essay on anglo saxon literature

The Anglo Saxon Period: Literature and History

The Anglo Saxon Period in English literature spanned from 410 CE to 1066 CE. Despite coinciding with the Dark Ages of England, it is the foundational period of English identity and language as we know today. Understanding England before and after the arrival of  the Germanic Saxons, Angles, and Jutes is indispensable for an understanding of the Anglo Saxon literature.

TABLE OF CONTENT

• Arrival and fall of the Roman Empire in England
• Society and Religion in the Anglo Saxon Period
• Christianization of Anglo Saxon England
• Vikings invasion and King Alfred
• Anglo Saxon Heroic Poetry
• Anglo Saxon Religious poetry

Lyrical Elegies in Old English literature

• MS Cotton Vitellius
• The Junius Manuscript
• The Exeter Book
• Love Poetry of Anglo Saxon Literature
• Old English Literature The Vercelli Book

England before the Anglo Saxon Period

The celtic and gaelic tribes.

To understand Anglo Saxon period in English literature, we must know about the Celts and the Romans. The Gaelic and Celtic tribes or the Celts lived in England as early as 1000 BC. While the Gaeles spoke Gaelic, the Celts spoke Common Brittonic language and practiced ancient Celtic religion supervised by the druids. It was in the year 43 CE that the Romans invaded and conquered most of England under the leadership of King Claudius. This Roman Empire lasted till the year 410 CE.

The Celtic tribes imbibed and practiced the Roman culture despite the obvious political resistance. Romans too were devoted to England. Afterall, England was an extremely rich and arable land. Additionally, it also had rich metal reservoirs such as abundance of gold in Wales, iron in the Forest of Dean, lead in the North of Wales, Derbyshire, and Yorkshire. On top of everything, the geographical location of England made any attacks and invasions difficult, making it relatively easier for the Romans to maintain their empire.

Arrival and Fall of the Roman Empire in England (43 CE- 410 CE)

The Romans arrived in England with King Claudius in 43 CE and ruled the country for about 400 years. During this time, England was named Britannia after the Celtic-speaking Britons. Under the Roman empire, England developed roads, towns, and striking forts and walls. Romans also introduced England to foods and fruits such as pear, peas, apples, etc.

The fall of the Roman Empire (410 CE)

The Anglo Saxon began after the Romans retreated from England in 410 CE. The Roman Empire was one of the largest empires in the ancient world that included Spain, France, Germany, Britain, parts of North Africa and Western Asia as well. Undoubtedly, it also became extremely difficult to protect, defend, and rule. In the year 285 CE, the Roman Emperor Diocletian split the vast Roman Empire into two manageable regions:

• The Eastern Roman Empire that included regions such as Egypt, Cyprus, Turkey, Israel, etc. Constantinople (present day Istanbul) was the capital of Eastern Roman Empire.
• The Western Roman Empire included France, Britain, Germany, Italy, etc. Rome was its capital.

In around 407 CE, the Western Roman Empire began to fall apart due to the constant attacks and invasions by the Vandals, Ostrogoths, and Visigoths. In order to safeguard and mitigate the attacks, Roman soldiers had to retreat from Britain and move towards the attacked regions. By 410 CE, every last Roman soldier had retreated from Britain. Another key factor that resulted in the downfall of the Roman Empire was the Huns invasion under King Attila.

The Dark Age in England (410 CE - 1066 CE)

The years after the Romans left England are also known as the Dark Ages. This is majorly due to the absence of any substantial historical record for this time. Nevertheless, it was a crucial period where a new English identity and language emerged. As soon as the Romans retreated from Britain, all the tribes they had repressed and controlled began to raid and attack the island. These invaders were Irish from the West, Picts from the North, and the Germanic tribes (Angles, Saxons, and Jutes) from the East. By the year 500 CE, the Anglo Saxons had invaded most parts of Britain. Therefore, the time period from 410 CE to 1066 CE is known as the Anglo Saxon period.

The Anglo Saxon Period

410 ce to 1066 ce.

This section gives a brief overview of the Anglo Saxons The Anglo Saxons were a group of Germanic tribes that ruled England from 410 CE to 1066. They included the Angles who originated from modern Jutland and ruled east, north, and midlands, Saxons who were originally from south of Denmark and east of modern Holstein ruled the south and southwestern regions, and the Jutes who ruled Kent in the southeast. The Celtic tribes who inhabited England before the Roman invasion were now termed as 'Welsh' which meant 'foreigners' in Germanic language. The 'Welsh' continued to preserve their language and culture in Wales and their language and culture is alive to this day.

Society and Religion in the Anglo Saxon period

The Anglo Saxons practiced paganism and worshipped multiple deities such as Norse, Woden, Thunor, etc. The Anglo Saxon society was a rich society where loyalty was the single most important virtue. Marriages used to be political and practical affairs. Women in Anglo Saxon period held an integral position and were considered the weavers of both cloth and the society. They enjoyed hereditary rights to property and even owned kingdoms.

The Anglo Saxons were great poets and were extremely fond of riddles. However, we must note that they did not record or write any of their works. Most of the poetry was meant to be sung and was orally transmitted from generation to generation. Most works were written later by the Roman monks who came to convert England to Christianity in the 6th century.

Christianization of Anglo Saxon England (597 CE approximately)

Christianization of the pagan Anglo Saxon society began during the 6th century. It was in 597 CE that Augustine was sent by Pope Gregory to lead the mission of christianization in the south of England and became the first archbishop of  Canterbury. On the other hand, the Celtic monks christianized northern England and Scotland. Christianization of England during the Anglo Saxon period had the following consequences:

• There had been no books before Christianity. Books were written because the written word was significant to the Church and the services relied upon the reading of the Holy Scriptures. Therefore, the written word was introduced to the otherwise oral tradition of the Anglo Saxons.
• The Runic alphabets of the Germanic tribes gradually replaced the Roman alphabets.
• Majority of the written literature was in Latin as it was the language of the Roman Church.
• The Anglo Saxon England gained presence and visibility in the mainstream Western European culture due to Latin.

Latin was exclusive to people at high religious posts. However oral literacy remained prevalent among the general population that communicated in Old English. This was the reason why religious instructions for common masses were conducted in English instead of Latin.

Invasion by the Vikings and King Alfred (793 CE)

The Vikings raided and attacked England in the year 793 CE of the Anglo Saxon period. Interestingly, they only raided and attacked monasteries as they were guarded by unarmed monks and were vulnerable but rich targets, During this time all the monasteries and libraries housing rich Anglo Saxon literature got destroyed.

King Alfred (848 CE - 899 CE)

All the damage incurred during the raids and attacks of the Vikings began to get restored during the reign of King Alfred from 848 CE to 899 CE. During this time of the Anglo Saxon period, monasteries were revived and English learning was encouraged. All the four volumes of Old English verses belong to this period. These four volumes are:

• The Beowulf Manuscript
• The Vercelli Book

These volumes of  Anglo Saxon literature contain poetry composed by diverse unknown poets belonging to diverse backgrounds. They display wide-ranging, layered and complex poetry that was popular during the Anglo Saxon period.

Anglo Saxon Period in English Literature or Old English literature

Features and complete list of works, characteristics of anglo saxon poetry and prose.

Anglo Saxon literature is dominated by either heroic or epic poetry written in alliterative verses, or religious poetry with heroic elements in it. While prose did not exist until the reign of King Alfred, Anglo Saxon heroic and religious poetry were prevalent in the period.

Anglo Saxon Heroic poetry

Heroic Poetry is “ a long narrative poem celebrating the great deeds of one or more legendary heroes, in a grand ceremonious style. The hero, usually protected by or even descended from gods, performs superhuman exploits in battle or in marvellous voyages, often saving or founding a nation …” [The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms, 2001, p 82]. The Anglo Saxon heroic poetry gives the readers an insight to the pagan world and culture of the Germanic tribes.

As mentioned above , England was Christianized by the 7th century. In that process, a lot of Anglo Saxon poetry was preserved and written by the monks and many of the pagan elements in the poem were modified or censored. Moreover, most of the Anglo Saxon Heroic poetry is estimated to have survived by sheer chance. The epic or heroic poetry of the Anglo Saxon period emphasizes on the values of tribal communities, and considers loyalty between lord and liegeman as one of the most important virtues. It glorifies individual heroism and highlights the significance of fate in a human's life. It is mostly composed in alliterative verses and is a product of an oral tradition. All Anglo Saxon poetry was meant to be orally recited by a scop or an itinerant minstrel who visited the courts of Kings or often served one master.

