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• What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on May 8, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 20, 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organization, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

Table of contents

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyze the case, other interesting articles.

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

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Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

• Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
• Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
• Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
• Open up new directions for future research

TipIf your research is more practical in nature and aims to simultaneously investigate an issue as you solve it, consider conducting action research instead.

Unlike quantitative or experimental research , a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

Example of an outlying case studyIn the 1960s the town of Roseto, Pennsylvania was discovered to have extremely low rates of heart disease compared to the US average. It became an important case study for understanding previously neglected causes of heart disease.

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience or phenomenon.

Example of a representative case studyIn the 1920s, two sociologists used Muncie, Indiana as a case study of a typical American city that supposedly exemplified the changing culture of the US at the time.

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

• Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
• Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
• Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews , observations , and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data.

Example of a mixed methods case studyFor a case study of a wind farm development in a rural area, you could collect quantitative data on employment rates and business revenue, collect qualitative data on local people’s perceptions and experiences, and analyze local and national media coverage of the development.

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

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In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis , with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyze its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Ecological validity

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

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McCombes, S. (2023, November 20). What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods. Scribbr. Retrieved April 12, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/case-study/

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How To Write Case Study Assignment – 7 Easy Steps

Students want to know, “how to write case study assignment easily. One of the most important qualities you’ll need in college is the ability to write a case study analysis. When you are given the task of writing a case study report, you may feel overwhelmed because it necessitates critical thinking skills.

You must analyze a business dilemma, explore possible solutions, and suggest the most appropriate approach using supporting data in a case study report. Writing a case study assignment is similar to writing a thesis paper .

When you have to write a case report, there are a few things you can keep in mind. You’re supposed to solve a dilemma that may not be easy.

A case study is a situation in a specific professional sense that students must analyze and react to.

Influenced by basic questions raised about the situation In certain situations, the situation or case study includes a variety of concerns or problems that must be addressed in the workplace.

You can also get Case study assignment help online from our professional experts. They will provide you A+ quality assignment solution at an affordable price.

What is a case study?

Table of Contents

A case study is a detailed examination of a particular individual, group, organization, or event. It is a research method that involves analyzing a specific example in depth and detail to understand its unique characteristics and to draw conclusions about broader phenomena.

Case studies can be qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods in nature, and they can involve a variety of data collection techniques, such as interviews, surveys, observations, and document analysis.

Case studies are commonly used in academic research, business, and other fields to gain insights into complex phenomena that cannot be fully understood through statistical analyses or experiments. They are often used to illustrate a particular theory or concept, to provide a detailed description of a particular situation or event, or to identify best practices in a particular field or industry.

What are the different types of case studies?

The aim of a case study is to provide comprehensive reports on an incident, an organization, a location, an individual, or much more.

Certain kinds of case studies are typical, but the type of case depends on the subject. The most popular fields for case studies are as follows.

• Analysis of the illustrative case
• Case studies from the past
• Case studies that address a specific issue
• Case Study for Investigative Purposes
• Case Study in Context
• Case Study of a Critical Situation

What is the difference between a research paper And A case study?

Although research papers address a certain issue to the reader, case studies go even deeper. Guidelines on case studies recommend that students pay attention to specifics and examine topics in detail, using various analysis techniques. Case studies often investigate specific events for an individual or a group of individuals and include many narrations.

There are a variety of case study subjects to choose from

The first challenge when writing a case study is deciding on the right case study subjects.

In most cases, students are given the option of choosing their subject.

Instructors allow students to express their understanding of the subject as well as the whole course in this way. If you’re having trouble coming up with case study solutions, start with this list of classic topics:

• An individual
• A group of people
• It’s an occasion
• Organization

Some Other Case Study Subject

• What are some of the ways that people are abusing drugs at work?
• In difficult times, how can workers stay engaged?
• Images vs. real humans
• What is the best way to manage your promotional budget?
• How can social media advertising assist in attracting customers?
• Is it necessary for a small company to have a website?
• How should small consumers be considered for higher profits?
• The lost experience of retirement workers.
• Social media’s effect on today’s market.

Best Ways To Writing An Answer Of A Case Study Assignment

Before giving steps to answer a case study assignment, check below, quick guidance may seem too simplistic, but most students seem to disregard it, which is a huge mistake.

• Be realistic about the case study’s objectives
• Choose an engaging angle for your case study
• Make Your Case Study Relevant to ALL Potential Clients
• In your case study, stick to the traditional narrative arc
• In your case study, use data to illustrate key points
• portray your company as a supporting character
• Allow your customers to tell their own stories

How To Write Case Study Assignment – Easy Ways

Let’s know How To Write Case Study Assignment with a step-by-step guide.

Step 1:- Take the time to read through the Case Study and the Questions

• Read the situation and the issues that go with it carefully.
• Highlight the case’s key points and any problems you can recognize.
• Describe the case study’s intent.
• Define your study area.
• Without going through specifics, summarise the case study’s problems and results.
• Read the questions carefully and consider what they require of you.
• Reread the case, this time connecting the details that are important to some of the questions you’ve been asking.

Step 2:- Determine the Case Study’s Problems

Case studies identify a condition in a specific particular area. They also entail a large group of people in a difficult situation.

They will also characterize a scenario that is difficult to contend with, either because of how it is handled or because of its difficulty.

Analyzing the situation and identifying the challenges described in the case that may be troublesome is a vital part of the response.

Step 3:- Connect the dots between theory and application

To sum up the key difficulties. Identify alternatives to the big challenges. Briefly identify and assess the benefits and drawbacks of any possible option.

Determine what was done correctly and what was not using the knowledge of current codes of conduct, hypotheses, and other technical documentation and behaviors.

Step 4:- Make a strategy for responding.

At the end of the day, the score is all that counts. Determine the case study format that is necessary and follow it diligently. It’s a good idea to use the questions you’ve been given as headings and answer each part in turn, so you don’t miss any of the set questions.

Step 5:- Begin composing your answer to the case study

1. write an introduction for a case study assignment.

Your intro must always make it clear to your viewer what subject and method you would use to address it in your assignment.

You must provide the context when writing a case study introduction. Begin by posing a question or using a quote from someone you spoke with.

Not only should you describe the research issue and its importance in your presentation, but you should also explain why it is important.

However, you can also talk about why this case is being written and how it applies to the issue.

2. Paragraphs of the Body

This is where you start talking about the case study. Provide one viable approach to the problem, clarify the rationale for the suggested solution, back it up with evidence, and provide important theoretical principles in addition to the research findings.

You must determine the number of paragraphs needed for each question based on how many you have been given and how much debate is involved in addressing each one.

3. Final Remarks

To summarise, a case study is one of the better ways to understand what happened to an individual, a community, or a circumstance in reality.

It gives you an in-depth look at real-world issues that corporations, healthcare, and criminal justice can face.

This perspective allows one to see those circumstances in a new way.

This is due to the fact that we see scenarios that we would not normally see if we were not there.

Step 6:- Proofread and edit

When you’ve completed writing your case report, you’ll need to proofread and edit it.

Check that you’ve answered all of the questions and that your answers are supported by applicable literature.

Correct some grammatical or spelling errors, as well as punctuation errors.

Keep a close watch on how the thoughts flow and transition.

Step 7:- Submit your work

Can you’re paper show why you would do so if you were an expert in this situation?

Be sure that all of the sources are properly referenced.

Examine the proof and see if it is valid, useful, and trustworthy. Recheck the formatting. If that’s the case, it’s good to go.

case study example

This is a great example of a case study.

How to cite a case study?

Citing a case study can depend on the citation style you are using. In general, the following information should be included:

• Author(s) of the case study
• Title of the case study
• Title of the book or journal the case study is published in
• Date of publication
• Page numbers (if applicable)
• URL (if the case study is available online)

Here are some examples of how to cite a case study in different citation styles:

Author(s) Last name, First initial. (Year). Title of case study. In Editor(s) First initial. Last name (Ed.), Title of book (pp. page numbers). Publisher.

Smith, J. D. (2015). A case study of marketing strategies for a new product. In K. Jones (Ed.), Marketing in the 21st Century (pp. 50-60). ABC Publishing.

Author(s) Last name, First name. “Title of Case Study.” Title of Book or Journal, edited by Editor(s) First name Last name, Publisher, Year, pp. page numbers.

Jones, Mary. “The Impact of Social Media on Small Business: A Case Study.” Journal of Small Business Management, vol. 30, no. 2, Wiley-Blackwell, 2017, pp. 34-45.

Case study assignment writing service

Many students feel stuck while writing their case study assignments. A case study seems to be very complicated as it includes the study of a particular scenario that holds various perceptions.

Hence, it is tough for them to figure out “how to write a case study assignment.” Well, the answer to that question lies in this article. Still, many students struggle to do the work. In that case, they seek case study assignment help. But many organizations provide case study assignment writing services to needy students.

You need to analyze and examine all the service providers. Students can get help from the best case study assignment writers and get good grades.

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Writing a case study necessitates a thorough investigation and enough time for analysis. If you’re having trouble writing a good case report, you can next contact an online writing service.

Calltutors.com’s Cheap Assignment Help expert writers will assist you in finishing your case study project on time and according to your specifications.

What are the 3 methods of the case study?

There are three main types of case studies. These methods are such as; intrinsic, instrumental and collective.

How many pages should a case study be?

The length of a case study typically depends on the purpose of the study and the guidelines provided by the organization or instructor requesting the study. However, a typical case study can range from 2-5 pages for shorter assignments to 10-20 pages for more comprehensive case studies.

Are case studies hard to write?

The difficulty of writing a case study can vary depending on the complexity of the subject matter, the amount of research required, and the skill level of the writer.

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16 case study examples (+ 3 templates to make your own)

I like to think of case studies as a business's version of a resume. It highlights what the business can do, lends credibility to its offer, and contains only the positive bullet points that paint it in the best light possible.

Imagine if the guy running your favorite taco truck followed you home so that he could "really dig into how that burrito changed your life." I see the value in the practice. People naturally prefer a tried-and-true burrito just as they prefer tried-and-true products or services.

To help you showcase your success and flesh out your burrito questionnaire, I've put together some case study examples and key takeaways.

What is a case study?

A case study is an in-depth analysis of how your business, product, or service has helped past clients. It can be a document, a webpage, or a slide deck that showcases measurable, real-life results.

For example, if you're a SaaS company, you can analyze your customers' results after a few months of using your product to measure its effectiveness. You can then turn this analysis into a case study that further proves to potential customers what your product can do and how it can help them overcome their challenges.

It changes the narrative from "I promise that we can do X and Y for you" to "Here's what we've done for businesses like yours, and we can do it for you, too."

16 case study examples 

While most case studies follow the same structure, quite a few try to break the mold and create something unique. Some businesses lean heavily on design and presentation, while others pursue a detailed, stat-oriented approach. Some businesses try to mix both.

There's no set formula to follow, but I've found that the best case studies utilize impactful design to engage readers and leverage statistics and case details to drive the point home. A case study typically highlights the companies, the challenges, the solution, and the results. The examples below will help inspire you to do it, too.

1. .css-1l9i3yq-Link[class][class][class][class][class]{all:unset;box-sizing:border-box;-webkit-text-fill-color:currentColor;cursor:pointer;}.css-1l9i3yq-Link[class][class][class][class][class]{all:unset;box-sizing:border-box;-webkit-text-decoration:underline;text-decoration:underline;cursor:pointer;-webkit-transition:all 300ms ease-in-out;transition:all 300ms ease-in-out;outline-offset:1px;-webkit-text-fill-color:currentColor;outline:1px solid transparent;}.css-1l9i3yq-Link[class][class][class][class][class][data-color='ocean']{color:#3d4592;}.css-1l9i3yq-Link[class][class][class][class][class][data-color='ocean']:hover{color:#2b2358;}.css-1l9i3yq-Link[class][class][class][class][class][data-color='ocean']:focus{color:#3d4592;outline-color:#3d4592;}.css-1l9i3yq-Link[class][class][class][class][class][data-color='white']{color:#fffdf9;}.css-1l9i3yq-Link[class][class][class][class][class][data-color='white']:hover{color:#a8a5a0;}.css-1l9i3yq-Link[class][class][class][class][class][data-color='white']:focus{color:#fffdf9;outline-color:#fffdf9;}.css-1l9i3yq-Link[class][class][class][class][class][data-color='primary']{color:#3d4592;}.css-1l9i3yq-Link[class][class][class][class][class][data-color='primary']:hover{color:#2b2358;}.css-1l9i3yq-Link[class][class][class][class][class][data-color='primary']:focus{color:#3d4592;outline-color:#3d4592;}.css-1l9i3yq-Link[class][class][class][class][class][data-color='secondary']{color:#fffdf9;}.css-1l9i3yq-Link[class][class][class][class][class][data-color='secondary']:hover{color:#a8a5a0;}.css-1l9i3yq-Link[class][class][class][class][class][data-color='secondary']:focus{color:#fffdf9;outline-color:#fffdf9;}.css-1l9i3yq-Link[class][class][class][class][class][data-weight='inherit']{font-weight:inherit;}.css-1l9i3yq-Link[class][class][class][class][class][data-weight='normal']{font-weight:400;}.css-1l9i3yq-Link[class][class][class][class][class][data-weight='bold']{font-weight:700;} Volcanica Coffee and AdRoll

People love a good farm-to-table coffee story, and boy am I one of them. But I've shared this case study with you for more reasons than my love of coffee. I enjoyed this study because it was written as though it was a letter.

In this case study, the founder of Volcanica Coffee talks about the journey from founding the company to personally struggling with learning and applying digital marketing to finding and enlisting AdRoll's services.

It felt more authentic, less about AdRoll showcasing their worth and more like a testimonial from a grateful and appreciative client. After the story, the case study wraps up with successes, milestones, and achievements. Note that quite a few percentages are prominently displayed at the top, providing supporting evidence that backs up an inspiring story.

Takeaway: Highlight your goals and measurable results to draw the reader in and provide concise, easily digestible information.

2. Taylor Guitars and Airtable

This Airtable case study on Taylor Guitars comes as close as one can to an optimal structure. It features a video that represents the artistic nature of the client, highlighting key achievements and dissecting each element of Airtable's influence.

It also supplements each section with a testimonial or quote from the client, using their insights as a catalyst for the case study's narrative. For example, the case study quotes the social media manager and project manager's insights regarding team-wide communication and access before explaining in greater detail.

Takeaway: Highlight pain points your business solves for its client, and explore that influence in greater detail.

3. EndeavourX and Figma

My favorite part of Figma's case study is highlighting why EndeavourX chose its solution. You'll notice an entire section on what Figma does for teams and then specifically for EndeavourX.

It also places a heavy emphasis on numbers and stats. The study, as brief as it is, still manages to pack in a lot of compelling statistics about what's possible with Figma.

Takeaway: Showcase the "how" and "why" of your product's differentiators and how they benefit your customers.

4. ActiveCampaign and Zapier

Zapier's case study leans heavily on design, using graphics to present statistics and goals in a manner that not only remains consistent with the branding but also actively pushes it forward, drawing users' eyes to the information most important to them. 

The graphics, emphasis on branding elements, and cause/effect style tell the story without requiring long, drawn-out copy that risks boring readers. Instead, the cause and effect are concisely portrayed alongside the client company's information for a brief and easily scannable case study.

Takeaway: Lean on design to call attention to the most important elements of your case study, and make sure it stays consistent with your branding.

5. Ironclad and OpenAI

In true OpenAI fashion, this case study is a block of text. There's a distinct lack of imagery, but the study features a narrated video walking readers through the product.

The lack of imagery and color may not be the most inviting, but utilizing video format is commendable. It helps thoroughly communicate how OpenAI supported Ironclad in a way that allows the user to sit back, relax, listen, and be impressed. 

Takeaway: Get creative with the media you implement in your case study. Videos can be a very powerful addition when a case study requires more detailed storytelling.

6. Shopify and GitHub

GitHub's case study on Shopify is a light read. It addresses client pain points and discusses the different aspects its product considers and improves for clients. It touches on workflow issues, internal systems, automation, and security. It does a great job of representing what one company can do with GitHub.

To drive the point home, the case study features colorful quote callouts from the Shopify team, sharing their insights and perspectives on the partnership, the key issues, and how they were addressed.

Takeaway: Leverage quotes to boost the authoritativeness and trustworthiness of your case study. 

7 . Audible and Contentful

Contentful's case study on Audible features almost every element a case study should. It includes not one but two videos and clearly outlines the challenge, solution, and outcome before diving deeper into what Contentful did for Audible. The language is simple, and the writing is heavy with quotes and personal insights.

This case study is a uniquely original experience. The fact that the companies in question are perhaps two of the most creative brands out there may be the reason. I expected nothing short of a detailed analysis, a compelling story, and video content. 

Takeaway: Inject some brand voice into the case study, and create assets that tell the story for you.

8 . Zoom and Asana

Asana's case study on Zoom is longer than the average piece and features detailed data on Zoom's growth since 2020. Instead of relying on imagery and graphics, it features several quotes and testimonials. 

It's designed to be direct, informative, and promotional. At some point, the case study reads more like a feature list. There were a few sections that felt a tad too promotional for my liking, but to each their own burrito.

Takeaway: Maintain a balance between promotional and informative. You want to showcase the high-level goals your product helped achieve without losing the reader.

9 . Hickies and Mailchimp

I've always been a fan of Mailchimp's comic-like branding, and this case study does an excellent job of sticking to their tradition of making information easy to understand, casual, and inviting.

It features a short video that briefly covers Hickies as a company and Mailchimp's efforts to serve its needs for customer relationships and education processes. Overall, this case study is a concise overview of the partnership that manages to convey success data and tell a story at the same time. What sets it apart is that it does so in a uniquely colorful and brand-consistent manner.

Takeaway: Be concise to provide as much value in as little text as possible.

10. NVIDIA and Workday

The gaming industry is notoriously difficult to recruit for, as it requires a very specific set of skills and experience. This case study focuses on how Workday was able to help fill that recruitment gap for NVIDIA, one of the biggest names in the gaming world.

Though it doesn't feature videos or graphics, this case study stood out to me in how it structures information like "key products used" to give readers insight into which tools helped achieve these results.

Takeaway: If your company offers multiple products or services, outline exactly which ones were involved in your case study, so readers can assess each tool.

11. KFC and Contentful

I'm personally not a big KFC fan, but that's only because I refuse to eat out of a bucket. My aversion to the bucket format aside, Contentful follows its consistent case study format in this one, outlining challenges, solutions, and outcomes before diving into the nitty-gritty details of the project.

