they feel that they are in effect managing the quality of the services provided by the “partners.” Consequently, they go to great lengths to ensure that good care will be provided. Finally, they must choose between meeting organisational requirements (e.g., reporting statistics about the work, documenting information in the older adults’ file, doing mandatory assessments) and spending time providing direct care. This often leads to prioritising direct care provision over administrative tasks, resulting in minimal reporting of essential information.

The results are discussed using the three lenses of professional practice context analyses (i.e., accountability, ethics, and professional-as-worker) to formulate recommendations for practice and research. They suggest that, despite their important role, case managers have limited power in home care (e.g., with partners, with the hospital).

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Performant health and social care systems rely, among other things, on home care services [ 1 ]. In Canada, there are no federal standards for home care with which provinces must comply because home care is an extended service [ 2 ]. Therefore, each province organises home care, according to their needs. However, most home care programmes across the Canadian provinces seem to share the provision of care and services at the older adults’ home by their informal caregivers and workers (e.g., nurses, social workers, home support workers) [ 3 ]. These include, but are not restricted to, nursing, rehabilitation, bathing, feeding, toileting, managing medication, home maintenance [ 4 ] which aim to keep older adults at home, as long as it is safe and possible [ 3 ].

However, keeping older adults at home safely can be difficult. Indeed, some older adults require extensive help to age in place. In a study conducted in the Canadian province of Quebec, it has been found that in 2019–2020, 10% of home care users received 69% of all interventions provided in home care [ 5 ]. This included nursing, professional services, as well as home support. This observation may be attributed to the prevalence of multiple health conditions among some older adults receiving home care [ 6 , 7 ], leading to a variety of health-related needs [ 8 , 9 ]. Thus, older adults with multiple health conditions may require the involvement of multiple providers.

In many Canadian provinces, services are provided through a mix of public, private and non-profit organisations [ 10 ] and informal caregivers [ 8 ]. Dealing with the healthcare needs of older adults can be challenging for healthcare professionals who are part of a multi-provider system [ 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 ] as well as for the older adults receiving these services [ 15 , 16 ]. This could explain why studies conducted in home care report unmet needs, including in Canada [ 9 , 17 , 18 ] and Quebec [ 5 ]. To address these challenges, a case management model offers a valuable solution. Indeed, case management can be defined as a process to help a home care recipient develop a plan that coordinates and integrates the services needed to optimise their health-related goals and outcomes [ 19 , 20 ]. As such, it involves assigning a professional to assess and respond to the home care recipient’s needs and their interconnections [ 21 ].

Case managers are often professionals extensively trained in clinical, medical, psychosocial, or rehabilitation [ 22 ]. Their role is to assess older adults with complex needs as well as plan and coordinate services according to those needs [ 21 ], through the development of individualised plans, connections with relevant service providers, problem solving and reassessment [ 23 ]. Case managers intervene directly and indirectly with older adults. For example, direct interventions are those done during home care visits, with the older adults and/or their informal caregivers [ 24 ]. This can be, for example, an assessment of the older adult’s health situation or the teaching of relevant skills necessary for self-managed care [ 25 ]. Indirect interventions are those done for the older adult or the informal caregiver, in their absence. This includes the considerable amount of time they spend filling out paperwork and doing administrative tasks [ 24 , 26 , 27 ]. These tasks are important, as they can avoid unnecessary delays in treatments and duplication in the provision of services [ 28 ].

Numerous studies have documented the multifaceted role of case managers. Case managers perceive that it includes facilitation of administrative processes, attention to each older adult’s needs, as well as collection and interpretation of the information about the older adult to other workers [ 29 ]. Additional studies presented below shed light on their actual work. When they assess the need for home care services, case managers need to take into account both the needs of the older adults and those of their informal caregivers [ 8 ]. Their assessment must be comprehensive, including attention to medical, environmental, financial, legal and social factors [ 28 ]. In some organisations, they have to take on the stressful responsibility of overseeing financial allocations for services such as rehabilitation, a responsibility with which they are uncomfortable [ 30 ]. Case managers also need to work with different organisations (e.g., healthcare agencies) [ 29 , 31 , 32 ] which can be challenging [ 27 , 32 ]. For example, case managers face difficulties conciliating the imperatives of different organisations such as last-minute discharge of older adults from acute care [ 33 ]. As they work under pressure, they have to choose their priorities and delegate tasks to other people involved, including the informal caregivers [ 34 ].

Studies also suggest that case managers seem to encounter tensions in their day-to-day work, that is, disjuncture between what they are supposed to do and what they actually do [ 35 ]. For example, they have to resort to “workarounds” to meet clients’ needs [ 27 , 33 ]. They face confusion about their formal role as opposed to what they do in practice [ 36 , 37 ]. Case managers also encounter difficulties in communicating with external providers from their organisation, which interferes with and reduces the time they have with older adults [ 27 ]. Additionally, they struggle with limited financial resources to meet their clients’ needs [ 26 ]. However, the direct exploration of these tensions is lacking, leaving their potential influence on case managers’ work unknown.

Knowing more about the tensions experienced by case managers could be the first step to allowing the optimisation of home care. Indeed, with an aging population, many countries aim to provide efficient care [ 38 , 39 ] and case managers play a pivotal role in this [ 33 ]. By targeting where tensions arise in their work, recommendations could be provided to improve models of case management for older adults [ 40 ] and lead to greater work satisfaction for case managers. Consequently, we aimed to describe the tensions encountered by case managers in home care programmes for older adults in Quebec and their influence on day-to-day work.

