how to write a research paper in political science

Faculty/Staff
Current Students
Chinese (Simplified)
Chinese (Traditional)
COVID-19 Information
About Skidmore College
Creative Thought Matters
Diversity and Inclusion
Rankings and Awards
Sustainability
Surrey-Williamson Inn
Tang Teaching Museum
Zankel Music Center
Maps and Directions
Human Resources

The team will embark on a new era as an associate member of the State University of New York Athletic Conference beginning in 2025-26.

Majors and Minors
Course Catalog
Dean of the Faculty
Student Academic Affairs
Academic and Accessibility Services
Collaborative Research
First-Year Experience
Honors Program
Lucy Scribner Library
Off-Campus Study and Exchanges
Opportunity Program
Summer Pre-College
Summer Sessions
Summer Institutes
Ways to Visit
Events and Open Houses
Why Skidmore
Student Stories
Saratoga Springs
Our Traditions
How to Apply
Costs and Aid
Connect with Admissions
Talk to a Student
Request Information
Student Affairs
Career Development and Community Service
Dining Services
Diversity Programs
Health and Wellness
International Students
Religious and Spiritual Life
Residential Life
Skidmore Shop
Student Government
SkidmoreAthletics.com
Intramurals
Hall of Fame
Friends of Skidmore Athletics

The Skidmore College softball team hosted SUNY Oneonta in a make-up doubleheader on Monday afternoon. Skidmore scored 12 runs across the two games but dropped 11-7 and 10-5 decisions to the visiting Red Dragons.

Ways to Give
Giving opportunities
Current priorities
Skidmore Fund
Major and transformational giving
Gift planning
Parent and family giving
Corporate and foundation relations
Recognition societies
Advancement
Alumni Relations
2022-2023 Planning

Writing a Political Science Research Paper

Political Science students are asked to write a number of different kinds of papers, including reaction papers, compare and contrast essays, close reading/textual analysis papers, and synoptic papers. The research paper is thus only one type of political science paper. It is, however, a type that has quite specific components and requirements. The Thesis Statement The most important and most challenging task for students writing a research paper is developing a thesis. A thesis is a non-trivial, contestable, specific claim about political phenomena that can be proven or defended through the analysis of primary source material. (1) Your thesis must be non-trivial A reader will want evidence that you are exploring an important question or topic. Explorations of the unimportant (e.g., "Canada's orange industry has been underappreciated") will not entice any but the most insensate readers. Readers will recoil, in particular, from faux theses that merely state what the author has done (e.g., "I have researched the European Union's trade policy"). (2) Your thesis must be contestable Do not seek to prove the obvious (e.g., African American voters disproportionately support Democratic candidates for the presidency). The best theses make counterintuitive claims (e.g., revolutions often occur when conditions improve in a country after a long period of deprivation). There must be, at a minimum, alternative explanations for the phenomena you are exploring or different possible answers to the question you are posing. A good research paper directly engages these competing arguments by demonstrating that its explanation or answer is the most plausible. (3) Your thesis must make a specific claim A thesis should reference specific concepts and focus on a delimited field of inquiry. Statements such as "religion is the chief cause of conflict in the world," "the International Criminal Court violates political sovereignty," and "the Russian people always want a czar to lead them" are neither specific nor delimited. An example of a specific, focused thesis would be "Religious divisions cause social conflict to increase in Northern Ireland when they are reinforced by other cleavages or divisions." This statement sports two concepts—social conflict and cross-cutting vs. reinforcing cleavages—that the author must develop or support in order to address the influence of religion on conflict in a specific context. (4) You must employ primary sources to demonstrate or defend your thesis A literature review or a review of pertinent secondary sources (i.e., published books or articles that interpret or analyze primary sources) is not sufficient to demonstrate a thesis. A literature review is, as noted below, a significant component of your research paper, but your objective is not merely to review what other scholars have said about your topic. Your objective is to say something novel about your topic. This will require you to step outside of the published literature to mine information that you acquire firsthand. Primary sources include (but are not limited to) public opinion surveys, demographic data (e.g., U.S. Census data), government documents, open-ended interviews conducted by the author, oral histories, archival materials (e.g., letters, policy memos, diary entries, interoffice communications, transcripts of conversations, etc.), and speeches. The Literature Review A literature review should accomplish two goals:

Introduce your reader to the range of scholarship on your topic. This exercise can help you to provide your reader with some purchase on the complexity of your subject.
Identify the most important competing arguments or claims about your topic.

As mentioned above, accomplishing #2 is integral to your effort to demonstrate or defend your thesis. You must first acquaint your reader with both the strengths and the weakness of competing arguments before you can demonstrate that your argument is superior. Your literature review should address the most important or influential works on your topic. You will need to review books, monographs, and journal articles. Doing the last will require you to employ such research databases as JSTOR, ProQuest, and PAIS. The Data Analysis The form that your data analysis takes will be determined to a large degree by your choice of method or approach. If you are using statistical methods (e.g., regression analysis) or formal modeling (e.g., game theory) to analyze your data, then your paper will consist principally of justifying your choice of method, specifying your variables, and presenting and interpreting your results. Students performing quantitative analysis will need to think carefully about how best to present their findings (e.g., graphs, tables, charts, etc.). Such students could profit from reviewing Edward Tufte's classic book The Visual Display of Quantitative Information , particularly Tufte's discussions of "chartjunk." If you are using qualitative data and methods, your paper will need to weave your findings into a narrative that is coherent, compelling, and probative. Students, for example, who decide to use the "case study approach" must devote some time to addressing the "small n problem." This, in short, is the challenge of explaining to the reader why one can generalize from a single or a small number of cases to a larger universe of cases. What makes your particular case or cases "crucial" or explanatory? It is not sufficient merely to claim that, for example, "there is a lot of information available on my case." You must choose your case or cases for sound theoretical reasons. Robert Michels, for example, decided to study the German Social Democratic Party to test his theory that all organizations are subject to "the iron law of oligarchy" because he posited that if power was concentrated in a small number of hands in a political party that sported a democratic ethos, then such oligarchic rule would surely occur in less ostentatiously democratic organizations. The Conclusion A good conclusion should explain to the reader how your analysis has demonstrated that your argument is more persuasive than competing arguments. It should, in short, explain your contribution to the extant literature. Some pitfalls to sidestep when composing your conclusion are the following: Do not go beyond your data Even seasoned scholars can be guilty of concluding their pieces with grand statements that are not supported by their data. You can underscore your contribution to the literature without claiming that you have, for example, refuted all that has been written on your topic hitherto or created a "new paradigm." Showing respect for the work of other scholars, even that with which you disagree, is both courteous and sensible. Take care to identify the limitations of your findings or even some of the questionable parts of your analysis. Doing this will, if not immunize your work against criticism, at least allow you to get a jump on addressing some of the critiques that will be leveled at your work. Do not sprinkle your conclusion with "questions for future research" This is a complement of the above. Bear in mind that you are a novice researcher. It is more than a bit presumptuous to claim that your piece can be the foundation upon which other scholars will build. Avoid boilerplate phrases such as "time will tell" or "no one can know for sure" Conclusions are notorious for vaporous phrases that leave readers wondering, "What does that mean?" Take care that every sentence in your conclusion is meaningful (i.e., that it pertains to your argument). Short, tightly constructed and -argued conclusions are preferable to voluble, flabby conclusions that do not advance your case. For Further Reading Howard S. Becker with Pamela Richards, Writing for Social Scientists: How to Start and Finish Your Thesis, Book, or Article (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986) Wayne C. Booth, Gregory G. Colomb, and Joseph M. Williams, The Craft of Research (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995) Gregory M. Scott and Stephen M. Garrison, The Political Science Student Writers' Manual (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1995) Ian Shapiro, Rogers M. Smith, and Tarek Masoud (eds.), Problems and Methods in the Study of Political Science (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004) Edward R. Tufte, Envisioning Information (Cheshire, Conn.: Graphics Press, 1990) Edward R. Tufte, The Visual Display of Quantitative Information, second edition (Cheshire, Conn.: Chart Graphics, 2001) (pdf available online)

Political Science Department Contact

518-580-5240

518-580-5259

8:30 a.m. - 4:30 p.m

Ladd Hall, Room 309 Skidmore College 815 North Broadway Saratoga Springs, NY 12866

Natalie Fuehrer Taylor Associate Professor and Department Chair

Barbara McDonough Administrative Assistant

The Writing Center • University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

Political Science

What this handout is about.

This handout will help you to recognize and to follow writing standards in political science. The first step toward accomplishing this goal is to develop a basic understanding of political science and the kind of work political scientists do.