Say what you will about KFC, but their primary product (chicken) does present a unique opportunity for wordplay like "Continuing to march to the beat of a digital-first drum(stick)" or "Delivering deep-fried goodness to every channel."

Takeaway: Inject humor into your case study if there's room for it and if it fits your brand. 

12. Intuit and Twilio

Twilio does an excellent job of delivering achievements at the very beginning of the case study and going into detail in this two-minute read. While there aren't many graphics, the way quotes from the Intuit team are implemented adds a certain flair to the study and breaks up the sections nicely.

It's simple, concise, and manages to fit a lot of information in easily digestible sections.

Takeaway: Make sure each section is long enough to inform but brief enough to avoid boring readers. Break down information for each section, and don't go into so much detail that you lose the reader halfway through.

13. Spotify and Salesforce

Salesforce created a video that accurately summarizes the key points of the case study. Beyond that, the page itself is very light on content, and sections are as short as one paragraph.

I especially like how information is broken down into "What you need to know," "Why it matters," and "What the difference looks like." I'm not ashamed of being spoon-fed information. When it's structured so well and so simply, it makes for an entertaining read.

Takeaway: Invest in videos that capture and promote your partnership with your case study subject. Video content plays a promotional role that extends beyond the case study in social media and marketing initiatives .

14. Benchling and Airtable

Benchling is an impressive entity in its own right. Biotech R&D and health care nuances go right over my head. But the research and digging I've been doing in the name of these burritos (case studies) revealed that these products are immensely complex. 

And that's precisely why this case study deserves a read—it succeeds at explaining a complex project that readers outside the industry wouldn't know much about.

Takeaway: Simplify complex information, and walk readers through the company's operations and how your business helped streamline them.

15. Chipotle and Hubble

The concision of this case study is refreshing. It features two sections—the challenge and the solution—all in 316 words. This goes to show that your case study doesn't necessarily need to be a four-figure investment with video shoots and studio time. 

Sometimes, the message is simple and short enough to convey in a handful of paragraphs.

Takeaway: Consider what you should include instead of what you can include. Assess the time, resources, and effort you're able and willing to invest in a case study, and choose which elements you want to include from there.

16. Hudl and Zapier

I may be biased, but I'm a big fan of seeing metrics and achievements represented in branded graphics. It can be a jarring experience to navigate a website, then visit a case study page and feel as though you've gone to a completely different website.

The Zapier format provides nuggets of high-level insights, milestones, and achievements, as well as the challenge, solution, and results. My favorite part of this case study is how it's supplemented with a blog post detailing how Hudl uses Zapier automation to build a seamless user experience.

The case study is essentially the summary, and the blog article is the detailed analysis that provides context beyond X achievement or Y goal.

Takeaway: Keep your case study concise and informative. Create other resources to provide context under your blog, media or press, and product pages.

3 case study templates

Now that you've had your fill of case studies (if that's possible), I've got just what you need: an infinite number of case studies, which you can create yourself with these case study templates.

Case study template 1

If you've got a quick hit of stats you want to show off, try this template. The opening section gives space for a short summary and three visually appealing stats you can highlight, followed by a headline and body where you can break the case study down more thoroughly. This one's pretty simple, with only sections for solutions and results, but you can easily continue the formatting to add more sections as needed.

Case study template 2

For a case study template with a little more detail, use this one. Opening with a striking cover page for a quick overview, this one goes on to include context, stakeholders, challenges, multiple quote callouts, and quick-hit stats. 

Case study template 3

Whether you want a little structural variation or just like a nice dark green, this template has similar components to the last template but is designed to help tell a story. Move from the client overview through a description of your company before getting to the details of how you fixed said company's problems.

Tips for writing a case study

Examples are all well and good, but you don't learn how to make a burrito just by watching tutorials on YouTube without knowing what any of the ingredients are. You could , but it probably wouldn't be all that good.

Writing a good case study comes down to a mix of creativity, branding, and the capacity to invest in the project. With those details in mind, here are some case study tips to follow:

Have an objective: Define your objective by identifying the challenge, solution, and results. Assess your work with the client and focus on the most prominent wins. You're speaking to multiple businesses and industries through the case study, so make sure you know what you want to say to them.

Focus on persuasive data: Growth percentages and measurable results are your best friends. Extract your most compelling data and highlight it in your case study.

Use eye-grabbing graphics: Branded design goes a long way in accurately representing your brand and retaining readers as they review the study. Leverage unique and eye-catching graphics to keep readers engaged. 

Simplify data presentation: Some industries are more complex than others, and sometimes, data can be difficult to understand at a glance. Make sure you present your data in the simplest way possible. Make it concise, informative, and easy to understand.

Use automation to drive results for your case study

A case study example is a source of inspiration you can leverage to determine how to best position your brand's work. Find your unique angle, and refine it over time to help your business stand out. Ask anyone: the best burrito in town doesn't just appear at the number one spot. They find their angle (usually the house sauce) and leverage it to stand out.

In fact, with the right technology, it can be refined to work better . Explore how Zapier's automation features can help drive results for your case study by making your case study a part of a developed workflow that creates a user journey through your website, your case studies, and into the pipeline.

Case study FAQ

Got your case study template? Great—it's time to gather the team for an awkward semi-vague data collection task. While you do that, here are some case study quick answers for you to skim through while you contemplate what to call your team meeting.

What is an example of a case study?

An example of a case study is when a software company analyzes its results from a client project and creates a webpage, presentation, or document that focuses on high-level results, challenges, and solutions in an attempt to showcase effectiveness and promote the software.

How do you write a case study?

To write a good case study, you should have an objective, identify persuasive and compelling data, leverage graphics, and simplify data. Case studies typically include an analysis of the challenge, solution, and results of the partnership.

What is the format of a case study?

While case studies don't have a set format, they're often portrayed as reports or essays that inform readers about the partnership and its results. 

Related reading:

How Hudl uses automation to create a seamless user experience

How to make your case studies high-stakes—and why it matters

How experts write case studies that convert, not bore

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Hachem Ramki

Hachem is a writer and digital marketer from Montreal. After graduating with a degree in English, Hachem spent seven years traveling around the world before moving to Canada. When he's not writing, he enjoys Basketball, Dungeons and Dragons, and playing music for friends and family.

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Writing the Case Study

How should i approach it.

Investigating and writing up a report will require the completion of specific stages. You will need to timetable sufficient time to complete each stage, but also be aware that some stages are revisited while you are analysing the case and writing the report. Thinking and writing becomes a cyclical process.

Stages essential for analysing and writing a case study report may include:

1. Define the task

Your first step is to read the case and all the instructions for the assignment.

Use the checklist as a guide. You can print out this checklist to record your definition of the task. You may find it helpful to compare and discuss your understanding of the task with other students or colleagues. Try to visualise all the elements of the problem by using mind-maps to chart the main issues on a large piece of paper.

Checklist for defining the task

2. consider which theories and analysis tools may apply to the situation.

Your course notes, text books and readings should indicate the appropriate methodology for your case study analysis

Identify the problems

In your initial analysis you should identify the problems (issues/risks etc.) inherent in the case. Read to uncover the organisation's history of success and failure in relation to the case, the communication processes that are occurring, and relevant current strengths and weaknesses of the organisation or its activities that relate to the case.

A useful technique here is to create a mind-map of the situation, the processes and problems or issues. Use the mind-map to separate the problem elements and to note the most important and their relationships.

In your notes, document the causes and consequences of the problems highlighted in the case and also your preliminary ideas for solutions. Be prepared to discover more problems and solutions as you continue your analysis of the case!

Apply analysis tools

There are many tools available for analysis in the management and engineering fields but you need to evaluate which tools would best apply to your assessment of the issues/problems / risks etc. If you are unsure about which tool to use, read the rationale and purpose of each tool and discuss the options with your colleagues and course facilitator.

Document your results and ideas

It is important to create a complete set of notes that will be useful to refer to when writing up the case study report. For this reason record your findings and your own thoughts on the case. Also clearly document any testing, calculations or specifications that relate to your investigation of solutions as well.

3. Make recommendations and form conclusions

Make recommendations.

Recommendations are a clear statement (in text and/or table format) of what action should be taken to minimise, solve or remove the problems being investigated. Recommendations usually require a detailed action plan for implementation of a solution or a range of solutions depending on future events/scenarios.

According to Jarvis (2002), "for each part of your solution ask: 

• Will it work - why - what could possibly go wrong?
• Who will do it, are they capable, who else might be, who might be block?
• When- timing-sequence?
• How and how much –cost it out- where are the pay offs/savings?"

Form conclusions

Conclusions are drawn from your analysis and assessment of the situation. You usually consider must and desirable objectives. Also consider the limitations of your recommendations based on your testing of solutions and original assumptions that had to be made in the case.

4. Write the report

This section provides some advice on the process of writing up your report.

Plan the report 

Before you begin to write the report, it is essential to have a plan of its structure. You can begin to plan the report while you are investigating the case.

Fist, prepare an outline (in list or mind-map format) of the main headings and subheadings you will have in the report. Then add notes and ideas to the outline which remind you of what you want to achieve in each section and subsection. Use the outline to help you consider what information to include, where it should go and in what sequence. Be prepared to change your outline as your ideas develop. Finally, the outline headings and subheadings can be converted into the contents page of your report. 

Schedule your writing time

Prepare a schedule for writing and editing the sections of the report. Allow some extra time just in case you find some sections difficult to write. Begin by writing the sections you feel most confident about. Preliminary sections (executive summary, introduction) and supplementary sections (conclusions, reference list and appendices) are usually prepared last. Some writers like to begin with their conclusions (where the writer's thoughts are at that moment) or the methodology (it's easier to write about your own work). 

Analyse your audience 

In writing a case study report in your course, the report is often intended for an imaginary person so you need to make sure that your language and style suites that person. For example, a report for senior management will be different in content and style and language to a technical report. A report to a community group would also be different again in content, style and language. Audience definition helps you decide what to include in the report based on what readers need to know to perform their jobs better or what the readers need to know to increase their knowledge about your subject. These notes on audience analysis are adapted from Huckin and Olsen (p1991)

*After: Huckin & Olsen ,1991.1.

• Who will read the report? Think about all the uses of the report and where and when it would be read. Reports written within an organisation may be read by different people and different departments; for example, technical and design specialists, supervisors, senior managers, lawyers, marketing and finance specialists.
• What are the readers' needs and goals? Each department or unit in an organisation has its own needs and goals. Understanding the different perspectives can help you decide how to communicate persuasively to these groups. For example while design engineers may prefer to develop new or alternative design to show progress in their field, the marketing specialist may prefer that the organisation imitate a known successful design to save time.
• How do I make communication clear for managers? Communication must be accessible and useful to busy managers as they will primarily seek important generalisations. This has implications for the report's structure, the amount of orientation or background information provided and the level of technical language used. An executive summary, introductions to new sections and concluding summaries for major sections should be included in the report.
• What might be the readers' preferences or objections to the report? You may need to address the significance and benefits/limitations of your recommendations from a number of readers' perspectives in the report. You may also need to consider compromises as a way to acknowledge potential conflicts or criticisms of your recommendations or solutions.

Prepare a draft report 

Writers rarely produce a perfect piece of text in their first attempt so a number of drafts are usually produced. Careful planning and editing will ensure a consistent professional standard in the report. You will need to do the following:

• Revise the task often 

Do this by keeping both the reader's needs and the report's objectives in mind as you gather information, take notes and write sections of the report.

• Be selective 

Do this by taking clear notes, which include the information gathered and your thoughts about the usefulness and the implications of this information. Review your notes to decide what is essential information to include in the report.

• Create a logical structure 

Use your contents page outline to decide where information will go. Within each section, plan the subheadings and then decide on the sequence of information within these.

Check that your writing flows and that your ideas are supported and plausible. If you are not sure what to look for, here are links to advice and activities on report organisation, cohesion and evidence.

Ensure that all your figures and tables communicate a clear message. Show a colleague your visuals to check how they will be interpreted or 'read'.

• Edit, edit, edit

For first drafts, a word processor's spell checker and grammar checker can be useful however, do not rely solely on these tools in your final edit as they are not perfect. Errors will be overlooked or even created by these programs! The best ways to edit are to read a printed copy and where possible get a colleague to read and give feedback.

Here is a report checklist that you can print out: CHECKLIST

5. Prepare the reference list

The reference list is a list of all the sources you refer to in the report. If you do not reference sources of information, your assignment could be failed. As you read and take notes remember to collect the following information so that you can easily and quickly assemble your reference list.

 Further advice on the conventions for formatting reference lists and 'in text' references can be found in the Academic Skills toolkit .

6. Prepare cover/title page

Check your course requirements on the content and layout of the title page. As a general rule include the following:

• Institution the authors are affiliated with: eg UNSW School of Safety Science
• Title of the report

Eg "BHP Billiton Risk Assessment: Strategic Political Risks to BHP's Operations In Angola". 

• Author/s names (+ student numbers)
• Course name and code
• Date document was submitted

7. Final edit

At this stage it is best if you can leave the report for a day or so before conducting a final proof-read. This assists you to approach your report as a 'reader' rather than as the 'writer' so you will more easily see errors. You should expect to spend a couple of hours on this task.

• Reread the assignment guidelines so the task is fresh in your mind. Read the whole report to check that there is a logical structure to the whole report.
• Check each section of the report (including your executive summary, introduction and conclusion) for content and structure. Note changes to make in the sequence of sections.
• Note (highlight) changes you wish to make within sections (delete, simplify, expand, reorganise). In particular look closely at transition sections, figures and tables, sentences, referencing conventions and document formatting.
• Read through the report and make changes as required.

Here are some editing activities for you to try!

How is a case study organised?

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15+ Professional Case Study Examples [Design Tips + Templates]

By Alice Corner , Jan 12, 2023

Have you ever bought something — within the last 10 years or so — without reading its reviews or without a recommendation or prior experience of using it?

If the answer is no — or at least, rarely — you get my point.

Positive reviews matter for selling to regular customers, and for B2B or SaaS businesses, detailed case studies are important too.

Wondering how to craft a compelling case study ? No worries—I’ve got you covered with 15 marketing case study templates , helpful tips, and examples to ensure your case study converts effectively.

Click to jump ahead:

• What is a Case Study?

Business Case Study Examples

Simple case study examples.

• Marketing Case Study Examples

Sales Case Study Examples

• Case Study FAQs

What is a case study?

A case study is an in-depth, detailed analysis of a specific real-world situation. For example, a case study can be about an individual, group, event, organization, or phenomenon. The purpose of a case study is to understand its complexities and gain insights into a particular instance or situation.

In the context of a business, however, case studies take customer success stories and explore how they use your product to help them achieve their business goals.

As well as being valuable marketing tools , case studies are a good way to evaluate your product as it allows you to objectively examine how others are using it.

It’s also a good way to interview your customers about why they work with you.

Related: What is a Case Study? [+6 Types of Case Studies]

Marketing Case Study Template

A marketing case study showcases how your product or services helped potential clients achieve their business goals. You can also create case studies of internal, successful marketing projects. A marketing case study typically includes:

• Company background and history
• The challenge
• How you helped
• Specific actions taken
• Visuals or Data
• Client testimonials

Here’s an example of a marketing case study template:

Whether you’re a B2B or B2C company, business case studies can be a powerful resource to help with your sales, marketing, and even internal departmental awareness.

Business and business management case studies should encompass strategic insights alongside anecdotal and qualitative findings, like in the business case study examples below.

Conduct a B2B case study by researching the company holistically

When it comes to writing a case study, make sure you approach the company holistically and analyze everything from their social media to their sales.

Think about every avenue your product or service has been of use to your case study company, and ask them about the impact this has had on their wider company goals.

In business case study examples like the one above, we can see that the company has been thought about holistically simply by the use of icons.

By combining social media icons with icons that show in-person communication we know that this is a well-researched and thorough case study.

This case study report example could also be used within an annual or end-of-year report.

Highlight the key takeaway from your marketing case study

To create a compelling case study, identify the key takeaways from your research. Use catchy language to sum up this information in a sentence, and present this sentence at the top of your page.

This is “at a glance” information and it allows people to gain a top-level understanding of the content immediately. 

You can use a large, bold, contrasting font to help this information stand out from the page and provide interest.

Learn  how to choose fonts  effectively with our Venngage guide and once you’ve done that.

Upload your fonts and  brand colors  to Venngage using the  My Brand Kit  tool and see them automatically applied to your designs.

The heading is the ideal place to put the most impactful information, as this is the first thing that people will read.

In this example, the stat of “Increase[d] lead quality by 90%” is used as the header. It makes customers want to read more to find out how exactly lead quality was increased by such a massive amount.

If you’re conducting an in-person interview, you could highlight a direct quote or insight provided by your interview subject.

Pick out a catchy sentence or phrase, or the key piece of information your interview subject provided and use that as a way to draw a potential customer in.

Use charts to visualize data in your business case studies

Charts are an excellent way to visualize data and to bring statistics and information to life. Charts make information easier to understand and to illustrate trends or patterns.

Making charts is even easier with Venngage.

In this consulting case study example, we can see that a chart has been used to demonstrate the difference in lead value within the Lead Elves case study.

Adding a chart here helps break up the information and add visual value to the case study. 

Using charts in your case study can also be useful if you’re creating a project management case study.

You could use a Gantt chart or a project timeline to show how you have managed the project successfully.

Use direct quotes to build trust in your marketing case study

To add an extra layer of authenticity you can include a direct quote from your customer within your case study.

According to research from Nielsen , 92% of people will trust a recommendation from a peer and 70% trust recommendations even if they’re from somebody they don’t know.

So if you have a customer or client who can’t stop singing your praises, make sure you get a direct quote from them and include it in your case study.

You can either lift part of the conversation or interview, or you can specifically request a quote. Make sure to ask for permission before using the quote.

This design uses a bright contrasting speech bubble to show that it includes a direct quote, and helps the quote stand out from the rest of the text.

This will help draw the customer’s attention directly to the quote, in turn influencing them to use your product or service.

Less is often more, and this is especially true when it comes to creating designs. Whilst you want to create a professional-looking, well-written and design case study – there’s no need to overcomplicate things.

These simple case study examples show that smart clean designs and informative content can be an effective way to showcase your successes.

Use colors and fonts to create a professional-looking case study

Business case studies shouldn’t be boring. In fact, they should be beautifully and professionally designed.

This means the normal rules of design apply. Use fonts, colors, and icons to create an interesting and visually appealing case study.