Best examples of Anglo Saxon heroic poetry are Widsith , Beowulf , Deor , Battle of Maldon , The Battle of Brunanburh , and Waldhere .

The poem Widsith , is an account of a well travelled scop who gives a detailed account of all the heroes from the Germanic world spanning 200 years. It is a combination of heroic traditions and historical accounts and provides to us an overview of Germanic history and geography.

The most important heroic poetry belonging to the Anglo Saxon period is Beowulf . It is the only complete epic poem in an ancient Germanic language and the only narrative poem that so effectively narrates the Heroic Age of the Germanic tribes. It combines the heroic idealism seamlessly with somber fatalism. The first section of the poem deals with Beowulf assisting King Hrothgar of Denmark against the monster called Grendel and its mother. After successfully slaying the monster and its mother, Beowulf is celebrated and awarded with laurels. In the second section of the poem, Beowulf, who now has been the King of the Geats, encounters a fire breathing dragon. He valiantly and successfully kills the dragon but unfortunately succumbs to his wounds. Even though Beowulf is an Anglo Saxon poem that was composed in England, it transports the readers back to a time before the Anglo Saxon invasion. The heroes of the Geats, Swedes, and Danes are the focus of the poem. Beowulf the most important Anglo Saxon poetry because it perfectly reflects the values of the Heroic Age and even resembles Odyssey in this case. It shares with Odyssey the grand gestures with which men of ranks are received, the generosity of Kings, the loyalty of men, the ambition for fame through courage and performance in wars, and pride in noble lineage. Beowulf exhibits all characteristics of an ideal hero- he is valiant, fierce, stoic, generous and while dying, wishes nothing but the people to remember him. All these factors make this seminal poem an ideal and perhaps the only example of a heroic epic belonging to the Anglo Saxon period.

Deor is another example of heroic Anglo Saxon poetry. It lists various Germanic heroes and how they endured and overcame various hardships. The poem interestingly combines heroic elements with elegiac and personal elements.

Waldhere is another Anglo Saxon heroic poem that was accidentally discovered after 1860. The poem is based on the Waltharius story, well-known to the common people and offers popular stories of Germanic heroes.

The two most important heroic poems written close to the end of the Anglo Saxon period are The Battle of Brunanburh and Battle of Maldon. The Battle of Brunanburh is included in the Anglo Saxon Chronicle and was composed around 937 CE. It is based on the victory of  Athelstan and his brother Eadmund against the Olaf the Norseman, Britons of Strathclyde, and Constantine, the king of Scots. This poem is different than the previous Anglo Saxon heroic poetry like Beowulf, Widsith, Deor, etc. This poem is infused with the patriotism. Older heroic poems did not focus much on the nationality of the hero. The hero represented all the Germanian tribes and was equally admired and celebrated by all the Germanic people. This changes in The Battle of Brunanburh. The poem specifically celebrates the victory of the English forces against the Norse, Welsh and Scottish enemies. Athelstan and Eadmund are no longer just individual heroes but are portrayed as the champions of England.

The Battle of Maldon too appears in the Anglo Saxon Chronicle and was composed around 991 CE. It is based on one of many clashes between the English and the Danes that led to the eventual conquest by King Cnut (Canute). The poem is strikingly similar to the older heroic poetry and contains speeches of encouragement for the loosing English army. The poem lists many English warriors by their names, and portrays undying loyalty of men towards their chief effectively. With the Battle of Maldon, the Anglo Saxon heroic poetry came to an end.

Anglo Saxon Religious or Christian Poetry

We know that most Anglo Saxon literature was written during the Christianization of England. The monks who attempted to preserve Anglo Saxon poetry were most likely only focused on preserving religious verses. Hence, a significant amount of poetry that survives today is religious.

By the eighth century, the elements of Anglo Saxon heroic poetry were applied to religious verses. There was a significant transition where the Anglo Saxons left behind the pagan elements and embraced Christianity. The subject of their verses shifted from pagan heroes and heroic themes to Latin Christianity. Most of the religious poetry in the Anglo Saxon period was composed in Northumbria (northern England). Religious poetry in Old English literature is inspired from Latin and gives an English treatment to themes that were common throughout Christian Europe.

According to Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People , the very first religious poetry of the Anglo Saxon period belongs to Caedmon. The poem comprises of only 9 lines. It is worthwhile to notice how there is a fundamental shift. Initially, the scop performed and sang for the King or his lord, but this changes and now the focus shifts to God. The heroic style and elements are now being applied to biblical subjects. Verses such as Exodus , Genesis , Christ and Satan , and Daniel , are religious poems that belong to the Caedmonian school, and are included in the Junius Manuscript.

Another important poet of religious Anglo Saxon poetry is Cynewulf. Four of his poems - Christ , Elene , The Fates of the Apostles , and Juliana exist today. In the poems composed by Cynewulf, heroic elements are replaced by contemplative and meditative tones. Cynewulf did not just compose biblical paraphrases, but infused in his works didactic, mystical, and devotional elements and influenced religious poetry to a significant extent. Poems such as Dream of the Rood ,   Andreas , Guthlac A and B, and the Phoenix, all belong to school of Cynewulf. Another significant religious poem of Anglo Saxon period is Judith .

Although not as prevalent and popular as the religious and heroic Anglo Saxon poetry, there also exists lyrical elegies in Old English literature. The Wanderer and The Seafarer are the two poems where moods of lament, retrospection and melancholy dominate. Nevertheless, both the poems end with conventional moralising.

Anglo Saxon Writers and their Works

This section includes an exhaustive list of important works of Anglo Saxon literature. Anglo Saxon period in English literature includes heroic and religious alliterative verses and prose. Most of the Old English poetry is in West Saxon dialect. This section includes an exhaustive list of  Anglo Saxon poetry and prose. During the invasions of England by the Vikings, a massive amount of Anglo Saxon literature was destroyed by fire. Unfortunately, almost all the poetry belonging to the Anglo Saxon literature is included in four manuscripts-

• The MS Cotton Vitellius : This manuscript contains poems such as Beowulf , Judith , and three works in prose- The Life of Saint Christopher , Wonders of the East , and Letters of Alexander to Aristotle .
• The Junius Manuscript : It contains four poems- Genesis , Exodus , Daniel , and Christ and Satan .
• The Exeter Book : Includes Christ , Juliana , The Wanderer , The Seafarer , Widsith , Deor , and many other shorter poems.
• The Vercelli Book : this manuscript includes Andreas , The Fates of the Apostles , Address of the Soul to the Body , The Dream of the Rood , and Elene .

The section below has a brief overview of Anglo Saxon poems contained in each of the above manuscripts.‌

Anglo Saxon poetry included in the MS Cotton Vitellius

One of the most important literary works of the Anglo Saxon literature is Beowulf . The poem is a heroic epic with alliterative verse. It is one of the most important and the only existing epic poem of the Anglo Saxon period. The composer of the Beowulf is unknown and it can be divided into 43 sections, also known as fitts.