Defining politics and political science

Political scientist Harold Laswell said it best: at its most basic level, politics is the struggle of “who gets what, when, how.” This struggle may be as modest as competing interest groups fighting over control of a small municipal budget or as overwhelming as a military stand-off between international superpowers. Political scientists study such struggles, both small and large, in an effort to develop general principles or theories about the way the world of politics works. Think about the title of your course or re-read the course description in your syllabus. You’ll find that your course covers a particular sector of the large world of “politics” and brings with it a set of topics, issues, and approaches to information that may be helpful to consider as you begin a writing assignment. The diverse structure of political science reflects the diverse kinds of problems the discipline attempts to analyze and explain. In fact, political science includes at least eight major sub-fields:

American politics examines political behavior and institutions in the United States.
Comparative politics analyzes and compares political systems within and across different geographic regions.
International relations investigates relations among nation states and the activities of international organizations such as the United Nations, the World Bank, and NATO, as well as international actors such as terrorists, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and multi-national corporations (MNCs).
Political theory analyzes fundamental political concepts such as power and democracy and foundational questions, like “How should the individual and the state relate?”
Political methodology deals with the ways that political scientists ask and investigate questions.
Public policy examines the process by which governments make public decisions.
Public administration studies the ways that government policies are implemented.
Public law focuses on the role of law and courts in the political process.

What is scientific about political science?

Investigating relationships.

Although political scientists are prone to debate and disagreement, the majority view the discipline as a genuine science. As a result, political scientists generally strive to emulate the objectivity as well as the conceptual and methodological rigor typically associated with the so-called “hard” sciences (e.g., biology, chemistry, and physics). They see themselves as engaged in revealing the relationships underlying political events and conditions. Based on these revelations, they attempt to state general principles about the way the world of politics works. Given these aims, it is important for political scientists’ writing to be conceptually precise, free from bias, and well-substantiated by empirical evidence. Knowing that political scientists value objectivity may help you in making decisions about how to write your paper and what to put in it.

Political theory is an important exception to this empirical approach. You can learn more about writing for political theory classes in the section “Writing in Political Theory” below.

Building theories

Since theory-building serves as the cornerstone of the discipline, it may be useful to see how it works. You may be wrestling with theories or proposing your own as you write your paper. Consider how political scientists have arrived at the theories you are reading and discussing in your course. Most political scientists adhere to a simple model of scientific inquiry when building theories. The key to building precise and persuasive theories is to develop and test hypotheses. Hypotheses are statements that researchers construct for the purpose of testing whether or not a certain relationship exists between two phenomena. To see how political scientists use hypotheses, and to imagine how you might use a hypothesis to develop a thesis for your paper, consider the following example. Suppose that we want to know whether presidential elections are affected by economic conditions. We could formulate this question into the following hypothesis:

“When the national unemployment rate is greater than 7 percent at the time of the election, presidential incumbents are not reelected.”

Collecting data

In the research model designed to test this hypothesis, the dependent variable (the phenomenon that is affected by other variables) would be the reelection of incumbent presidents; the independent variable (the phenomenon that may have some effect on the dependent variable) would be the national unemployment rate. You could test the relationship between the independent and dependent variables by collecting data on unemployment rates and the reelection of incumbent presidents and comparing the two sets of information. If you found that in every instance that the national unemployment rate was greater than 7 percent at the time of a presidential election the incumbent lost, you would have significant support for our hypothesis.

However, research in political science seldom yields immediately conclusive results. In this case, for example, although in most recent presidential elections our hypothesis holds true, President Franklin Roosevelt was reelected in 1936 despite the fact that the national unemployment rate was 17%. To explain this important exception and to make certain that other factors besides high unemployment rates were not primarily responsible for the defeat of incumbent presidents in other election years, you would need to do further research. So you can see how political scientists use the scientific method to build ever more precise and persuasive theories and how you might begin to think about the topics that interest you as you write your paper.

Clear, consistent, objective writing

Since political scientists construct and assess theories in accordance with the principles of the scientific method, writing in the field conveys the rigor, objectivity, and logical consistency that characterize this method. Thus political scientists avoid the use of impressionistic or metaphorical language, or language which appeals primarily to our senses, emotions, or moral beliefs. In other words, rather than persuade you with the elegance of their prose or the moral virtue of their beliefs, political scientists persuade through their command of the facts and their ability to relate those facts to theories that can withstand the test of empirical investigation. In writing of this sort, clarity and concision are at a premium. To achieve such clarity and concision, political scientists precisely define any terms or concepts that are important to the arguments that they make. This precision often requires that they “operationalize” key terms or concepts. “Operationalizing” simply means that important—but possibly vague or abstract—concepts like “justice” are defined in ways that allow them to be measured or tested through scientific investigation.

Fortunately, you will generally not be expected to devise or operationalize key concepts entirely on your own. In most cases, your professor or the authors of assigned readings will already have defined and/or operationalized concepts that are important to your research. And in the event that someone hasn’t already come up with precisely the definition you need, other political scientists will in all likelihood have written enough on the topic that you’re investigating to give you some clear guidance on how to proceed. For this reason, it is always a good idea to explore what research has already been done on your topic before you begin to construct your own argument. See our handout on making an academic argument .

Example of an operationalized term

To give you an example of the kind of rigor and objectivity political scientists aim for in their writing, let’s examine how someone might operationalize a term. Reading through this example should clarify the level of analysis and precision that you will be expected to employ in your writing. Here’s how you might define key concepts in a way that allows us to measure them.

We are all familiar with the term “democracy.” If you were asked to define this term, you might make a statement like the following:

“Democracy is government by the people.”

You would, of course, be correct—democracy is government by the people. But, in order to evaluate whether or not a particular government is fully democratic or is more or less democratic when compared with other governments, we would need to have more precise criteria with which to measure or assess democracy. For example, here are some criteria that political scientists have suggested are indicators of democracy:

Freedom to form and join organizations
Freedom of expression
Right to vote
Eligibility for public office
Right of political leaders to compete for support
Right of political leaders to compete for votes
Alternative sources of information
Free and fair elections
Institutions for making government policies depend on votes and other expressions of preference

If we adopt these nine criteria, we now have a definition that will allow us to measure democracy empirically. Thus, if you want to determine whether Brazil is more democratic than Sweden, you can evaluate each country in terms of the degree to which it fulfills the above criteria.

What counts as good writing in political science?

While rigor, clarity, and concision will be valued in any piece of writing in political science, knowing the kind of writing task you’ve been assigned will help you to write a good paper. Two of the most common kinds of writing assignments in political science are the research paper and the theory paper.

Writing political science research papers

An introduction
A problem statement
A discussion of methodology
A literature review
A description and evaluation of your research findings
A summary of your findings

Here’s a brief description of each component.

In the introduction of your research paper, you need to give the reader some basic background information on your topic that suggests why the question you are investigating is interesting and important. You will also need to provide the reader with a statement of the research problem you are attempting to address and a basic outline of your paper as a whole. The problem statement presents not only the general research problem you will address but also the hypotheses that you will consider. In the methodology section, you will explain to the reader the research methods you used to investigate your research topic and to test the hypotheses that you have formulated. For example, did you conduct interviews, use statistical analysis, rely upon previous research studies, or some combination of all of these methodological approaches?

Before you can develop each of the above components of your research paper, you will need to conduct a literature review. A literature review involves reading and analyzing what other researchers have written on your topic before going on to do research of your own. There are some very pragmatic reasons for doing this work. First, as insightful as your ideas may be, someone else may have had similar ideas and have already done research to test them. By reading what they have written on your topic, you can ensure that you don’t repeat, but rather learn from, work that has already been done. Second, to demonstrate the soundness of your hypotheses and methodology, you will need to indicate how you have borrowed from and/or improved upon the ideas of others.

By referring to what other researchers have found on your topic, you will have established a frame of reference that enables the reader to understand the full significance of your research results. Thus, once you have conducted your literature review, you will be in a position to present your research findings. In presenting these findings, you will need to refer back to your original hypotheses and explain the manner and degree to which your results fit with what you anticipated you would find. If you see strong support for your argument or perhaps some unexpected results that your original hypotheses cannot account for, this section is the place to convey such important information to your reader. This is also the place to suggest further lines of research that will help refine, clarify inconsistencies with, or provide additional support for your hypotheses. Finally, in the summary section of your paper, reiterate the significance of your research and your research findings and speculate upon the path that future research efforts should take.

Writing in political theory

Political theory differs from other subfields in political science in that it deals primarily with historical and normative, rather than empirical, analysis. In other words, political theorists are less concerned with the scientific measurement of political phenomena than with understanding how important political ideas develop over time. And they are less concerned with evaluating how things are than in debating how they should be. A return to our democracy example will make these distinctions clearer and give you some clues about how to write well in political theory.

Earlier, we talked about how to define democracy empirically so that it can be measured and tested in accordance with scientific principles. Political theorists also define democracy, but they use a different standard of measurement. Their definitions of democracy reflect their interest in political ideals—for example, liberty, equality, and citizenship—rather than scientific measurement. So, when writing about democracy from the perspective of a political theorist, you may be asked to make an argument about the proper way to define citizenship in a democratic society. Should citizens of a democratic society be expected to engage in decision-making and administration of government, or should they be satisfied with casting votes every couple of years?