In this case study example, we can see how multiple fonts have been used to help differentiate between the headers and content, as well as complementary colors and eye-catching icons.

Marketing case study examples

Marketing case studies are incredibly useful for showing your marketing successes. Every successful marketing campaign relies on influencing a consumer’s behavior, and a great case study can be a great way to spotlight your biggest wins.

In the marketing case study examples below, a variety of designs and techniques to create impactful and effective case studies.

Show off impressive results with a bold marketing case study

Case studies are meant to show off your successes, so make sure you feature your positive results prominently. Using bold and bright colors as well as contrasting shapes, large bold fonts, and simple icons is a great way to highlight your wins.

In well-written case study examples like the one below, the big wins are highlighted on the second page with a bright orange color and are highlighted in circles.

Making the important data stand out is especially important when attracting a prospective customer with marketing case studies.

Use a simple but clear layout in your case study

Using a simple layout in your case study can be incredibly effective, like in the example of a case study below.

Keeping a clean white background, and using slim lines to help separate the sections is an easy way to format your case study.

Making the information clear helps draw attention to the important results, and it helps improve the  accessibility of the design .

Business case study examples like this would sit nicely within a larger report, with a consistent layout throughout.

Use visuals and icons to create an engaging and branded business case study

Nobody wants to read pages and pages of text — and that’s why Venngage wants to help you communicate your ideas visually.

Using icons, graphics, photos, or patterns helps create a much more engaging design. 

With this Blue Cap case study icons, colors, and impactful pattern designs have been used to create an engaging design that catches your eye.

Use a monochromatic color palette to create a professional and clean case study

Let your research shine by using a monochromatic and minimalistic color palette.

By sticking to one color, and leaving lots of blank space you can ensure your design doesn’t distract a potential customer from your case study content.

In this case study on Polygon Media, the design is simple and professional, and the layout allows the prospective customer to follow the flow of information.

The gradient effect on the left-hand column helps break up the white background and adds an interesting visual effect.

Did you know you can generate an accessible color palette with Venngage? Try our free accessible color palette generator today and create a case study that delivers and looks pleasant to the eye:

Add long term goals in your case study

When creating a case study it’s a great idea to look at both the short term and the long term goals of the company to gain the best understanding possible of the insights they provide.

Short-term goals will be what the company or person hopes to achieve in the next few months, and long-term goals are what the company hopes to achieve in the next few years.

Check out this modern pattern design example of a case study below:

In this case study example, the short and long-term goals are clearly distinguished by light blue boxes and placed side by side so that they are easy to compare.

Use a strong introductory paragraph to outline the overall strategy and goals before outlining the specific short-term and long-term goals to help with clarity.

This strategy can also be handy when creating a consulting case study.

Use data to make concrete points about your sales and successes

When conducting any sort of research stats, facts, and figures are like gold dust (aka, really valuable).

Being able to quantify your findings is important to help understand the information fully. Saying sales increased 10% is much more effective than saying sales increased.

While sales dashboards generally tend it make it all about the numbers and charts, in sales case study examples, like this one, the key data and findings can be presented with icons. This contributes to the potential customer’s better understanding of the report.

They can clearly comprehend the information and it shows that the case study has been well researched.

Use emotive, persuasive, or action based language in your marketing case study

Create a compelling case study by using emotive, persuasive and action-based language when customizing your case study template.

In this well-written case study example, we can see that phrases such as “Results that Speak Volumes” and “Drive Sales” have been used.

Using persuasive language like you would in a blog post. It helps inspire potential customers to take action now.

Keep your potential customers in mind when creating a customer case study for marketing

82% of marketers use case studies in their marketing  because it’s such an effective tool to help quickly gain customers’ trust and to showcase the potential of your product.

Why are case studies such an important tool in content marketing?

By writing a case study you’re telling potential customers that they can trust you because you’re showing them that other people do.

Not only that, but if you have a SaaS product, business case studies are a great way to show how other people are effectively using your product in their company.

In this case study, Network is demonstrating how their product has been used by Vortex Co. with great success; instantly showing other potential customers that their tool works and is worth using.

Related: 10+ Case Study Infographic Templates That Convert

Case studies are particularly effective as a sales technique.

A sales case study is like an extended customer testimonial, not only sharing opinions of your product – but showcasing the results you helped your customer achieve.

Make impactful statistics pop in your sales case study

Writing a case study doesn’t mean using text as the only medium for sharing results.

You should use icons to highlight areas of your research that are particularly interesting or relevant, like in this example of a case study:

Icons are a great way to help summarize information quickly and can act as visual cues to help draw the customer’s attention to certain areas of the page.

In some of the business case study examples above, icons are used to represent the impressive areas of growth and are presented in a way that grabs your attention.

Use high contrast shapes and colors to draw attention to key information in your sales case study

Help the key information stand out within your case study by using high contrast shapes and colors.

Use a complementary or contrasting color, or use a shape such as a rectangle or a circle for maximum impact.

This design has used dark blue rectangles to help separate the information and make it easier to read.

Coupled with icons and strong statistics, this information stands out on the page and is easily digestible and retainable for a potential customer.

Case Study Examples Summary

Once you have created your case study, it’s best practice to update your examples on a regular basis to include up-to-date statistics, data, and information.

You should update your business case study examples often if you are sharing them on your website .

It’s also important that your case study sits within your brand guidelines – find out how Venngage’s My Brand Kit tool can help you create consistently branded case study templates.

Case studies are important marketing tools – but they shouldn’t be the only tool in your toolbox. Content marketing is also a valuable way to earn consumer trust.

Case Study FAQ

Why should you write a case study.

Case studies are an effective marketing technique to engage potential customers and help build trust.

By producing case studies featuring your current clients or customers, you are showcasing how your tool or product can be used. You’re also showing that other people endorse your product.

In addition to being a good way to gather positive testimonials from existing customers , business case studies are good educational resources and can be shared amongst your company or team, and used as a reference for future projects.

How should you write a case study?

To create a great case study, you should think strategically. The first step, before starting your case study research, is to think about what you aim to learn or what you aim to prove.

You might be aiming to learn how a company makes sales or develops a new product. If this is the case, base your questions around this.

You can learn more about writing a case study  from our extensive guide.

Related: How to Present a Case Study like a Pro (With Examples)

Some good questions you could ask would be:

• Why do you use our tool or service?
• How often do you use our tool or service?
• What does the process of using our product look like to you?
• If our product didn’t exist, what would you be doing instead?
• What is the number one benefit you’ve found from using our tool?

You might also enjoy:

• 12 Essential Consulting Templates For Marketing, Planning and Branding
• Best Marketing Strategies for Consultants and Freelancers in 2019 [Study + Infographic]

Do Your Students Know How to Analyze a Case—Really?

Explore more.

• Case Teaching
• Student Engagement

J ust as actors, athletes, and musicians spend thousands of hours practicing their craft, business students benefit from practicing their critical-thinking and decision-making skills. Students, however, often have limited exposure to real-world problem-solving scenarios; they need more opportunities to practice tackling tough business problems and deciding on—and executing—the best solutions.

To ensure students have ample opportunity to develop these critical-thinking and decision-making skills, we believe business faculty should shift from teaching mostly principles and ideas to mostly applications and practices. And in doing so, they should emphasize the case method, which simulates real-world management challenges and opportunities for students.

To help educators facilitate this shift and help students get the most out of case-based learning, we have developed a framework for analyzing cases. We call it PACADI (Problem, Alternatives, Criteria, Analysis, Decision, Implementation); it can improve learning outcomes by helping students better solve and analyze business problems, make decisions, and develop and implement strategy. Here, we’ll explain why we developed this framework, how it works, and what makes it an effective learning tool.

The Case for Cases: Helping Students Think Critically

Business students must develop critical-thinking and analytical skills, which are essential to their ability to make good decisions in functional areas such as marketing, finance, operations, and information technology, as well as to understand the relationships among these functions. For example, the decisions a marketing manager must make include strategic planning (segments, products, and channels); execution (digital messaging, media, branding, budgets, and pricing); and operations (integrated communications and technologies), as well as how to implement decisions across functional areas.

Faculty can use many types of cases to help students develop these skills. These include the prototypical “paper cases”; live cases , which feature guest lecturers such as entrepreneurs or corporate leaders and on-site visits; and multimedia cases , which immerse students into real situations. Most cases feature an explicit or implicit decision that a protagonist—whether it is an individual, a group, or an organization—must make.

For students new to learning by the case method—and even for those with case experience—some common issues can emerge; these issues can sometimes be a barrier for educators looking to ensure the best possible outcomes in their case classrooms. Unsure of how to dig into case analysis on their own, students may turn to the internet or rely on former students for “answers” to assigned cases. Or, when assigned to provide answers to assignment questions in teams, students might take a divide-and-conquer approach but not take the time to regroup and provide answers that are consistent with one other.

To help address these issues, which we commonly experienced in our classes, we wanted to provide our students with a more structured approach for how they analyze cases—and to really think about making decisions from the protagonists’ point of view. We developed the PACADI framework to address this need.

PACADI: A Six-Step Decision-Making Approach

The PACADI framework is a six-step decision-making approach that can be used in lieu of traditional end-of-case questions. It offers a structured, integrated, and iterative process that requires students to analyze case information, apply business concepts to derive valuable insights, and develop recommendations based on these insights.

Prior to beginning a PACADI assessment, which we’ll outline here, students should first prepare a two-paragraph summary—a situation analysis—that highlights the key case facts. Then, we task students with providing a five-page PACADI case analysis (excluding appendices) based on the following six steps.

Step 1: Problem definition. What is the major challenge, problem, opportunity, or decision that has to be made? If there is more than one problem, choose the most important one. Often when solving the key problem, other issues will surface and be addressed. The problem statement may be framed as a question; for example, How can brand X improve market share among millennials in Canada? Usually the problem statement has to be re-written several times during the analysis of a case as students peel back the layers of symptoms or causation.

Step 2: Alternatives. Identify in detail the strategic alternatives to address the problem; three to five options generally work best. Alternatives should be mutually exclusive, realistic, creative, and feasible given the constraints of the situation. Doing nothing or delaying the decision to a later date are not considered acceptable alternatives.

Step 3: Criteria. What are the key decision criteria that will guide decision-making? In a marketing course, for example, these may include relevant marketing criteria such as segmentation, positioning, advertising and sales, distribution, and pricing. Financial criteria useful in evaluating the alternatives should be included—for example, income statement variables, customer lifetime value, payback, etc. Students must discuss their rationale for selecting the decision criteria and the weights and importance for each factor.

Step 4: Analysis. Provide an in-depth analysis of each alternative based on the criteria chosen in step three. Decision tables using criteria as columns and alternatives as rows can be helpful. The pros and cons of the various choices as well as the short- and long-term implications of each may be evaluated. Best, worst, and most likely scenarios can also be insightful.

Step 5: Decision. Students propose their solution to the problem. This decision is justified based on an in-depth analysis. Explain why the recommendation made is the best fit for the criteria.

Step 6: Implementation plan. Sound business decisions may fail due to poor execution. To enhance the likeliness of a successful project outcome, students describe the key steps (activities) to implement the recommendation, timetable, projected costs, expected competitive reaction, success metrics, and risks in the plan.

“Students note that using the PACADI framework yields ‘aha moments’—they learned something surprising in the case that led them to think differently about the problem and their proposed solution.”

PACADI’s Benefits: Meaningfully and Thoughtfully Applying Business Concepts

The PACADI framework covers all of the major elements of business decision-making, including implementation, which is often overlooked. By stepping through the whole framework, students apply relevant business concepts and solve management problems via a systematic, comprehensive approach; they’re far less likely to surface piecemeal responses.

As students explore each part of the framework, they may realize that they need to make changes to a previous step. For instance, when working on implementation, students may realize that the alternative they selected cannot be executed or will not be profitable, and thus need to rethink their decision. Or, they may discover that the criteria need to be revised since the list of decision factors they identified is incomplete (for example, the factors may explain key marketing concerns but fail to address relevant financial considerations) or is unrealistic (for example, they suggest a 25 percent increase in revenues without proposing an increased promotional budget).

In addition, the PACADI framework can be used alongside quantitative assignments, in-class exercises, and business and management simulations. The structured, multi-step decision framework encourages careful and sequential analysis to solve business problems. Incorporating PACADI as an overarching decision-making method across different projects will ultimately help students achieve desired learning outcomes. As a practical “beyond-the-classroom” tool, the PACADI framework is not a contrived course assignment; it reflects the decision-making approach that managers, executives, and entrepreneurs exercise daily. Case analysis introduces students to the real-world process of making business decisions quickly and correctly, often with limited information. This framework supplies an organized and disciplined process that students can readily defend in writing and in class discussions.

PACADI in Action: An Example

Here’s an example of how students used the PACADI framework for a recent case analysis on CVS, a large North American drugstore chain.

The CVS Prescription for Customer Value*

PACADI Stage

Summary Response

How should CVS Health evolve from the “drugstore of your neighborhood” to the “drugstore of your future”?

Alternatives

A1. Kaizen (continuous improvement)

A2. Product development

A3. Market development

A4. Personalization (micro-targeting)

Criteria (include weights)

C1. Customer value: service, quality, image, and price (40%)

C2. Customer obsession (20%)

C3. Growth through related businesses (20%)

C4. Customer retention and customer lifetime value (20%)

Each alternative was analyzed by each criterion using a Customer Value Assessment Tool

Alternative 4 (A4): Personalization was selected. This is operationalized via: segmentation—move toward segment-of-1 marketing; geodemographics and lifestyle emphasis; predictive data analysis; relationship marketing; people, principles, and supply chain management; and exceptional customer service.

Implementation

Partner with leading medical school

Curbside pick-up

Pet pharmacy

E-newsletter for customers and employees

Employee incentive program

CVS beauty days

Expand to Latin America and Caribbean

Healthier/happier corner

Holiday toy drives/community outreach

*Source: A. Weinstein, Y. Rodriguez, K. Sims, R. Vergara, “The CVS Prescription for Superior Customer Value—A Case Study,” Back to the Future: Revisiting the Foundations of Marketing from Society for Marketing Advances, West Palm Beach, FL (November 2, 2018).

Results of Using the PACADI Framework

When faculty members at our respective institutions at Nova Southeastern University (NSU) and the University of North Carolina Wilmington have used the PACADI framework, our classes have been more structured and engaging. Students vigorously debate each element of their decision and note that this framework yields an “aha moment”—they learned something surprising in the case that led them to think differently about the problem and their proposed solution.

These lively discussions enhance individual and collective learning. As one external metric of this improvement, we have observed a 2.5 percent increase in student case grade performance at NSU since this framework was introduced.

Tips to Get Started

The PACADI approach works well in in-person, online, and hybrid courses. This is particularly important as more universities have moved to remote learning options. Because students have varied educational and cultural backgrounds, work experience, and familiarity with case analysis, we recommend that faculty members have students work on their first case using this new framework in small teams (two or three students). Additional analyses should then be solo efforts.

To use PACADI effectively in your classroom, we suggest the following:

Advise your students that your course will stress critical thinking and decision-making skills, not just course concepts and theory.

Use a varied mix of case studies. As marketing professors, we often address consumer and business markets; goods, services, and digital commerce; domestic and global business; and small and large companies in a single MBA course.

As a starting point, provide a short explanation (about 20 to 30 minutes) of the PACADI framework with a focus on the conceptual elements. You can deliver this face to face or through videoconferencing.

Give students an opportunity to practice the case analysis methodology via an ungraded sample case study. Designate groups of five to seven students to discuss the case and the six steps in breakout sessions (in class or via Zoom).

Ensure case analyses are weighted heavily as a grading component. We suggest 30–50 percent of the overall course grade.

Once cases are graded, debrief with the class on what they did right and areas needing improvement (30- to 40-minute in-person or Zoom session).

Encourage faculty teams that teach common courses to build appropriate instructional materials, grading rubrics, videos, sample cases, and teaching notes.

When selecting case studies, we have found that the best ones for PACADI analyses are about 15 pages long and revolve around a focal management decision. This length provides adequate depth yet is not protracted. Some of our tested and favorite marketing cases include Brand W , Hubspot , Kraft Foods Canada , TRSB(A) , and Whiskey & Cheddar .

Art Weinstein , Ph.D., is a professor of marketing at Nova Southeastern University, Fort Lauderdale, Florida. He has published more than 80 scholarly articles and papers and eight books on customer-focused marketing strategy. His latest book is Superior Customer Value—Finding and Keeping Customers in the Now Economy . Dr. Weinstein has consulted for many leading technology and service companies.

Herbert V. Brotspies , D.B.A., is an adjunct professor of marketing at Nova Southeastern University. He has over 30 years’ experience as a vice president in marketing, strategic planning, and acquisitions for Fortune 50 consumer products companies working in the United States and internationally. His research interests include return on marketing investment, consumer behavior, business-to-business strategy, and strategic planning.

John T. Gironda , Ph.D., is an assistant professor of marketing at the University of North Carolina Wilmington. His research has been published in Industrial Marketing Management, Psychology & Marketing , and Journal of Marketing Management . He has also presented at major marketing conferences including the American Marketing Association, Academy of Marketing Science, and Society for Marketing Advances.

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Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Assignments

• Annotated Bibliography
• Analyzing a Scholarly Journal Article
• Group Presentations
• Dealing with Nervousness
• Using Visual Aids
• Grading Someone Else's Paper
• Types of Structured Group Activities
• Group Project Survival Skills
• Leading a Class Discussion
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Works
• Writing a Case Analysis Paper
• Writing a Case Study
• About Informed Consent
• Writing Field Notes
• Writing a Policy Memo
• Writing a Reflective Paper
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Generative AI and Writing
• Acknowledgments

Definition and Introduction

Case analysis is a problem-based teaching and learning method that involves critically analyzing complex scenarios within an organizational setting for the purpose of placing the student in a “real world” situation and applying reflection and critical thinking skills to contemplate appropriate solutions, decisions, or recommended courses of action. It is considered a more effective teaching technique than in-class role playing or simulation activities. The analytical process is often guided by questions provided by the instructor that ask students to contemplate relationships between the facts and critical incidents described in the case.

Cases generally include both descriptive and statistical elements and rely on students applying abductive reasoning to develop and argue for preferred or best outcomes [i.e., case scenarios rarely have a single correct or perfect answer based on the evidence provided]. Rather than emphasizing theories or concepts, case analysis assignments emphasize building a bridge of relevancy between abstract thinking and practical application and, by so doing, teaches the value of both within a specific area of professional practice.