Beowulf: a brief summary

• The Life and Death of Scyld (lines 1 to 54): The opening lines of Beowulf talk about the life and death of Scyld Scefing, the first great king of the Spear Danes who was found as a baby in a ship. Scyld had a son called Beow Beowulf who was at least as glorious and brave as his father. Upon his death, Scyld Scefing is laid to rest in a ship and is set out to the sea according to his wishes.
• Scyld’s Successors-Hrothgar’s Great Mead-Hall (Lines 55-116): Beow Beowulf succeeds his great father as the king of Spear-Danes and rules the kingdom efficiently for several years. Beow had three sons - Hrothgar, Heorogar, and Halga, and a daughter Elan who became a loved queen to the Swedish King Onela. Horthgar eventually became an extremely successful and victorious ruler of Spear-Danes. He decides upon the construction of a magnificent and lavish mead-hall in order to feast and celebrate. The hall is named Heorot. The celebrations and happiness of the Danesmen is cut-short when Grendel, a monster jealous of the blissful existence of the Danesmen, attacks the mead-hall.
• Grendel, the Murderer (lines 116-189): Grendel attacks Heorot and kills 30 heroes. The whole kingdom drowns in fear, sorrow, and agony. Grendel’s attacks continue for 12 years and makes King Hrothgar miserable.
• Beowulf goes to Hrothgar’s assistance (lines 190-258): Grendel continued in his merciless killings and King Hrothgar was unable to find any solution to this misery. The nephew of King Hygelac, king of Geats hears about the menace created by Grendel and decides to assist King Hrothgar. With an army Beowulf reaches the kingdom of Spear-Danes.
• The Geats reach Heorot (lines 259-320): Upon reaching the Danish Kingdom, Beowulf introduces himself to the Danish coast guards. He informs that he is linked to King Hyglac and is the son of Ecgtheow, a well known warrior. Beowulf then offers his assistance to King Horthgar to help him quell the destruction caused by Grendel. The coast guard welcomes Beowulf and guides him to the palace.
• Beowulf introduces himself at the palace (lines 321-372): This is the section where the name of Beowulf is disclosed for the very first time in the Anglo Saxon poem. Wulfgar, chief of the Wendals and the counselor and herald of King Horthgar asks Beowulf about his intentions and asks his king to welcome Beowulf. Beowulf is warmly received by the king.
• Hrothgar and Beowulf (lines 373-456): This section includes the introductory conversation between Beowulf and king Horthgar. The King welcomes Beowulf and claims to remember his father and him in his younger days. Beowulf declares that just as Grendel uses no weapons, he will too attack and slay him completely unaided.
• Hrothgar and Beowulf continues (lines 457- 499): Hrothgar, the king of Spear-Danes remembers Beowulf’s father Ecgtheow. He also discloses the atrocities and horrors by Grendel and the inability of his men to slay him despite their boastful claims. He welcomes Beowulf to the feast and all heroes of the kingdom rejoice with hope.
• Unferth taunts Beowulf (lines 500-560): Unferth, a jealous Thane of Hrothgar gets jealous of Beowulf and attempts to taunt and question him. He mocks and criticizes Beowulf for participating in a swimming match with Brecca as it was life-threatening for both of them. Unferth even adds how Grendel will defeat Beowulf just as Brecca had defeated him in the swimming match. Beowulf gives a befitting reply to Unferth.
• Beowulf Silences Unferth-Glee is high (lines 561-663): Beowulf claims how he has always been victorious and has won many fierce battles against sea-monsters and silences Unferth by questioning his performance in the battle against Grendel. Finally, King Hrothgar trusts Beowulf and rejoices and celebrates his arrivals. His queen, Wealhtheow welcomes Beowulf too.
• All Sleep save one (lines 664- 713): Everyone retires to sleep and Beowulf prepares to rest too and awaits the arrival of Grendel.
• Grendel and Beowulf (lines 713-794): This section includes the fight between Grendel and Beowulf.
• Grendel is Vanquished (lines 795- 840): Beowulf defeats Grendel and suspends his hand and arm in the mead-hall or Heorot. However, the monster escapes.
• Rejoicing of the Danes (lines 841-929): Beowulf defeats Grendel and is celebrated by all the Danes of the kingdom. He is even considered as the successor to king Hrothgar. Gleemen or singers sing Beowulf’s praises and also of Sigemund who had defeated and killed a fire-dragon. Both Beowulf and Siegmund are praised in contrast to an inefficient Danish King called Heremod.
• Hrothgar’s Gratitude (lines 930-995): Hrothgar expresses his gratitude to Beowulf and declares him as his son.
• Hrothgar Lavishes gifts upon his Deliverer (lines 996-1052): Beowulf and his companions receive expensive rewards.
• Banquet (continued).-The Scop’s song of Finn and Hnaef ( lines 1053-1124 ): Hrothgar’s scop sings about the Danish general Hnaef who was attacked during his stay at the Frisian king Finn’s castle. The scop retells the story of the allegiance between the Frisians and the Danes.
• The Finn Episode continues (lines 1125-1191): This section continues the story of Hnaef and Finn. Hengest, the new Danish general plans to seek revenge for Hnaef’s death, and Guthlaf and Oslaf avenge his slaughter. They kill Finn and take his jewels and his queen Hildeburg. The story concludes and the events of the poem resume. Beowulf is praised and celebrated by the Danish queen too.
• Beowulf receives further Honor (lines 1192-1249): In this section of the Anglo Saxon epic, Beowulf receives even more rewards and appreciation but tragedy awaits them.
• The Mother of Grendel (lines 1250-1320): Since the defeat of Grendel by the hands of valiant Beowulf, his mother is thirsting to avenge her son. While Beowulf was asleep in another part of the palace, Grendel’s mother captured Hrothgar’s favorite nobleman Aeschere.
• Hrothgar’s account of the Monsters (lines 1321-1381): Hrothgar once again grieves the death of Aeschere, his ideal hero and tells Beowulf about the tragic attack by Grendel’s mother. King Hrothgar once again asks Beowulf for help.
• Beowulf seeks Grendel’s Mother (lines 1382-1468): Beowulf along with King Hrothgar embarks on the journey to kill Grendel’s mother.
• Beowulf’s fight with Grendel’s mother (lines 1469-1550): This section of the epic from the Anglo Saxon period includes a fierce battle between Beowulf and Grendel’s mother.
• Beowulf is double conqueror (lines 1551-1640): Beowulf kills Grendel’s mother with a giant sword and chops off the head of Grendel, thereby being doubly victorious.
• Beowulf brings his trophies.-Hrothgar’s gratitude (lines 1641-1734): Heorot is finally free from monsters and Hrothgar praises Beowulf once again.
• Hrothgar moralizes-rest after labor (lines 1735-1804): Hrothgar talks about his reign and all the sorrows and joys while Beowulf rests. The Geats now prepare to leave Danish land and Unferth gifts his sword to Beowulf.
• Sorrow at Parting (lines 1805-1875): Beowulf is bidden a sorrowful farewell and he resolves to always be available to help the king. Hrothgar praises him profusely and grieves the departure of Beowulf.
• The Homeward journey-the two Queens (lines 1876- 1946): Beowulf along with his men return to their country Geatland. Hygd, the queen of Higelac, King of Geats is compared with King Offa’s queen Thrytho.
• Beowulf and Hygelac (lines 1947-2015): Beowulf is welcomed by Queen Hygd and King Higelac asks him about his adventures in the Danish kingdom. Beowulf narrates his battle with Grendel and his mother.
• Beowulf Narrates his adventures to Higelac (lines 2016-2124): This section of the epic poem from the Anglo Saxon period continues Beowulf’s account of his encounter with Grendel and his mother, and how he was showered with praises and expensive rewards from King Hrothgar and his queen after his victory.
• Gift-giving is mutual (lines 2125-2198): Beowulf lays all his gifts at his king Hygelac’s feet. He also gifts the necklace given to him by Wealhtheow to queen Hygd. After the death of Hygelac and his son Heardred’s murder, Beowulf becomes the King of Danish land and rules for fifty years.
• The Hoard and the Dragon (lines 2199-2287) : Beowulf’s peaceful reign is interrupted by a dragon who had guarded an underground barrow of treasure for 300 years. Once a slave encounters the hidden treasure and steals a cup from it. This infuriates the dragon and being unable to catch hold of the thief, it begins to destroy the land and buildings along with Beowulf’s hall.
• Brave through aged-Reminiscences (lines 2288-2363): Beowulf hears of the destruction caused by the enraged dragon. He determines to fight alone and remembers Hygelac’s death and his son Heardred’s inefficiency to rule the kingdom. Eanmund and Eadgils pay Beowulf a visit.
• Beowulf seeks the Dragon- Beowulf’s reminiscences (lines 2364-2429): Beowulf sets to find the dragon with 11 of his men. He remembers his life.
• Reminiscences (continued)- Beowulf’s last battle (lines 2430-2564): Beowulf remembers how he was offered the throne by queen Hygd after the death of King Higelac since their son Heardred was too young. Beowulf refuses to take over the throne and rather loyally serves and counsels King Heardred. He succeeded to the Danish throne after Heardred was killed in a feud with the Swedes. Beowulf now battles the dragon.
• Wiglaf the trusty-Beowulf is deserted by friends and by sword (lines 2565-2652): During the battle with the dragon, all his men leave his side except for Wiglaf. The battle continues.
• The Fatal struggle-Beowulf’s last moments (lines 2653-2708) : Beowulf defeats the dragon but is fatally wounded himself. He regrets not having a son and successor and is comforted by Wiglaf.
• Wiglaf plunders the dragon’s den- Beowulf’s death ( lines 2709-2775): Beowulf succumbs to his wounds and dies with a hope that he will be remembered by his people.
• The dead foes- Wiglaf’s bitter taunts (lines 2776-2842): Wiglaf mourns the death of Beowulf and chides those who had deserted their leader and king.
• The messenger of Death (lines 2843-2892): Wiglaf sends the tragic news of Beowulf’s demise.
• The messenger’s retrospect (lines 2893-3004)
• Wiglaf’s sad story -Hoard carried off (lines 3005-3080): A funeral pyre is created for Beowulf
• The burning of Beowulf (lines 3081-3125): This is the last section of the Anglo Saxon epic and includes the final rites and funeral of Beowulf, an ideal king.