In order to substantiate your position on such questions, you will need to pay special attention to two interrelated components of your writing: (1) the logical consistency of your ideas and (2) the manner in which you use the arguments of other theorists to support your own. First, you need to make sure that your conclusion and all points leading up to it follow from your original premises or assumptions. If, for example, you argue that democracy is a system of government through which citizens develop their full capacities as human beings, then your notion of citizenship will somehow need to support this broad definition of democracy. A narrow view of citizenship based exclusively or primarily on voting probably will not do. Whatever you argue, however, you will need to be sure to demonstrate in your analysis that you have considered the arguments of other theorists who have written about these issues. In some cases, their arguments will provide support for your own; in others, they will raise criticisms and concerns that you will need to address if you are going to make a convincing case for your point of view.

Drafting your paper

If you have used material from outside sources in your paper, be sure to cite them appropriately in your paper. In political science, writers most often use the APA or Turabian (a version of the Chicago Manual of Style) style guides when formatting references. Check with your instructor if they have not specified a citation style in the assignment. For more information on constructing citations, see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial.

Although all assignments are different, the preceding outlines provide a clear and simple guide that should help you in writing papers in any sub-field of political science. If you find that you need more assistance than this short guide provides, refer to the list of additional resources below or make an appointment to see a tutor at the Writing Center.

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.

Becker, Howard S. 2007. Writing for Social Scientists: How to Start and Finish Your Thesis, Book, or Article , 2nd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Cuba, Lee. 2002. A Short Guide to Writing About Social Science , 4th ed. New York: Longman.

Lasswell, Harold Dwight. 1936. Politics: Who Gets What, When, How . New York: McGraw-Hill.

Scott, Gregory M., and Stephen M. Garrison. 1998. The Political Science Student Writer’s Manual , 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Turabian, Kate. 2018. A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, Dissertations , 9th ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

Make a Gift

Request new password
Create a new account

Writing a Research Paper in Political Science: A Practical Guide to Inquiry, Structure, and Methods

Student resources, welcome to the companion website.

Want your students to write their first major political science research paper with confidence? With this book, they can. Author Lisa Baglione breaks down the research paper into its constituent parts and shows students precisely how to complete each component. The author provides encouragement at each stage and faces pitfalls head on, giving advice and examples so that students move through each task successfully. Students are shown how to craft the right research question, find good sources and properly summarize them, operationalize concepts, design good tests for their hypotheses, and present and analyze quantitative and qualitative data. Even writing an introduction, coming up with effective headings and titles, presenting a conclusion, and the important steps of editing and revising are covered with class-tested advice and know-how that’s received accolades from professors and students alike. Practical summaries, recipes for success, worksheets, exercises, and a series of handy checklists make this a must-have supplement for any writing-intensive political science course.

In this Third Edition of Writing a Research Paper in Political Science , updated sample research topics come from American government, gender studies, comparative politics, and international relations. Examples of actual student writing show readers how others "just like them" accomplished each stage of the process.

Acknowledgements

We gratefully acknowledge Lisa Baglione for writing an excellent text and developing the ancillaries on this site.

For instructors

Access resources that are only available to Faculty and Administrative Staff.

Want to explore the book further?

Order Review Copy

How to do Research on Political Science

Selected Subject Headings

Listed below is a sample of a few broad Library of Congress subject headings—made up of one word or more representing concepts under which all library holdings are divided and subdivided by subject—which you can search under and use as subject terms when searching online library catalogs for preliminary and/or additional research, such as books, audio and video recordings, and other references, related to your research paper topic. When researching materials on your topic, subject heading searching may be more productive than searching using simple keywords. However, keyword searching when using the right search method (Boolean, etc.) and combination of words can be equally effective in finding materials more closely relevant to the topic of your research paper.

Academic Writing, Editing, Proofreading, And Problem Solving Services

Get 10% off with 24start discount code, suggested p olitical science research topics.

Business and Politics
Campaign Funds
Campaign Literature
Comparative Government
International Relations
Municipal Government
Political Action Committees
Political Activists
Political Conventions
Political Corruption
Political Ethics
Political Parties—Liberals [or any other political party]
Political Psychology
Political Science
Presidential Candidates
Press and Politics
Public Opinion
Political Science—History
Political Science—Methodology
Political Science—Philosophy
Political Science—Research
Political Science—Study and Teaching
Political Sociology
Politics, Practical
Public Administration
Representative Government and Representation
State Rights
Television in Politics
United States—Politics and Government
World Politics

Selected Keyword Search Strategies and Guides

If the topic of your research paper is “corruption and campaign funding,” for example, enter “corruption” and “campaign funds” with “and” on the same line to locate sources directly compatible with the primary focus of your paper. To find research on more specific aspects of your topic, from your list of keywords that you developed alternate with one new keyword at a time in between (for example, “corruption and causes and campaign funds,” “corruption and lobbyists and campaign funds,” “corruption and politicians and campaign funds,” “corruption and reform and campaign funds,” etc.).

For additional help with keyword searching, navigation or user guides for online indexes and databases by many leading providers—including Cambridge Scientific Abstracts, EBSCO, H.W. Wilson, OCLC, Ovid Technologies, ProQuest, and Thomson Gale—are posted with direct links on library Web sites to guides providing specific instruction to using whichever database you want to search. They provide additional guidance on how to customize and maximize your searching, including advanced searching techniques and grouping of words and phrases using the Boolean search method—of your topic, of bibliographic records, and of full-text articles, and other documents related the subject of your research paper.

Selected Source and Subject Guides

As part of your preliminary research to find appropriate resources for your research paper, information source and research guides are available at most public and academic libraries and are keyword searchable through your library’s online catalog (to search and locate guides, enter your “subject” followed by these keywords one search at a time: “information sources,” “reference sources,” and “research guide”). Printed guides available for this subject area include

Information Sources in Politics and Political Science: A Survey Worldwide , edited by Dermot Englefield and Gavin Drewry, 509 pages (London and Boston: Butterworths, 1984)

Information Sources of Political Science , edited by Stephen W. Green and Douglas J. Ernest, 593 pages (Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO, 2005)

International Relations, International Security, and Comparative Politics: A Guide to Reference and Information Sources , by Chad M. Kahl, 423 pages (Englewood, Colo.: Libraries Unlimited, 2007)

Political Science: A Guide to Reference and Information Sources , by Henry E. York, 249 pages (Englewood, Colo.: Libraries Unlimited, 1990)

In addition to these sources of research, most college and university libraries offer online subject guides arranged by subject on the library’s Web page; others also list searchable course-related “LibGuides” by subject. Each guide lists more recommended published and Web sources—including books and references, journal, newspaper and magazines indexes, full-text article databases, Web sites, and even research tutorials—that you can access to expand your research on more specific issues and relevant to your subject.

Selected Books and References

The Almanac of American Politics 2010 , by Michael Barone and Richard E. Cohen, 1,500 pages (Boston: Gambit, 1972– ; National Journal Group, 1999– ).

Published annually since 1972, The Almanac of American Politics has become a leading source of information on politics and elected officials. This latest edition, co-written by political reporter and Fox News analyst Michael Barone and Richard E. Cohen, follows the same format as previous editions. It features brief overviews of all 50 states, including congressional districts and profiles of governors, senators, and state representatives. Biographical details are provided on each elected official, along with their voting records, election results, and ratings by 11 interest groups and The National Journal.

The Facts On File World Political Almanac: From 1945 to the Present , by Chris Cook, 600 pages (New York: Facts On File, 2001)

Unique in its breadth of coverage, this fourth revised hardcover edition covers the international political scene and contemporary events from post–World War II to the present like no other. This acclaimed reference provides information on new states, political leaders, political organizations and movements, heads of state and government, elections, recent warfare and civil strife, and much more.

Encyclopedias

Citizen Action Encyclopedia: Groups and Movements That Have Changed America , by Richard S. Halsey, 385 pages (Westport, Conn.: Oryx Press, 2001)

This encyclopedia thoroughly details the people, organizations, events, and movements behind citizen activism in the United States, covering the broad spectrum of American activism in the 20th century, including ultraliberal and ultraconservative activists and organizations.

Encyclopedia of Interest Groups and Lobbyists in the United States , by Immanuel Ness, 2 vols., 800 pages (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 2000)

This two-volume encyclopedia covers seemingly every major interest group and lobbyist in the United States. Part I offers detailed profiles of 172 such groups organized into 13 categories, including banking, environment, health, human rights, and many others. Each entry offers complete information on each group, such as history, general legislative interests, successes and failures, membership, annual budget, table summaries of donations made to political candidates in the 1996 and 1998 elections, and lobbying activities. Part II of the set highlights political action committees (PACs) and lobbyists.

Encyclopedia of the United States Cabinet , by Mark Grossman, 3 vols., 1,137 pages (Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO, 2000)

Devoted entirely to the history of the U.S. cabinet and its secretaries, this award-winning three-volume set profiles every cabinet department. Examined in detail is the history of each department with biographical information, as well as historical overviews of cabinet members.

A chronological list of cabinet members by department is featured at the beginning of each volume. Cabinet profiles cover not only the history but also the origin of each department, even those departments that have merged into other departments or ceased operation. An extensive bibliography and general index accompany this fact-filled reference source, which is also available as an electronic book.

