covalent bonding homework answer key

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8.2: Covalent Bonding and Lewis Structures

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Exercise \(\PageIndex{1}\)

Name each molecule.

• What homonuclear diatomic molecule(s) have single bonds?  That is, both atoms are the same element (A-A or B-B, not A-B)
• What homonuclear diatomic molecule(s) have double bonds?
• What homonuclear diatomic molecule(s) have triple bonds?
• How many electrons are in the valence shell of nitrogen?

H 2 , F 2 , Cl 2 , Br 2 , I 2  

N 2 ​​​​​​​ 

Exercise \(\PageIndex{2}\)

• What is the octet rule?
• What atom can never have an octet, and why?
• What group of the periodic table forms stable molecules with 6 electrons in its valence shell?
• Atoms of what periods can not have an expanded octet?

Atoms in a molecule tend to have 8 electrons that reside in 4 orbitals.  These may be lone pairs (localized on the atom) or bonding pairs (shared with another nucleous)

Hydrogen, as there is only one orbital in its valence shell, the 1s orbital​​​​​​ 

the first and second period, as there are no d orbitals.  The first period only has a 1s orbital, while the second has 2s and three 2p

Exercise \(\PageIndex{3}\)

• How many electrons are in a double bond?
• How many electrons are in a triple bond?
• Carbon and sulfur are in group IVA and both have 4 valence electrons in their valence shell.  Why can sulfur have an expanded octet, but carbon can not?

6​​​​​​ 

Carbon is in the second period and so there are only 4 orbitals in the valence shell (2s and three 2p) and thus it can only have 8 electrons, while sulfur is in the third period and has 8 orbitals (one 3s, threee 3p and five 3d), and so it can hold more electrons and have an expanded octet.

Which of the following statements is/are CORRECT?

• Chemical reactions result in the gain, loss, or rearrangement of valence electrons.
• For main group elements, the number of valence electrons equals eight minus the element’s group number.
• Core electrons are not involved in bonding or in chemical reactions.

a. 1 only        b. 2 only        c. 3 only        d. 1 and 3        e. 1, 2, and 3

The given representation of an atom is called the _____.

• a Lewis dot structure.
• a structural formula.
• an electrostatic potential map.
• an ionic bond.

a. a Lewis dot structure.

In the Lewis formula for sulfur dioxide, SO 2 , the number of lone pairs of electrons around the sulfur atom is

Exercise \(\PageIndex{4}\)

What is the total number of electrons (both lone and bond pairs) in the Lewis structure of SO 4 2 - ?

Exercise \(\PageIndex{5}\)

How many valence electrons are present in the Lewis formula for the chlorite ion, Cl 2 – ?

Exercise \(\PageIndex{6}\)

Which of the following molecules or ions are isoelectronic: SO 3 , NF 3 , NO 3 – , CO 3 2 – ?

SO 3 , NO 3 – and CO 3 2 –

Exercise \(\PageIndex{7}\)

Which of the following has a Lewis structure similar to OCS?

a. NH 2 −         b. O 3         c. CO 2          d. SO 2         e. ClO 2 −    

Exercise \(\PageIndex{8}\)

The correct Lewis structure for Cl2CO is (the 2 Cl's and the O are bound to the C and not to each other):

Exercise \(\PageIndex{9}\)

Which of the following is the Lewis electron dot structure for carbon monoxide?

Exercise \(\PageIndex{10}\)

 Which of the following will often have a Lewis dot structure with 6 electrons in the valence orbital?

B, Be, Al, Mg, C, S, Cl

 Which of the following will often have a Lewis dot structure with 4 electrons in the valence orbital?

 Which of the following will often have a Lewis dot structure with 12 electrons in the valence orbital?

 Which of the following will often have a Lewis dot structure with 10 electrons in the valence orbital?

B, Be, Al, Mg, C, P, S 

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Covalent Bonding and Molecular Geometry

This chapter covers the formation and naming of covalent compounds. This includes drawing Lewis dot structures, predicting molecular geometry through the VSEPR theory, and the rules for naming covalent compounds.

Covalent Bonding Powerpoint Lecture

Purpose:  This is a brief Powerpoint lecture that describes the difference between covalent and other types of chemical bonds, including electronegativity difference. The rules of covalent nomenclature are also covered.

Essential Concepts: Covalent bonding, covalent compounds, electronegativity, VSEPR, Lewis dot structures.

Chemical Bonding Notes Outline

Purpose:  This is a fill-in-the-blank style notes outline for students to complete as you complete the accompanying Powerpoint lecture. Each slide has a set of questions, fill-in-the-blanks, or tables that students fill in based on the information given. This is a good aid for students who struggle with taking notes freehand.