The Anglo Saxon poem Judith is based on the Latin text of the Book of Judith included in the Bible. This religious and heroic poem is included in the Nowell Codex manuscript of the The MS Cotton Vitellius and its date and poet are unknown. We only have the concluding sections of the poem.

Historical context : The Assyrians had been attacking and looting the city of Bethulia and were ruthlessly killing Israelites who are the descendants of the Biblical patriarchs and matriarchs.

The extant poem begins with Judith of Bethulia praying to God for strength and courage to execute her plan of defeating the Assyrians. The poem includes details about the feast hosted by the Assyrian general Holofernes for his army. He orders his men to bring Judith for his sexual gratification. Judith is brought to Holofernes but due to God's will, is unable to exploit her and falls in a drunken sleep. Getting her courage from God, Judith takes a sword and beheads Holofernes. She takes his head, puts it in a bag and sets off for Bethulia with her servant. There, she displays Holofernes' severed head, tells the general masses how God had helped her, and motivates the people to fight off the Assyrians. Encouraged by Judith's speech, the men of Bethulia prepare to battle the Assyrians.

The Assyrians are still in their drunken stupor when the Hebrew army approaches and are attacked. When the Assyrian men reach Holofernes to tell him about the attack, they find his dead body, putting an end to all their hope.

Assyrians are defeated by the Israelite soldiers. Upon their victory, the Hebrew soldiers reward Judith with the bloody armor of Holofernes. However, Judith only seeks for a reward in heaven by her Almighty.

Anglo Saxon poetry included in the Junius Manuscript

The Junius manuscript was formerly known as the 'Caedmon manuscript' as it was formerly believed that these poems were composed by Caedmon. First three poems- Genesis , Exodus , and Daniel are based on Old Testament story. The Junius manuscript includes religious poetry of the Anglo Saxon literature.

The Genesis is the longest of the four poems in the manuscript and consists of nearly 3000 lines with various missing sections.  The poem narrates the first twenty-two chapters of Genesis. It is based on Vulgate, Jerome's Latin translation of the Bible and also includes some Christian legend. The poem could have been written by a clerk or a churchman in the early eighth century. Interestingly, the poem also has an interpolation of around 600 lines completely different in style and language. This subsection is called Genesis B , while the rest of the poem is called Genesis A .

Genesis A begins with the creation of Heaven and angel. It includes a brief account of  Satan's rebellion, God's rage and His expulsion of Satan from Heaven. The poem ends with the creation of Adam and a description of the Garden of Eden.

Genesis B is like a subtext of 600 lines added to Genesis A. This section deals with temptation and fall of Adam and Eve and a detailed account of Satan's rebellion which was also briefly mentioned in the introduction of Genesis A. Genesis B is strikingly similar and comparable with John Milton's Paradise Lost . The story of Satan's fall has always been a part of Christian tradition despite it not being a part of biblical Genesis. Genesis B has significant poetic imagination and provides a new life to a traditional character. Genesis B is a translation of  an Old Anglo Saxon poem written not in English but in Old Saxon.

Exodus is one of those Anglo Saxon poetry that demonstrates perfect adaptation of the style and conventions of heroic poetry to religious verses.  The alliterative verses narrate the story of the flight of Israelites from Egyptian captivity by the help of God and Moses.  It is the oldest poem in the Junius manuscript and is estimated to have been written during the early eighth century.

The Israelites had been thriving in Egypt.  Unfortunately, a new Pharaoh comes to power and enslaves the Israelites due to his fear that they will outnumber the Egyptians and will turn against them . Out of this fear, the Pharaoh  enslaves all the people of Israel living in Egypt. He also declares that all the boys born to Israelites will be drowned in the river Nile.

A Hebrew women hides her son and he is eventually adopted by the daughter of the Pharaoh. The child is named Moses. Israelites were miserable in Egypt and often prayed to God for mercy. God hears their pleads and assigns Moses to confront Pharaoh. He also asks Moses' brother Aaron to be his spokesperson. Unfortunately, Pharaoh refuses Moses' request to free the Israelites.

In a terrible plague, God causes all the Egyptian first born males to die. Pharaoh frees the Israelites and they leave Egypt through the Red Sea. God drowns all the Egyptians in the Red Sea when Pharaoh changes his mind and decides to pursue them.

The rest of the poem narrates how God delivers food, safety and protection to the people of Israel and how He gives Moses 10 Commandments for the people to follow.

III. DANIEL

This Anglo Saxon poem is based the first five chapters of  the Book of Daniel in Vulgate and contains 769 lines. Many scholars have divided the poem into two parts: Daniel A that includes the retelling of the beginning of Book of Daniel, and Daniel B which is an interpolation. The primary focus of the poem is on the Three Youths- Ananias, Misael, and Azarias, Daniel, and their encounter with Nebuchadnezzar II, the king of Babylon. The opening of the poem narrates how Israelites had become arrogant of their glory. They are conquered as a punishment for worshiping idols and man instead of the God. Daniel is enslaved and is renamed Baltassar. Similarly, Anania, Misael, and Azarias are also enslaved and renamed Sidrach, Misach, and Abdenago respectively. The three youths and Daniel become extremely well trained and are placed highly in the court by Nebuchadnezzar. Daniel interprets the dreams of Nebuchadnezzar and tries to tell him about his unchecked pride but all his attempts are futile.

Eventually, God causes Nebuchadnezzar to lose his throne to Cyrus the Mede due to his incorrigible arrogance.

IV. CHRIST AND SATAN

Christ and Satan is another religious poem that is based on various Christian traditions rather than the biblical sources. It was initially believed that the poem is composed by Caedmon but this notion is debatable today. The poem links the Old and the New Testament and is divided into three sections:

• The Fall of Satan (lines 1-365) : In this section, Satan and other fallen angels complain to Christ. This is a deviation as Satan usually directs his complains towards God the father, rather than Christ the son.
• The Harrowing of Hell (366-662) : This section includes accounts of Resurrection, Ascension, and Last Judgement. It also focuses on Christ's Harrowing of Hell.
• The Temptation of Christ (663-729) : This section recalls the temptation of Christ by Satan in the desert.

Anglo Saxon poetry included in the Exeter Book

The Exeter book is the largest and the oldest known manuscript of Old English literature and is recognized by UNESCO as a foundational value of English literature.

Juliana is one of the four poems attributed to the poet Cynewulf, the other three being Christ , Elene , and the Fates of the Apostles. It is also Cynewulf's longest poem, containing 731 lines. The poem begins with the Christians enduring a tough, repressive and violent life under Galerius Maximian.

Juliana is the daughter of Africanus of Nicomedia and her father had promised her hand to a wealthy senator and friend of Maximian, Eleusias. Being a converted Christian, Juliana is reluctant to marry the pagan Eleusias and publically expresses it. Her father is outraged and allows Eleusias to punish her daughter as he likes.

Juliana is tortured and thrown in a prison where she is visited by a demon in disguise of an angel of God and asks her to commit blasphemy. All these attempts fail as Juliana is steadfast and a faithful Christian. She prays to God for guidance. A voice asks her to seize the demon and Juliana complies.

This is followed by the core of the story: a lengthy verbal battle between Juliana and the demon, where she dominates and wins.

