critical thinking inference questions

GMAT Verbal : Inference Critical Reasoning

Study concepts, example questions & explanations for gmat verbal, all gmat verbal resources, example questions, example question #1 : inference critical reasoning.

Barry’s Barbecue is a restaurant chain that advertises itself as a safe place for diners with food allergies to eat. At Barry’s, whenever a diner books a reservation and mentions a food allergy, the kitchen staff is prohibited from preparing multiple dishes on the same grill. This ensures that there is no cross-contamination between dishes, but also can result in longer wait times as fewer meals can be prepared than would be the case under normal circumstances.

Which of the following is best supported by the information above?

Barry’s will not make special kitchen accommodations for diners who do not make a reservation.

Limiting cross-contamination from multiple dishes on the same grill is the most effective way to avoid issues for diners with food allergies.

The kitchen staff at Barry’s sometimes prepares multiple dishes on the same grill.

Not all restaurants follow food allergy precautions to avoid cross-contamination between multiple dishes.

Diners with food allergies are generally willing to be patient with longer wait times in order to avoid cross-contamination between dishes.

With Inference questions, the correct answer has to fit the "must be true" standard, meaning that it has to be proven based on the passage; incorrect answers "could be true" but are not necessarily true based only on the information in the passage.

Here choice "The kitchen staff at Barry’s sometimes prepares multiple dishes on the same grill." fits that standard largely because of the phrase "under normal circumstances" at the end of the stimulus. If the prohibition on preparing multiple dishes on the same grill is different from "under normal circumstances," then it must be true that "sometimes" (note: "sometimes" is a very low bar to clear for proof) multiple dishes are prepared on the same grill. Choice "The kitchen staff at Barry’s sometimes prepares multiple dishes on the same grill." is therefore correct.

In contrast, notice the strong language within choice "Barry’s will not make special kitchen accommodations for diners who do not make a reservation.", that the restaurant categorically  will not  make kitchen accommodations (of any type) if a diner does not make a reservation. From the stimulus you know of one particular accommodation that will be made under a reservation, but you cannot conclude that there are no other possible accommodations, or that the restaurant wouldn't try to make that accommodation if someone were to arrive without a reservation.

Choice "Not all restaurants follow food allergy precautions to avoid cross-contamination between multiple dishes." could possibly be true ("not all" is another low bar of proof) but as this stimulus only tells you about one particular accommodation that one particular restaurant makes, you just do not have evidence to support this. (Note that while "not all" is a low bar, "food allergy precautions" is fairly broad: if every restaurant, for example, takes one small precaution like washing its dishes at high heat, that would be enough to rule out "Not all restaurants follow food allergy precautions to avoid cross-contamination between multiple dishes.".)

Choice "Limiting cross-contamination from multiple dishes on the same grill is the most effective way to avoid issues for diners with food allergies." is a classic example of an Inference answer choice simply going too far, using "the most effective" when you simply do not have information to rank different precautions.

And choice "Diners with food allergies are generally willing to be patient with longer wait times in order to avoid cross-contamination between dishes." is another example of a choice that might well be true, but does not have any proof in the stimulus.

Example Question #2 : Inference Critical Reasoning

A candy company conducted market research through a survey and a subsequent taste test. In the survey, 27% of respondents said they preferred dark chocolate, 28% said they preferred white chocolate, and 45% said they preferred milk chocolate. But when the same group participated in a taste test of the company's new product line, 60% preferred dark chocolate.

Which of the following can be inferred from the information above?

The survey participants were generally inaccurate regarding their chocolate preferences.

Some people who stated a preference for white chocolate in the survey preferred dark chocolate in the taste test.

Some people who stated a preference for milk chocolate in the survey preferred dark chocolate in the taste test.

Some people who preferred milk chocolate in the taste test had initially stated a preference for white chocolate in the survey.

Most participants expressed a different preference in the taste test than they had indicated in the survey.​

This inference problem forces you to do some math to determine which answer must be true. You know from the given information that some preferences were different between the survey and the taste test (dark chocolate went from 27% to 60%, from the lowest value to the highest, so some people must have changed their preferences from either milk or white chocolate), but each answer choice will require some analysis to determine whether it "could be true" (incorrect answer) or "must be true" (correct).