Chemthink - Covalent Bonding and Nomenclature

Purpose:  This Chemthink module covers the formation of covalent bonds and how covalent compounds are named through the use of prefixes.

Essential concepts: Covalent bonding, electronegativity, covalent nomenclature.

Chemthink - Molecular Shapes

Purpose:  This Chemthink module helps students learn how to construct Lewis dot structures for covalent compounds and predict their molecular shapes with the VSEPR theory.

Essential concepts: Covalent bonding, Lewis dot structures, molecular geometry, VSEPR.

Electronegativity Difference and Covalent Compounds

Purpose:  This worksheet instructs students in the use of electronegativity difference to identify ionic, nonpolar covalent, and polar covalent compounds.

Essential concepts: Electronegativity, nonpolar covalent bond, polar covalent bond, ionic bond.

Lewis Dot Structures Worksheet

Purpose: The creation of Lewis Dot structures is a helpful first step in predicting the molecular shape made by a covalent compound. In this worksheet, students will be guided in making Lewis Dot structures both for individual atoms and for molecules.

Essential concepts: Covalent compound, molecular geometry, Lewis Dot structures

VSEPR Theory and Molecular Geometry

Purpose:  This worksheet guides students through the use of the VSEPR theory to predict the 3-dimensional shape made by a covalently-bonded molecule. This worksheet only covers the simpler and more common molecular shapes, including linear, bent, trigonal planar, trigonal pyrimidal, and tetrahedral.

Essential concepts: Molecular geometry, VSEPR, linear, bent, trigonal planar, trigonal pyrimidal, and tetrahedral.

VSEPR Theory with Molecular Model Kits

Purpose:  Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion, or VSEPR Theory, is a way to determine what geometric shape a covalent compound will make based on the number of bonds and unpaired electrons surrounding the central atom of the compound. This is a chart that I have students fill out as they use a chemistry model kit to build various covalent compounds.

Essential concepts: VSEPR, molecular geometry, linear, trigonal planar, bent, tetrahedral, trigonal pyramidal, Lewis dot structures.

Covalent Compound Nomenclature Worksheet

Purpose:  This worksheet instructs students on the use of prefixes (mono-, di-, etc) to name covalent compounds.

Essential concepts: Covalent compounds, covalent nomenclature

Covalent Bonding and Molecular Geometry Study Guide

Purpose:  Once the instruction for the unit is completed, students can complete this study guide to aid in their preparation for a written test. The study guide is divided into two sections: vocabulary and short answer questions. The vocabulary words can be found scattered throughout the different instructional worksheets from this unit. The short answer questions are conceptual and meant to see if the students are able to apply what they've learned in the unit.

Similarities: Both types of bonds result from overlap of atomic orbitals on adjacent atoms and contain a maximum of two electrons. Differences: σ bonds are stronger and result from end-to-end overlap and all single bonds are σ bonds; π bonds between the same two atoms are weaker because they result from side-by-side overlap, and multiple bonds contain one or more π bonds (in addition to a σ bond).

The specific average bond distance is the distance with the lowest energy. At distances less than the bond distance, the positive charges on the two nuclei repel each other, and the overall energy increases.

Bonding: One σ bond and one π bond. The s orbitals are filled and do not overlap. The p orbitals overlap along the axis to form a σ bond and side-by-side to form the π bond.

No, two of the p orbitals (one on each N) will be oriented end-to-end and will form a σ bond.

Hybridization is introduced to explain the geometry of bonding orbitals in valance bond theory.

There are no d orbitals in the valence shell of carbon.

trigonal planar, sp 2 ; trigonal pyramidal (one lone pair on A) sp 3 ; T-shaped (two lone pairs on A sp 3 d , or (three lone pairs on A) sp 3 d 2

(a) Each S has a bent (109°) geometry, sp 3

(b) Bent (120°), sp 2

(c) Trigonal planar, sp 2

(d) Tetrahedral, sp 3

(a) XeF 2 (b)

(c) linear (d) sp 3 d

(b) P atoms, trigonal pyramidal; S atoms, bent, with two lone pairs; Cl atoms, trigonal pyramidal; (c) Hybridization about P, S, and Cl is, in all cases, sp 3 ; (d) Oxidation states P +1, S − 1 1 3 , − 1 1 3 , Cl +5, O –2. Formal charges: P 0; S 0; Cl +2: O –1

Phosphorus and nitrogen can form sp 3 hybrids to form three bonds and hold one lone pair in PF 3 and NF 3 , respectively. However, nitrogen has no valence d orbitals, so it cannot form a set of sp 3 d hybrid orbitals to bind five fluorine atoms in NF 5 . Phosphorus has d orbitals and can bind five fluorine atoms with sp 3 d hybrid orbitals in PF 5 .