International Encyclopedia of Public Policy and Administration A–Z , edited by Jay M. Shafritz, 4 vols., 2,504 pages (Boulder: Westview Press, 1998)

Covering the concepts, practices, issues, and theories that define public policy making, from analysis to implementation, this four-volume encyclopedia offers some 900 articles penned by more than 400 leading scholars and practitioners from throughout the world. Offered are basic definitions, thorough descriptions, explanations of historical significance, and bibliographies for each topic.

General References

Congress and the Nation X: 1997–2001 , 1,232 pages (Washington, D.C.: CQ Press, 2002)

The 10th edition of this renowned series published since 1945 chronicles congressional legislation and the second term of President Bill Clinton. Coverage includes key legislation, detailed chronologies of congressional action, selections with texts of presidential speeches, key voting records of the 105th and 106th congressional sessions, detailed tables and charts, and much more. In 2006, CQ Press published its 11th edition of the series, Congress and the Nation XI: 2001–2004.

Directory of Congressional Voting Scores and Interest Group Rating s, 4th ed., by J. Michael Sharp, 2 vols., 1,676 pages (Washington, D.C.: CQ Press, 2005)

This two-volume, fourth-edition compilation features voting study comparisons and interest group rating data on every U.S. congressman and woman elected to office, 1947–2004.

Public Interest Profiles 2006–2007 by Congressional Quarterly editors (Washington, D.C.: CQ Press, 2006)

First published in 1977, this annual reference—now in its 12th edition—fully details some 200 national nonprofit interest groups in the United States, indexed by name, subject, and group.

U.S. Energy and Environmental Interest Groups: Institutional Profiles , by Lettie McSpadden Wenner, 358 pages (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1990)

This A–Z companion offers complete overviews of every major energy and environmental interest group in the United States. Each entry provides important information about each group, including policy issues, resources, and tactics.

U.S. Religious Interest Groups: Institutional Profiles , by Paul J. Weber and W. Landis Jones, 240 pages (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1994)

This alphabetically arranged compendium details every major religious interest group in the United States. Contents of each entry include origin and history, mission statement, funding source, policy concerns, and religious affiliations. Also provided are appendixes of groups by policy area, religious affiliation, political identification, and more.

U.S. Women’s Interest Groups: Institutional Profiles , edited by Sarah Slavin, 688 pages (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1995)

This general reference title highlights major women’s interest groups in the United States, covering their origin and development, electoral activities, funding, and policy concerns.

Vital Statistics on American Politics, 2005–2006 , by Harold W. Stanley and Richard G. Niemi, 400 pages (Washington, D.C.: CQ Press, 2005– )

This essential resource, published annually since 1988, contains more than 200 tables and charts on many aspects of American politics and government. Each volume features data relating to campaign finance, political action committees, elections, political parties, public opinion, voting, the media, Congress, the presidency, the judiciary, federal and state finance, foreign policy, military, and social and economic policy.

Washington Information Directory 2009–2010 , 1,025 pages (Washington, D.C.: CQ Press, 2009)

Since publication of the first edition in 1975–76, this widely distributed annual directory has offered detailed descriptions of hundreds of government agencies, congressional committees, nonprofit organizations, and special interest groups located in the U.S. capital. Includes an alphabetical index.

Washington Representatives: Fall 2009 , 1,400 pages (Washington, D.C.: Columbia Books, Inc., 2009)

Originally called the Directory of Washington Representatives of American Associations and Industry (1977– ), this popular political reference features two alphabetical listings of more than 18,000 lobbyists, public and government affairs representatives, and special interest advocates and the causes they represent. Entries provide key contact information, including name, address, phone and fax numbers, e-mail and Web addresses, and a brief description. Listings are organized by client and by representative, and indexed by subject/industry, foreign interest, and legislative issue.

Selected Full-Text Article Databases

Alt-Press Watch (Ann Arbor, Mich.: ProQuest, 1970– )

A good source of different viewpoints and perspectives from beyond the mainstream media, this database provides full-text access to 170 newspaper, magazine, and journal titles of the alternative and independent press.

CQ Researcher (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly, 1991– )

Ideal for finding timely overviews and critical analyses of current issues, CQ Researcher features information and full-text research reports on major controversial topics of national and international importance. Varying in length, each report includes complete and balanced summaries and analysis representing both sides of the issues. Often paired with this popular database is CQ Weekly, an independently published political magazine, with access to full-text articles published since 1983. The weekly journal provides in-depth reporting of activities of the U.S. Congress, including the status of bills, votes and amendments, fl oor and committee decisions, and major public policy issues.

Ethnic NewsWatch (Ann Arbor, Mich.: ProQuest, 1985– )

Full-text access to 240 newspapers, magazines, and journals of the ethnic, minority, and Native press covering local, national, and international news, culture, and history. Indexed are articles covering all areas of politics and political science, as well as arts and media, education, environment, journalism, sociology, Spanish, and ethnic and cultural studies (African American, Arab and Middle Eastern, Asian American, European, Jewish, Native Peoples, etc.).

LexisNexis Academic Universe (Dayton, Ohio: LexisNexis, 1970– )

Contents include full-text documents on all topics from more than 5,600 news, business, legal, medical, and reference publications, such as national and regional newspapers, wire services, broadcast transcripts, international news, and non-English language sources, U.S. federal and state case law, codes, regulations, legal news, law reviews, and international legal information, business news journals, company financial information, and industry and market news, and more.

LexisNexis Congressional (Dayton, Ohio: LexisNexis, 1789– )

Useful for researching legislative histories, major policy issues, and general information about the U.S. Congress, this subject-specific database provides comprehensive indexing and abstracting of congressional publications and legislative histories. It includes the full text of congressional reports, documents, bills, the Congressional Record, selected testimony in hearings before Congress, laws, statutes, U.S. Code Service, the Federal Register, the Code of Federal Regulations, and The National Journal, as well as information about members of Congress. Congressional publications are indexed from 1789 to the present. Coverage dates of other items varies.

LexisNexis Government Periodicals (Dayton, Ohio: LexisNexis, 1988– )

Formerly CIS’s U.S. Government Periodicals Index on CD-ROM (since discontinued), LexisNexis Government Periodicals continues its legacy by providing online access to full-text articles from approximately 170 U.S. government periodicals with retrospective coverage through 1988 of more than 70 other federal publications. Quarterly updates include the addition of some 2,500 articles from federal departments and agencies overseeing business, agriculture, the environment, food and nutrition, health and safety, transportation, and more.

LexisNexis State Capital (Dayton, Ohio: LexisNexis)

Online database featuring the latest state legislative information, including the status of current bills and legislation, the full text of bills, and legislative calendars, as well as full text of state statutes, state regulations, information about state legislators and their staffs, and news on state issues for all 50 states.

ProQuest Newspapers (Ann Arbor, Mich.: ProQuest, 1984– )

Full-text searchable current events database includes citations of nine national newspapers, including The Atlanta Journal and Constitution (1990– ); The Boston Globe (1985– ); Chicago Tribune (1985– ); Christian Science Monitor (1990– ); The Los Angeles Times (1985); The New York Times (1999– ); USA Today (1987– ); The Wall Street Journal (1984–); and The Washington Post (1987– ).

ProQuest Political Science (Ann Arbor, Mich.: ProQuest, 1985– )

Abstracts and indexes more than 150 leading political science and international relations journals, providing full-text, full-image articles for many of titles from the collection, including Acta Politica, Contemporary Political Theory, International Journal of Public Opinion Research, Journal of Social Policy, Review of Politics, and World Affairs. Subjects covered include comparative politics, environmental policy, international development political economy, and many others.

Selected Periodicals

The American Political Science Review (Washington, D.C.: American Political Science Association/Cambridge University Press/Georgetown Washington University, 1906– , quarterly)

The longest-running publication of the American Political Science Association (APSA), this scholarly journal, first published in November 1906, offers the latest research from the fields of political science and extensive book reviews from all fields of political science. Published in print and online, access to past issues is available through JSTOR (1906–2000), and full-text articles and abstracts downloadable in PDF form through Cambridge University Press Online ( http://journals.cambridge.org/ ).

CQ Weekly (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly, 1945– , weekly)

A good source for keeping up with what’s happening on Capitol Hill, this weekly journal (originally called Congressional Quarterly Weekly Report) published since 1945 by Congressional Quarterly, includes comprehensive legislative news and analysis, and recounts congressional activities of the week. CQ Weekly is also published on the Web with access to full-text articles since 1983 by subscription.

Dissent (New York: Foundation for Study of Independent Ideas, Inc., 1954– , quarterly)

A magazine of the liberal left, this independent-minded quarterly journal, in the words of The New York Post, “ranks among the handful of political journals read most regularly by U.S. intellectuals.” Each issue features articles about politics in the United States, provocative social and cultural commentaries, and coverage of European politics. Archives of past issues from winter 1997 to the present are browsable at http://www.dissentmagazine.org/ .

Foreign Affairs (New York: Council of Foreign Relations, Inc., 1922– , five times yearly)

This well-known journal, published by the Council of Foreign Relations since 1922, bills itself as “America’s most infl uential publication on international affairs and foreign policy.” Read by business leaders, government figures, journalists, and scholars, each issue contains articles on international relations, including in-depth analysis and debate of the most significant issues in the world today. Back files of Foreign Affairs magazine can be browsed back to 1973, including the text of articles. Full-text articles are also accessible through LexisNexis Academic (1981– ) and ProQuest Political Science (1998– ).