Eleusias returns and offers another chance to Juliana but she resolutely refuses him. This enrages Eleusias and he decides to burn her alive. Miraculously, Juliana remains unscathed from fire. Infuriated, Eleusias beheads Juliana and she becomes a Christian martyr.

II.  CHRIST (CRIST)

This poem in Anglo Saxon literature is based on the Homilies of Gregory the Great. It is a lengthy 1700 poem and has three parts:

• Crist I (Crist A or Advent lyrics): This section of the poem has 12 sections and it's poet is unknown.
• Crist II (Crist B or The Ascension): This section is based on the ascension of Christ and is composed by Cynewulf.
• Crist III (Crist C): This poem is about the Last Judgement and is composed by an unknown author

III.  THE WANDERER

In this alliterative Anglo Saxon or Old English poem, the Wanderer is in exile at sea and prays to God for understanding and kindness. He recalls the hardships he had endured in his life and constantly thinks about them in his solitude. The Wanderer has no one to share his grief with.

His lord had passed due to old age and had caused the Wanderer to be exiled from the country without a friend or companion. He emphasizes how ruthless loneliness can be.

Towards the end of the poem, the Wanderer says that our lives are entirely dependant on fate . He asks everyone to look up to the Almighty for comfort as he controls the fate of all mankind.

The Wanderer is an apt example of the elegiac mood that was extremely prevalent during the Anglo Saxon period. This poem uses the 'ubi sunt?' motif  which was extremely popular in Old English literature. It is about a lonely man who had once been in the service of a lord, and lived a happy and content life. As he ages and after his lord passes away, he is isolated and reflects back on happier times. After the loss of his lord, his country, home, companions, the Wanderer is miserable. The melancholic tones of the poem remind the readers of similar tones in Beowulf. The structure and language of the poem are complex and has several existing interpretations.

IV. THE SEAFARER

Strikingly similar to the Wanderer, Anglo Saxon poem the Seafarer is a monologue of an old sailor who contemplates his life. He reminisces his hardships on the cold rough seas and describes lonely sea voyages. He also draws a contrast between a hard, lonely, and unpredictable life at the sea and the secure, comfortable, and social life on land. As the climate on land gets colder, the seafarer begins to yearns for the sea.

The Seafarer then shifts in tone and topic and now emphasizes that we must steer clear of sins and the devil, and that earthly pleasures will not provide any benefit to a man's soul.

Towards the end, just like the Wanderer, the verses become religious and the poem talks about God, self-restraint, and eternity, and ends with "Amen"

Widsith is one of the earliest surviving Anglo Saxon or Old English poetry. It is an autobiographical account of a scop named Widsith and emphasizes the significance of  his function in the court. As Widsith travels far and wide, the poem gives a fascinating account of the Germanic world as it was perceived by the Anglo Saxons. The poem includes many Germanic tribes and mentions characters present in Beowulf (such as Finn and Waldhere). Interestingly, Widsith's account of the Germanic world spans more than 200 years which makes it a fictional autobiography. The poem is in West Saxon dialect and must have been composed in 7th or early 8th century. Another striking feature of Widsith is its catholicity and how heroes in Germanic heroic poetry were not regional but were common to all Germania. Widsith is the perfect amalgamation of historic memories and heroic traditions. It provides us with an overview of a world that was eventually destroyed and partially absorbed by the Roman Empire.

Comprising of 42 alliterative lines, Deor is about a scop who served Heodeningas but is replaced by a rival. The poet complains about this injustice and as an attempt to console himself, recalls the troubles of Germanic heroes such as Weyland, Beadohild, Geat, Theodric, and Ermanaric.

He narrates how Weyland the smith had been captured and bound by an undeserving man called Nithhad but eventually overcomes his hardships.

Then, Deor recalls how Beadohild had mourned the death of her brothers and to make her situation worse, she had also found out that she was pregnant. However, her conditions eventually improved.

Next, Deor narrates how Geat had been deeply in love with Maethild, so much so that he was unable to sleep

Similarly, Theodoric the Ostrogoth, king of Maering too had to overcome hardships and struggles during his 30-year reign of the kingdom.

Eormanric the Goth also overcame the problems in his reign despite everyone wishing for him to get overthrown.

Deor then consoles himself that just as these Germanic heroes overcame hardships and hurdles, his situation will improve too.

Deor is one of the only two Anglo Saxon poems that has a refrain.

VII. GUTHLAC A and B

Guthlac A and B celebrate the works and death of Saint Guthlac of Croyland who was a famous saint from Mercia. Both the alliterative poems are consecutively placed in the Exeter Book.

VIII. THE PHOENIX and PHYSIOLOGUS (or BESTIARY)

Composed of 677 lines, the first part of the Phoenix is an adapted translation of De Ave Phoenice by Lactantius. It is a religious poem about the worldly paradise in the East. The first part of the religious poem narrates the beauty of the Phoenix and how it flew to Syria, built a nest, and lived for a thousand years before dying and being reborn.

In the second part of the poem, the phoenix becomes an allegory for the life of virtuous people in their present and future worlds, and for the symbol of Christ.

The poem is followed by another poem titled Physiologus or Bestiary. The poem is a beast allegory where imaginary and real qualities of animals are given moral applications. Beast allegory used to be popular medieval literary form. The poem includes the panther, the whale (named Fastitocalon), and the patridge.

IX. THE RUIN

The Ruin is a 49 lines long elegiac poem that describes a ruined city, speculated to be the city of Bath. The sad images of desolation and decay are contrasted with the extravagant prosperity of an earlier time. The poem invokes a feeling similar to that of Beowulf which also had a strong element of fate.

Love poetry of Anglo Saxon Literature

The Wife's Lament , The Husband's Message , and Wulf and Eadwacer included in the Exeter Book are the only love poems belonging to the Old English literature or Anglo Saxon period.

X. THE WIFE'S LAMENT or THE WIFE'S COMPLAINT

The Wife's Lament or the Wife's Complaint is an Anglo Saxon poem of 53 lines that laments the loss of a lover or a husband. This Anglo Saxon poetry is a frauenlied or a woman's song. It is an elegiac monologue where a wife is mourning the separation from her husband. Since the separation, the woman is forced to live in a forest cave by her husband's kinsmen. The poem effectively expresses a woman's yearning, love, and passion for her husband.

XI. THE HUSBAND'S MESSAGE

Strikingly similar to the Wife's Lament, The Husband's Message is another Anglo Saxon love lyric consisting of 53 lines. It is also similar to the riddles in the Exeter Book because just like in the Anglo Saxon riddles, the readers are expected to guess the speaker of the poem.

In the poem, a piece of wood with a carved message for the wife, narrates its life story and imparts her the message. The husband then recalls how he had been driven away from his wife due to a feud, and also reminds his wife about her vows. He asks her join him across the sea.

XII. WULF and EADWACER

Another love lyric, Wulf and Eadwacer is a dramatic monologue of 19 lines most likely narrated by a female. The speaker laments her separation from her lover called Wulf. The poem expresses an intense passion which is rare in poetry belonging to the Anglo Saxon period.

Other poems and 'Gnomic Verses' included in the Exeter Book are:

• The Gifts of Men
• The Fortunes of Men
• The Order of the World
• The Judgement Day I
• Resignation
• The Descent into Hell
• Alms Giving
• The Lord's Prayer
• Homiletic Fragment II

Anglo Saxon Riddles

Besides a collection of poetry, the Exeter Book also includes over a 100 riddles and most of them have been translated from the Latin originals. These riddles were a form of literary amusement but also exhibit excellent literary skills and provide us a detailed account of the world of the Anglo Saxon period.

Anglo Saxon poetry included in the Vercelli Book

The first in the Vercelli Book, the anonymously written Andreas is an Anglo Saxon poem with 1722 lines. It is one of the poems from the school of Cynewulf and narrates the story of St. Andrew when he saves St. Matthew from Mermedonians, a cannibalistic race. The poem closely resembles Beowulf in its style and tone. It is based on the Latin translation of a Greek work called ' The Acts of Andrew and Matthew in the City of Anthropophagi'.

The first 500 lines of the poem narrate St. Andrew's struggle at the sea in order to rescue St. Matthew. This rescue mission was commanded by God and St. Andrew is accompanied by Jesus and two angels in the disguise of sailors and helmsman. Throughout his journey, St. Andrews endures and loyally relies on God to calm the turbulent seas.