This study is part of a larger sequential exploratory mixed-method study related to the work of case management in home care. In the first phase of the study, we conducted an institutional ethnography [ 41 ]. Institutional ethnography is an approach which aims to explicate how people’s lives are socially organised and coordinated [ 42 ]. It uses a two-level analysis, which relies on two types of key informants: Standpoint informants and secondary informants. In institutional ethnography, participants are called informants because they possess knowledge about specific practices [ 41 ]. The first level analysis starts by taking a standpoint (here of case managers) and looks at the actual work of the people from that standpoint. Work is defined as “[…] anything done by people that takes time and effort, that they mean to do, that is done under definite conditions and with whatever means and tools, and that they may have to think about.” (p. 151) [ 41 ]. Once institutional ethnographers have a clear idea about the actual work, they specifically look at the tensions experienced by the standpoint informants [ 35 ]. In the second level analysis, one tension is chosen to be studied in more depth, becoming the problematic [ 43 ]. Then, institutional ethnographers look at how this problematic is shaped by external forces. To do so, they carefully look at the language used on the day-to-day work (first level analysis) [ 35 ] and trace how that language is linked to texts used locally and to “boss texts”. These boss texts are documents positioned at the top of a hierarchy of texts (e.g., laws, regulations, policies, etc.) which will be used to coordinate the work at the local level [ 42 ]. Thus, institutional ethnographers talk to secondary informants, they collect the documents used or discussed by the informants and map the work, the texts and the people involved. As done by other institutional ethnographies [e.g., 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 ], this article focuses only on results from the first level of analysis [ 49 ]. Indeed, second level analysis will be published elsewhere. These first-level results are useful as they explicate everyday experiences, including the tensions shared among standpoint informants [ 49 ]. From these tensions can stem recommendations for public home care providers to improve case managers’ working conditions. In our study, we define home care as an institution in which health and social services in the older adult’s home are offered by various providers. Their goal is to keep older adults at home safely, for as long as possible.

In the province of Quebec, Health and Social Services are organised in 18 different regional areas. Within each area is found at least one Integrated [University] Health and Social Service Centre (I[U]HSSC). These centres play a crucial role in delivering a diverse array of health and social services through a variety of programmes [ 50 ]. Specifically, our study focuses on the provision of home care to older adults within the Support Programme for the Autonomy of Seniors (SAPA; Soutien à l’autonomie des personnes âgées ). This province-wide initiative operates under the regulatory framework of “At home: The first choice - Home support policy” ( Chez soi le premier choix: la politique de soutien à domicile ) [ 51 ] and the Act respecting health and social services ( Loi sur les services de santé et les services sociaux ) [ 52 ], which are some of the boss texts in Quebec home care [ 44 , 53 ].

The SAPA programme aims to compensate for disabilities associated with ageing, diverging from programmes like those catering to individuals with significant and persistent disabilities related to various impairments or degenerative illnesses [ 54 ]. Eligibility for SAPA is not solely determined by age but rather by the nature of acquired disabilities. The range of services offered within SAPA encompasses a broad spectrum, spanning professional services such as nursing, occupational therapy, social work, physiotherapy, nutrition, and respiratory therapy, to assistance with essential daily activities like washing, toileting, dressing, feeding, transferring, and respite care, that are paid for by public services. Central to the SAPA programme is the mandatory assessment of older adults via a standardised province-wide assessment tool known as the Outil d’évaluation multiclientèle (OEMC). The extent of service (e.g., number of hours for hygiene per week) is determined following an assessment of needs conducted by the case managers. While public home care services are primarily delivered by workers (e.g., professionals, technicians, home support workers) within the SAPA program, some services are financed by the programme but delivered by collaborating organisations referred to as “partners”. These partners include private organisations such as seniors’ residences, private providers and non-profit organisations such as community organisations and domestic help social economy businesses ( Entreprise d’économie sociale en aide à domicile ( ÉÉSAD )). The responsibility for case management is distributed among various professionals, including social workers, nurses, occupational therapists, and technicians in social work or special education. Technicians are health associate professionals [ 22 ] who undergo a comprehensive three-year technical training program.

The main tasks of case managers include (1) assessing the needs of older adults and intervening accordingly (e.g., allocating and/or referring to other services within and outside the home care programme), (2) facilitating inpatient admission to hospitals and being involved in managing the discharge process to resume home care, (3) providing psychosocial follow-up to older adults and their informal caregivers (e.g., emotional support, looking for new needs), (4) supporting the older adults’ transition to public long-term care housing when staying at home is deemed unsafe.

Our study was conducted in one of the I[U]HSSC, selected purposively, since it comprises both rural and urban populations. It serves approximately 500,000 people, 25,000 of whom receive at least one type of home care service (e.g., nursing, social work). This I[U]HSSC is subdivided into 9 different local territories, called local services networks. These local services networks organise the provision of SAPA programme home care services at the local level.

Participants and recruitment

To gain access to the standpoint informants, after obtaining ethical approval from the chosen I[U]HSSC, we sent an email to the managers in the different local service networks to solicit their participation in the study. In total, managers from three local service networks agreed to do so. Thus, our sample of settings was chosen conveniently.

We recruited standpoint informants with the help of their managers, who shared an email about the project, as well as by word-of-mouth. As much as possible, we aimed for our sample to ensure the representativeness of each of the various training and of men, as they are underrepresented in home care. Thus, our sampling strategy for standpoint informants was purposive (Table  1 ). We established that standpoint informants had to be working in this specific programme for at least 6 months to have sufficient knowledge about day-to-day work, as done in other studies in home care [e.g., 12 , 55 ]. In institutional ethnography, first-level data collection and analysis stop once researchers have a sufficient, in-depth understanding of the work that is done [ 43 ]. We established that data collection and analysis would stop once the main tasks were mapped and validated by standpoint informants (see next section).