Human Events (Washington, D.C.: Eagle Publishing, Inc., 1944– , weekly)

This weekly journal, founded in 1944, offers news and commentary with a conservative perspective. Articles include columns by top conservative columnists such as Ann Coulter and Robert Novak, and features on important social and cultural issues such as immigration, taxes, and spending.

Journal of Public Affairs (London: Henry Stewart Publications, January 2001– , quarterly)

This electronic international scholarly journal focuses specifically on the area of public affairs, providing expert analysis, case studies, research, and articles on current issues. Each issue focuses on different themes, such as government relations and lobbying, corporate social responsibility, issues management, and political strategy and marketing. Tables of contents and full-text articles are accessible through Ingenta (2001– ).

The Nation (New York: The Nation Institute, 1865– , 47 times a year)

Established by abolitionists in 1865, The Nation is the oldest journal of liberal opinion in America today. Each issue covers such subjects as politics, economics, education, foreign policy, labor, law, social issues, and the arts. Published 47 times a year, the journal often features pieces written by the country’s most respected liberal thinkers.

National Journal (Washington, D.C.: National Journal Group, 1969– , weekly)

Published by the National Journal Group, Inc., a leading Washington, D.C., publisher of political books, directories, magazines, and newsletters, this weekly print and online journal offers in-depth coverage of politics, Congress, and federal agency activities. Selected stories and columns are available online at http://www.nationaljournal.com/ . Full-text articles also indexed by LexisNexis Academic Universe.

National Review (New York: National Review, 1955– , biweekly)

First published on November 19, 1955, this esteemed biweekly political journal offers in-depth news, analysis, and opinion with a conservative bent. Content includes articles, essays, and interviews offering conservative views on social and political issues across the United States and the world. Complete text of articles are available from Expanded Academic ASAP (1984– ). Selected full-text articles published from 2002 to the present can also be obtained online at http://nationalreview.com/archives .

The New Republic (Washington, D.C.: The New Republic, 1914– , weekly)

This weekly opinion journal published since 1914 is geared toward readers interested in politics and domestic and international affairs. Issues contain in-depth reports and essays on topics such as economics, politics, theater, motion pictures, music, and the arts written from a liberal viewpoint.

Political Science Quarterly (New York: Academy of Political Science, 1886– , quarterly)

Published by New York’s Academy of Political Science since 1886, Political Science Quarterly is reportedly “the most widely read and accessible scholarly journal covering government, politics and policy.” Written for political scientists and the general public, each issue of this nonpartisan journal consists of five to six articles on politics, emerging trends, and world affairs with an emphasis on American politics. Tables of contents and full-text articles are available through such online journal databases as Ingenta (1998– ) and JSTOR (1886–1998/99).

The Washington Post (Washington, D.C.: The Washington Post Co., 1877– , daily)

The Washington Post is a major daily source of news and investigative articles providing extensive coverage of national politics. Articles range from general news stories to feature stories on the latest legislative activities to policy decisions and politics in the White House. Full-text articles available through LexisNexis Academic Universe and other library databases.

Selected Web Sites

Public policy organizations.

American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research ( http://www.aei.org/ )

Founded in 1943, the American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research is one of America’s largest think tanks. Based in Washington, D.C., the institute focuses its research in the areas of economics and trade; social welfare; government tax, spending, regulatory, and legal policies; U.S. politics; international affairs; and U.S. defense and foreign policies. Its Web page offers access to news and commentary, highlights of current research, and publications.

Brookings Institution ( http://www.brookings.edu/ )

One of Washington’s oldest think tanks, this independent, nonpartisan organization is dedicated to research, analysis, and public education concerning economic, foreign policy, and governing issues. The institution’s Web site features a variety of resources for students, including news, an index of research topics by category with full-text links, and related publications.

Cato Institute ( http://www.cato.org/ )

Founded in 1977 and headquartered in Washington, D.C., this nonprofit public policy research foundation engages in research in the public policy arena emphasizing a libertarian philosophy. The foundation’s Web site offers plenty of useful resources, in particular, an extensive research area of public policy topics, such as budget, taxes, welfare, and the workforce.

Heritage Foundation ( http://www.heritage.org/ )

This conservative research and educational institute, founded in 1973, devotes itself to “public policies based on the principles of free enterprise, limited government, individual freedom, traditional American values, and a strong national defense.” The foundation’s home page includes a wide variety of public policy resources, including one of the largest Web collections of research issues with full-text links on varying subjects.

RAND Corporation ( http://www.rand.org/ )

The RAND Corporation is a nonprofit research organization, or “think tank.” The home page of this nonprofit corporation offers many quick links to resources, including overviews and full-text documents of core research in the areas of children and adolescents, civil justice, education, energy and environment, health and health care, international affairs, pollution and aging, public safety, and many more.

Urban Institute ( http://www.urban.org/ )

A nonpartisan economic and social policy research organization, the Urban Institute chiefl y focuses on complex national and local issues, such as poverty, educational achievement, and community building. The institute’s Web site provides direct access to new reports, research, issues in focus, and policy centers.

Federal Organizations

GPO FDsys ( http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/ )

A free service of the U.S. Government Printing Office, GPO GPO FDsys offers official information and full-text documents from all three branches of the federal government. Resources can be accessed by branch or by topic. Several other online databases are featured as well, including an A–Z list of federal resources and a locator for federal depository libraries.

USA.gov: Government Made Easy ( http://www.usa.gov/ )

Official federal government gateway to a wide variety of Web resources in one place, including links to federal agencies, legislative and federal branches, state and local governments, information by topic, a reference center offering current data and statistics, and much more.

International Organization

United Nations ( http://www.un.org/en/index.shtml )

Main Web page of this international humanitarian and peacekeeping organization providing opportunities to learn more about the United Nations, its history and mission, its agenda and current issues, current actions against terrorism, and upcoming conferences and events.

ORDER HIGH QUALITY CUSTOM PAPER

Library Hours Servicios in Español Databases Research Guides Get Help My Account CCC Home myClackamas
myClackamas
Research Guides
Servicios in Español
CCC Library
Social Sciences, Human Services + Criminal Justice

Political Science

APA (7th ed.) resources
Course Reserves (textbooks)
Article databases and eJournals
eBook databases
Streaming video databases
CCC Library Catalog
Search tips and strategies

APA 7th edition manual

Apa 7 citation examples, missing elements - apa 7, apa 7 paper formatting basics, apa 7 document templates, more apa 7th ed. resources.

Job and career resources
Writing resources

This guide will introduce you to APA 7 citations, both for the References page of your paper and in-text citations. It is offered in multiple file formats below.

Citation Examples - APA 7 - Word Document
Citation Examples - APA 7 - PDF

This guide will tell you exactly what to do if your resource is missing a citation element. Can't find the author, publication date, page numbers, or something else? Use this guide to find out what to do! This guide is offered in multiple formats below.

Missing Elements - APA 7 - Word Document
Missing Elements - APA 7 - PDF
Typed, double-spaced paragraphs.
1" margins on all sides.
Align text to the left.
Choose one of these fonts: 11-point Calibri, 11-points Arial, 10-point Lucida Sans Unicode, 12-point Times New Roman, 11-point Georgia, 10-point Computer Modern.
Include a page header (also known as the "running head") at the top of every page with the page number.
APA papers are broken up into sections. Check with your instructor for their expectations.
In general, headings and title are centered.

APA 7th edition recognizes two kinds of paper formats - student papers (undergraduate students) and professional research papers (graduate students and professionals). At Clackamas CC, you will use the student paper formatting conventions.

You don't have to format a paper from scratch! Download this APA-formatted document template as a Word document or Google document. Save it, erase the existing text, and type your text right into the template. Learn how to format a paper in APA format by reading the contents of the template. The References page has been formatted with hanging indents.

Download & edit: APA Word document template Microsoft Word document template to save a copy of and type into. To edit it, save a copy to your desktop or Clackamas Office 365 account. Includes tips on how to format a paper in APA. Last updated Feb. 2020.
Download & edit: Pages document template If you need this template in Pages, email [email protected]
View Only: Sample APA student paper (7th ed.) This sample student paper includes descriptions of indentations, margins, headers, and other formatting conventions (APA, 2020).
APA Style (APA.org) APA's site answers all the basic questions about APA 7th edition and gives sample "student" and "professional" papers. This will help you with document format, in-text citations, the References list, and various stylistics.
<< Previous: Search tips and strategies
Next: Job and career resources >>
Last Updated: Apr 16, 2024 10:34 AM
URL: https://libguides.clackamas.edu/political-science

POLSC101: Introduction to Political Science

Research in political science.

This handout is designed to teach you how to conduct original political science research. While you won't be asked to write a research paper, this handout provides important information on the "scientific" approach used by political scientists. Pay particularly close attention to the section that answers the question "what is scientific about political science?"