Given this, the purpose of a case analysis paper is to present a structured and logically organized format for analyzing the case situation. It can be assigned to students individually or as a small group assignment and it may include an in-class presentation component. Case analysis is predominately taught in economics and business-related courses, but it is also a method of teaching and learning found in other applied social sciences disciplines, such as, social work, public relations, education, journalism, and public administration.

Ellet, William. The Case Study Handbook: A Student's Guide . Revised Edition. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Publishing, 2018; Christoph Rasche and Achim Seisreiner. Guidelines for Business Case Analysis . University of Potsdam; Writing a Case Analysis . Writing Center, Baruch College; Volpe, Guglielmo. "Case Teaching in Economics: History, Practice and Evidence." Cogent Economics and Finance 3 (December 2015). doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/23322039.2015.1120977.

How to Approach Writing a Case Analysis Paper

The organization and structure of a case analysis paper can vary depending on the organizational setting, the situation, and how your professor wants you to approach the assignment. Nevertheless, preparing to write a case analysis paper involves several important steps. As Hawes notes, a case analysis assignment “...is useful in developing the ability to get to the heart of a problem, analyze it thoroughly, and to indicate the appropriate solution as well as how it should be implemented” [p.48]. This statement encapsulates how you should approach preparing to write a case analysis paper.

Before you begin to write your paper, consider the following analytical procedures:

• Review the case to get an overview of the situation . A case can be only a few pages in length, however, it is most often very lengthy and contains a significant amount of detailed background information and statistics, with multilayered descriptions of the scenario, the roles and behaviors of various stakeholder groups, and situational events. Therefore, a quick reading of the case will help you gain an overall sense of the situation and illuminate the types of issues and problems that you will need to address in your paper. If your professor has provided questions intended to help frame your analysis, use them to guide your initial reading of the case.
• Read the case thoroughly . After gaining a general overview of the case, carefully read the content again with the purpose of understanding key circumstances, events, and behaviors among stakeholder groups. Look for information or data that appears contradictory, extraneous, or misleading. At this point, you should be taking notes as you read because this will help you develop a general outline of your paper. The aim is to obtain a complete understanding of the situation so that you can begin contemplating tentative answers to any questions your professor has provided or, if they have not provided, developing answers to your own questions about the case scenario and its connection to the course readings,lectures, and class discussions.
• Determine key stakeholder groups, issues, and events and the relationships they all have to each other . As you analyze the content, pay particular attention to identifying individuals, groups, or organizations described in the case and identify evidence of any problems or issues of concern that impact the situation in a negative way. Other things to look for include identifying any assumptions being made by or about each stakeholder, potential biased explanations or actions, explicit demands or ultimatums , and the underlying concerns that motivate these behaviors among stakeholders. The goal at this stage is to develop a comprehensive understanding of the situational and behavioral dynamics of the case and the explicit and implicit consequences of each of these actions.
• Identify the core problems . The next step in most case analysis assignments is to discern what the core [i.e., most damaging, detrimental, injurious] problems are within the organizational setting and to determine their implications. The purpose at this stage of preparing to write your analysis paper is to distinguish between the symptoms of core problems and the core problems themselves and to decide which of these must be addressed immediately and which problems do not appear critical but may escalate over time. Identify evidence from the case to support your decisions by determining what information or data is essential to addressing the core problems and what information is not relevant or is misleading.
• Explore alternative solutions . As noted, case analysis scenarios rarely have only one correct answer. Therefore, it is important to keep in mind that the process of analyzing the case and diagnosing core problems, while based on evidence, is a subjective process open to various avenues of interpretation. This means that you must consider alternative solutions or courses of action by critically examining strengths and weaknesses, risk factors, and the differences between short and long-term solutions. For each possible solution or course of action, consider the consequences they may have related to their implementation and how these recommendations might lead to new problems. Also, consider thinking about your recommended solutions or courses of action in relation to issues of fairness, equity, and inclusion.
• Decide on a final set of recommendations . The last stage in preparing to write a case analysis paper is to assert an opinion or viewpoint about the recommendations needed to help resolve the core problems as you see them and to make a persuasive argument for supporting this point of view. Prepare a clear rationale for your recommendations based on examining each element of your analysis. Anticipate possible obstacles that could derail their implementation. Consider any counter-arguments that could be made concerning the validity of your recommended actions. Finally, describe a set of criteria and measurable indicators that could be applied to evaluating the effectiveness of your implementation plan.

Use these steps as the framework for writing your paper. Remember that the more detailed you are in taking notes as you critically examine each element of the case, the more information you will have to draw from when you begin to write. This will save you time.

NOTE : If the process of preparing to write a case analysis paper is assigned as a student group project, consider having each member of the group analyze a specific element of the case, including drafting answers to the corresponding questions used by your professor to frame the analysis. This will help make the analytical process more efficient and ensure that the distribution of work is equitable. This can also facilitate who is responsible for drafting each part of the final case analysis paper and, if applicable, the in-class presentation.

Framework for Case Analysis . College of Management. University of Massachusetts; Hawes, Jon M. "Teaching is Not Telling: The Case Method as a Form of Interactive Learning." Journal for Advancement of Marketing Education 5 (Winter 2004): 47-54; Rasche, Christoph and Achim Seisreiner. Guidelines for Business Case Analysis . University of Potsdam; Writing a Case Study Analysis . University of Arizona Global Campus Writing Center; Van Ness, Raymond K. A Guide to Case Analysis . School of Business. State University of New York, Albany; Writing a Case Analysis . Business School, University of New South Wales.

Structure and Writing Style

A case analysis paper should be detailed, concise, persuasive, clearly written, and professional in tone and in the use of language . As with other forms of college-level academic writing, declarative statements that convey information, provide a fact, or offer an explanation or any recommended courses of action should be based on evidence. If allowed by your professor, any external sources used to support your analysis, such as course readings, should be properly cited under a list of references. The organization and structure of case analysis papers can vary depending on your professor’s preferred format, but its structure generally follows the steps used for analyzing the case.

Introduction

The introduction should provide a succinct but thorough descriptive overview of the main facts, issues, and core problems of the case . The introduction should also include a brief summary of the most relevant details about the situation and organizational setting. This includes defining the theoretical framework or conceptual model on which any questions were used to frame your analysis.

Following the rules of most college-level research papers, the introduction should then inform the reader how the paper will be organized. This includes describing the major sections of the paper and the order in which they will be presented. Unless you are told to do so by your professor, you do not need to preview your final recommendations in the introduction. U nlike most college-level research papers , the introduction does not include a statement about the significance of your findings because a case analysis assignment does not involve contributing new knowledge about a research problem.

Background Analysis

Background analysis can vary depending on any guiding questions provided by your professor and the underlying concept or theory that the case is based upon. In general, however, this section of your paper should focus on:

• Providing an overarching analysis of problems identified from the case scenario, including identifying events that stakeholders find challenging or troublesome,
• Identifying assumptions made by each stakeholder and any apparent biases they may exhibit,
• Describing any demands or claims made by or forced upon key stakeholders, and
• Highlighting any issues of concern or complaints expressed by stakeholders in response to those demands or claims.

These aspects of the case are often in the form of behavioral responses expressed by individuals or groups within the organizational setting. However, note that problems in a case situation can also be reflected in data [or the lack thereof] and in the decision-making, operational, cultural, or institutional structure of the organization. Additionally, demands or claims can be either internal and external to the organization [e.g., a case analysis involving a president considering arms sales to Saudi Arabia could include managing internal demands from White House advisors as well as demands from members of Congress].

Throughout this section, present all relevant evidence from the case that supports your analysis. Do not simply claim there is a problem, an assumption, a demand, or a concern; tell the reader what part of the case informed how you identified these background elements.

Identification of Problems

In most case analysis assignments, there are problems, and then there are problems . Each problem can reflect a multitude of underlying symptoms that are detrimental to the interests of the organization. The purpose of identifying problems is to teach students how to differentiate between problems that vary in severity, impact, and relative importance. Given this, problems can be described in three general forms: those that must be addressed immediately, those that should be addressed but the impact is not severe, and those that do not require immediate attention and can be set aside for the time being.

All of the problems you identify from the case should be identified in this section of your paper, with a description based on evidence explaining the problem variances. If the assignment asks you to conduct research to further support your assessment of the problems, include this in your explanation. Remember to cite those sources in a list of references. Use specific evidence from the case and apply appropriate concepts, theories, and models discussed in class or in relevant course readings to highlight and explain the key problems [or problem] that you believe must be solved immediately and describe the underlying symptoms and why they are so critical.

Alternative Solutions

This section is where you provide specific, realistic, and evidence-based solutions to the problems you have identified and make recommendations about how to alleviate the underlying symptomatic conditions impacting the organizational setting. For each solution, you must explain why it was chosen and provide clear evidence to support your reasoning. This can include, for example, course readings and class discussions as well as research resources, such as, books, journal articles, research reports, or government documents. In some cases, your professor may encourage you to include personal, anecdotal experiences as evidence to support why you chose a particular solution or set of solutions. Using anecdotal evidence helps promote reflective thinking about the process of determining what qualifies as a core problem and relevant solution .

Throughout this part of the paper, keep in mind the entire array of problems that must be addressed and describe in detail the solutions that might be implemented to resolve these problems.

Recommended Courses of Action

In some case analysis assignments, your professor may ask you to combine the alternative solutions section with your recommended courses of action. However, it is important to know the difference between the two. A solution refers to the answer to a problem. A course of action refers to a procedure or deliberate sequence of activities adopted to proactively confront a situation, often in the context of accomplishing a goal. In this context, proposed courses of action are based on your analysis of alternative solutions. Your description and justification for pursuing each course of action should represent the overall plan for implementing your recommendations.

For each course of action, you need to explain the rationale for your recommendation in a way that confronts challenges, explains risks, and anticipates any counter-arguments from stakeholders. Do this by considering the strengths and weaknesses of each course of action framed in relation to how the action is expected to resolve the core problems presented, the possible ways the action may affect remaining problems, and how the recommended action will be perceived by each stakeholder.

In addition, you should describe the criteria needed to measure how well the implementation of these actions is working and explain which individuals or groups are responsible for ensuring your recommendations are successful. In addition, always consider the law of unintended consequences. Outline difficulties that may arise in implementing each course of action and describe how implementing the proposed courses of action [either individually or collectively] may lead to new problems [both large and small].

Throughout this section, you must consider the costs and benefits of recommending your courses of action in relation to uncertainties or missing information and the negative consequences of success.

The conclusion should be brief and introspective. Unlike a research paper, the conclusion in a case analysis paper does not include a summary of key findings and their significance, a statement about how the study contributed to existing knowledge, or indicate opportunities for future research.

Begin by synthesizing the core problems presented in the case and the relevance of your recommended solutions. This can include an explanation of what you have learned about the case in the context of your answers to the questions provided by your professor. The conclusion is also where you link what you learned from analyzing the case with the course readings or class discussions. This can further demonstrate your understanding of the relationships between the practical case situation and the theoretical and abstract content of assigned readings and other course content.

Problems to Avoid

The literature on case analysis assignments often includes examples of difficulties students have with applying methods of critical analysis and effectively reporting the results of their assessment of the situation. A common reason cited by scholars is that the application of this type of teaching and learning method is limited to applied fields of social and behavioral sciences and, as a result, writing a case analysis paper can be unfamiliar to most students entering college.

After you have drafted your paper, proofread the narrative flow and revise any of these common errors:

• Unnecessary detail in the background section . The background section should highlight the essential elements of the case based on your analysis. Focus on summarizing the facts and highlighting the key factors that become relevant in the other sections of the paper by eliminating any unnecessary information.
• Analysis relies too much on opinion . Your analysis is interpretive, but the narrative must be connected clearly to evidence from the case and any models and theories discussed in class or in course readings. Any positions or arguments you make should be supported by evidence.
• Analysis does not focus on the most important elements of the case . Your paper should provide a thorough overview of the case. However, the analysis should focus on providing evidence about what you identify are the key events, stakeholders, issues, and problems. Emphasize what you identify as the most critical aspects of the case to be developed throughout your analysis. Be thorough but succinct.
• Writing is too descriptive . A paper with too much descriptive information detracts from your analysis of the complexities of the case situation. Questions about what happened, where, when, and by whom should only be included as essential information leading to your examination of questions related to why, how, and for what purpose.
• Inadequate definition of a core problem and associated symptoms . A common error found in case analysis papers is recommending a solution or course of action without adequately defining or demonstrating that you understand the problem. Make sure you have clearly described the problem and its impact and scope within the organizational setting. Ensure that you have adequately described the root causes w hen describing the symptoms of the problem.
• Recommendations lack specificity . Identify any use of vague statements and indeterminate terminology, such as, “A particular experience” or “a large increase to the budget.” These statements cannot be measured and, as a result, there is no way to evaluate their successful implementation. Provide specific data and use direct language in describing recommended actions.
• Unrealistic, exaggerated, or unattainable recommendations . Review your recommendations to ensure that they are based on the situational facts of the case. Your recommended solutions and courses of action must be based on realistic assumptions and fit within the constraints of the situation. Also note that the case scenario has already happened, therefore, any speculation or arguments about what could have occurred if the circumstances were different should be revised or eliminated.

Bee, Lian Song et al. "Business Students' Perspectives on Case Method Coaching for Problem-Based Learning: Impacts on Student Engagement and Learning Performance in Higher Education." Education & Training 64 (2022): 416-432; The Case Analysis . Fred Meijer Center for Writing and Michigan Authors. Grand Valley State University; Georgallis, Panikos and Kayleigh Bruijn. "Sustainability Teaching using Case-Based Debates." Journal of International Education in Business 15 (2022): 147-163; Hawes, Jon M. "Teaching is Not Telling: The Case Method as a Form of Interactive Learning." Journal for Advancement of Marketing Education 5 (Winter 2004): 47-54; Georgallis, Panikos, and Kayleigh Bruijn. "Sustainability Teaching Using Case-based Debates." Journal of International Education in Business 15 (2022): 147-163; .Dean,  Kathy Lund and Charles J. Fornaciari. "How to Create and Use Experiential Case-Based Exercises in a Management Classroom." Journal of Management Education 26 (October 2002): 586-603; Klebba, Joanne M. and Janet G. Hamilton. "Structured Case Analysis: Developing Critical Thinking Skills in a Marketing Case Course." Journal of Marketing Education 29 (August 2007): 132-137, 139; Klein, Norman. "The Case Discussion Method Revisited: Some Questions about Student Skills." Exchange: The Organizational Behavior Teaching Journal 6 (November 1981): 30-32; Mukherjee, Arup. "Effective Use of In-Class Mini Case Analysis for Discovery Learning in an Undergraduate MIS Course." The Journal of Computer Information Systems 40 (Spring 2000): 15-23; Pessoa, Silviaet al. "Scaffolding the Case Analysis in an Organizational Behavior Course: Making Analytical Language Explicit." Journal of Management Education 46 (2022): 226-251: Ramsey, V. J. and L. D. Dodge. "Case Analysis: A Structured Approach." Exchange: The Organizational Behavior Teaching Journal 6 (November 1981): 27-29; Schweitzer, Karen. "How to Write and Format a Business Case Study." ThoughtCo. https://www.thoughtco.com/how-to-write-and-format-a-business-case-study-466324 (accessed December 5, 2022); Reddy, C. D. "Teaching Research Methodology: Everything's a Case." Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods 18 (December 2020): 178-188; Volpe, Guglielmo. "Case Teaching in Economics: History, Practice and Evidence." Cogent Economics and Finance 3 (December 2015). doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/23322039.2015.1120977.

Writing Tip

Ca se Study and Case Analysis Are Not the Same!

Confusion often exists between what it means to write a paper that uses a case study research design and writing a paper that analyzes a case; they are two different types of approaches to learning in the social and behavioral sciences. Professors as well as educational researchers contribute to this confusion because they often use the term "case study" when describing the subject of analysis for a case analysis paper. But you are not studying a case for the purpose of generating a comprehensive, multi-faceted understanding of a research problem. R ather, you are critically analyzing a specific scenario to argue logically for recommended solutions and courses of action that lead to optimal outcomes applicable to professional practice.