Data collection and analysis

We collected and analysed the data iteratively using the institutional ethnography first-level analysis process [ 49 ]. Specifically, data analysis consisted of mapping the work done by case managers and identifying the tensions. Data collection and analysis were performed by the first (A1) and third (A3) authors, who are experienced in qualitative data analysis. To map the work and to identify the tensions, A1 collected data through a sociodemographic questionnaire, observations, obser-views, interviews, and a survey. The number of standpoint informants for each combination of data collection methods is presented in Table  2 . All the data collection tools (sociodemographic questionnaire, observation grid, interview guide and survey) were developed for the study.

First, to describe the sample, each standpoint informant answered a self-administered sociodemographic questionnaire (supplementary file). The data collected included gender, years of experience and training and practice settings.

Second, to understand the work done by the case managers, A1 observed their work at their office and during home care visits ( n  = 160 h, 25 different days including some full days, mornings only or afternoons only) from July to December 2022, without interfering. A1 accompanied these observations with obser-views (20.5 h). Obser-views are a data collection method based in co-construction of the data collection and analysis [ 56 ]. During obser-views, the researcher’s observation of a participant is immediately followed by a discussion about what was observed. In the context of this study, obser-views allowed to clarify the work observed by directly asking the standpoint informant. To conduct the obser-views, during observations, when appropriate, A1 documented key words of observed situations in an observation grid (supplementary file), which contained the actions, the people present, the texts involved, and questions. Then, when possible, A1 audio-recorded the discussion part of the obser-views. During these, A1 asked the questions noted during observations. This included questions such as “What was that action?,” “Who were you talking to?,” and “What does [enter specific word] mean?” Finally, after each day of data collection, A1 used the key words from the observation grid and transcribed the obser-views to create a narrative text describing the case manager’s day. A1 deleted all identifying information in the narrative text.

For each day of observation, A1 and A3 analysed the data by creating maps of the day of work. These maps captured the actions, accompanying words used by case managers, involved individuals, utilised texts and the tensions. As in other institutional ethnographies in home care [e.g., 27 , 44 , 57 ], prior to starting our inquiry, we were aware that case managers encountered tensions in their work. However, we were not aware of what those tensions were. Thus, we looked for instances of tension (e.g., expected vs. actual actions [ 35 , 42 , 49 ]) reported by standpoint informants. We marked them with a symbol alongside the corresponding actions in the map. A1 and A3 paid particular attention to expressions such as “I am supposed to,” “in theory,” “my manager or team leader would like me to,” etc. during the entire data collection process, as well as discrepancies between observed actions and the language used by case managers. With the progression of data collection, the workday maps allowed A1 and A3 to develop task-specific maps (e.g., requesting home care services, getting a new older adult in the caseload).

Once we had a clear idea about the work done by case managers, interviews were conducted from February to May 2023 using an interview grid (supplementary file). Interviews were used to explore further observed aspects and validate the mapped work sequences. Specifically, A1 showed and explained the mapping of the specific tasks to standpoint informants who then had to pinpoint on the maps any instances where they identified missing actions or documents. After each interview, A1 and A3 modified the maps according to the data collected. Eight interviews were necessary to validate task-specific maps, meaning that after the eighth interview, no new information was added [ 58 ].

After A1 and A3 completed the maps, A1 wrote a synthesis describing the work, highlighting the main tasks, and describing the common tensions lived by the case managers. The synthesis was then reviewed by the second and last authors to ensure its accuracy, increase its clarity and suggest further aspects to be investigated.

Finally, we conducted a survey inspired by the Delphi consultation method with 19 standpoint informants in June of 2023. Delphi consultation allows gaining a consensus among a group of experts (here, the case managers) regarding a specific subject that will be used prospectively (here, the problematic to explore in the second level analysis) [ 59 ]. Using a consensus method appeared sensible as institutional ethnography focuses on what is common across people and contexts [ 60 ] and requires to start from the interests and concerns of actual people [ 43 ]. The survey was thus used to ensure that the identified tensions were shared among case managers from different training, years of experience or gender, as these aspects have been found to influence health professional practice [ 61 ], choice of service [ 62 ] or well-being at work [ 63 ], which could influence the quality of services provided [ 64 ]. The survey was not used to quantify the frequencies of those tensions. Only at this stage were standpoint informants made aware of the tensions that were being studied. To conduct the survey, we presented to the standpoint informants the definition of a tension, namely “a disjuncture between what you should do and what you actually do ”. We also presented them with a list of all the tensions previously identified (n = 7; Table  3 ) in the mapping. To avoid any primacy effect [ 65 ], they were presented randomly to each standpoint informant. Standpoint informants had to rank the occurrence of each tension in day-to-day work as nonapplicable, rarely met, regularly met, or almost always/always met. They could also suggest another tension, but they didn’t. We choose to present tensions that were reported by at least 50% of standpoint informants as regularly met, or almost always/always met. Indeed, studies using the Delphi consultation method report that items below 50% show no consensus at all [ 66 ]. Also, the 50% cut-off enables many differing perspectives to be identified and used for a further round [ 67 ].