If you were going to conduct research in biology or chemistry, what would you do? You would probably create a hypothesis, and then design an experiment to test your hypothesis. Based on the results of your experiment, you would draw conclusions. Political scientists follow similar procedures. Like a scientist who researches biology or chemistry, political scientists rely on objectivity, data, and procedure to draw conclusions. This article explains the process of operationalizing variables. Why is that an important step in social science research?

Defining politics and political science

Political scientist Harold Laswell said it best: at its most basic level, politics is the struggle of "who gets what, when, how". This struggle may be as modest as competing interest groups fighting over control of a small municipal budget or as overwhelming as a military stand-off between international superpowers. Political scientists study such struggles, both small and large, in an effort to develop general principles or theories about the way the world of politics works. Think about the title of your course or re-read the course description in your syllabus. You'll find that your course covers a particular sector of the large world of "politics" and brings with it a set of topics, issues, and approaches to information that may be helpful to consider as you begin a writing assignment. The diverse structure of political science reflects the diverse kinds of problems the discipline attempts to analyze and explain. In fact, political science includes at least eight major sub-fields:

American politics examines political behavior and institutions in the United States.
Comparative politics analyzes and compares political systems within and across different geographic regions.
International relations investigates relations among nation-states and the activities of international organizations such as the United Nations, the World Bank, and NATO, as well as international actors such as terrorists, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and multi-national corporations (MNCs).
Political theory analyzes fundamental political concepts such as power and democracy and foundational questions, like "How should the individual and the state relate?"
Political methodology deals with the ways that political scientists ask and investigate questions.
Public policy examines the process by which governments make public decisions.
Public administration studies the ways that government policies are implemented.
Public law focuses on the role of law and courts in the political process.

What is scientific about political science?

Investigating relationships

Although political scientists are prone to debate and disagreement, the majority view the discipline as a genuine science. As a result, political scientists generally strive to emulate the objectivity as well as the conceptual and methodological rigor typically associated with the so-called "hard" sciences (e.g., biology, chemistry, and physics). They see themselves as engaged in revealing the relationships underlying political events and conditions. Based on these revelations, they attempt to state general principles about the way the world of politics works. Given these aims, it is important for political scientists' writing to be conceptually precise, free from bias, and well-substantiated by empirical evidence. Knowing that political scientists value objectivity may help you in making decisions about how to write your paper and what to put in it.

Political theory is an important exception to this empirical approach. You can learn more about writing for political theory classes in the section "Writing in Political Theory" below.

Building theories

Collecting data

Clear, consistent, objective writing

Since political scientists construct and assess theories in accordance with the principles of the scientific method, writing in the field conveys the rigor, objectivity, and logical consistency that characterize this method. Thus political scientists avoid the use of impressionistic or metaphorical language, or language which appeals primarily to our senses, emotions, or moral beliefs. In other words, rather than persuade you with the elegance of their prose or the moral virtue of their beliefs, political scientists persuade through their command of the facts and their ability to relate those facts to theories that can withstand the test of empirical investigation. In writing of this sort, clarity and concision are at a premium. To achieve such clarity and concision, political scientists precisely define any terms or concepts that are important to the arguments that they make. This precision often requires that they "operationalize" key terms or concepts. "Operationalizing" simply means that important – but possibly vague or abstract – concepts like "justice" are defined in ways that allow them to be measured or tested through scientific investigation.

Fortunately, you will generally not be expected to devise or operationalize key concepts entirely on your own. In most cases, your professor or the authors of assigned readings will already have defined and/or operationalized concepts that are important to your research. And in the event that someone hasn't already come up with precisely the definition you need, other political scientists will in all likelihood have written enough on the topic that you're investigating to give you some clear guidance on how to proceed. For this reason, it is always a good idea to explore what research has already been done on your topic before you begin to construct your own argument. (See our handout on making an academic argument.)

Example of an operationalized term

To give you an example of the kind of "rigor" and "objectivity" political scientists aim for in their writing, let's examine how someone might operationalize a term. Reading through this example should clarify the level of analysis and precision that you will be expected to employ in your writing. Here's how you might define key concepts in a way that allows us to measure them.

We are all familiar with the term "democracy". If you were asked to define this term, you might make a statement like the following: "Democracy is government by the people". You would, of course, be correct – democracy is government by the people. But, in order to evaluate whether or not a particular government is fully democratic or is more or less democratic when compared with other governments, we would need to have more precise criteria with which to measure or assess democracy. Most political scientists agree that these criteria should include the following rights and freedoms for citizens:

Freedom to form and join organizations
Freedom of expression
Right to vote
Eligibility for public office
Right of political leaders to compete for support
Right of political leaders to compete for votes
Alternative sources of information
Free and fair elections
Institutions for making government policies depend on votes and other expressions of preference

By adopting these nine criteria, we now have a definition that will allow us to measure democracy. Thus, if you want to determine whether Brazil is more democratic than Sweden, you can evaluate each country in terms of the degree to which it fulfills the above criteria.

What counts as good writing in political science?

While rigor, clarity, and concision will be valued in any piece of writing in political science, knowing the kind of writing task you've been assigned will help you to write a good paper. Two of the most common kinds of writing assignments in political science are the research paper and the theory paper.

Writing political science research papers

Your instructors use research paper assignments as a means of assessing your ability to understand a complex problem in the field, to develop a perspective on this problem, and to make a persuasive argument in favor of your perspective. In order for you to successfully meet this challenge, your research paper should include the following components: (1) an introduction, (2) a problem statement, (3) a discussion of methodology, (4) a literature review, (5) a description and evaluation of your research findings, and (6) a summary of your findings. Here's a brief description of each component.

Before you can develop each of the above components of your research paper, you will need to conduct a literature review. A literature review involves reading and analyzing what other researchers have written on your topic before going on to do research of your own. There are some very pragmatic reasons for doing this work. First, as insightful as your ideas may be, someone else may have had similar ideas and have already done research to test them. By reading what they have written on your topic, you can ensure that you don't repeat, but rather learn from, work that has already been done. Second, to demonstrate the soundness of your hypotheses and methodology, you will need to indicate how you have borrowed from and/or improved upon the ideas of others.

Writing in political theory

Earlier, we talked about how to define democracy empirically so that it can be measured and tested in accordance with scientific principles. Political theorists also define democracy, but they use a different standard of measurement. Their definitions of democracy reflect their interest in political ideals – for example, liberty, equality, and citizenship – rather than scientific measurement. So, when writing about democracy from the perspective of a political theorist, you may be asked to make an argument about the proper way to define citizenship in a democratic society. Should citizens of a democratic society be expected to engage in decision-making and administration of government, or should they be satisfied with casting votes every couple of years?

Drafting your paper

If you have used material from outside sources in your paper, be sure to cite them appropriately in your paper. In political science, writers most often use the APA or Turabian (a version of the Chicago Manual of Style) style guides when formatting references. Check with your instructor if he or she has not specified a citation style in the assignment. For more information on constructing citations, see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial.

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing the original version of this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout's topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find the latest publications on this topic. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial.

Becker, Howard S. 1986. Writing for Social Scientists: How to Start and Finish Your Thesis, Book, or Article . Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

Cuba, Lee. 2002. A Short Guide to Writing about Social Science , Fourth Edition. New York: Longman.

Lasswell, Harold Dwight. 1936. Politics: Who Gets What, When, How . New York, London: Whittlesey House, McGraw-Hill Book Company, inc.

Scott, Gregory M. and Stephen M. Garrison. 1998. The Political Science Student Writer's Manual , Second Edition. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc.

Turabian, Kate L. 1996. A Manual for Writers of Term Papers , Theses, and Dissertations, Sixth Edition. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

Writing a Research Paper in Political Science A Practical Guide to Inquiry, Structure, and Methods

Lisa A. Baglione - Saint Joseph's University, USA

“I introduced Baglione’s book to my colleagues who advise students in our senior capstone projects, and now they are all using it. Students are being told to hang on to the book for later and are making good use of all its sections.”

“Students will be able to use Baglione’s book throughout their career on campus. It is especially helpful for students who are hesitant their about writing a research paper or struggling to find a suitable topic. The book walks through the research process and provides very helpful checklists to ensure students stay on the right track.”

“One of the greatest difficulties students face when writing research papers is finding a good research question to guide the rest of the writing process. Baglione's text tackles that issue head on and does so quite well.”

“This is a very relatable book. The prose is accessible, there is little jargon, and the use of examples is perfect for an undergraduate audience.”

“Baglione offers an extremely practical and useful text for understanding the content and structure of a thesis-length research paper. For some students, the clear outlining of the sequential steps is most useful, while for others who have the basics down, it offers a broad view of the goals and long-term responsibilities for such a project.”

Lisa A. Baglione

Dr. Lisa A. Baglione is a professor in the

Department of Political Science and a member

of the International Relations Program at Saint

Joseph ’ s University in Philadelphia. Currently,

Dr. Baglione also serves as the co-director of the

Gender Studies Program.

During her career, Dr. Baglione has conducted

research in five areas, and while they

are varied, she has benefited from the ways that

insights from each have interwoven: negotiations

between adversaries, authoritarian transformation,

peacebuilding, gender in politics, and

pedagogy. She has published two other books, To

Agree or Not to Agree: Leadership, Bargaining, and

Arms Control with University of Michigan Press

and Writing a Research Paper in Political Science:

A Practical Guide to Inquiry, Structure, and

Methods , now in its fourth edition, with Sage.