To avoid any confusion, here are twelve characteristics that delineate the differences between writing a paper using the case study research method and writing a case analysis paper:

• Case study is a method of in-depth research and rigorous inquiry ; case analysis is a reliable method of teaching and learning . A case study is a modality of research that investigates a phenomenon for the purpose of creating new knowledge, solving a problem, or testing a hypothesis using empirical evidence derived from the case being studied. Often, the results are used to generalize about a larger population or within a wider context. The writing adheres to the traditional standards of a scholarly research study. A case analysis is a pedagogical tool used to teach students how to reflect and think critically about a practical, real-life problem in an organizational setting.
• The researcher is responsible for identifying the case to study; a case analysis is assigned by your professor . As the researcher, you choose the case study to investigate in support of obtaining new knowledge and understanding about the research problem. The case in a case analysis assignment is almost always provided, and sometimes written, by your professor and either given to every student in class to analyze individually or to a small group of students, or students select a case to analyze from a predetermined list.
• A case study is indeterminate and boundless; a case analysis is predetermined and confined . A case study can be almost anything [see item 9 below] as long as it relates directly to examining the research problem. This relationship is the only limit to what a researcher can choose as the subject of their case study. The content of a case analysis is determined by your professor and its parameters are well-defined and limited to elucidating insights of practical value applied to practice.
• Case study is fact-based and describes actual events or situations; case analysis can be entirely fictional or adapted from an actual situation . The entire content of a case study must be grounded in reality to be a valid subject of investigation in an empirical research study. A case analysis only needs to set the stage for critically examining a situation in practice and, therefore, can be entirely fictional or adapted, all or in-part, from an actual situation.
• Research using a case study method must adhere to principles of intellectual honesty and academic integrity; a case analysis scenario can include misleading or false information . A case study paper must report research objectively and factually to ensure that any findings are understood to be logically correct and trustworthy. A case analysis scenario may include misleading or false information intended to deliberately distract from the central issues of the case. The purpose is to teach students how to sort through conflicting or useless information in order to come up with the preferred solution. Any use of misleading or false information in academic research is considered unethical.
• Case study is linked to a research problem; case analysis is linked to a practical situation or scenario . In the social sciences, the subject of an investigation is most often framed as a problem that must be researched in order to generate new knowledge leading to a solution. Case analysis narratives are grounded in real life scenarios for the purpose of examining the realities of decision-making behavior and processes within organizational settings. A case analysis assignments include a problem or set of problems to be analyzed. However, the goal is centered around the act of identifying and evaluating courses of action leading to best possible outcomes.
• The purpose of a case study is to create new knowledge through research; the purpose of a case analysis is to teach new understanding . Case studies are a choice of methodological design intended to create new knowledge about resolving a research problem. A case analysis is a mode of teaching and learning intended to create new understanding and an awareness of uncertainty applied to practice through acts of critical thinking and reflection.
• A case study seeks to identify the best possible solution to a research problem; case analysis can have an indeterminate set of solutions or outcomes . Your role in studying a case is to discover the most logical, evidence-based ways to address a research problem. A case analysis assignment rarely has a single correct answer because one of the goals is to force students to confront the real life dynamics of uncertainly, ambiguity, and missing or conflicting information within professional practice. Under these conditions, a perfect outcome or solution almost never exists.
• Case study is unbounded and relies on gathering external information; case analysis is a self-contained subject of analysis . The scope of a case study chosen as a method of research is bounded. However, the researcher is free to gather whatever information and data is necessary to investigate its relevance to understanding the research problem. For a case analysis assignment, your professor will often ask you to examine solutions or recommended courses of action based solely on facts and information from the case.
• Case study can be a person, place, object, issue, event, condition, or phenomenon; a case analysis is a carefully constructed synopsis of events, situations, and behaviors . The research problem dictates the type of case being studied and, therefore, the design can encompass almost anything tangible as long as it fulfills the objective of generating new knowledge and understanding. A case analysis is in the form of a narrative containing descriptions of facts, situations, processes, rules, and behaviors within a particular setting and under a specific set of circumstances.
• Case study can represent an open-ended subject of inquiry; a case analysis is a narrative about something that has happened in the past . A case study is not restricted by time and can encompass an event or issue with no temporal limit or end. For example, the current war in Ukraine can be used as a case study of how medical personnel help civilians during a large military conflict, even though circumstances around this event are still evolving. A case analysis can be used to elicit critical thinking about current or future situations in practice, but the case itself is a narrative about something finite and that has taken place in the past.
• Multiple case studies can be used in a research study; case analysis involves examining a single scenario . Case study research can use two or more cases to examine a problem, often for the purpose of conducting a comparative investigation intended to discover hidden relationships, document emerging trends, or determine variations among different examples. A case analysis assignment typically describes a stand-alone, self-contained situation and any comparisons among cases are conducted during in-class discussions and/or student presentations.

The Case Analysis . Fred Meijer Center for Writing and Michigan Authors. Grand Valley State University; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Ramsey, V. J. and L. D. Dodge. "Case Analysis: A Structured Approach." Exchange: The Organizational Behavior Teaching Journal 6 (November 1981): 27-29; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods . 6th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2017; Crowe, Sarah et al. “The Case Study Approach.” BMC Medical Research Methodology 11 (2011):  doi: 10.1186/1471-2288-11-100; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research: Design and Methods . 4th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publishing; 1994.

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Writing A Case Study

Case Study Examples

Brilliant Case Study Examples and Templates For Your Help

15 min read

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A Complete Case Study Writing Guide With Examples

Simple Case Study Format for Students to Follow

Understand the Types of Case Study Here

It’s no surprise that writing a case study is one of the most challenging academic tasks for students. You’re definitely not alone here!

Most people don't realize that there are specific guidelines to follow when writing a case study. If you don't know where to start, it's easy to get overwhelmed and give up before you even begin.

Don't worry! Let us help you out!

We've collected over 25 free case study examples with solutions just for you. These samples with solutions will help you win over your panel and score high marks on your case studies.

So, what are you waiting for? Let's dive in and learn the secrets to writing a successful case study.

• 1. An Overview of Case Studies
• 2. Case Study Examples for Students
• 3. Business Case Study Examples
• 4. Medical Case Study Examples
• 5. Psychology Case Study Examples 
• 6. Sales Case Study Examples
• 7. Interview Case Study Examples
• 8. Marketing Case Study Examples
• 9. Tips to Write a Good Case Study

An Overview of Case Studies

A case study is a research method used to study a particular individual, group, or situation in depth. It involves analyzing and interpreting data from a variety of sources to gain insight into the subject being studied. 

Case studies are often used in psychology, business, and education to explore complicated problems and find solutions. They usually have detailed descriptions of the subject, background info, and an analysis of the main issues.

The goal of a case study is to provide a comprehensive understanding of the subject. Typically, case studies can be divided into three parts, challenges, solutions, and results. 

Here is a case study sample PDF so you can have a clearer understanding of what a case study actually is:

Case Study Sample PDF

How to Write a Case Study Examples

Learn how to write a case study with the help of our comprehensive case study guide.

Case Study Examples for Students

Quite often, students are asked to present case studies in their academic journeys. The reason instructors assign case studies is for students to sharpen their critical analysis skills, understand how companies make profits, etc.

Below are some case study examples in research, suitable for students:

Case Study Example in Software Engineering

Qualitative Research Case Study Sample

Software Quality Assurance Case Study

Social Work Case Study Example

Ethical Case Study

Case Study Example PDF

These examples can guide you on how to structure and format your own case studies.

Struggling with formatting your case study? Check this case study format guide and perfect your document’s structure today.

Business Case Study Examples

A business case study examines a business’s specific challenge or goal and how it should be solved. Business case studies usually focus on several details related to the initial challenge and proposed solution. 

To help you out, here are some samples so you can create case studies that are related to businesses: 

Here are some more business case study examples:

Business Case Studies PDF

Business Case Studies Example

Typically, a business case study discovers one of your customer's stories and how you solved a problem for them. It allows your prospects to see how your solutions address their needs. 

Medical Case Study Examples

Medical case studies are an essential part of medical education. They help students to understand how to diagnose and treat patients. 

Here are some medical case study examples to help you.

Medical Case Study Example

Nursing Case Study Example

Want to understand the various types of case studies? Check out our types of case study blog to select the perfect type.

Psychology Case Study Examples 

Case studies are a great way of investigating individuals with psychological abnormalities. This is why it is a very common assignment in psychology courses. 

By examining all the aspects of your subject’s life, you discover the possible causes of exhibiting such behavior. 

For your help, here are some interesting psychology case study examples:

Psychology Case Study Example

Mental Health Case Study Example

Sales Case Study Examples

Case studies are important tools for sales teams’ performance improvement. By examining sales successes, teams can gain insights into effective strategies and create action plans to employ similar tactics.

By researching case studies of successful sales campaigns, sales teams can more accurately identify challenges and develop solutions.

Sales Case Study Example

Interview Case Study Examples

Interview case studies provide businesses with invaluable information. This data allows them to make informed decisions related to certain markets or subjects.

Interview Case Study Example

Marketing Case Study Examples

Marketing case studies are real-life stories that showcase how a business solves a problem. They typically discuss how a business achieves a goal using a specific marketing strategy or tactic.

They typically describe a challenge faced by a business, the solution implemented, and the results achieved.

This is a short sample marketing case study for you to get an idea of what an actual marketing case study looks like.

 Here are some more popular marketing studies that show how companies use case studies as a means of marketing and promotion:

“Chevrolet Discover the Unexpected” by Carol H. Williams

This case study explores Chevrolet's “ DTU Journalism Fellows ” program. The case study uses the initials “DTU” to generate interest and encourage readers to learn more. 

Multiple types of media, such as images and videos, are used to explain the challenges faced. The case study concludes with an overview of the achievements that were met.

Key points from the case study include:

• Using a well-known brand name in the title can create interest.
• Combining different media types, such as headings, images, and videos, can help engage readers and make the content more memorable.
• Providing a summary of the key achievements at the end of the case study can help readers better understand the project's impact.

“The Met” by Fantasy

“ The Met ” by Fantasy is a fictional redesign of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City, created by the design studio Fantasy. The case study clearly and simply showcases the museum's website redesign.

The Met emphasizes the website’s features and interface by showcasing each section of the interface individually, allowing the readers to concentrate on the significant elements.

For those who prefer text, each feature includes an objective description. The case study also includes a “Contact Us” call-to-action at the bottom of the page, inviting visitors to contact the company.

Key points from this “The Met” include:

• Keeping the case study simple and clean can help readers focus on the most important aspects.
• Presenting the features and solutions with a visual showcase can be more effective than writing a lot of text.
• Including a clear call-to-action at the end of the case study can encourage visitors to contact the company for more information.

“Better Experiences for All” by Herman Miller

Herman Miller's minimalist approach to furniture design translates to their case study, “ Better Experiences for All ”, for a Dubai hospital. The page features a captivating video with closed-captioning and expandable text for accessibility.

The case study presents a wealth of information in a concise format, enabling users to grasp the complexities of the strategy with ease. It concludes with a client testimonial and a list of furniture items purchased from the brand.

Key points from the “Better Experiences” include:

• Make sure your case study is user-friendly by including accessibility features like closed captioning and expandable text.
• Include a list of products that were used in the project to guide potential customers.

“NetApp” by Evisort 

Evisort's case study on “ NetApp ” stands out for its informative and compelling approach. The study begins with a client-centric overview of NetApp, strategically directing attention to the client rather than the company or team involved.

The case study incorporates client quotes and explores NetApp’s challenges during COVID-19. Evisort showcases its value as a client partner by showing how its services supported NetApp through difficult times. 

• Provide an overview of the company in the client’s words, and put focus on the customer. 
• Highlight how your services can help clients during challenging times.
• Make your case study accessible by providing it in various formats.

“Red Sox Season Campaign,” by CTP Boston

The “ Red Sox Season Campaign ” showcases a perfect blend of different media, such as video, text, and images. Upon visiting the page, the video plays automatically, there are videos of Red Sox players, their images, and print ads that can be enlarged with a click.

The page features an intuitive design and invites viewers to appreciate CTP's well-rounded campaign for Boston's beloved baseball team. There’s also a CTA that prompts viewers to learn how CTP can create a similar campaign for their brand.

Some key points to take away from the “Red Sox Season Campaign”: 

• Including a variety of media such as video, images, and text can make your case study more engaging and compelling.
• Include a call-to-action at the end of your study that encourages viewers to take the next step towards becoming a customer or prospect.

“Airbnb + Zendesk” by Zendesk

The case study by Zendesk, titled “ Airbnb + Zendesk : Building a powerful solution together,” showcases a true partnership between Airbnb and Zendesk. 

The article begins with an intriguing opening statement, “Halfway around the globe is a place to stay with your name on it. At least for a weekend,” and uses stunning images of beautiful Airbnb locations to captivate readers.

Instead of solely highlighting Zendesk's product, the case study is crafted to tell a good story and highlight Airbnb's service in detail. This strategy makes the case study more authentic and relatable.

Some key points to take away from this case study are:

• Use client's offerings' images rather than just screenshots of your own product or service.
• To begin the case study, it is recommended to include a distinct CTA. For instance, Zendesk presents two alternatives, namely to initiate a trial or seek a solution.

“Influencer Marketing” by Trend and WarbyParker

The case study "Influencer Marketing" by Trend and Warby Parker highlights the potential of influencer content marketing, even when working with a limited budget. 

The “Wearing Warby” campaign involved influencers wearing Warby Parker glasses during their daily activities, providing a glimpse of the brand's products in use. 

This strategy enhanced the brand's relatability with influencers' followers. While not detailing specific tactics, the case study effectively illustrates the impact of third-person case studies in showcasing campaign results.

Key points to take away from this case study are:

• Influencer marketing can be effective even with a limited budget.
• Showcasing products being used in everyday life can make a brand more approachable and relatable.
• Third-person case studies can be useful in highlighting the success of a campaign.

Marketing Case Study Example

Marketing Case Study Template

Now that you have read multiple case study examples, hop on to our tips.

Tips to Write a Good Case Study

Here are some note-worthy tips to craft a winning case study 

• Define the purpose of the case study This will help you to focus on the most important aspects of the case. The case study objective helps to ensure that your finished product is concise and to the point.
• Choose a real-life example. One of the best ways to write a successful case study is to choose a real-life example. This will give your readers a chance to see how the concepts apply in a real-world setting.
• Keep it brief. This means that you should only include information that is directly relevant to your topic and avoid adding unnecessary details.
• Use strong evidence. To make your case study convincing, you will need to use strong evidence. This can include statistics, data from research studies, or quotes from experts in the field.
• Edit and proofread your work. Before you submit your case study, be sure to edit and proofread your work carefully. This will help to ensure that there are no errors and that your paper is clear and concise.

There you go!

We’re sure that now you have secrets to writing a great case study at your fingertips! This blog teaches the key guidelines of various case studies with samples. So grab your pen and start crafting a winning case study right away!

Having said that, we do understand that some of you might be having a hard time writing compelling case studies.

But worry not! Our expert case study writing service is here to take all your case-writing blues away! 

With 100% thorough research guaranteed, our professional essay writing service can craft an amazing case study within 6 hours! 

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Dr. Barbara is a highly experienced writer and author who holds a Ph.D. degree in public health from an Ivy League school. She has worked in the medical field for many years, conducting extensive research on various health topics. Her writing has been featured in several top-tier publications.

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Case Study Analysis: Examples + How-to Guide & Writing Tips

A case study analysis is a typical assignment in business management courses. The task aims to show high school and college students how to analyze a current situation, determine what problems exist, and develop the best possible strategy to achieve the desired outcome.

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Many students feel anxious about writing case analyses because being told to analyze a case study and provide a solution can seem like a big task. That is especially so when working with real-life scenarios. However, you can rest assured writing a case analysis paper is easier than you think. Just keep reading this article and you will find case study examples for students and the advice provided by Custom-writing experts!

• 👣 Main Steps
• 🕵 Preparing the Case

🔬 Analyzing the Case

• 📑 Format & Structure
• 🙅 Things to Avoid
• 🏁 Conclusion

🔗 References

👣 writing a case study analysis: main steps.

Business management is built on case analysis. Every single economic result shows that the methods and instruments employed were either well-timed and expedient, in the event of success, or not, in case of failure. These two options indicate whether the strategy is efficient (and should be followed) or requires corrections (or complete change). Such an approach to the case study will make your writing piece more proficient and valuable for the reader. The following steps will direct your plan for writing a case study analysis.

Step 1: Preliminary work

• Make notes and highlight the numbers and ideas that could be quoted.
• Single out as many problems as you can, and briefly mark their underlying issues. Then make a note of those responsible. In the report, you will use two to five of the problems, so you will have a selection to choose from.
• Outline a possible solution to each of the problems you found. Course readings and outside research shall be used here. Highlight your best and worst solution for further reference.

Step 2: Drafting the Case

• Provide a general description of the situation and its history.
• Name all the problems you are going to discuss.
• Specify the theory used for the analysis.
• Present the assumptions that emerged during the analysis, if any.
• Describe the detected problems in more detail.
• Indicate their link to, and effect on, the general situation.
• Explain why the problems emerged and persist.
• List realistic and feasible solutions to the problems you outlined, in the order of importance.
• Specify your predicted results of such changes.
• Support your choice with reliable evidence (i.e., textbook readings, the experience of famous companies, and other external research).
• Define the strategies required to fulfill your proposed solution.
• Indicate the responsible people and the realistic terms for its implementation.
• Recommend the issues for further analysis and supervision.

Step 3: Finalizing the Case

Like any other piece of writing, a case analysis requires post-editing. Carefully read it through, looking for inconsistencies and gaps in meaning. Your purpose is to make it look complete, precise, and convincing.

🕵 Preparing a Case for Analysis

Your professor might give you various case study examples from which to choose, or they may just assign you a particular case study. To conduct a thorough data analysis, you must first read the case study. This might appear to be obvious. However, you’d be surprised at how many students don’t take adequate time to complete this part.

Read the case study very thoroughly, preferably several times. Highlight, underline, flag key information, and make notes to refer to later when you are writing your analysis report.

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If you don’t have a complete knowledge of the case study your professor has assigned, you won’t conduct a proper analysis of it. Even if you make use of a business case study template or refer to a sample analysis, it won’t help if you aren’t intimately familiar with your case study.

You will also have to conduct research. When it comes to research, you will need to do the following:

• Gather hard, quantitative data (e.g. 67% of the staff participated in the meeting).
• Design research tools , such as questionnaires and surveys (this will aid in gathering data).
• Determine and suggest the best specific, workable solutions.

It would be best if you also learned how to analyze a case study. Once you have read through the case study, you need to determine the focus of your analysis. You can do this by doing the following:

Compare your chosen solutions to the solutions offered by the experts who analyzed the case study you were given or to online assignments for students who were dealing with a similar task. The experts’ solutions will probably be more advanced than yours simply because these people are more experienced. However, don’t let this discourage you; the whole point of doing this analysis is to learn. Use the opportunity to learn from others’ valuable experience, and your results will be better next time.

If you are still in doubt, the University of South Carolina offers a great guide on forming a case study analysis.

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📑 Case Analysis Format & Structure

When you are learning how to write a case study analysis, it is important to get the format of your analysis right. Understanding the case study format is vital for both the professor and the student. The person planning and handing out such an assignment should ensure that the student doesn’t have to use any external sources .

In turn, students have to remember that a well-written case analysis provides all the data, making it unnecessary for the reader to go elsewhere for information.

Regardless of whether you use a case study template, you will need to follow a clear and concise format when writing your analysis report. There are some possible case study frameworks available. Still, a case study should contain eight sections laid out in the following format:

• Describe the purpose of the current case study;
• Provide a summary of the company;
• Briefly introduce the problems and issues found in the case study
• Discuss the theory you will be using in the analysis;
• Present the key points of the study and present any assumptions made during the analysis.
• Present each problem you have singled out;
• Justify your inclusion of each problem by providing supporting evidence from the case study and by discussing relevant theory and what you have learned from your course content;
• Divide the section (and following sections) into subsections, one for each of your selected problems.
• Present a summary of each problem you have identified;
• Present plausible solutions for each of the problems, keeping in mind that each problem will likely have more than one possible solution;
• Provide the pros and cons of each solution in a way that is practical.
• Conclusion . This is a summary of your findings and discussion.
• Decide which solution best fits each of the issues you identified;
• Explain why you chose this solution and how it will effectively solve the problem;
• Be persuasive when you write this section so that you can drive your point home;
• Be sure to bring together theory and what you have learned throughout your course to support your recommendations.
• Provide an explanation of what must be done, who should take action, and when the solution should be carried out;
• Where relevant, you should provide an estimate of the cost in implementing the solution, including both the financial investment and the cost in terms of time.
• References. While you generally do not need to refer to many external sources when writing a case study analysis, you might use a few. When you do, you will need to properly reference these sources, which is most often done in one of the main citation styles, including APA, MLA, or Harvard. There is plenty of help when citing references, and you can follow these APA guidelines , these MLA guidelines , or these Harvard guidelines .
• Appendices. This is the section you include after your case study analysis if you used any original data in the report. These data, presented as charts, graphs, and tables, are included here because to present them in the main body of the analysis would be disruptive to the reader. The University of Southern California provides a great description of appendices and when to make use of them.