This section presents the work and the tensions inherent to the work of case managers, from their standpoint. Figure  1 represents the main tasks of a case manager. Figures  2 , 3 and 4 present the main sequences of work. Table  3 presents all the tensions identified through data collection. The tensions remaining after the survey are presented and explained in detail in Table  4 . All three tensions reported in Table  4 were shared by case managers, despite their various training, years of experience and gender.

figure 1

The main tasks of being a case manager. Legend. The black rectangles represent the boss texts identified during the first level analysis. They are placed above all the main tasks, as we suspect they regulate the work of case managers. The grey rectangles are the main clinical tasks, which include direct and indirect tasks. The blue rectangles represent the tasks that must be done continuously depending on the action done by case managers. These can be clinical or non-clinical task. As they are recurrent, they are not shown in Figs. 2, 3 and 4, unless relevant. The pink rectangle represents a periodical non-clinical administrative task. The circles represent the people case managers interact with while doing these tasks and the documents they use to do their work. The red symbol represents where tensions were found

figure 2

Facilitating inpatient admission to hospitals and being involved in managing the discharge process to resume home care. Note The legend here applies to Figs.  2 , 3 and 4 , inclusively. Legend : The grey rectangles are the main clinical tasks, which include direct and indirect tasks. The circles represent the people case managers interact with while doing these tasks and the documents they use to do their work. The red symbol represents where tensions were found. Words written in the parallelogram are recurrent words used by case managers

figure 3

Assessing the needs of older adults and intervening accordingly

figure 4

Supporting the older adults’ transition to public long-term care housing when staying at home is deemed unsafe

Returning older adults at home safely vs. freeing up hospital beds

Case managers feel pressured to respond to the needs of the hospital, as opposed to focusing on the needs of older adults in home care. Indeed, case managers’ daily tasks are significantly impacted by the hospital admission or discharge of any older adult in their care. Thus, they perceive that their work mostly aims to help physicians in the hospital to free up beds, rather than putting into place the necessary conditions for a safe return home following discharge:

“It’s an upside-down world. […] When I say upside down, I mean when you receive the list of older adults hospitalised, you have to follow up [if one older adult in your caseload is hospitalised]. Well, if you do not, they’re going to call you. […] That means it becomes a priority. […] We’re not doing prevention [work], we’re doing posttreatment. Because they’re going to be worried about when we will take the older adult out [of the hospital]. Basically, because they can’t stay in the beds for too long.” (W173561, interview).

Given the significance of hospital-related events, all case managers initiate their day by following a consistent routine in the home care office. They access the list of hospitalised older adults provided by their local hospital. Their objective is to identify whether any of the older adults under their care have been admitted to the hospital. Additionally, they check their voicemails in case the hospital staff have reached out for further information or if there are indications of an impending discharge. The occurrence of an inpatient admission or the possibility of a discharge often necessitates case managers to deviate from their preplanned schedules. For instance, home care visits may need to be rescheduled. This could be a contributing factor as to why many do not plan their days in advance: “[…] in case management, it is very different from one day to the next. I do not plan so much in advance because things move around a lot .” (W385214, interview).

When the case managers learn that one of the older adults in their caseload has been admitted to the hospital, their main tasks involve notifying the hospital staff that they are their designated case manager by sending a form and calling them, as well as informing other home care workers involved in the older adult’s care. Additionally, they temporarily suspend home care services during the hospital stay. Throughout this period, case managers may receive multiple phone calls from hospital staff inquiring about the readiness of home care services or the health of the older adult, prior to hospitalisation. It appears this situation arises because hospital staff seem to prefer contacting case managers rather than looking at the older adults’ file in the software utilised by home care services. Despite the frequency of these calls, some case managers have expressed that their recommendations for a safe return home are often disregarded, unless they actively participate in the interdisciplinary meetings held directly at the hospital:

“I had already phoned when he was under observation to say he was not well. […] However, as long as you do not show up at the meeting and speak directly to the team, it is like nobody’s heard anything, it is truly peculiar. […] We truly have to get in there and name things in front of the whole team. Otherwise, it appears that there’s nothing, the information never gets out.” (W336925, interviews).

Furthermore, due to communication challenges between hospitals and home care services, case managers often learn the discharge of older adults at the last minute. In those situations, if there is a need to add or modify home care services, case managers must expedite the approval process with the relevant personnel. This may involve (1) requesting home care services through the “emergency process,” (2) engaging in discussions with their team leaders in home care to gather support for expediting the home care allocation process or to ask them to put pressure on the hospital for delaying the discharge, or (3) contacting the Allocating committee, that is, the committee deciding of the allocation of home care, to prioritise the request of home care services for older adults. Additionally, case managers can be pressured to put home care services in place quickly by a specific employee in the home care programme whose role is to follow up on the transition from the hospital to the home. As they become accustomed to being pressured to ensure the return home from the hospital is done quickly, some case managers anticipate the hospital staff’s response and take preventive actions, based on their expectations. For example, some visit the hospital to obtain the necessary forms for the next tasks (e.g., long-term care housing), even if they were not officially informed of the discharge.

Delegating care to “partners” vs. managing the quality of services provided by partners

Home care programmes establish partnerships with service providers to deliver home care services. Ideally, case managers should only be minimally involved when care is provided by a partner. They should intervene when challenges arise (e.g., falls or difficulties in providing care as determined in the care plan). In those situations, case managers are expected to work with these partners to identify and implement solutions. However, in practice, rather than delegating care, case managers often focus primarily on ensuring the quality of services by becoming involved in managing the services, as well as in scheduling issues. This dynamic is sometimes present for private senior housing providers and is particularly evident when dealing with agencies. Agencies are private organisations paid by public organisations (such as I[U]HSSS) to provide workers to deliver allocated home care services.