Request new password
Create a new account

Writing a Research Paper in Political Science: A Practical Guide to Inquiry, Structure, and Methods

Student resources.

Welcome to the SAGE edge site Writing a Research Paper in Political Science , Fourth Edition by Lisa A. Baglione. SAGE edge offers a robust online environment you can access anytime, anywhere, and features an impressive array of free tools and resources to keep you on the cutting edge of your learning experience.

The student resources site includes:

Mobile-friendly eFlashcards that strengthen understanding of key terms and concepts
Chapter Worksheets to guide the research paper process
Checklist of what to do for each task associated with the research paper
List of Worksheets and Guides
General Resources to help students through the process
Student examples of Sample Papers

Even more »

Account Options

Try the new Google Books
Advanced Book Search
Barnes&Noble.com
Books-A-Million
Find in a library
All sellers »

Get Textbooks on Google Play

Rent and save from the world's largest eBookstore. Read, highlight, and take notes, across web, tablet, and phone.

Go to Google Play Now »

Selected pages

Other editions - View all

Common terms and phrases, about the author (2015).

Lisa A. Baglione is a Professor and the Chair of the Political Science Department at Saint Joseph's University. Her major fields of study are International Relations and Comparative Politics. Dr. Baglione has published works exploring contemporary Russian foreign policy, post-settlement peacebuilding, the arms control decision-making process in the United States, the Soviet Union, and Russia, and the research-paper writing process, and has co-authored articles on the transformation of the Russian polity and economy in the early post-communist period. Currently, she is researching conflict transformation in the twenty-first century and contemporary Russian center-periphery relations. At Saint Joseph's, Dr. Baglione teaches courses in which she developed the ideas, advice, and techniques offered in this work.

Bibliographic information

DEPARTMENT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE

Undergraduate
Honors Thesis

Writing Tips for Theses

Tips for writing a thesis proposal.

1. Find an area (or subfield) that interests you.

Look for a topic that combines personal excitement with scholarly potential. Does your past work at Northwestern reflect themes that run through the choices you have made? Do you find yourself selecting classes on a general topic or returning to a subject repeatedly? Is there a question or an event that has really captured your attention, or something happening in the world that appears puzzling and that you would like to make sense of?

2. Transforming a topic into a research question

Most first efforts at formulating a research topic are either too specific or too broad.

Questions that are too specific have a yes, no, or fairly easily reached empirical question. Examples of too specific questions include: Why was smoking in restaurants banned? What led to President Nixon’s near impeachment?

Broad questions, by contrast, lack focus and need to be narrowed and framed in a way that makes the topic researchable. The quickest way to make progress is to write a paragraph about the topic, and take it to Political Science faculty member to discuss.

As you reflect, ask yourself what specific concerns led you to the general issue? How did you first see the problem? What events stand out? Around what cases do the discussions revolve? Was there an important book, newspaper article or lecture that piqued your interest? Is there a recurrent argument about current affairs? Formulate questions with these specific facts in mind. Talk with others about the topic, including political science faculty members and TAs.

3. Formulate a research question in a way that widens its appeal.

Merely exploring a topic because it interests you is not enough; the thesis must pose a question that subsequent research attempts to answer or resolve. This question should be framed in a general way that highlights its importance. “Why was John Roberts confirmed to be a judge on the US Supreme Court” is probably too specific. It would be better to ask “What factors lead to success or failure in the confirmation of Supreme Court Justices?” You may end up answering this question by looking at confirmation hearings across time or by a comparison of just two nominees. The key is that the question is important in its own right and that answering it provides insight that is useful beyond the specifics of the case.

Even with a carefully posed question, you still need to highlight its importance. Explain why it matters whether or not someone is confirmed for the US Supreme Court, and explain why confirmation is problematic enough to be worth 60 to 100 pages of analysis.

More advice on selecting a thesis topic and crafting a proposal are available at the following website:

http://www.charleslipson.com/How-to-write-a-thesis.htm

Concerning the Form of the Thesis

The watchword for writing a long research paper is structure . The format of your paper should reveal the structure of your thinking. Devices such as paragraphing, headings, indentation, and enumeration help your reader see the major points you want to make.

Headings can convey the major topics discussed in your paper. A research report typically contains four basic components:

Statement of the problem or theoretical question that gave rise to the research, and an explanation of why the problem or question is important to address.
Discussion of how the research was designed to clarify the problem
Analysis of the data or information produced by the research
Summary and conclusion of the study

Although you could include those sections in your report without separate headings, the underlying logic of your paper will be more readily apparent with headings that identify its basic components: (1) the problem, (2) research design, (3) data analysis, (4) summary and conclusion. Obviously, you can adjust or elaborate on these generic headings depending on your topic.

Ask Yale Library

My Library Accounts

Find, Request, and Use

Help and Research Support

Visit and Study

Explore Collections

Political Science Subject Guide: Literature Reviews

Political Science
Books & Dissertations
Articles & Databases
Literature Reviews
Senior Essay Resources
Country Information

More Literature Review Writing Tips

Thesis Whisperer- Bedraggled Daisy Lay advice on writing theses and dissertations. This article demonstrates in more detail one aspect of our discussion

Books on the Literature Review

What is a literature review?

"A literature review is an account of what has been published on a topic by accredited scholars and researchers. [...] In writing the literature review, your purpose is to convey to your reader what knowledge and ideas have been established on a topic, and what their strengths and weaknesses are. As a piece of writing, the literature review must be defined by a guiding concept (e.g., your research objective, the problem or issue you are discussing, or your argumentative thesis). It is not just a descriptive list of the material available, or a set of summaries."

(from "The Literature Review: A Few Tips on Writing It," http://www.writing.utoronto.ca/advice/specific-types-of-writing/literature-review )

Strategies for conducting your own literature review

1. Use this guide as a starting point. Begin your search with the resources linked from the political science subject guide. These library catalogs and databases will help you identify what's been published on your topic.

2. What came first? Try bibliographic tracing. As you're finding sources, pay attention to what and whom these authors cite. Their footnotes and bibliographies will point you in the direction of additional scholarship on your topic.

3. What comes next? Look for reviews and citation reports. What did scholars think about that book when it was published in 2003? Has anyone cited that article since 1971? Reviews and citation analysis tools can help you determine if you've found the seminal works on your topic--so that you can be confident that you haven't missed anything important, and that you've kept up with the debates in your field. You'll find book reviews in JSTOR and other databases. Google Scholar has some citation metrics; you can use Web of Science ( Social Sciences Citation Index ) for more robust citation reports.

4. Stay current. Get familiar with the top journals in your field, and set up alerts for new articles. If you don't know where to begin, APSA and other scholarly associations often maintain lists of journals, broken out by subfield . In many databases (and in Google Scholar), you can also set up search alerts, which will notify you when additional items have been added that meet your search criteria.

5. Stay organized. A citation management tool--e.g., RefWorks, Endnote, Zotero, Mendeley--will help you store your citations, generate a bibliography, and cite your sources while you write. Some of these tools are also useful for file storage, if you'd like to keep PDFs of the articles you've found. To get started with citation management tools, check out this guide .

How to find existing literature reviews

1. Consult Annual Reviews. The Annual Review of Political Science consists of thorough literature review essays in all areas of political science, written by noted scholars. The library also subscribes to Annual Reviews in economics, law and social science, sociology, and many other disciplines.

2. Turn to handbooks, bibliographies, and other reference sources. Resources like Oxford Bibliographies Online and assorted handbooks ( Oxford Handbook of Comparative Politics , Oxford Handbook of American Elections and Political Behavior , etc.) are great ways to get a substantive introduction to a topic, subject area, debate, or issue. Not exactly literature reviews, but they do provide significant reference to and commentary on the relevant literature--like a heavily footnoted encyclopedia for specialists in a discipline.

3. Search databases and Google Scholar. Use the recommended databases in the "Articles & Databases" tab of this guide and try a search that includes the phrase "literature review."

4. Search in journals for literature review articles. Once you've identified the important journals in your field as suggested in the section above, you can target these journals and search for review articles.

5. Find book reviews. These reviews can often contain useful contextual information about the concerns and debates of a field. Worldwide Political Science Abstracts is a good source for book reviews, as is JSTOR . To get to book reviews in JSTOR, select the advanced search option, use the title of the book as your search phrase, and narrow by item type: reviews. You can also narrow your search further by discipline.

6. Cast a wide net--don't forget dissertations. Dissertations and theses often include literature review sections. While these aren't necessarily authoritative, definitive literature reviews (you'll want to check in Annual Reviews for those), they can provide helpful suggestions for sources to consider.