A triple bond consists of one σ bond and two π bonds. A σ bond is stronger than a π bond due to greater overlap.

(b) The terminal carbon atom uses sp 3 hybrid orbitals, while the central carbon atom is sp hybridized. (c) Each of the two π bonds is formed by overlap of a 2 p orbital on carbon and a nitrogen 2 p orbital.

(a) sp 2 ; (b) sp ; (c) sp 2 ; (d) sp 3 ; (e) sp 3 ; (f) sp 3 d ; (g) sp 3

(a) sp 2 , delocalized; (b) sp , localized; (c) sp 2 , delocalized; (d) sp 3 , delocalized

Each of the four electrons is in a separate orbital and overlaps with an electron on an oxygen atom.

(a) Similarities: Both are bonding orbitals that can contain a maximum of two electrons. Differences: σ orbitals are end-to-end combinations of atomic orbitals, whereas π orbitals are formed by side-by-side overlap of orbitals. (b) Similarities: Both are quantum-mechanical constructs that represent the probability of finding the electron about the atom or the molecule. Differences: ψ for an atomic orbital describes the behavior of only one electron at a time based on the atom. For a molecule, ψ represents a mathematical combination of atomic orbitals. (c) Similarities: Both are orbitals that can contain two electrons. Differences: Bonding orbitals result in holding two or more atoms together. Antibonding orbitals have the effect of destabilizing any bonding that has occurred.

An odd number of electrons can never be paired, regardless of the arrangement of the molecular orbitals. It will always be paramagnetic.

Bonding orbitals have electron density in close proximity to more than one nucleus. The interaction between the bonding positively charged nuclei and negatively charged electrons stabilizes the system.

The pairing of the two bonding electrons lowers the energy of the system relative to the energy of the nonbonded electrons.

(a) H 2 bond order = 1, H 2 + H 2 + bond order = 0.5, H 2 − H 2 − bond order = 0.5, strongest bond is H 2 ; (b) O 2 bond order = 2, O 2 2+ O 2 2+ bond order = 3; O 2 2− O 2 2− bond order = 1, strongest bond is O 2 2+ ; O 2 2+ ; (c) Li 2 bond order = 1, Be 2 + Be 2 + bond order = 0.5, Be 2 bond order = 0, strongest bond is Li 2 Li 2 ;(d) F 2 bond order = 1, F 2 + F 2 + bond order = 1.5, F 2 − F 2 − bond order = 0.5, strongest bond is F 2 + ; F 2 + ; (e) N 2 bond order = 3, N 2 + N 2 + bond order = 2.5, N 2 − N 2 − bond order = 2.5, strongest bond is N 2

(a) H 2 ; (b) N 2 ; (c) O; (d) C 2 ; (e) B 2

Yes, fluorine is a smaller atom than Li, so atoms in the 2 s orbital are closer to the nucleus and more stable.

N 2 has s-p mixing, so the π orbitals are the last filled in N 2 2+ . N 2 2+ . O 2 does not have s-p mixing, so the σ p orbital fills before the π orbitals.

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Moscow Facts & Worksheets

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Table of Contents

Moscow , Russian Moskva, is the capital and most populated city of Russia , situated in the westward part of the country. Moscow is not just the political capital city of Russia but also the industrial, cultural, scientific, and educational capital. For more than 600 years, Moscow also has been the spiritual center of the Russian Orthodox Church.

See the fact file below for more information on the Moscow or alternatively, you can download our 21-page Moscow worksheet pack to utilise within the classroom or home environment.

Key Facts & Information

Description.