During observations, various issues were identified with services provided by partners. These included partners showing up for home visits that were not scheduled and were already being provided by another partner, or simply not showing up for scheduled visits. Furthermore, some partners neglected the care of older adults by leaving them in incontinence briefs for extended periods of time. Others failed to inform case managers when older adults fell. When partners deviate from the agreed-upon arrangements, case managers often find themselves burdened with additional work. For instance, if partners decide that they no longer want to work the allocated hours, case managers need to submit a new request for home care services to the Allocating Committee, resulting in increased paperwork. Furthermore, when faced with difficulties in providing care to older adults, partners tend to be reluctant to implement suggested solutions proposed by case managers. In some instances, agencies may choose to discontinue their services when confronted with complex situations: “ Agencies, when they do not like it, they leave. They can go one day and say, “I’m not going there anymore,” then they leave. Whereas the community organisations, they work with us. The girls who work for the community organisations, they want to do well, they will persevere a lot more. ” (W385214, interview).

Case managers may opt for alternative methods of providing home care instead of relying on partner agencies. For instance, some make it a priority to explore options such as utilising a consumer-directed approach. This allows the older adult to hire someone they know or someone from a list of employees provided by the home care organisation, without paying for out-of-pocket care: “ I hate dealing with agencies. I’m very good at finding employees to work with families. So, I use the chèque emploi service programme [name of the consumer-directed approach] a lot ” (W398765, interview).

Based on their past experiences with partners, case managers have also developed various strategies to enhance the quality of care provided. One such strategy involves creating highly detailed care plans. For example, they may specify the exact steps to be taken, such as applying toothpaste to the toothbrush when dental care is needed. Another strategy employed is to personally meet the employees from partnering organisations for their first home care visits: “ I like to go and introduce myself at the time of a visit, to meet the employee who’s there. What I always explain to families and older adults is that it is the home care organisation that sends this person, and I’m somewhat responsible for the person who’s sent there .” (W385214, interview). By being present during these visits, case managers can actively monitor and assess the quality of care being delivered. When faced with different situations they cannot do anything about, they resort to advising older adults to lodge a formal complaint and report the situation to their team leaders.

Finally, as the partners are not part of their organisations, case managers often face challenges in effectively giving and obtaining information from them. For example, communications must go through their administrative agent, which will then contact the agencies. With community organisations, they have access to the administrative staff but rarely to the workers who provide the care. As such, case managers may encounter difficulties in receiving timely updates about older adults’ well-being and any incidents that may occur, such as falls or visits to the emergency room. To gather information about these situations, case managers rely on their home care visits. They will actively engage with older adults and their informal caregivers, asking questions and seeking insights to better understand the care provided by the partners and any notable incidents that may have occurred. As communication is also difficult with private seniors’ residences, case managers also use home care visits to directly speak with the staff to gather information about older adults.

Meeting organisational requirements vs. spending more time providing care for older adults

Case managers are bound by organisational requirements. One of these requirements is that they must meet a target number of interventions each day for older adults. These interventions, called “statistics”, are recorded, and tracked through software. The case managers themselves input various codes that denote the clinical actions undertaken. These codes are defined in the I-CLSC guidelines ( Cadre normatif I-CLSC ), which are province-wide guidelines used to support home care staff, managers, and medical archivists when working with the statistics. Each reported intervention involves one to three codes that reflect both direct and indirect clinical actions, along with the duration of these actions. Table  5 gives examples of the recurrent statistics reported by case managers observed during data collection.

The statistics are only used for management purposes, and as such, have no clinical value. Case managers must meet a specific number of interventions per day that are reported through the statistics because these statistics are utilised to calculate performance indicators. In return, these performance indicators are linked the funding provided to home care programmes by the Quebec government. However, case managers perceive these statistics as inadequate, since they cannot report the main tasks they engage in, particularly the exchange of information or all the tasks that require writing about the older adult’s situation.

In addition to statistical reporting, case managers must document the work they undertake for older adults in their care files. For example, they need to document when they talked to the older adult, what was said, what are the next steps. If they talk to someone involved in the older adult’s care, they also need to document who they talked to, what was said, what are the next steps, etc. This needs to be documented on specific time frames, as determined not only by their organisation but also in accordance with professional standards.

Furthermore, case managers must assess their workloads. To do so, they need to evaluate the workload associated with each individual older adult in their caseload through an Excel grid. The whole process and the documents that are used are based on one specific document produced by the social workers’ licensing body. This assessment involves assigning a score to each older adult of one’s caseload, based on specific criteria highlighted in a document named Complexity ratio. The criteria used to assess a score on the Complexity ratio document may include the number of actions needed, available resources (financial, material, social), frequency of contact with the older adults, risks associated with living at home, and more. The scores of all older adults in their caseloads are then added up to determine an overall value. Each case manager must attain a predetermined caseload overall value. If the resulting value is below the target, case managers may need to take on additional older adults. However, most case managers are unable to attain the targeted value. To them, this is due to the fact that they must fill out too much paperwork. Those who do attaint the target value often tend to be overloaded with paperwork and have little time to spend with older adults.