In the second half of the poem, God makes St. Andrew invisible and he releases the imprisoned St. Matthew. After saving St. Matthew, St. Andrew reveals himself to the Mermedonians and is tortured by them for three days. St. Andrew prays to God for forgiveness and is eventually healed by Him, while all the Mermedonians are punished until they repent and convert to Christianity. St. Andrew establishes a Christian church and sails away after appointing a bishop to look after the Church. Just like most poems belonging to the Anglo Saxon period of English literature, St. Andrews too is a religious poetry with heroic elements.

II. THE FATES OF THE APOSTLES

Composed by Cynewulf, The Fates of the Apostles is a short alliterative poem of 122 lines. It narrates significant events in the lives of Twelve Apostles that occured after the Ascension of Jesus. The poem is also considered as a concluding part of Andreas. If so, it is also composed by Cynewulf.

The poem opens with Cynewulf disclosing that he found this poem that had tales of the twelve Apostles displaying extraordinary courage in their journey of spreading the Gospel. The poem mentions Peter and Paul who gave up their lives in a treacherous battle with Nero; Andrew who was crucified in Achaea by Aegeates; John a law abiding man who had worked in Ephesus; James, brother of John, who was martyred in front of Herod; Philip who was crucified in Hierapolis; Bartholomew who refused to worship other Gods and was decapitated by Astrages in Albanum; Thomas who had preached in India, brought Gad, the King's brother back to life and was later killed; Matthew who preached in Ethiopia and was killed by King Irtacus; James who was clubbed to death in Jerusalem, and Simon and Thaddaeus who died in Persia. The poem mutates the heroic elements into a more personal elegiac strain.

III. ADDRESS OF THE SOUL TO THE BODY

Address of the Soul to the Body is an Anglo Saxon poem that has two parts, Soul and Body I that exists in the Vercelli Book , and Soul and Body II that exists in the Exeter Book . Both the poems ask Christian readers to be mindful of their mortal and bodily actions with respect to their impact to the soul's afterlife. Both the poems ask the readers to not be slaves to the desires of the flesh.

IV. DREAM OF THE ROOD

Dream of the Rood is one of the most complex and profound Christian poems of English literature in the Anglo Saxon period. It is also the oldest existing English poem in the form of a vision or dream. The first section of the poem (lines 1-27) opens with a dreamer's vision of a bejeweled cross on which Jesus was crucified, and is worshipped by angels. Looking at the Cross, the dreamer is overwhelmed by a sense of sin and inferiority of his earthly existence. The dreamer also noticed that even though the Cross is adorned with jewels, it also is stained with blood.  In the second section of the poem (lines 28-121), the Cross begins to speak and narrates the death of Jesus. The story of Crucifixion is narrated from the perspective of the bejeweled Cross. In the third section of the poem, the dreamer reflects upon his dream and expresses gratitude to God for giving him the privilege of this dream and filling him with hope for eternal life.

The poem is clearly influenced by Cynewulf and exhibits didactic, devotional, and mystical elements.

Elene is the longest poem composed by Cynewulf (1321 lines) and is based on the story of the discovery of the true cross by mother of Constantine, St. Helena. Elene is also called Saint Helena Finds the True Cross . The poem was composed in West Saxon dialect around 750 CE.

The Battle of Maldon

The Battle of Maldon is a poem of 325 lines included in the Anglo Saxon Chronicle and was composed around 991 CE. The poem deals with the various clashes between the English and the Danes. The Danes had attacked England and Danish King Cnut (also Canute) had won the throne in 1016 CE. The Battle of Maldon is strikingly similar to older heroic poetry and it narrates a catastrophic defeat of the English. It contains nine speeches that aim to encourage the English army and many of the warriors are mentioned by their names. The poem displays fierce loyalty and desperate courage against grim odds. The poem abruptly ends with the words of Byrhtnoth. The Battle of Maldon can be perceived as the last of the Anglo Saxon heroic poetry.

Frequently Asked Questions

Q. What is Anglo Saxon Period in English Literature?

The Anglo Saxon period in English literature spans from 410 CE to 1066 CE. This was the time of the fall of the Roman Empire and the arrival of the Germanic tribes - the Angles, Jutes and the Saxons.

Q. What are the characteristics of  Anglo Saxon period in English literature?

The most prominent characterstics of the Anglo Saxon period in English literature are:

a. Heroic or epic poetry, and religious poetry were the most prominent genres of Anglo Saxon literature.

b. The poetry was written in alliterative verses

c. The Anglo Saxons were great poets and riddlers. However, almost all of their poetry and riddles were transmitted orally. It was only after the christianization of England in the 6th century that literature began to be written instead of being spoken.

d. Due to the impact of the Roman Church, majority of high literature was written in Latin. However, religious instructions and poems meant for the masses were composed in English.

e. Hardly any prose was written during this period.

Q. What are the most important works of Anglo Saxon period?

The most important works of Anglo Saxon period are included in four manuscripts – The MS Cotton Vitellius, The Junius, The Exeter, and the Vercelli Book. The most popular works of this period are heroic and religious poems. Among the heroic poems are Beowulf, Widsith, Battle of Maldon, Waldhere, etc. Among the religous poems of the Anglo Saxon period are Judith, The Dream of the Rood, Christ and Satan, Daniel, etc.

Q. What is the theme of Anglo Saxon literature?

Most of the Anglo Saxon literature was written around the heroic themes of honour and loyalty.

Greenblatt, Stephen, and Meyer Howard Abrams. The Norton Anthology of English Literature . 2012.

Daiches, David. A Critical History of English Literature: From the Beginnings to the Sixteenth Century . Allied Publishers, 1979.

Baldick, Chris. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms . Oxford UP, USA, 2004

Sanders, Andrew. Short Oxf Hist of Eng Lit 3/E. 2004.

Bennett, Jack Arthur Walter, and Douglas Gray. Middle English Literature, 1100-1400 . Oxford UP on Demand, 1990.

The Project Gutenberg eBook of Beowulf: An Anglo-Saxon Epic Poem.   www.gutenberg.org/files/16328/16328-h/16328-h.htm#III

“Lesson 1: The Anglo Saxon Period”   YouTube , uploaded by CEC, 1 March, 2016, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y-a12rE0isM&list=PLpr-GfMI4AAb-kZclSuKmtM0C_SbwRJFc&ab_channel=CEC

“How Did The Romans Change Britain?” YouTube , uploaded by English Heritage, 15 June, 2015, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SajyHgJTy3E

“Turning Points in British History-Episode 101-The Anglo-Saxons.” YouTube, uploaded by TBAE network, 23 May 2014, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9mJFZabVj_E&t=1218s

English Heritage. “An Introduction to Early Medieval England.” English Heritage , www.english-heritage.org.uk/learn/story-of-england/early-medieval .

10 Works of Anglo-Saxon Literature Everyone Should Read

By Dr Oliver Tearle (Loughborough University)

What are the finest works of Anglo-Saxon literature? We’ve restricted our choices to works of literature written in Anglo-Saxon or Old English, so that rules out Bede’s Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum , which, as the title suggests, was written in Latin. But there’s a wealth of great literature written in Old English, as the following pick of ten of the best testifies (we hope).

1. Anonymous, The Exeter Book riddles .

Here’s a riddle for you: what hangs down by the thigh of a man, under his cloak, yet is stiff and hard? When the man pulls up his robe, he puts the head of this hanging thing into that familiar hole of matching length which he has filled many times before. Got it? A key, of course! This is one of a number of riddles found in the Exeter Book , one of the jewels in the crown of Anglo-Saxon literature.

We discuss some more Anglo-Saxon riddles – and challenge you to solve them – in a separate post .

2. Anonymous, ‘ The Wife’s Lament ’.

At just 53 lines, this is one of the shortest works of Anglo-Saxon literature included in this list. It’s a cry of despair and grief, told from the perspective of a wife whose husband has been exiled. The poem also features the rather useful Anglo-Saxon word uhtceare , which has been translated as ‘lying awake in the morning worrying’.

3. Anonymous, Beowulf .

As we’ve discussed in our detailed summary of Beowulf , this poem is part of a rich literary narrative tradition that encompasses Tolkien’s The Hobbit , the story of St George and the dragon, and even Lewis Carroll’s ‘Jabberwocky’. It chronicles the hero’s exploits, notably his slaying of the monster Grendel – actually only the first of three monsters Beowulf has to vanquish.