When you’ve finished your first draft, be sure to proofread it. Look not only for potential grammar and spelling errors but also for discrepancies or holes in your argument.

You should also know what you need to avoid when writing your analysis.

Get an originally-written paper according to your instructions!

🙅 Things to Avoid in Case Analysis

Whenever you deal with a case study, remember that there are some pitfalls to avoid! Beware of the following mistakes:

• Excessive use of colloquial language . Even though it is a study of an actual case, it should sound formal.
• Lack of statistical data . Give all the important data, both in percentages and in numbers.
• Excessive details. State only the most significant facts, rather than drowning the reader in every fact you find.
• Inconsistency in the methods you have used . In a case study, theory plays a relatively small part, so you must develop a specific case study research methodology.
• Trivial means of research . It is critical that you design your own case study research method in whatever form best suits your analysis, such as questionnaires and surveys.

It is useful to see a few examples of case analysis papers. After all, a sample case study report can provide you with some context so you can see how to approach each aspect of your paper.

👀 Case Study Examples for Students

It might be easier to understand how a case study analysis works if you have an example to look at. Fortunately, examples of case studies are easy to come by. Take a look at this video for a sample case study analysis for the Coca-Cola Company.

If you want another example, then take a look at the one below!

Business Case Analysis: Example

CRM’s primary focus is customers and customer perception of the brand or the company. The focus may shift depending on customers’ needs. The main points that Center Parcs should consider are an increase in customer satisfaction and its market share. Both of these points will enhance customer perception of the product as a product of value. Increased customer satisfaction will indicate that the company provides quality services, and increased market share can reduce the number of switching (or leaving) customers, thus fostering customer loyalty.

Case Study Topics

• Equifax case study: the importance of cybersecurity measures . 
• Study a case illustrating ethical issues of medical research.  
• Examine the case describing the complications connected with nursing and residential care.  
• Analyze the competitive strategy of Delta Airlines . 
• Present a case study of an ethical dilemma showing the conflict between the spirit and the letter of the law.  
• Explore the aspects of Starbucks’ marketing strategyin a case study.  
• Research a case of community-based clinic organization and development.  
• Customer service of United Airlines: a case study . 
• Analyze a specific schizophrenia case and provide your recommendations.  
• Provide a case study of a patient with hyperglycemia.  
• Examine the growth strategy of United Healthcare. 
• Present a case study demonstrating ethical issues in business .  
• Study a case of the 5% shareholding rule application and its impact on the company.  
• Case study of post-traumatic stress disorder . 
• Analyze a case examining the issues of cross-cultural management .  
• Write a case study exploring the ethical issues the finance manager of a long-term care facility can face and the possible reaction to them.  
• Write a case study analyzing the aspects of a new president of a firm election. 
• Discuss the specifics of supply chain management in the case of Tehindo company. 
• Study a case of a life crisis in a family and the ways to cope with it.  
• Case study of Tea Leaves and More: supply chain issues .   
• Explore the case of ketogenic diet implementation among sportspeople.  
• Analyze the case of Webster Jewelry shop and suggest some changes.  
• Examine the unique aspects of Tea and More brand management .  
• Adidas case study: an ethical dilemma .  
• Research the challenges of Brazos Valley Food Bank and suggest possible solutions.  
• Describe the case of dark web monitoring for business.  
• Study a case of permissive parenting style .  
• Case study of Starbucks employees . 
• Analyze a case of workplace discrimination and suggest a strategy to avoid it.  
• Examine a case of the consumer decision-making process and define the factors that influence it.  
• Present a case study of Netflix illustrating the crucial role of management innovation for company development.  
• Discuss a case describing a workplace ethical issue and propose ways to resolve it.  
• Case study of the 2008 financial crisis: Graham’s value investing principles in the modern economic climate. 
• Write a case study analyzing the harmful consequences of communication issues in a virtual team .  
• Analyze a case that highlights the importance of a proper functional currency choice. 
• Examine the case of Hitachi Power Systems management.  
• Present a case study of medication research in a healthcare facility.  
• Study the case of Fiji Water and the challenges the brand faces.  
• Research a social problem case and suggest a solution.  
• Analyze a case that reveals the connection between alcohol use and borderline personality disorder .  
• Transglobal Airline case study: break-even analysis.   
• Examine the case of Chiquita Brands International from the moral and business ethics points of view.  
• Present a case study of applying for Social Security benefits. 
• Study the case of a mass hacker attack on Microsoft clients and suggest possible ways to prevent future attacks.  
• Case study of leadership effectiveness . 
• Analyze a case presenting a clinical moral dilemma and propose ways to resolve it. 
• Describe the case of Cowbell Brewing Company and discuss the strategy that made them successful.  
• Write a case study of WeWork company and analyze the strengths and weaknesses of its strategy.  
• Case study of medical ethical decision-making. 
• Study the case of The Georges hotel and suggest ways to overcome its managerial issues.  

🏁 Concluding Remarks

Writing a case study analysis can seem incredibly overwhelming, especially if you have never done it before. Just remember, you can do it provided you follow a plan, keep to the format described here, and study at least one case analysis example.

If you still need help analyzing a case study, your professor is always available to answer your questions and point you in the right direction. You can also get help with any aspect of the project from a custom writing company. Just tackle the research and hand over the writing, write a rough draft and have it checked by a professional, or completely hand the project off to an expert writer.

Regardless of the path you choose, you will turn in something of which you can be proud!

✏️ Case Study Analysis FAQ

Students (especially those who study business) often need to write a case study analysis. It is a kind of report that describes a business case. It includes multiple aspects, for example, the problems that exist, possible solutions, forecasts, etc.

There should be 3 main points covered in a case study analysis:

• The challenge(s) description,
• Possible solutions,
• Outcomes (real and/or foreseen).

Firstly, study some examples available online and in the library. Case study analysis should be a well-structured paper with all the integral components in place. Thus, you might want to use a template and/or an outline to start correctly.

A case study analysis is a popular task for business students. They typically hand it in the format of a paper with several integral components:

• Description of the problem
• Possible ways out
• Results and/or forecasts

Students sometimes tell about the outcome of their research within an oral presentation.

• Case Study: Academia
• Windows of vulnerability: a case study analysis (IEEE)
• A (Very) Brief Refresher on the Case Study Method: SAGE
• The case study approach: Medical Research Methodology
• Strengths and Limitations of Case Studies: Stanford University
• A Sample APA Paper: Radford University
• How to Write a Case Study APA Style: Seattle PI
• The Case Analysis: GVSU
• How to Outline: Purdue OWL
• Incorporating Interview Data: UW-Madison Writing Center
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Quite an impressive piece The steps and procedures outlined here are well detailed and the examples facilitates understanding.

Thank you for the great feedback, Collins!

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Understanding machine translation fit for language learning: The mediating effect of machine translation literacy

• Published: 13 April 2024

Cite this article

• Yanxia Yang   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5543-0065 1  

The use of machine translation has become a topic of debate in language learning, which highlights the need to thoroughly examine the appropriateness and role of machine translation in educational settings. Under the theoretical framework of task-technology fit, this explanatory case study set out to investigate the predictive role of machine translation fit, based on questionnaire responses obtained from a sample of 500 Chinese university EFL learners. Structural Equation Modeling approach was used to address the relationship between machine translation fit and learning performance, as well as the impact of technology and task characteristics on machine translation fit. The mediating role of machine translation literacy was further investigated in these relationships. The results showed that machine translation fit had a significant positive effect on learning performance. Both technology and task characteristics positively impacted machine translation fit. Meanwhile, machine translation literacy mediated the relationship between task characteristics and machine translation fit, but not technology characteristics and machine translation fit. This study has highlighted the significance of machine translation fit for language learning, providing suggestions and implications for integrating machine translation into language instructional practices.

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The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the present study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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This study was supported by the Project of Philosophy and Social Science Research in Jiangsu Province (23YYD003), China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (2023M731608), World Language and Cultural Studies Project in China Center for Language Planning and Policy Studies (WYZL2023JS0020) and Excellent Teaching-reform Project at Nanjing Agricultural University (JF202327).

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Sample items of the questionnaire.

Technology characteristics :

It is easy to operate the machine translation system.

Task characteristics :

I use machine translation to deal with translating tasks.

I use machine translation to deal with writing tasks.

Machine translation fit :

It is helpful to use machine translation in translating tasks.

Machine translation literacy :

I know the working principles of machine translation systems.

I know the text types in which machine translation systems excel.

Learning performance :

Employing machine translation can be helpful to improve my learning efficiency.

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Yang, Y. Understanding machine translation fit for language learning: The mediating effect of machine translation literacy. Educ Inf Technol (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-024-12650-x

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• Published: 12 April 2024

Biomarker discovery with quantum neural networks: a case-study in CTLA4 -activation pathways

• Phuong-Nam Nguyen 1  

BMC Bioinformatics volume  25 , Article number:  149 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Biomarker discovery is a challenging task due to the massive search space. Quantum computing and quantum Artificial Intelligence (quantum AI) can be used to address the computational problem of biomarker discovery from genetic data.

We propose a Quantum Neural Networks architecture to discover genetic biomarkers for input activation pathways. The Maximum Relevance-Minimum Redundancy criteria score biomarker candidate sets. Our proposed model is economical since the neural solution can be delivered on constrained hardware.

We demonstrate the proof of concept on four activation pathways associated with CTLA4 , including (1) CTLA4 -activation stand-alone, (2) CTLA4-CD8A-CD8B co-activation, (3) CTLA4-CD2 co-activation, and (4) CTLA4-CD2-CD48-CD53-CD58-CD84 co-activation.

The model indicates new genetic biomarkers associated with the mutational activation of CLTA4 -associated pathways, including 20 genes: CLIC4 , CPE , ETS2 , FAM107A , GPR116 , HYOU1 , LCN2 , MACF1 , MT1G , NAPA , NDUFS5 , PAK1 , PFN1 , PGAP3 , PPM1G , PSMD8 , RNF213 , SLC25A3 , UBA1 , and WLS . We open source the implementation at: https://github.com/namnguyen0510/Biomarker-Discovery-with-Quantum-Neural-Networks .

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Introduction

A biomarker, a molecular marker or signature molecule, refers to a biological substance or characteristic found in body fluids, tissues, or blood that indicates the presence of a condition, disease, or abnormal process. Biomarkers can be measured to assess how well the body responds to treatment for a particular disease or condition [ 11 ]. Biomarkers play a crucial role in drug discovery and development by providing essential information on the safety and effectiveness of drugs. These measurable indicators can be categorized into diagnostic, prognostic, or predictive biomarkers, and they are utilized to choose patients for clinical trials or track patient response and treatment efficacy. The Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) technology has revolutionized the field of oncology by enabling the comprehensive and precise identification of genetic biomarkers , paving the way for personalized cancer therapies and improved patient outcomes.

The study [ 22 ] introduces a new metric, the Intelligent Gene (I-Gene) score, to measure the importance of individual biomarkers for predicting complex traits. Their Machine learning (ML) pipeline combines classical statistical methods and state-of-the-art algorithms for biomarker discovery. Another research group develops an autoencoder-based biomarker identification method by reversing the learning mechanism of the trained encoders [ 3 ]. It provides an explainable post hoc methodology for identifying influential genes likely to become biomarkers. In [ 27 ], a Deep learning (DL) pipeline predicts the status of five biomarkers in LGG using slide-level biomarker status labels and whole slide images stained with hematoxylin and eosin. The research assesses the performance of several state-of-the-art Random Forest (RF) based decision approaches, including the Boruta method, permutation-based feature selection with and without correction, and the backward elimination-based feature selection method [ 1 ]. A review offers tips to overcome common challenges in biomarker signature development, including supervised and unsupervised ML, feature selection, and hypothesis testing [ 25 ]. Another systematic review examines the current state of the art and computational methods, including feature selection strategies, ML and DL approaches, and accessible tools to uncover markers in single and multi-omics data [ 24 ]. Despite its valuable role, genetic biomarker discovery is a challenging task for classical-computational platforms due to the massive search space (" Problem statement " section).

Quantum computing is an emerging technology that utilizes the principles of quantum mechanics to solve problems beyond classical computers’ capabilities. Quantum Machine Learning and Quantum Neural Networks are an advanced class of machine intelligence on quantum hardware, which promises more powerful models for myriad learning tasks (" Quantum neural networks " section). A comprehensive review discusses quantum computing technology and its status in solving molecular biology problems, especially in the next-generation computational biology scenario [ 59 ]. The review covers the basic concept of quantum computing, the functioning of quantum systems, quantum computing components, and quantum algorithms. HypaCADD, a hybrid classical-quantum workflow for finding ligands binding to proteins, is introduced in [ 42 ]. While accounting for genetic mutations, it combines classical docking and molecular dynamics with QML to infer the impact of mutations. The study found that the QML models can perform on par with, if not better than, classical baselines. Another systematic review presents the recent progress in quantum computing and simulation within the field of biological sciences. It discusses quantum computing components, such as quantum hardware, quantum processors, quantum annealing, and quantum algorithms [ 58 ]. A review comments on recently developed Quantum Computing (QC) bio-computing algorithms, focusing on multi-scale modeling and genomic analyses [ 47 ]. The research group highlights the possible advantages over the classical counterparts and describes some hybrid classical/quantum approaches. In a non-conventional track, scientists at Oak Ridge National Laboratory used their expertise in quantum biology, artificial intelligence, and bioengineering to improve how CRISPR Cas9 genome editing tools work on organisms like microbes that can be modified to produce renewable fuels and chemicals [ 41 ]. The cross-section of the genetic editing technology with quantum methods shows promising new insights into biomedical science.

This work uses a class of Quantum Artificial Intelligence (AI) models to discover genetic biomarkers in biomedical research. We adopt the neural architecture proposed in a recent work that addresses the body dynamics modeling problem [ 55 ]. Here, we make a non-trivial adaptation of the proposed game theory to tackle a different class of problems. The main contribution of this study is summarized as follows:

The proposed quantum AI model is a general, cost-efficient, cost-effective algorithm for biomarker discovery from genetic data despite the extensive problem complexity.

The model outcomes suggest novel biomarkers for the mutational activation of the notable target in immuno-therapy - CLTA4 , including 20 genes: CLIC4 , CPE , ETS2 , FAM107A , GPR116 , HYOU1 , LCN2 , MACF1 , MT1G , NAPA , NDUFS5 , PAK1 , PFN1 , PGAP3 , PPM1G , PSMD8 , RNF213 , SLC25A3 , UBA1 and WLS .

We organize the article as follows: " Preliminary " section  formalizes the biomarker identification problem as a combinatory optimization problem and the preliminary for QNN models; " Method " section introduces our proposed model architecture and the scoring algorithm; " Results " section reports the in silico discovery for genetic biomarkers of four immunotherapy pathways with posthoc validation using literature mining over clinical research; " Conclusion " section concludes our research by suggesting several further research direction.

Preliminary

Problem statement.

The learning task involves identifying the best combinations of genetic biomarkers from a given set of genes (represented as \({\mathcal {G}}\) ) to select those that are (1) most relevant to a specific pathway (represented as \(\varvec{Y}\) ) and (2) optimal for machine learning algorithms. This criterion is commonly referred to as minimizing redundancy and maximizing relevancy for selected feature sets, as proposed in [ 62 ] (See Additional file 1 : Appendix A).

In this context, it is worth noting that each individual has unique patterns of mutational alterations that lead to distinct sets of genetic biomarkers. Considering all the possibilities, the number of candidate biomarker sets is the sum of all possible combinations, which can be expressed as

Since the human genome contains around 20,000 to 25,000 genes, this results in a massive search space of \(3.2019 \times 10^{6577}\) candidate biomarker set for any biomarker identification algorithm from genetic databases. This search space grows exponentially with the number of input genes, making it an incredibly challenging problem for conventional computing methods. Quantum computing holds great promise for advancing genomic research, particularly in quantifying biomarkers. In this context, the logarithmic scaling complexity of quantum algorithms becomes evident, as exemplified by the requirement of \(\log _2{20,000}\) to \(\log _2{25,000}\) noise-tolerant qubits for quantifying genome sets, approximately equivalent to 15 qubits. The salient advantage of employing quantum hardware for biomarker quantification lies in the \(O(\log N)\) scaling complexity, providing a significant computational advantage as the genomic dataset size increases. For instance, in the presence of four multimodality datasets encompassing DNA Methylation, RNA, mRNA, and Protein, each with a homogeneous number of features denoted as \(M\) , the required number of qubits scales only to \(N = \log _2{4\,M} = 2 + \log _2{M}\) , illustrating a scalable problem complexity. However, the current state-of-the-art quantum hardware faces limitations in facilitating multimodality analysis, primarily due to the constraints imposed by the limited and noisy qubits available, hindering their effectiveness in realizing the full potential of quantum computational power in genomics.

Quantum neural networks

QNNs represent input data using wavefunction representations, typically using qubits or “qurons” [ 71 ], in the form of:

This distinguishes QNNs from classical ANNs as they capture physical events discretely [ 48 ] and offer insight into representation learning [ 8 ].

QNNs have been proposed to offer two advantages over classical ANNs [ 72 ]. Quantum feature maps can represent exponentially larger data sets than classical neural networks, with an n -qubit system representing \(2^n\) bits [ 57 ]. Secondly, quantum feature maps inherit wavefunction uncertainty from quantum mechanics, allowing measurements of quantum states to return values of 0 or 1 with probability values of \({\mathbb {P}}(0) = |\alpha |^2\) and \({\mathbb {P}}(1) = |\beta |^2\) . In our previous papers, we discuss the role of epistemic uncertainty estimation from quantum maps [ 54 ] and the effect of entanglement layouts on the classifier’s performance.