Finally, case managers must complete an extensive mandatory assessment of the older adult once a year or when the condition of the older adult changes drastically and as such, could impact eligibility for home care services. All this is done using a standardised assessment tool (OEMC). The assessment has three main limitations for case managers. First, is it time-consuming, due to the extensive number of questions and all the writing required. As they feel they rarely use the information collected in their work, they do not see this tool as a genuine assessment. Second, case managers also feel the tool focuses on ensuring that older adults fit into predefined criteria rather than considering their situation holistically and systemically. Thus, the tool is limited in its ability to identify the real needs of older adults (i.e., the tool will suggest in-home respite care without considering the willingness of the caregiver to receive this service). Third, with the other administrative tasks, the time it takes to fill out the assessment does not leave them the opportunity to conduct an assessment from their disciplinary training, which also does not seem to be a priority for their managers. However, case managers find this confusing as they are hired to be regulated professionals and as such, should engage in profession-specific tasks. Additionally, the organisational importance given to the completion of this assessment has two consequences for case managers. First, some case managers feel like their visits to older adults are only motivated by the necessity to complete the tool. As such, they do not understand that they can perform a home care visit just to follow up on the psychosocial situation of the older adult between the yearly re-assessment. Second, other case managers feel the yearly assessment is irrelevant, as it is only useful as a performance measure.

All the paperwork related to meeting organisational expectations is time-consuming: “We do paperwork approximately 70% [of our time,] and 30% [of our time] is spent with older adults.” (W155114, obser-view). Thus, case managers feel that the time they can spend with older adults providing quality care is limited. As time is limited, case managers find it difficult to develop relationships with older adults, which are essential to provide services that respond to their needs. Relationships are also strengthened when services are provided. However, resources are becoming scarce in home care, due to staff shortages. As such, case managers deal with dissatisfaction from older adults as well as their caregivers, as they are the point of contact for home care: “ I have little time, since November 2022, to create a relationship with older adults. All I do is manage crises; therefore, the bond created with older adults, or their family, relies on obtaining the services they want. I have no control over this. So, my relationship with older adults depends on obtaining services. […] so, when they don’t get what they want, I am the one dealing with their dissatisfaction, as I’m the entry door to home care ” (survey comment). Experienced case managers recognise that over time, increasing organisational expectations makes it difficult to perform home visits.

Despite needing to meet organisational requirements, many case managers prioritise providing care and supporting older adults rather than dedicating extensive time and effort to reporting their day-to-day work. Through observations, it has been revealed that they only report the minimal number of statistics asked per day. Additionally, as many actions can count as statistics, to avoid wasting time finding the right name for the action they did, some will only report the actions that have names that they are familiar with, thus underreporting other actions. Others may choose to postpone documenting the older adults’ situations in their files until it becomes necessary, such as when it is time to arrange long-term housing. Regarding the assessment tool, many case managers only utilise the tool when necessary (e.g., requesting long-term care housing or specific services) rather than collecting, analysing and writing the assessment only to meet organisational expectations.

We identified three tensions within the role of case manager. They are (1) returning older adults at home safely vs. freeing up hospital beds; (2) delegating care to “partners” vs. managing the quality of services provided by partners; and (3) meeting organisational requirements vs. spending more time providing care for older adults. Our findings are in line with those of Benoit et al. [ 68 ], who surveyed 697 home care workers (i.e., professionals and technicians) in Quebec. In this study, they explored how home care workers view the purpose of home care services and their perception of how their managers and the government viewed this purpose. According to these home care workers’ perspectives, their managers and the government place greater emphasis on meeting performance targets and reducing hospital bed occupancy. Conversely, the home care workers believe that their work should focus on delivering high-quality home care services tailored to the specific needs of older adults. These elements are all part of the tensions we identified in our study. Indeed, case managers need to work closely with the hospital and its partners. They are accountable to the Ministry of Health and Social Services. They encounter ethical dilemmas regarding the quality of care provided by partners. They must meet organisational expectations through performance targets. These aspects evoke the three lenses of professional practice context analysis, that is, accountability, ethics, and professional-as-worker, which will be discussed below. Finally, our discussion will then conclude on power in home care.

Our findings show how the three lenses of professional practice context analyses, namely, accountability, ethics, and professional-as-worker [ 69 ], can be used to shed light on the tensions case managers experience in their work. Accountability refers to whom case managers answer to and for what obligations [ 69 ]. Indeed, as professionals, through their licensing bodies, case managers are accountable to the State to ensure the quality of the services, but also to their employer, service funders, clients and families, and colleagues [ 70 ]. Ethics refers to the balance between two values (e.g., quality of services vs. access to services) that case managers are confronted with [ 69 ]. This lens is of importance as professionals must put their knowledge to the service of the older adults, which in this situation, are vulnerable as they do not have that knowledge [ 71 ]. Professional-as-workers refers to the actual organisational conditions (workload relative to resources available) that enable (or not) professionals to accomplish their mandate while maintaining their well-being [ 69 ]. This is because work organisation (e.g., workload, control, support), might influence well-being at work [ 72 ].

Regarding accountability, one tension is related (1) to the number of interventions case managers must reach each day by reporting them as statistics and (2) the completion of yearly assessments. Both these are performance measures used by the Ministry of Health and Social Services. Indeed, case managers have to report their actions with older adults using a software system, but they feel this takes away valuable time that could be spent providing care, which is in line with other studies [ 73 , 74 ]. Additionally, case managers report that the yearly assessment takes time to complete and does not allow a genuine assessment. As professionals, case managers are accountable to their licensing bodies. Furthermore, they are hired by the organisation as professionals and are therefore also accountable to this organisation through that role. However, due to the overwhelming number of administrative tasks, including handling statistics and conducting yearly assessments, case managers are unable to perform formal assessments aligned with their disciplinary training [ 75 ]. This puts them at risk of disciplinary sanctions. Additionally, they become confused, as they are unsure of what role they should take (professional and conduct their own assessment or case manager and conduct the mandatory one). Despite being an organisational requirement, meeting the performance measures through the completion of the assessment does not guarantee good care for older adults. Indeed, documented issues related to accountability, both in terms of statistics and mandatory assessments, include ethical dilemmas [ 76 ], suffering [ 77 ], reduction in the quality of provided services [ 57 ], reduced ability to respond to older adults needs who lack complementary coping resources [ 39 ], fewer services provided [ 38 ], and difficulties meeting the needs of older adults outside the assessment tools [ 78 , 79 , 80 ]. Thus, this could explain why case managers reported only the minimum number of statistics and only took time to write down the assessment when necessary. However, no studies directly document the connection between statistics about the work, completion of an assessment tool by case managers, performance measures, and professional obligations. As such, the links among these aspects remain unclear.