Although it is celebrated nowadays as an important work of Anglo-Saxon – indeed, ‘English’ – literature,  Beowulf  was virtually unknown and forgotten about, amazingly, for nearly a thousand years. It was only rescued from obscurity in 1815, when an Icelandic-Danish scholar named Thorkelin printed an edition of the poem.

And although it is seen as the starting-point of great English literature – at many universities, it is still the earliest literary text studied as part of the literary canon – it is very different from other medieval poetry, such as that by Chaucer or Langland, who were writing many centuries later. It is set in Denmark, has a Swedish hero, and – when read in the original Anglo-Saxon – seems almost more German than ‘English’.

Perfect fireside reading, and an archetypal work of English literature, composed when the notion of ‘England’ itself was only just beginning to emerge.

4. Anonymous, ‘ The Seafarer ’.

This 124-line poem is often considered an elegy, since it appears to be spoken by an old sailor looking back on his life and preparing for death. He discusses the solitariness of a life on the waves, the cold, the danger, and the hardships. As such, the poem captures the bewitching fascination the sea holds for us, but also its darker, more unpredictable side.

Variously viewed as a moral poem about how to face up to your own fate, a wholly religious poem, and as a great secular poem, ‘The Seafarer’ is a fine and accessible example of Anglo-Saxon poetry. Ezra Pound produced a loose translation of the poem in the early twentieth century, but we’ve linked to a parallel text version above, with the original Anglo-Saxon included on the left and a modern English translation on the right.

5. Anonymous, ‘ The Wanderer ’.

Like the riddles above, this poem was preserved thanks to the Exeter Book . It’s 115 lines long and written in alliterative verse, and like ‘The Seafarer’ is about a solitary man looking back on his past. In the poem, the man is referred to as eardstapa , an Anglo-Saxon word meaning literally ‘earth-stepper’, hence the title usually appended to the poem.

6. Caedmon, Hymn .

Perhaps the oldest poem written in English, Caedmon’s Hymn was composed in the 7 th century by a goatherd and takes the form of a short hymn in praise of God.

It was Bede, or ‘the Venerable Bede’ as he is often known, who ensured the survival of Caedmon’s Hymn , when he jotted it down in Latin translation in one of his books. An anonymous scribe then added the Anglo-Saxon form of the hymn in the margins of Bede’s book.

7. Bede, ‘ Bede’s Death Song ’.

As well as rescuing Caedmon’s Hymn from oblivion, Bede also wrote this very short poem on his deathbed – at least, reportedly. Whether he was actually the author of ‘Bede’s Death Song’ is difficult to say for certain, but this five-line lyric, about facing death and looking back on a life well lived, is a marvellous short example of Anglo-Saxon poetry.

8. Anonymous, The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle .

One of the most important manuscripts in English history, The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle was created in the late 9 th century during the time of Alfred the Great, almost certainly at his command (the manuscript is thought to have been written in Wessex, where Alfred ruled).

Actually, the Chronicle survives in several different manuscripts, a result of its having been distributed to various monasteries and then added to. Among other things, the Chronicle contains accounts of the two battles of 1066, Stamford Bridge and Hastings.

9. Anonymous, ‘ The Dream of the Rood ’.

Another early work of Anglo-Saxon literature, ‘The Dream of the Rood’ is an early work of English Christian verse and an example of the dream poem, which would later become a staple of medieval verse thanks to the Pearl poet and William Langland. ‘Rood’ means ‘cross’ or ‘crucifix’, and part of this poem was inscribed on the 8 th -century Ruthwell Cross in Scotland; it’s been speculated that the cross, and the poem, were used to convert people to Christianity.

The history of the poem is almost as fascinating as the poem itself. The first record of it is an 18-feet-high cross in the church at Ruthwell, Dumfriesshire, Scotland. A century or so later, in 884, Pope Marinus sent Alfred the Great, King of Wessex, a piece of the True Cross, and an expanded version of ‘The Dream of the Rood’ was made in response.

And then, soon after this, Aethelmaer made a reliquary to house Alfred’s piece of the True Cross, and lines from ‘The Dream of the Rood’ were inscribed upon this silver container, known as the Brussels Cross because of where it is now kept.

As Michael Alexander has pointed out, it’s a fine tribute to the unity of Christendom that these three very different artefacts, each of which contains lines from this iconic early English poem, should all be housed in different countries, none of which is England itself. ‘The Dream of the Rood’ is an English poem that made its way abroad, and is perhaps, therefore, the first successful English literary export.

We discuss this fascinating poem in more detail in a separate post .

10. Anonymous, ‘ The Battle of Maldon ’.

This poem is unusual in that it commemorates not a glorious victory but a crushing defeat: in 991 the Anglo-Saxon army failed to ward off the Vikings near the town of Maldon in Essex. It’s also not exactly out-and-out propaganda for the English (even though it’s an example of history being written by the victims rather than victors): several members of the English army are described fleeing the battlefield, for instance.

And although only the middle section of the poem has survived, this poem remains a fine piece of Anglo-Saxon poetry and gives an insight into how hard life was for early settlers defending – or trying to defend – their homes against invaders. J. R. R. Tolkien wrote a sequel to the poem, The Homecoming of Beorhtnoth Beorhthelm’s Son , which takes the form of a dialogue between two characters at the end of the battle.

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6 thoughts on “10 Works of Anglo-Saxon Literature Everyone Should Read”

Reblogged this on Chris The Story Reading Ape's Blog and commented: For those interested in Anglo-Saxon items 🐵

Anonymous – so prolific

This is definitely my kind of post, especially when I have started studying Anglo Saxon and how to read and write it. Thank you for the suggestions, I’m sure they’ll be a big help!

Reblogged this on mira prabhu and commented: I haven’t read a single one of these books, but I would if I could get my hands on them…

• Pingback: 10 Works of Anglo-Saxon Literature Everyone Should Read | Língua Inglesa

Reblogged this on Cari's Corner and commented: Let’s go back in time. I’ m excited to find out how my older self will reflect on these literary treasures.

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Childhood & Adolescence in Anglo-Saxon Literary Culture

• Edited by: Susan Irvine and Winfried Rudolf
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Please login or register with De Gruyter to order this product.

• Language: English
• Publisher: University of Toronto Press
• Copyright year: 2018
• Audience: College/higher education;Professional and scholarly;
• Main content: 360
• Other: 5 b&w tables
• Published: March 1, 2018
• ISBN: 9781487514433

Longfellow, Anglo-Saxons, and Paul Revere

By Catherine Matthews

Twenty-two years before he wrote “ Paul Revere’s Ride ,” Henry Wadsworth Longfellow penned an article for the July 1838 issue of  The   North American Review .  [i]  Nothing would indicate that this piece was particularly special: the index simply lists a review of several publications pertaining to Anglo-Saxon literature, a dictionary included; most items were five or more years old; the author was not even listed. In the first evocative paragraph, however, Longfellow upends all assumptions. What follows is a thoughtful and spirited overview of the language, literature, and culture of Anglo-Saxon England.  It is an essay that offers another way of looking at Longfellow’s work.

Anglo-Saxon England, Longfellow tells us, was an era of constant change, invasion, and transformation. He details the many shifts that occurred over the Anglo-Saxon period: the language evolved with time and the influx of the Danes and then the Normans; pagan and folk religions changed with the coming of Christianity to Britain; beliefs and attitudes once universally accepted became perceived as relics or myths. Transience is inevitable in history, and literature, Longfellow reminds us, can capture—however imperfectly—these aspects of a nation, even after the nation is no more.  He comments, “Old men and venerable accompany us through the Past; and, pausing at the threshold of the Present, they put into our hands, at parting, such written records of themselves as they have.” (99) Literature may convey the mood and values of a culture to the people who follow; it can capture a fleeting moment.  Certainly Longfellow’s  Evangeline: A Tale of Acadie  and  The Song of Hiawatha  attempt to evoke the sense of change and of cultures passing.