The typical design for QNNs [ 7 , 28 , 38 , 66 , 73 ] involves a stack of identical ansatz structures, given by a global unitary transformation:

where \(\varvec{x}\) represents input features, \(\varvec{\theta }\) represents model weights, \({\mathcal {U}}^{(l)}(.)\) represents identical-parameterized circuits serving as variational (trainable neural) blocks, and \({\mathcal {V}}(.)\) represents feature-embedding blocks. From our perspective, QNNs are advanced mathematical models in the language of representation theory (See Additional file 1 : Appendix B); thus, we are using mathematics to enable cancer discoveries.

The Ansatz circuit of our proposed QNN models using four qubits with four neural blocks. Here, the number of evaluated genes is \(2^4 = 16\) genes. We extend the architecture to 11-qubit ansatz in the numerical result, scoring \(2^{11} = 2048\) genes

Model architecture

We depict the ansatz structure of our QNN model in Fig.  1 . Each neural block in our proposed model includes (1) a parameterized RZ-rotation based on time-domain variables \(t \in [0,2\pi ]\) , given by

and (2) trainable RX-rotation and RY-rotation gates

The parameterized wavefunction of the 1-layer model is given

n is the number of qubits, and \(\Lambda\) is the architecture parameter of the entanglement layout constructed by CNOT gates, illustrated in Fig.  1 .

Computations of gene scores ( GSCORE \({}^{\copyright }\) )

We train the proposed QNNs to learn the optimal sampling distribution based on mRMR criteria [ 56 ] (See Additional file 1 : Appendix A). In other words, the search algorithm will assign higher probabilities for the more important markers. Thus, the search algorithm will more often select more important genetic biomarkers. Specifically, the output electronic wavefunction of the parameterized QML model is given by

with n is the number of prepared qubits and \(\Theta\) is the model parameter. The sampled probability density is given by

where \(|\Psi ^{*}\rangle\) is the conjugate-transpose of the output wavefunction. In other words, we compute the wavefunction’s probability amplitude or square modulus.

We further use the Softmax function with tunable temperature to normalize our density. Besides, using the Softmax function also allows us to control the conservative of the search engine as the low temperature will encourage the model confidence. In contrast, high temperatures encourage less conservative predictions. Thus, the biomarker score is the sampling probability of each gene given by

where \(\text {temp}\) is the function temperature. Finally, we select the candidate marker set by parameterized thresholding with \(\bar{p} = 1\) if \(\hat{p} \ge \tau\) , otherwise 0. We interpret the GSCORE \({}^{\copyright }\) that the more important genes have a higher chance to be selected by the sampler, resulting in a higher probability over the output of quantum ansatzes.

Objective function

We adopt the efficient loss function of the Quadratic Programming Feature Selection (QPFS) method [ 65 ], given as

where \(\varvec{F}_{n\times 1}\) is the relevancy to target variables and \(\varvec{H}_{n\times n}\) is the pairwise redundancy computed from the feature set. Both natural and normalized quantum distributions \(p(\Theta )\) and \(\hat{p}(\Theta )\) satisfy the conditions for \(p_i\) in QPFS. We consider \(\lambda = 1\) for further analysis, i.e., the balanced loss between redundant-relevant criteria.

Pseudo-code

We implement the proposed model using the quantum simulation package Pennylane [ 9 ] with Pytorch 3.7 [ 60 ]. The mutual information criteria are computed by Scikit-learn [ 61 ], and model optimization is conducted by Optuna [ 2 ] with Tree Parzen Estimators [ 10 ]. The pseudo-code is given in the following algorithm:

Listing 1: Model architecture of the duality game model developed for biomarker identification task

Hyper-parameter and training protocol

We report the hyper-parameters for our search engine powered by proposed QNNs in Table  1 . Noteworthy, we adopt the Tree Parzen Estimator with Sequential Model-based Optimization [ 10 ] (SMBO) to train our model. We learned from our previous works - CSNAS [ 53 ] and BayesianQNN [ 54 ] that the used optimization is a cost-efficient algorithm, which enables effective search on a massive search space.

CTLA4 -activation Pathways

CTLA4 - The gene is part of the immunoglobulin superfamily and produces a protein that transmits a signal to inhibit T cells. Mutations in this gene have been linked to various autoimmune diseases, including insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, Graves disease, Hashimoto thyroiditis, celiac disease, systemic lupus erythematosus, and thyroid-associated orbitopathy [ 31 ]. CD8A and CD8B encode the alpha and beta chains of the CD8 antigen, respectively. The CD8 antigen is a cell surface glycoprotein found on most cytotoxic T lymphocytes that mediate efficient cell-cell interactions within the immune system [ 14 ]. The CD8 antigen acts as a coreceptor with the T-cell receptor on the T lymphocyte to recognize antigens displayed by an antigen-presenting cell in class I MHC molecules. Moreover, CD8+ T cells play a significant role in the response to immunotherapies that target CTLA4 [ 40 ]. Following a common preclinical combination treatment protocol, the study used a radiolabeled antibody to detect changes in CD8a+ infiltration in murine colon tumors. The results showed that the treatment effectively inhibited tumor growth and increased the overall survival of mice. CD2 and CD28 are both important co-receptors involved in T-cell activation [ 30 , 74 ]. They are part of the immunoglobulin superfamily and are known to regulate T-cell activation in a coordinated manner. CD2 enhances adhesion between T cells and target cells and delivers an activation signal [ 29 ]. On the other hand, CD28 is a costimulatory receptor that can strongly enhance TCR signaling responses. It is believed that CD28 and CD2 may function together to facilitate interactions of the T cell and antigen-presenting cells (APCs), allowing for efficient signal transduction through the TCR [ 30 ]. The precise mechanisms of CTLA4 ’s inhibitory role are not fully understood, but it is believed that CTLA4 can compete with CD28 for ligand binding, acting as an antagonist of CD28 -mediated costimulation [ 68 ]. This interaction is thought to occur at the immune synapse between T cells and antigen-presenting cells (APCs), where CTLA4 has been shown to recruit CD80 , thereby limiting its interactions with CD28 . Studying the coactivation of CTLA4 and CD2 could provide valuable insights into T-cell activation and immune regulation. However, limited research addresses the coactivation of CTLA4 and CD2 . This suggests further investigation is needed to establish a connection and understand its implications for immunotherapy and autoimmune disease treatment. Understanding these interactions could potentially lead to the development of more effective therapeutic strategies. In this study, we aim to broaden the scope of immunological research by studying the coactivation of CTLA4 , CD2 , and the CD2 -associated genes, including CD48 , CD53 , CD58 , and CD84 . CD48 , a member of the CD2 subfamily of the immunoglobulin superfamily, is found on the surface of lymphocytes and other immune cells and participates in activation and differentiation pathways in these cells. CD53 , another member of the tetraspanin superfamily, regulates various cellular processes such as adhesion, migration, signaling, and cell fusion. CD58 , also known as lymphocyte function-associated antigen 3 (LFA-3), is a cell adhesion molecule that strengthens the adhesion and recognition between T cells and antigen-presenting cells, facilitating signal transduction necessary for an immune response. Lastly, CD84 , a member of the signaling lymphocyte activation molecule (SLAM) family, forms homophilic dimers by self-association and is reported as an important survival receptor in chronic lymphocytic leukemia. By studying the coactivation of these molecules, we hope to gain a deeper understanding of the complex interactions and signaling pathways involved in immune regulation. This could lead to the development of more effective therapeutic strategies for various immune-related diseases.

We will investigate four pathways regarding the co-occurrence of mutational activation, including:

Pathway 1 : CTLA4 -activation stand-alone.

Pathway 2 : CTLA4-CD8A-CD8B activated simultaneously.

Pathway 3 : CTLA4-CD2 activated simultaneously.

Pathway 4 : CTLA4-CD2-CD48-CD53-CD58-CD84 activated simultaneously.

Advanced ML or Quantum AI has yet to study these mutational activation pathways to extend our knowledge. We summarize the biological meaning of quantified targets in Additional file 1 : Appendix C.

We use The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA [ 79 ]) with RNA expression data and Copy Number of Variation (CNV). We score 2048 genetic biomarkers based on its expression, which is equivalent to \(2^{11}\) dimensional embedding generated by 11-qubit system (" Pseudo-code " section). The evaluated cohort includes 9, 136 patients, considered Big Data in the context of a cancer genetic study. The expression set \(\varvec{X}\) is normalized using Min-Max normalization, and the mutational signals are created from CNV with \(\varvec{Y} = 1\) if CNV \(\ne 0\) , otherwise \(\varvec{Y} = 0\) . The evaluated expressions are continuous values, while the activation signals are binary.

Experimental settings

All experiments were carried out using Python 3.7.0, numpy 1.21.5, sci-kit-learn 1.0.2, and PyTorch 1.11 on an Intel i9 processor (2.3 GHz, eight cores), 16GB DDR4 memory and GeForce GTX 1060 Mobile GPU with 6GB memory. Besides, we made our implementation available at: https://github.com/namnguyen0510/Biomarker-Discovery-with-Quantum-Neural-Networks ; and all experimental history available at https://tinyurl.com/55x77w4h . We train our sampler for 600 trials with paralleled computing using ten CPU workers for each pathway.

Quantum AI-driven genetic biomarkers for CTLA4 -activation pathways

We summarize the case-study of CTLA4 -activation pathways in Fig.  2 A. The full reports for each pathway is given in Additional file 1 : Figs. S3, S4, S5 and S6 in Additional file 1 : Appendix D. We only consider the top 20 genetic biomarkers for further analysis. Of note, the discovered biomarker sets are distinctive for each studied pathway. Specifically, only one genetic biomarker MACF1 is founded as the genetic biomarker for CTLA4 and CTLA4-CD8A-CD8B activation pathways (Fig.  2 B). Similarly, HSPA1B is addressed as a common genetic biomarker for the pathways CTLA4-CD8A-CD8B and CTLA4-CD2 . Apart from MACF1 and HSPA1B , the remaining genetic biomarkers are distinctively associated with the quantified targets.

A Activation Pathways Analyzed in Our Case-study: We expanded the scope of immunological research by studying the coactivation of CTLA4, CD2, and associated genes, including CD48, CD53, CD58, and CD84. These molecules play significant roles in T-cell immune regulation, and their interactions could potentially lead to the development of more effective therapeutic strategies for various immune-related diseases. B Venn Diagram of Discovered-Genetic Biomarker Sets regarding The Quantified Targeted Pathways: MACF1 , a protein facilitating actin-microtubule interactions at the cell periphery, is a common genetic biomarker for both CTLA4 and CTLA4-CD8A-CD8B pathways. On the other hand, HSPA1B , a member of the heat shock protein 70 family that stabilizes existing proteins against aggregation, is the common genetic biomarker for CTLA4-CD8A-CD8B and CTLA4-CD2 pathways. These findings highlight the potential of these biomarkers in understanding immune regulation and developing therapeutic strategies, which has not yet been well-studied, discussed in " CTLA4 -activation Pathways " section

Convergence analysis

We construct an end-to-end explainable quantum AI, illustrated in the results in Additional file 1 : Figs. S1, S2, S3 and S4. Of note, we are addressing a complex problem beyond the capacity of classical computers; thus, our proposed algorithm will likely suggest a sub-optimal solution. We show in these results of Additional file 1 : Figs. S1, S2, S3 and S4 that the proposed algorithm can effectively score genes and sampling biomarker sets as the sampling loss is reducing. Training beyond 600 trials does not guarantee better solutions as most of the best loss is found by trial \(400^{th}\) . We average top-50 \(\%\) models to have a more robust inference of GSCORE \({}^{\copyright }\) , which shows that higher GSCORE \({}^{\copyright }\) tends to have higher score variation since the markers are more frequently sampled by the quantum model. However, the score variation is extremely small with under \(200\mu =2\times 10^{-6}\) , indicating the well-convergence of neural solutions.

Furthermore, the output panels in Additional file 1 : Figs. S1, S2, S3 and S4 also report the landscape of hyper-optimization protocol, in which model configuration with the lower score is in a darker color (purple) and model configuration with a higher score is in brighter color (yellow). This analysis significantly reduces the cost of model deployment on actual quantum computers, as we can select the optimal design of quantum ansatz circuits based on analytical solutions using classical simulations.

Significance of discovered genetic biomarkers

Statistical significance.

Using the cBioPortal [ 16 ] databases from nine projects [ 12 , 36 , 50 , 52 , 64 , 67 , 70 , 81 , 86 ] with a total of 73, 717 samples, we validated the statistical significance of the top-5 genetic biomarkers for each pathway (see Section 8.4). We found that only a small proportion of the total samples contained mutations in certain biomarkers, with the highest mutated biomarkers being PAK1 ( \(1.5\%, n=858\) ) and RNF213 ( \(0.3\%, n=62\) ). However, the remaining biomarkers accounted for an extremely small proportion of all mutations, making it insufficient to use mutational profiles alone to study the relationship between these biomarkers and targets. We also found co-occurrence of mutations in certain biomarkers with significant statistical evidence regarding the CTLA4 -activation pathway. Specifically, UBA1 , HYOU1 , and RNF213 mutations were co-occurring in this pathway. Additionally, mutations in MAFC1 , WLS , PSMD8 , and PAK1 were co-occurring in the CTLA4-CD8A-CD8B pathways, while mutations in NAPA , PGAP3 , CLIC4 , and PPM1G were co-occurring in the activation of CTLA4-CD 2. Lastly, the extended activation pathway four was associated only with the coactivation of LCN2 and FAM107A mutations.

Clinical significance

We perform literature mining from the PubMed.gov library regarding 19 top-5 genetic biomarkers, excluding CPE due to similar abbreviations (see Section 8.4). The analysis is on publications over the three years from 2020 to 2023, up to 12/05/2023. Additional file 1 : Table S2 shows that 12 over 19 biomarkers are rarely known in clinical-associated literature but addressed as significant genetic biomarkers by our proposed model.

Pathway 1: CTLA4

Hypoxia upregulated protein 1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the HYOU1 gene. The protein encoded by this gene belongs to the heat shock protein 70 family. This gene uses alternative transcription start sites. Using a type of bone-forming cell called MC3T3-E1, the study [ 92 ] demonstrated that high levels of glucose decrease the ability of the cells to survive and cause them to undergo programmed cell death. The high glucose levels also cause endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS) by increasing the movement of calcium and producing a protein called binding immunoglobulin protein (BiP) in the endoplasmic reticulum. This results in the activation of eukaryotic initiation factor 2 alpha (eIF2alpha) downstream of a protein called PKR-like ER kinase (PERK). This, in turn, leads to the activation of a transcription factor called ATF4 and an increase in the production of a protein called C/EBP-homologous protein (CHOP), which is involved in the regulation of apoptosis in response to ER stress, as well as other proteins like DNAJC3 , HYOU1 , and CALR . Besides, the discovered HYOU1 and HSPA1A (in the HSPA1B family) and DNAJB11, CALR, ERP29, GANAB, HSP90B1, HSPA5, LMAN1, PDIA4 and TXNDC5 were involved in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress [ 21 ]. The analysis of how proteins interact with each other revealed certain genes, such as PTBP1 , NUP98 , and HYOU1 , that are linked to breast cancer brain metastasis [ 4 ]. HYOU1 plays a role in supporting the growth, spreading, and metabolic activity of papillary thyroid cancer by increasing the stability of LDHB mRNA [ 77 ].

Apart from its significant protective function in the formation and progression of tumors, HYOU1 can be a promising target for treating cancer. It may be an immune-stimulating additive because it can trigger an antitumor immune response. Additionally, it can be a molecular target for treating various endoplasmic reticulum-related ailments [ 63 ]. The study [ 43 ] found that the secretion of certain substances in response to a communication between lung cancer cells and endothelial cells (ECs) led to an increase in the expression of HYOU1 in lung cancer spheroids. Additionally, direct interaction between ECs and lung cancer cells caused an upregulation of HYOU1 in multicellular tumor spheroids (MCTSs). When inhibiting HYOU1 expression, it reduced the malignant behavior and stemness of the cancer cells, facilitated apoptosis, and made the MCTSs more sensitive to chemotherapy drugs in lung cancer.

ETS2 is responsible for producing a transcription factor that controls the activity of genes related to both development and apoptosis. The protein it produces is not only a proto-oncogene but has also been found to play a role in regulating telomerase. A non-functional copy of this gene, known as a pseudogene, is also on the X chromosome. Due to alternative splicing, various transcript variants of this gene are generated. The transcription factor ETS2 controls the expression of genes responsible for various biological processes such as development, differentiation, angiogenesis, proliferation, and apoptosis. The transcription factor ETS2 has been shown to downregulate the expression of cytokine genes in resting T-cells. The research [ 20 ] have investigated whether ETS2 also regulates the expression of lymphotropic factors (LFs) that are involved in T-cell activation/differentiation and the kinase CDK10 , which controls Ets-2 degradation and repression activity. In vitro experiments demonstrated that Ets-2 overexpression increased the expression of certain LFs while decreasing CDK10 levels in both stimulated and unstimulated T-cells. Cyclin-dependent kinase 10 (CDK10) is a serine/threonine kinase related to CDC2 and plays a crucial role in various cellular processes such as cell proliferation, regulation of transcription, and cell cycle regulation. CDK10 has been identified as a candidate tumor suppressor in hepatocellular carcinoma, biliary tract cancers, and gastric cancer, but as a candidate oncogene in colorectal cancer (CRC) [ 6 ]. A study on CDK10’s role in colorectal cancer revealed that it enhances cell growth, reduces chemosensitivity, and inhibits apoptosis by increasing the expression of BCL-2 [ 80 ]. This effect depends on its kinase activity, as colorectal cancer cell lines with a kinase-defective mutation exhibit an exaggerated apoptotic response and reduced proliferating capacity.CDK10 is a serine/threonine kinase that regulates various cellular processes. It is a candidate tumor suppressor in hepatocellular carcinoma, biliary tract cancers, and gastric cancer but an oncogene in colorectal cancer (CRC). CDK10 promotes cell growth, reduces chemosensitivity, and inhibits apoptosis by increasing the expression of BCL-2 in colorectal cancer. Kinase-defective mutations exaggerate apoptotic response and reduce proliferating capacity. The relation between the identified-genetic biomarker ETS2 and CDK10 could be used to develop new therapeutic applications of cancer treatment.