In terms of ethics, case managers often experience a tension in which they feel compelled to handle the lower quality of services provided by their partners instead of delegating care to them. The relationship with partners raises ethical concerns, as collaboration becomes challenging, due to the unequal nature of the partnership. Consequently, when situations require that partners be involved, case managers find themselves torn between two choices: (1) going beyond their role to ensure the delivery of quality services, thereby contributing to an unequal relationship, or (2) refraining from intervening, resulting in suboptimal care for older adults. However, the latter choice raises concerns regarding quality and access to care. Older adults receiving home care in Quebec have reported opting for no services at all rather than receiving poor-quality services from partners [ 16 ]. To navigate this ethical dilemma, case managers employ various strategies, such as managing the quality of care. Some strategies involve direct influence on the partners’ work, such as developing detailed care plans and meeting with the partners. Other strategies do not always directly affect their partners, such as advising older adults to file complaints and communicating with their team leaders. Additional studies conducted outside of Quebec also show a trend towards contracting in home care [ 81 , 82 , 83 , 84 , 85 , 86 ], that is, when a health and social service organisation, rather than providing the service itself, entrusts a partner to provide a specific service in exchange for payment [ 87 ]. In many cases, contracting can pose challenges to the delivery of quality services [ 83 , 84 , 85 ]. As seen in our study, these situations generate additional administrative tasks that should not be part of the case managers core responsibilities, diverting attention from the essential tasks of case management. Ultimately, this could impede case managers from focusing on keeping older adults home safely. Thus, as regulations play a major role to improve the quality of home care service in for-profit care or contracting [ 88 ], our research highlights the necessity for interventions aimed at enhancing the quality of care, which would, in turn, ensure genuine access to services.

With the professional as a worker’s lens, the expected caseload assigned to case managers appears to be unrealistic. In fact, many of them fail to reach such caseloads, and those who do end up with limited time to dedicate to older adults. The lack of time for older adults is supported in a recent report from the organisation in charge of assessing the performance of Quebec’s Health and Social Services organisations, as well as by the scientific literature [ 5 , 24 ]. To address this issue, case managers have resorted to minimising paperwork as much as possible. They seem to have implemented this workaround to ensure meaningful service delivery while meeting organisational expectations and safeguarding their own well-being at work [ 89 ], since workload [ 90 , 91 ] and time pressure [ 92 ] are related to burnout for home care professionals. However, studies conducted in other countries with case managers show that they tend to spend a lot of time on administrative tasks, including documenting the older adults’ situation [ 24 , 93 ], which is important for quality care [ 94 , 95 , 96 ]. Thus, this workaround raises challenges potentially impacting both service quality for older adults and the well-being of case managers.

Consequently, using the three lenses of professional practice analysis allowed to highlight two key points of our results, as this model can be used to interpret tension in professional practices [ 69 ]. First, case managers’ well-being could be diminished, and second, so could the quality of the services. Thus, our study serves as a first step for identifying where to intervene for better well-being for case managers, as well as better quality services in home care [ 69 ].

Finally, it also appears that case managers experience limited power in their daily role, despite occupying a privileged position in home care [ 53 ]. As they have to complete the necessary assessment according to specific timeframes, they become subordinate of their team leaders, managers, and the Ministry of Health and Social Services [ 80 ]. Additionally, while they do possess the ability to refer clients to other services, thereby carrying significant influence over the work of other workers in home care [ 53 ], this influence appears to be confined to the boundaries of the home care programmes. Indeed, case managers’ work is greatly influenced by the hospital and the “partners,” that is, organisations situated outside of home care programmes. For instance, case managers must be readily available to address inquiries and to ensure home care services are ready following early discharges requested by hospital staff. In dealing with the partners, case managers perceive that they bear the responsibility of potential substandard care and need to intervene when inadequate situations arise. These results are in line with those of many studies documenting work in home care. The power relations between case managers (or other health professionals) and the hospital are documented abundantly but not always directly (e.g., [ 12 , 33 , 97 , 98 , 99 , 100 ]). For example, case managers tend to focus on discharge issues [ 33 , 97 ]. Power issues with partners are also discussed indirectly in the literature on home care (e.g., [ 82 , 83 , 85 , 101 , 102 ]). These issues include partners not providing the planned care [ 82 , 102 ], difficulties in collaborating [ 83 ] and lesser quality services [ 82 , 101 ]. However, the available literature does not focus on power issues between partners and case managers. Thus, considering that power relations impact the care provided to older adults [ 53 ], our study contributes to important and new insights related to power relationships in home care.

Recommendations for practice and research

Considering our results, two tensions require recommendations. First, it is essential to align the choice of statistics as performance measure with day-to-day work. These statistics should also be in line with the specific needs of older adults, as a gap exists between the needs identified by professionals, and those identified by older adults [ 62 , 103 ]. Furthermore, compiling statistics should be done without taking time away from older adults. Thus, incorporating the older adult’s file information as a statistic would serve the dual purpose of reducing the time spent on reporting statistics while ensuring the inclusion of necessary information for optimal care coordination. Additionally, as the links between statistics, mandatory assessments and performance measures remain largely unexplored, future research is needed.