Longfellow’s essay also reveals an interest in the related theme of how moments of tremendous historical importance simultaneously have an effect on individual and global levels:

It is oftentimes curious to consider the far-off beginnings of great events . . . . The British peasant looked seaward from his harvest-field and saw, with wondering eyes, the piratical schooner of a Saxon Viking making for the mouth of the Thames. A few years,–only a few years,–afterward, while the same peasant . . . still lives to tell the story to his grandchildren, another race lords it over the land . . . .This important event in his history is even more important in the world’s history. (95)

The first stanza of “Paul Revere’s Ride” takes us back to these words with the invitation of the narrator, telling a story of an event that changed the course of history that “[h]ardly a man is now alive”  to recount firsthand.  [ii]  In  Evangeline  and “Paul Revere’s Ride,” Longfellow explores this motif of telling the story of historic change through the events of an individual who witnesses history and simultaneously becomes the means through which a larger tale of transformation and transition is told.

Longfellow’s appreciation for Anglo-Saxon literature extends beyond theme and history.  He enjoys the power, rhythm, and vitality found in the poetry.  Scholar Roy Liuzza suggests, “. . .one can even imagine that [Longfellow’s] appreciation of [ Beowulf ’s] short forceful half-lines influenced some of his own later poetry such as . .  Song of Hiawatha. ” (290)  [iii]   

While an essay on Anglo-Saxon literature may be an unlikely starting point for consideration of Longfellow’s work, it is a way, perhaps, of understanding his thoughts and his own “mindscape” in approaching his work.

Catherine Matthews received her bachelor’s degree in English literature and a master’s in Liberal Arts from Harvard University. Her master’s thesis work focused on the Old English vitae of Anglo-Saxon royal saints. She has been a longtime friend of Old North, serving in many roles–including board member and volunteer–over the past seven years.

[i]  Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth. “Anglo-Saxon Literature.”  The North American Review.   Vol. 47, No. 100, July 1838, pp. 90-134.   JSTOR.  Accessed May 2017.

[ii]  Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth.  “Paul Revere’s Ride.”   http://www.poets.org.  Accessed May 2017.

[iii]  Liuzza, R.M.  “Lost in Translation: Some Versions of Beowulf in the Nineteenth Century.”  English Studies,  2002, 4, pp. 281-295.   http://www.Academia.edu .  Accessed May 2017.

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Essay – Anglo-Saxon literature

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In Anglo-Saxon literature and most likely in Anglo-Saxon times, men were measured by many of the same aspects of life that men are measured by today’s standards. Men of that time period were godless, fearless, fame seeking and most of all, courageous.

Everyone was in search of these qualities and they achieved them by completing daring deeds, withstanding harsh conditions and they loved beating the odds. These qualities still live on in us. Beowulf not only killed a terrifying monster, the monster’s mother and also killed a huge dragon too, achieving fame and showing kingdoms how much strength, courage and fearlessness he had. It also seemed that heros of that time had to boast about their deeds to other kingdoms and villages.

Acquiring such qualities lead to boasting. People love to boast when they have beat the odds and have shown the world their will-power. Boasting when drunk is still very existent is every part of the world like it was part of the Anglo-Saxons culture. In Beowulf, when Beowulf greets Hrothgar, he says, “Hail, Hrothgar! I am kinsman and thane of Hygelac.

In my youth I have set about many brave deeds (*)How many times have you introduced yourself to someone and say, “When I was younger, I accomplished many great things?” It wasn’t enough for a man to show just his people of his accomplishments, he had to make it know for everybody to see. The same can be said about our us today. If someone has acquired lots of money through his accomplishments; he/she lets everyone know by buying expensive cars, houses, jewelry etc to state their success. In the Wanderer, the author says, “Men eager for honor bury sorrow deep in their breast.

” (Wanderer, lines 16 & 17) In most Anglo Saxon literaure, this macho is present. The wanderer also states, “No man is living….to whom I fully unlock my heart.” (Wanderer, lines 10 & 11) The wanderer is sprinkled with small lines like these to show that a real man can take anything that the world throws at him.

Beowolf is similar to the wanderer in that they both have the same “voice”. In Beowulf, Beowulf says, You will not need to hide my head if death takes me, for he will have me blood smeared; he will bear away my bloodyt

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Essay On The Anglo-Saxon Period

Type of paper: Essay

Topic: Forgiveness , Christians , Poetry , Life , Literature , Poem , Beowulf , Pagan

Published: 02/15/2020

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Thesis statement: The common theme that appears in the Anglo-Saxon poetry pieces, Beowulf and “The Seafarer” is that they both embed a definitively Christian values despite the presence of pagan images (Mursell 36). Beowulf is perceived to be written by a Christian cleric, who draws pagan images and themes to signify its Christian character. In the story of Beowulf, he had to leave behind the warmth of his hall in order to pursue his journey over the sea to conquer Grendal, the evil monster in their combat. In Beowulf, although the author was able to form pagan images in the poem, it also presented the values of Christianity such as honor, forgiveness and loving one’s enemies. The poem was able to highlight the value of honor, which a person earns in his lifetime through good deeds. Christians believe that there is life after death and that glory will be achieved afterlife. Forgiveness was illustrated when Hildeburh married the Frisian King despite the fact that in the war that transpired between the Danes and the Frisians, where both their own son and brother perished in the war. The Christian teaches the virtue of forgiveness, or learning to forgive enemies, despite all the wrong doings. Peace and forgiveness are the two values that the author gave significant importance. Although the main character is a Christian, he neither contradicts the ultimate pagan values found in the poem. The line in the poem embodies the Christian maxim which states that “pride goeth before a fall”, which reminded Beowulf to remain humble and not to “give way to pride”. At the same time, the Christian teaching of “eternal rewards” reminds Beowulf not to give in to worldly desires since the fame of being recognized as a gallant warrior is irreplaceable (SparkNotes Editor). On the other hand, the poem “The Searfarer”, the traveller’s inner restlessness and longing for the warmth of home he left behind was later surpassed by a greater longing for the goal of his journey (Mursell 36). The Christian spirituality will tell the audience to transform the pagan longing for hall and heroic endeavour into the Christian yearning for heaven. This was evident in this poem when it spoke about the rewards of the Lord that were regarded as the rings or other things of value that are given by Anglo-Saxon kings to assure the bond of loyalty and protection that is given to the subjects. The line from the poem “The Seafarer” shows that life is meaningless without the presence of the lord and his friends. As the speaker went out sailing in solitude, he remembers the Lord and the other kinsmen, who he regards as his friends. His isolation left him wandering that was shown in the line “Wretched and anxious, in the paths of exile/lacking dear friends, hung round by icicles” (II. 14-15) (SparkeNotes Editors). In conclusion, both Beowulf and “The Seafarer” spoke of Anglo-Saxon Christian spirituality which expressed both yearning for heaven and fear of hell that became instrumental to determine the Christian identity (Mursell 36). Despite the strong Christian context in both works, it is still illustrates a lost pagan culture. The vivid images of beasts and heroic combat are determinative that the Anglo-Saxon spirituality adopted the fierce wildness of lost pagan culture (Mursell 36). The yearning for home after a long travel means that earthly life is nothing compared to the eternal life with God, where man can find his genuine happiness. Therefore, it can be concluded that Christian values are clearly evident in both poems.

Works Cited:

Mursell, Gordon. English Spirituality: From Earliest Times to 1700. UK: Westminster John Knox Press, 2001. Print. SparkNotes Editors. “SparkNote on Beowulf.” SparkNotes.com. SparkNotes LLC. 2003. Web. 19 Sept. 2013.

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Call for Papers: The Pagan Beowulf: Alternatives to the Usual Beowulf

Rocky Mountain Modern Language Association (RMMLA) 77th Annual Convention

October 10-12 (Thur.-Sat.) at the Westgate Resort, Las Vegas, Nevada

Deadline for Submissions: June 30, 2024

For centuries, the “usual” Beowulf translation is full of Christian references and very little Pagan references. Yet, Christianity did not arrive in Scandinavia until around 710, well after the time of the events in Beowulf , which is around 550 AD. In contrast, the first Christian missionary to Anglo-Saxon England was with St. Augustine in 597. While there are some definite Christian references in Beowulf , there are actually far fewer than the far greater pagan references in the poem. Your abstract should address this theme specifically.

Send your 350-word abstract, with a short 50-word bio, to Jim Buckingham, Old English Session Chair, at [email protected] by June 30, 2024.