The relationship between CELF1 and ETS2 in colorectal cancer (CRC) and chemoresistance to oxaliplatin (L-OHP) is studied in [ 76 ]. CELF1 was overexpressed in human CRC tissues and positively correlated with ETS2 expression. Overexpression of CELF1 increased CRC cell proliferation, migration, invasion, and L-OHP resistance, while knockdown of CELF1 improved the response of CRC cells to L-OHP. Similarly, overexpression of ETS2 increased malignant behavior and L-OHP resistance in CRC cells. The study concluded that CELF1 regulates ETS2 , resulting in CRC tumorigenesis and L-OHP resistance, and may be a promising target for overcoming chemoresistance in CRC.

GPR116 or ADGRF5 is the probable G-Protein coupled receptor 116. GPR116 has been reported to be involved in cancer progression and predicts poor prognosis in other types of cancer. The study [ 91 ] shows that GPR116 expression is upregulated in gastric cancer (GC) tissues and is positively correlated with tumor invasion and poor prognosis. GPR116 may be a novel prognostic marker and a potential therapeutic target for GC treatment. mRNA and protein expression of GPR116 in GC tissues and found that it was significantly upregulated, positively correlated with tumor node metastasis (TNM) staging and tumor invasion, and contributed to poor overall survival in GC patients [ 37 ]. GPR116 overexpression was also found to be an independent prognostic indicator in GC patients. Enrichment analysis revealed that GPR116 co-expression genes were mainly involved in various pathways.

The effect of GPR116 receptor on NK cells concerning pancreatic cancer is studied in [ 32 ], which found that GPR116 mice were able to efficiently eliminate pancreatic cancer through enhancing the proportion and function of NK cells in the tumor. The expression of GPR116 receptor decreased upon NK cells’ activation, and GPR116 with NK cells showed higher cytotoxicity and antitumor activity in vitro and in vivo. Downregulation of GPR116 receptor also promoted the antitumor activity of NKG2D-CAR-NK92 cells against pancreatic cancer. These findings suggest that downregulation of GPR116 receptor could enhance the antitumor efficiency of CAR NK cell therapy.

Pathway 2: CTLA4-CD8A-CD8B

The 26 S proteasome ( PSMD2 ) is a complex enzyme comprising a 20 S core and a 19 S regulator arranged in a precise structure. The 20 S core consists of four rings with 28 different subunits. Two rings contain seven alpha subunits each, while the others contain seven beta subunits each. The 19 S regulator consists of a base with six ATPase subunits, two non-ATPase subunits, and a lid with up to ten non-ATPase subunits. Proteasomes are found in high concentrations throughout eukaryotic cells and break down peptides through an ATP/ubiquitin-dependent process outside lysosomes. The immunoproteasome, a modified version, plays a critical role in processing class I MHC peptides. This gene codes for one of the non-ATPase subunits in the lid of the 19 S regulator. Besides its involvement in proteasome function, this subunit may also participate in the TNF signaling pathway as it interacts with the tumor necrosis factor type 1 receptor. A non-functional copy of this gene has been found on chromosome 1. Multiple transcript variants of this gene are produced through alternative splicing. PSMD2 and PSMD8 were significantly over-expressed in bladder urothelial carcinoma (BLCA) more than other cancers [ 69 ]. Besides, PSMD8 with AUNIP , FANCI , LASP1 , and XPO5 are potential targets for the creation of an mRNA vaccine to combat mesothelioma [ 89 ].

PAK1 is responsible for producing a member of the PAK protein family, which are serine/threonine p21-activating kinases. PAK proteins connect RhoGTPases to reorganize the cytoskeleton and nuclear signaling. They act as targets for small GTP-binding proteins such as CDC42 and RAC. This particular family member specifically regulates the movement and shape of cells. Different isoforms of this gene have been identified through alternative splicing, resulting in various transcript variants.

Regarding its mechanism, ipomoea batatas polysaccharides specifically encourage the degradation of PAK1 through ubiquitination and inhibit its downstream Akt1/mTOR signaling pathway, thereby resulting in an increased level of autophagic flux [ 15 ]. PAK1 is a serine/threonine kinase gene overexpressed in some human breast carcinomas with poor prognosis, and aberrant PAK1 expression is an early event in the development of some breast cancers [ 26 ]. The structure of the actin cytoskeleton and protrusions in SW620 cells is related to their ability to move. Ce6-PDT treatment inhibits the migration of SW620 cells by reducing the activity of the RAC1 / PAK1 / LIMK1 /cofilin signaling pathway, and this inhibition is improved by decreasing the expression of the RAC1 gene [ 82 ].

The increased presence of WLS (Wnt Ligand Secretion Mediato) is an important indication of a negative outcome in breast cancer. It may have a vital function in the hormone receptor-positive (HR+) subtype [ 90 ]. Reducing the expression of SNHG17 in lung adenocarcinoma cells hindered cell growth, migration, and invasion while increasing apoptosis. SNHG17 acted as a sponge for miR-485-5p, resulting in increased expression of WLS. Therefore, SNHG17 accelerates lung adenocarcinoma progression by upregulating WLS expression through sponging miR-485-5p [ 44 ].

NDUFS5 belongs to the NADH dehydrogenase (ubiquinone) iron-sulfur protein family. The protein it encodes is a component of the NADH - ubiquinone oxidoreductase (complex I), the initial enzyme complex in the electron transport chain situated in the inner membrane of mitochondria. Through alternative splicing, multiple transcript variants of this gene are generated. Additionally, pseudogenes of this gene have been discovered on chromosomes 1, 4, and 17.

Machine learning algorithms have been used to classify some cancer types, but not lung adenocarcinoma, in which NDUFS5, P2RY2, PRPF18, CCL24, ZNF813, MYL6, FLJ41941, POU5F1B, and SUV420H1 were associated with alive without disease [ 23 ]. The study identified MACF1 with FTSJ3 , STAT1 , STX2 , CDX2 and RASSF4 that can be used as a signature to predict the overall survival of pancreatic cancer patients [ 84 ]. The poor response of low-grade serous ovarian carcinoma (LGSOC) to chemotherapy calls for a thorough genomic analysis to identify new treatment options. This study, 71 LGSOC samples were analyzed for 127 candidate genes using whole exome sequencing and immunohistochemistry to assess key protein expression. Mutations in KRAS , BRAF , and NRAS genes were found in 47% of cases. Several new genetic biomarkers were identified, including USP9X , MACF1 , ARID1A , NF2 , DOT1L , and ASH1L [ 17 ]. To improve the treatment of glioblastomas and enhance patient survival, MACF1 can be used as a specific diagnostic marker that enhances the effectiveness of radiation therapy while minimizing damage to normal tissues [ 13 ]. This approach could potentially lead to the development of new combination radiation therapies that target translational regulatory processes, which are often involved in poor patient outcomes. Another study presented data indicating that reduced MACF1 expression inhibited melanoma metastasis in mice by blocking the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition process. Therefore, MACF1 could be a potential target for melanoma treatment [ 78 ].

MACF1 is responsible for producing a substantial protein that consists of multiple spectrin and leucine-rich repeat (LRR) domains. The encoded protein belongs to a family of proteins that connect various cytoskeletal components. Specifically, this protein plays a role in enabling interactions between actin and microtubules at the outer edges of cells, and it also connects the microtubule network to cellular junctions. Multiple transcript variants of this gene are produced through alternative splicing, although the complete structure of some of these variants has yet to be determined [ 31 ]. A study included 695 patients with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), divided into a training group of 495 patients and a validation group of 200 patients [ 35 ]. A nomogram was developed using T stage, age, and the mutation status of DOCK2 , EYS , MACF1 , and TP53 . The nomogram was found to have good accuracy in predicting outcomes and was consistent with the actual data. The study also found that T-cell exclusion may be a potential mechanism for malignant progression in the high-risk group. In contrast, the low-risk group may benefit from immunotherapy and CTLA4 blocker treatment. In conclusion, the study developed a nomogram based on mutant genes and clinical parameters and identified the underlying association between these risk factors and immune-related processes.

Pathway 3: CTLA4-CD2

Fucoxanthin is a natural pigment present in brown seaweeds, and its derivative, fucoxanthin (FxOH), has been shown to effectively induce apoptosis (programmed cell death) in various cancer cells. The role of Chloride intracellular channel 4 ( CLIC4 ), which plays a crucial role in cancer development and apoptosis, in FxOH-induced apoptosis was also investigated [ 85 ]. Treatment with FxOH induced apoptosis in human CRC DLD-1 cells. FxOH treatment downregulated CLIC4 , integrin beta1, NHERF2 , and pSMAD2 (Ser(465/467)) compared to control cells, without affecting RAB35 expression. CLIC4 knockdown suppressed cell growth and apoptosis, and apoptosis induction by FxOH was reduced with CLIC4 knockdown. The expression levels of CLIC4 and GAS2L1 were found to be higher in circulating tumor cells (CTCs) from pancreatic cancer patients compared to peripheral blood mononuclear cells [ 93 ]. Besides, the overexpression of CLIC4 was associated with unfavorable outcomes in multiple cohorts of CN-AML patients [ 33 ].

The role of actin-binding proteins, including profiling, fascin, and ezrin, in the metastasis of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) [ 39 ]. The study collected tumor and adjacent normal lung tissue samples from 46 NSCLC patients and used real-time PCR and Western blotting to determine the levels of PFN1 , FSCN1 , and EZR mRNAs and proteins. The results showed that patients with lymphatic metastasis had higher expression levels of the profilin, fascin, and ezrin mRNAs and profilin and fascin proteins. In contrast, mRNA and protein expression levels increased in patients with distant metastasis. The activation of AKT signaling in the progression of colorectal cancer (CRC) can be influenced by the lncHCP5/miR-299-3p/ PFN1 [ 5 ]. The loss of PFN1 leads to the activation of several signaling pathways, including AKT, NF-(k)B, and WNT. On the other hand, overexpression of PFN1 in cells with high levels of SH3BGRL can counteract SH3BGRL-induced metastasis and tumor growth by upregulating PTEN and inhibiting the PI3K-AKT pathway [ 88 ].

PPM1G codes for a large protein that contains spectrin and leucine-rich repeat (LRR) domains. It belongs to a family of proteins that act as bridges between different cytoskeletal elements. Specifically, this protein facilitates the interaction between actin and microtubules at the periphery of cells and links the microtubule network to cellular junctions. The level of PPM1G expression in LIHC may be influenced by promoter methylation, CNVs, and kinases and could be linked to immune infiltration. High PPM1G expression was found to be related to mRNA splicing and the cell cycle according to GO terms. These findings suggest that PPM1G could be a prognostic indicator for liver hepatocellular carcinoma patients and may play a role in the tumor immune microenvironment [ 45 ]. Besides, the irc- PGAP3 plays a significant role in the growth and advancement of triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC), thus making it a potential target for the treatment of TNBC patients.

Pathway 4: CTLA4-CD2-CD48-CD53-CD58-CD84

MT1G (Metallothionein 1 G) and MT1H have the potential to suppress tumor growth and are regulated by DNA methylation in their promoter regions. In addition, they are associated with serum copper levels and may be linked to the survival rate of patients with hepatocellular carcinoma [ 75 ]. Besides, MT1G , CXCL8 , IL1B , CXCL5 , CXCL11 , and GZMB are over-expressed in colorectal cancer tissues compared to normal tissues [ 49 ]. Three genes ( SLC7A11 , HMOX1 , and MT1G ) were identified as differentially expressed genes (DEGs) associated with renal cancer prognosis using survival analysis screening [ 18 ]. SLC7A11 and HMOX1 were found to be upregulated in renal cancer tissues, while MT1G was downregulated. The combination of receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves, Kaplan-Meier analysis, and Cox regression analysis revealed that high expression of SLC7A11 was a prognostic risk factor for four different types of renal cancers, low expression of HMOX1 was a poor prognostic marker for patients, and increased expression of MT1G increased the prognostic risk for three additional classes of renal cancer patients, except for those with renal papillary cell carcinoma.

FAM107A (Family With Sequence Similarity 107 Member A) with ADAM12 , CEP55 , LRFN4 , INHBA , ADH1B , DPT , and LOC100506388 were analyzed and evaluated as potential prognostic genes for gastric cancer [ 34 ]. Among these genes, LRFN4 , DPT , and LOC100506388 were identified as having a potential prognostic role in gastric cancer, as determined through a nomogram. Besides, the interaction pairs of HCG22/EGOT-hsa-miR-1275-FAM107A and HCG22/EGOT-hsa-miR-1246 -Glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase 1 are likely to have a significant role in laryngeal squamous cell carcinoma.

LCN2 produces a protein classified as a lipocalin family member. Lipocalins are known for their ability to transport small hydrophobic molecules like lipids, steroid hormones, and retinoids. The specific protein encoded by this gene is called neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL), and it plays a significant role in innate immunity. NGAL sequesters iron-containing siderophores, which helps limit bacterial growth and infection [ 31 ]. Besides, LCN2 is an innate immune protein that regulates immune responses by promoting sterile inflammation. LCN2 is a biomarker associated with radioresistance and recurrence in nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) [ 87 ]. LCN2 expression was upregulated in radioresistant NPC tissues and associated with NPC recurrence. Knocking down LCN2 enhances the radiosensitivity of NPC cells, while ectopic expression of LCN2 confers additional radioresistance. LCN2 may interact with HIF-1A and facilitate the development of a radioresistant phenotype. LCN2 is a promising target for predicting and overcoming radioresistance in NPC. Moreover, the downregulation of the immune response, influenced by specific metastasis-evaluation genes ( BAMBI , F13A1 , LCN2 ) and their associated immune-prognostic genes ( SLIT2 , CDKN2A , CLU ), was found to increase the risk of post-operative recurrence [ 46 ]. Higher LCN2 expression was associated with poor clinical outcomes and correlated with increased infiltration of various immune cells. LCN2 may serve as a genetic biomarker for immune infiltration and poor prognosis in cancers, suggesting potential therapeutic targets for cancer treatment [ 83 ].

Complexity in biomarker identification for CTLA4 activation pathway

Identifying the T cell gene CTLA4 and its genetic biomarker presents unique challenges, particularly when detecting certain molecular biomarkers expressed in the bloodstream. The detection of CTLA4 in T cells is complex due to several factors. First, CTLA4 is predominantly found in intracellular compartments before activation and only becomes increasingly detectable on the cell surface upon activation. This necessitates precise timing for effective detection. Second, the proportion of CTLA4-positive T-cell subgroups in the peripheral blood and tumor tissues could be higher, making their detection difficult and costly. Despite the challenges, identifying genetic biomarkers associated with CTLA4 has several advantages over detecting molecular biomarkers in the bloodstream. Genetic biomarkers can provide information about genetic susceptibility, genetic responses to environmental exposures, subclinical or clinical disease markers, or indicators of response to therapy [ 19 ]. They can help identify high-risk individuals reliably and promptly so that they can either be treated before the onset of the disease or as soon as possible. When a genetic biomarker is identified in a cancer through molecular or genetic testing, it tells the physician what makes the cancer grow and thrive. That information allows physicians to decide the most effective treatment for the patient [ 51 ].

Model adaptation for further applications

The further improvement of the proposed quantum neural network can consider the intricate nature of epigenetic modifications, which is of utmost importance. Epigenetic modifications are chemical alterations that occur to the DNA molecule itself or to the proteins tightly bound to it, and they play a crucial role in regulating gene expression and cellular differentiation. These modifications can include phosphorylation, acetylation, or methylation of various amino acids, and they not only add a layer of complexity but also enrich the genomic landscape with many potential biomarkers. To enhance the accuracy and reliability of our quantum neural network model, we need to integrate and analyze these diverse epigenetic markers. Doing so can unravel complex biological interactions and pathways associated with immune responses. This will allow us to identify novel and clinically relevant biomarkers for immunotherapy that may not be discovered through traditional methods.

Furthermore, addressing the complexities of epigenetic modifications will facilitate a more nuanced understanding of the model’s adaptability. This understanding will offer insights into its potential applications and limitations in real-world clinical settings. By taking a comprehensive approach, we ensure that our model is robust and versatile, accommodating the vast array of biomarkers introduced by epigenetic modifications. In turn, this contributes to the advancement of personalized medicine in immuno-therapy, where we can tailor treatments to an individual’s unique genetic makeup, epigenetic modifications, and immune system response.

To this end, a new framework based on the quantum AI model, used for genetic biomarker discovery in biomedical research (" Method " section), has been introduced. The proof of concept is demonstrated in four targeted pathways associating with therapeutic-target CTLA4 in Sect.  4 . Our model found clinical-relevant and notably potential biomarkers/targets for cancer treatment, which are extensively validated through statistical methods and literature mining (Sect.  5.2 ).

We suggest several research directions that can be extended from the study. First, deploying the proposed quantum AI models on real quantum computers is worth investigating in the future, in which the effect of noise should be addressed toward the model’s efficiency and effectiveness. Second, extension to other pathway activation is possible as the proposed algorithm is generalized. Finally, in vivo and in vitro , validations of the discovered in silico biomarkers will translate the findings to therapeutic solutions for cancer treatment and prevention.

Availability of data and materials

The implementation is made open source at: https://github.com/namnguyen0510/Biomarker-Discovery-with-Quantum-Neural-Networks . The particular TCGA data utilized in the analyses discussed in this context are stored on Zenodo:    - Gene expression (identifier: EB++AdjustPANCAN_IlluminaHiSeq_RNASeqV2.geneExp): https://figshare.com/articles/dataset/TCGA_PanCanAtlas_Gene_Expression_Data/6146519    - Copy number data (identifier: pancan_GISTIC_threshold): https://figshare.com/articles/dataset/TCGA_PanCanAtlas_Copy_Number_Data/6144122 The processed data and the experimental history are available at: https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1QsL0N5E2xppWK2pmvfLI621PeXV2OQUA?usp=share_link . The evaluation for statistical significance (Sect.  5.1 ) by cBioPortal is reported at: https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1ubbLEg35Pz9i_Wjr4uKvMuS1KNw5rrsS?usp=sharing . The literature mining for clinical significance (Sect.  5.2 ) is reported at: https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1NHDuJQoah8ZmlP8zWIPD6aYwwWTxqoYe?usp=sharing .

Abbreviations

Artificial intelligence

Machine learning

Quantum machine learning

Maximum relevance-minimum redundancy

\(\copyright\) Gene score

Temperature

Sequential model-based optimization

Copy number variation

The cancer genome atlats

Biomarker(s) identified from genomic data

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Nguyen, PN. Biomarker discovery with quantum neural networks: a case-study in CTLA4 -activation pathways. BMC Bioinformatics 25 , 149 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12859-024-05755-0

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Received : 25 December 2023

Accepted : 20 March 2024

Published : 12 April 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12859-024-05755-0

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