Second, regarding work with partners, clear guidelines need to be established, outlining the scope of case managers’ responsibilities as well as what constitutes good care. This could help clarify case managers’ roles in ensuring quality care provision and what constitutes high-quality care.

Strengths and limitations

This study has several strengths, primarily attributed to the constant validation of the analysis with standpoint informants. This validation involved multiple methods, including the use of obser-views following observations, interviews to confirm the mapping of the sequences of work, and a survey for the identified tensions. Moreover, data triangulation was achieved through the inclusion of different professions and diverse data collection methods. Additionally, first, second and third authors lack professional experience in home care, which could be seen as a limitation. However, as institutional ethnography wants to uncover taken-for-granted work and pays attention to the language [ 104 ], having a novice perspective towards these elements allowed us to ask for clarifications in a natural, nonexpert language, rendering the taken-for granted work visible [ 35 , 105 ]. At the same time, the last author has 10 years of experience in home care practice in Quebec and checked the analysis. This combination of different levels of knowledge allowed the team to ensure that no relevant aspects were missed.

It is also important to acknowledge two limitations. First, this study is grounded in a single perspective, that of case managers. Thus, we lack the perspective of hospital staff, partners, managers, and team leaders, which are all actors influencing the case managers’ work. Second, it is possible that case managers engaged in post hoc rationalisation when questioned about their everyday work. To mitigate this risk, we sought practical examples from them, based on their day-to-day actions, whenever possible.

Case managers’ work allows older adults with multiple healthcare needs to age in place. However, case managers seem to encounter tensions in their work, that is, disjuncture between what they are supposed to do and what they actually do. Thus, we aimed to describe the tensions encountered by case managers in home care programmes for older adults in Quebec and their influence on day-to-day work. We found three main tensions in their work. First, case managers sense that their work is focused on helping free up hospital beds instead of making sure older adults return home safely. Second, case managers feel the need to compensate when poor quality care is provided by partners instead of being able to delegate this work. Third, they spend less than the desired amount of time with older adults because they must meet organisational expectations through administrative tasks. By employing the lenses of accountability, ethics, and professional-as-worker, we have identified significant challenges faced by case managers and derived actionable recommendations for practice, which could act as a lever for quality care and research. First, as case management requires considerable time away from older adults, organisational requirements should be revised to increase the time actually spent with them. Second, clear guidelines regarding how to work with partners should be established to deal with the ethical dilemmas encountered. Third, future research should document the link between statistics, the use of mandatory assessments, and performance measures, as this remains unexplored. Finally, our research suggests that, despite their privileged role in home care, case managers seem to have limited power with the hospital and partners.

Data availability

All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article.

Abbreviations

Integrated [University] Health and Social Service Centres

Support Programme for the Autonomy of Seniors ( soutien à l’autonomie des personnes âgées)

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Acknowledgements

We thank all the research participants for their time. We thank Ms. Natasa Obradovic for her insights on the data collection tools.

Alexandra Ethier is a CIHR Research Graduate Scholarships – Doctoral Program recipient (#476590). Annie Carrier is a Fonds de recherche du Québec – Santé Junior 1 researcher (#296437; 2021–2025). This study is part of a larger CIHR funded research initiative entitled “Tackling the Home Care Challenge” led by Co-PIs Kelli Stajduhar and Damien Contandriopoulos (#162278; 2020–2024).

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École de réadaptation, Faculté de médecine et des sciences de la santé , Université de Sherbrooke; Centre de recherche sur le vieillissement, Centre intégré universitaire de santé et de services sociaux de l’Estrie - Centre hospitalier universitaire de Sherbrooke, 3001 12e Avenue N, Sherbrooke, QC, J1H 5H3, Canada

Alexandra Ethier, Virginie Savaria & Annie Carrier

Département des sciences de la santé communautaire, Faculté de médecine et sciences de la santé, Université de Sherbrooke; Centre de recherche sur le vieillissement, Centre intégré universitaire de santé et de services sociaux de l’Estrie - Centre hospitalier universitaire de Sherbrooke, 3001 12e Avenue N, Sherbrooke, QC, J1H 5H3, Canada

Marie-France Dubois

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Contributions

AE contributed to the first draft of the manuscript. AE, MFD, and AC were involved in the study design. AE was responsible for data collection and preparation of the figures. AE and VS conducted the data analysis. All the authors (AE, MFD, VS, AC) contributed to manuscript revision. All the authors read and approved the final version of the manuscript. AE is the guarantor of the article.

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Correspondence to Alexandra Ethier .

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Ethics approval and consent to participate.

This study received ethical approval from the Comité d’éthique à la recherche du Centre intégré universitaire de santé et de services sociaux de l’ Estrie – Centre hospitalier universitaire de Sherbrooke (#2020–3244). All methods employed in this study were conducted in strict adherence to established guidelines and regulations, and all procedures were approved by the institutional review board. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to observations, the survey, and interviews. Participants were reassured that data collected was confidential and participation in the study was voluntary.

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Not applicable as no personal information is divulged.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

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Supplementary Material 1:

The page 1-2 of supplementary materials presents the sociodemographic questionnaire. The page 3 presents the observation grid. The pages 4-7 present the interviews guide

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Ethier, A., Dubois, MF., Savaria, V. et al. Tensions experienced by case managers working in home care for older adults in Quebec: first level analysis of an institutional ethnography. BMC Health Serv Res 24 , 296 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-024-10709-6

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Published : 06 March 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-024-10709-6

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