• The city area is about 30 km in diameter and the population reaches to almost 10 million people.
• Moscow was first mentioned in the chronicles of 1147, where it played an important role in Russian history.
• The people of Moscow are known as Muscovites.
• Moscow is famous for its architecture, especially its historical buildings such as Saint Basil’s Cathedral .
• Moscow is a city with the most money in Russia and the third biggest budget in the world.
• Moscow began as a medieval city and developed into what was known as the Grand Duchy of Moscow, an administrative region ruled by a prince.
• Moscow is where all Russia’s tensions and inequalities meet to coexist, producing a unique feeling of a city that looks European but feels somewhat Asian in its mood and intensity.
• In 1147 Moscow was called Moskov, which sounds closer to its current name. Moscow was derived from the Moskva river, on which the city is located. The Finno-Ugric tribes, who originally inhabited the territory, named the river Mustajoki, in English: Black River, which was presumably how the name of the city originated.
• Several theories were proposed on the origin of the name of the river however linguists cannot come to any agreement and those theories haven’t been proven yet.
• The first known reference to Moscow dates from 1147 as a meeting place of Yuri Dolgoruky and Sviatoslav Olgovich. Muscovites today consider Prince Yury Dolgoruky their city’s founding father, but it was only recorded that he dined with friends in the town.
• In 1156, led by Knjaz Yury Dolgoruky, the town was barricaded with a timber fence and a moat. In the course of the Mongol invasion of Rus, the Mongols under Batu Khan burned the city to the ground and killed its inhabitants.
• Nevertheless, Moscow was restored and became more important. Yet the Mongols came back in 1382 and burned Moscow City again.
• Still, Moscow shortly recovered and In the 15th century, it probably gained a population of about 50,000. But, unfortunately, in 1571 the Crimean Tatars burned Moscow again.
• By 1712, Tsar Peter the Great decided to move his capital to St. Petersburg from Moscow. With this, Moscow began a period of dissolution. In the 1770s Moscow suffered an outbreak of the bubonic plague. But still, Moscow University was successfully founded in 1755 and at the beginning of the 19th century, Moscow was prospering again.
• Arbat Street at that time was also established. But then, Napoleon invaded Russia. The Muscovites, the retreating party, set their own city on fire by 1812 and it was rebuilt completely at the beginning of the 19th century.
• During 1917 the Communists started a revolution in which they imposed a totalitarian government in Russia. By 1918, Lenin transferred his administration to Moscow.
• After Lenin, the tyrant Josef Stalin governed the city. Under his regime, several historic buildings in the city were destroyed. Nevertheless, the first line of the Metro opened in 1935.
• By June 1941, the Germans had invaded Russia and had arrived on the outskirts of Moscow by December. As they arrived, they suddenly  turned back.
• After the Second World War , Moscow continued prospering even though many nations boycotted the Moscow Olympics in 1980.
• Fortunately, Communism collapsed in Russia in 1991 and in 1997 Moscow celebrated its 850th anniversary.
• Moscow is situated on the banks of the Moskva River, which flows through the East European Plain in central Russia. Teplostanskaya highland is the city’s highest point at 255 meters (837 feet). The width of Moscow city (not limiting MKAD) from west to east is 39.7 km (24.7 mi), and the length from north to south is 51.8 km (32.2 mi).
• Moscow has a humid continental climate with long, cold winters usually lasting from mid-November through the end of March, and warm summers .
• Moscow is the financial center of Russia and home to the country’s largest banks and many of its largest companies, such as natural gas giant Gazprom.
• The Cherkizovsky marketplace was the largest marketplace in Europe , with a daily turnover of about thirty million dollars and about ten thousand venders from different countries including China and India .
• Many new business centers and office buildings have been built in recent years, but Moscow still experiences shortages in office space.
• With this, many former industrial and research facilities are being reconstructed to become suitable for office use.
• In totality, economic stability has developed in recent years. But, crime and corruption still hinder business growth.
• Saint Basil’s Cathedral is famed as the Cathedral of Vasily the Blessed amongst the locals. It served as one of the crucial landmarks of Moscow.
• Location: Krasnaya Square, 2, Moscow 109012, Russia
• Moscow Kremlin serves as the home in which all these tourist sites reside. It encompasses almost all the famous sightseeing attractions such as the royal residence of the President of Russia.
• Location: Moscow, Russia
• Red Square separates the royal citadel of Kremlin from the ancient merchant quarter of Kitai-gorod, one of the most interesting places in Moscow. Bearing the weight of Russia’s history to a great extent, Red Square serves not just as an attraction but as the heart, soul, and symbol of the whole country.
• Location: Krasnaya Ploshchad, Moscow, Russia

Moscow Worksheets

This is a fantastic bundle which includes everything you need to know about Moscow across 21 in-depth pages. These are ready-to-use Moscow worksheets that are perfect for teaching students about the Moscow, Russian Moskva, which is the capital and most populated city of Russia, situated in the westward part of the country. Moscow is not just the political capital city of Russia but also the industrial, cultural, scientific, and educational capital. For more than 600 years, Moscow also has been the spiritual center of the Russian Orthodox Church.

Complete List Of Included Worksheets

• Moscow Facts
• Moscow Breaking News
• Moscow Basic Info
• Moscow’s Significant Events
• Moscow Characteristics
• Populous Cities
• Sports Facts
• Moscow Landmarks
• Symbolization
• Moscow Slogan

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