<< Previous: News
Next: Senior Essay Resources >>
Last Updated: Jan 9, 2024 12:55 PM
URL: https://guides.library.yale.edu/politicalscience

Site Navigation

P.O. BOX 208240 New Haven, CT 06250-8240 (203) 432-1775

Yale's Libraries

Bass Library

Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library

Classics Library

Cushing/Whitney Medical Library

Divinity Library

East Asia Library

Gilmore Music Library

Haas Family Arts Library

Lewis Walpole Library

Lillian Goldman Law Library

Marx Science and Social Science Library

Sterling Memorial Library

Yale Center for British Art

SUBSCRIBE TO OUR NEWSLETTER

@YALELIBRARY

image of the ceiling of sterling memorial library

Yale Library Instagram

Accessibility Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion Giving Privacy and Data Use Contact Our Web Team

Read our research on: Gun Policy | International Conflict | Election 2024

Regions & Countries

Political typology quiz.

Notice: Beginning April 18th community groups will be temporarily unavailable for extended maintenance. Thank you for your understanding and cooperation.

Where do you fit in the political typology?

Are you a faith and flag conservative progressive left or somewhere in between.

Take our quiz to find out which one of our nine political typology groups is your best match, compared with a nationally representative survey of more than 10,000 U.S. adults by Pew Research Center. You may find some of these questions are difficult to answer. That’s OK. In those cases, pick the answer that comes closest to your view, even if it isn’t exactly right.

About Pew Research Center Pew Research Center is a nonpartisan fact tank that informs the public about the issues, attitudes and trends shaping the world. It conducts public opinion polling, demographic research, media content analysis and other empirical social science research. Pew Research Center does not take policy positions. It is a subsidiary of The Pew Charitable Trusts .

IMAGES

Writing a Research Paper in Political Science
(PDF) Political Science Research Paper Sample
Best Political Science Research Paper Topics
Political science research paper thesis proposal
How To Write A Good Paper in Political Science
How to Write a Research Paper in English

VIDEO

Political Science Class 12 Official Model Paper 2024 Bihar Board
How to write Research paper or article or assignment with AI tools
12th Political Science Answer Key 2024
Research Paper Writing Workshop
Political Science I CSS Past Paper Analysis 2016-2023
How to Write Research Paper ?

COMMENTS

PDF A Guide to Developing and Writing Research Papers in Political Science
The Six Parts of a Research Paper. A research paper in political science typically has 6 parts: (1) Introduction, (2) Literature review, (3) Theory, (4) Research Design, (5) Analysis, and (6) Conclusion/ Discussion. While papers do vary in their construction, that variation usually finds a way to embrace these 6 parts.
Writing a Political Science Research Paper
The most important and most challenging task for students writing a research paper is developing a thesis. A thesis is a non-trivial, contestable, specific claim about political phenomena that can be proven or defended through the analysis of primary source material. (1) Your thesis must be non-trivial. A reader will want evidence that you are ...
Political Science
Writing political science research papers. Your instructors use research paper assignments as a means of assessing your ability to understand a complex problem in the field, to develop a perspective on this problem, and to make a persuasive argument in favor of your perspective. In order for you to successfully meet this challenge, your ...
Guide for Writing in Political Science
Political Science. Political science writing asks analyze various kinds of political problems, questions, and puzzles, and to advance informed, well-researched, and substantive arguments. topics. They do not all employ the same kinds of evidence. "Data" means different things in the different subfields of political science, and your essays ...
PDF Writing in Political Science
A good political science paper will identify a "puzzle" or interesting question, in response to which you make a clear, concise argument that is supported by well-chosen, relevant evidence. ... More advanced students will be expected to write research papers, and all students are likely to have to read them, so it is important that you ...
Writing a Research Paper in Political Science: A Practical Guide to
Welcome to the SAGE edge site for Writing a Research Paper in Political Science.The SAGE edge site for Writing a Research Paper in Political Science, Fourth Edition by Lisa A. Baglione offers a robust online environment you can access anytime, anywhere, and features an impressive array of free tools and resources to keep you on the cutting edge of your learning experience.
Writing a Research Paper in Political Science: A Practical Guide to
In this Third Edition of Writing a Research Paper in Political Science, updated sample research topics come from American government, gender studies, comparative politics, and international relations. Examples of actual student writing show readers how others "just like them" accomplished each stage of the process.
Writing a Research Paper in Political Science
Even students capable of writing excellent essays still find their first major political science research paper an intimidating experience. Crafting the right research question, finding good sources, properly summarizing them, operationalizing concepts and designing good tests for their hypotheses, presenting and analyzing quantitative as well as qualitative data are all tough-going without a ...
PDF HOW TO WRITE A POLITICAL SCIENCE PAPER
WRITING and STYLE. • Paragraph structure: first sentence, logical order, stitching paragraphs to make the paper flow (i.e. transition words). • Remember your thesis and find supports for all its components. • Use formal language, avoid colloquial language. • Proof-read.
Writing a Research Paper in Political Science: A Practical Guide to
This chapter discusses the process of writing a research paper, and the author's tips for getting started and how to get started. Chapter 1: So You Have to Write a Research Paper What Is a Research Paper? A Few Helpful Metaphors What Research Paper Writing Entails Blueprint of the Book Chapter 2: Getting Started: Finding a Research Question Characteristics of a Good Question Practical ...
Writing a Research Paper in Political Science
Even students capable of writing excellent essays still find their first major political science research paper an intimidating experience. Crafting the right research question, finding good sources, properly summarizing them, operationalizing concepts and designing good tests for their hypotheses, presenting and analyzing quantitative as well as qualitative data are all tough-going without a ...
Writing a Research Paper in Political Science
Even students capable of writing excellent essays still find their first major political science research paper an intimidating experience. Crafting the right research question, finding good sources, properly summarizing them, operationalizing concepts and designing good tests for their hypotheses, presenting and analyzing quantitative as well as qualitative data are all tough-going without a ...
How to do Research on Political Science
In this case, combine your keyword terms of your thesis question or topic with relevant subject headings using the Boolean search method (employing "and" or "or") to find research appropriate to your research paper topic. If the topic of your research paper is "corruption and campaign funding," for example, enter "corruption ...
Research Guides: Political Science: APA (7th ed.) resources
APA 7 paper formatting basics. Typed, double-spaced paragraphs. 1" margins on all sides. Align text to the left. Choose one of these fonts: 11-point Calibri, 11-points Arial, 10-point Lucida Sans Unicode, 12-point Times New Roman, 11-point Georgia, 10-point Computer Modern. Include a page header (also known as the "running head") at the top of ...
PDF Planning and Writing an Analytical Empirical Paper in Political Science
paper and organize your research and writing efficiently. 1. In almost every paper, you are explaining some phenomenon (why something occurred or did not occur in a particular way). At the outset, then, identify what you are explaining and why it is puzzling or important. Make sure the reader knows at the beginning what the paper is about and
POLSC101: Research in Political Science
Writing political science research papers. Your instructors use research paper assignments as a means of assessing your ability to understand a complex problem in the field, to develop a perspective on this problem, and to make a persuasive argument in favor of your perspective. In order for you to successfully meet this challenge, your ...
Writing a Research Paper in Political Science
Chapter 2: Getting Started: Finding a Research Question. Characteristics of a Good Question. Practical Summary. Recipe 1: The Research Question. Exercises. Chapter 3: Learning Proper Citation Forms, Finding the Scholarly Debate, and Summarizing and Classifying Arguments: The Annotated Bibliography.
Student Resources
Welcome to the SAGE edge site Writing a Research Paper in Political Science, Fourth Edition by Lisa A. Baglione. SAGE edge offers a robust online environment you can access anytime, anywhere, and features an impressive array of free tools and resources to keep you on the cutting edge of your learning experience. The student resources site includes:
Writing a Research Paper in Political Science
In Writing a Research Paper in Political Science, author Lisa Baglione breaks down the research paper into its constituent parts and shows students precisely how to complete each component. The author provides encouragement at each stage and faces pitfalls head on, giving advice and examples so that students move through each task successfully.
Writing Tips for Theses
3. Formulate a research question in a way that widens its appeal. Merely exploring a topic because it interests you is not enough; the thesis must pose a question that subsequent research attempts to answer or resolve. This question should be framed in a general way that highlights its importance.
Political Science Subject Guide: Literature Reviews
The Annual Review of Political Science consists of thorough literature review essays in all areas of political science, written by noted scholars. The library also subscribes to Annual Reviews in economics, law and social science, sociology, and many other disciplines. 2. Turn to handbooks, bibliographies, and other reference sources.
PDF How to Write a Political Science Research Proposal
2) The Literature Review. • Focus on scholarly (peer-reviewed) sources: instructors will usually provide guidelines to let you know the minimum number of books and peer-reviewed articles. • The lit review is both the hardest and easiest part of a research proposal. o It's easiest in the sense that it's pretty easy to do a search on ...
Writing a Research Paper in Political Science: A Practical Guide to
Even students capable of writing excellent essays still find their first major political science research paper an intimidating experience. Crafting the right research question, finding good sources, properly summarizing them, operationalizing concepts and designing good tests for their hypotheses, presenting and analyzing quantitative as well as qualitative data are all tough-going without a ...
Political Typology Quiz
Take our quiz to find out which one of our nine political typology groups is your best match, compared with a nationally representative survey of more than 10,000 U.S. adults by Pew Research Center. You may find some of these questions are difficult to answer. That's OK. In those cases, pick the answer that comes closest to your view, even if ...