Choice "The survey participants were generally inaccurate regarding their chocolate preferences." is the qualitative answer and certainly could be true, but isn't necessarily. What if this company simply has lousy white and milk chocolate, but very good dark chocolate? The respondents could have been very accurate in relaying their general preferences, but those preferences just didn't hold in this particular case. So choice "The survey participants were generally inaccurate regarding their chocolate preferences." is incorrect.

Choice "Some people who stated a preference for white chocolate in the survey preferred dark chocolate in the taste test." is more quantitative. It certainly could be true but doesn't have to be. You know that dark chocolate went from 27% to 60%, so it picked up a net gain of 33%. This could be true if some of that gain came from white and some from milk. But since you do not have the taste test totals from white and milk you can play with different combinations. Suppose all who said dark in the survey said dark in the taste test, and then 33% defected from milk to dark. That would leave white unchanged and still give you 60% dark, just with 28% white and now 12% milk. So choice B is not necessarily true and is therefore incorrect.

Choice "Some people who preferred milk chocolate in the taste test had initially stated a preference for white chocolate in the survey." does not have to be true, either. You know that 33% of respondents switched to dark chocolate, but you do not know for certain that anyone switched between white and milk. As you will see with choice "Some people who stated a preference for milk chocolate in the survey preferred dark chocolate in the taste test."...

Choice "Some people who stated a preference for milk chocolate in the survey preferred dark chocolate in the taste test." must be true. You need a net gain of 33% moving from either white or milk to dark. And since only 28% preferred white chocolate, you can't get that 33% gain unless at the very least 5% of people changed from milk to dark.

Choice "Most participants expressed a different preference in the taste test than they had indicated in the survey.​" is incorrect because, again, the minimum change is 33%. All the statements could be true if everyone who liked dark in the survey stuck with dark in the taste test, and then 33% moved to dark from milk. That case satisfies all of the facts but leaves more than half of survey responses intact, thereby invalidating choice "Most participants expressed a different preference in the taste test than they had indicated in the survey.​". Choice "Some people who stated a preference for milk chocolate in the survey preferred dark chocolate in the taste test." is correct.

Example Question #3 : Inference Critical Reasoning

Among the most effective ways to increase sales of an online service is to offer some form of free trial for users to experiment with before they purchase the full service. The benefit of such a practice is to encourage sales in individuals who would not buy the product without having tried it first.

Which of the following is best supported by the information given above?

Because the cost of offering a free trial can be high, companies are often resistant to offering free trials, especially free trials that offer all features included within the paid version of the online service.

The number of sales for a given online service is directly proportional to the number of visitors to the online service's website, a number that tends to increase if a free trial is offered.

In calculating the total number of an online service sold, free trials are generally included as zero-dollar sales rather than as a separate category.

Online services that are easily adapted to free trial versions sell better than do online services that are not readily distributed as free trials.

The number of people who see the free trial as an acceptable replacement for buying the online service is not greater than the number of people who buy the online service because of their experience within the free trial.

As with any inference question, your job here is to understand the information given and to choose an answer choice guaranteed by the text. You are told in this stimulus to this question that free trials are meant to increase sales of the full version of an online service by giving users who would not buy the service without trying it first a chance to experiment with it. Choice "The number of people who see the free trial as an acceptable replacement for buying the online service is not greater than the number of people who buy the online service because of their experience within the free trial." is the only answer choice that is guaranteed by the text. If the number of people who find that the free trial was a good substitute is bigger than the number of people who are incentivized to buy the full online service because of the free trial, then the ability to experiment before you try the full service would not only be meaningless, it would be counter to the reason that companies offer free trials.

Among the other answers, choice "Because the cost of offering a free trial can be high, companies are often resistant to offering free trials, especially free trials that offer all features included within the paid version of the online service." can be eliminated because there is no information about what makes companies more or less likely to offer free trials. Choice "In calculating the total number of an online service sold, free trials are generally included as zero-dollar sales rather than as a separate category." can be eliminated because there is no information given about the spread of companies’ free versus paid sales. Choice "The number of sales for a given online service is directly proportional to the number of visitors to the online service's website, a number that tends to increase if a free trial is offered." can be eliminated because there is no information about whether the two values are directly proportional at all. Choice "Online services that are easily adapted to free trial versions sell better than do online services that are not readily distributed as free trials." can be eliminated for similar reasons to choice "Because the cost of offering a free trial can be high, companies are often resistant to offering free trials, especially free trials that offer all features included within the paid version of the online service.". there is no information about the importance of the ease of creating a free trial.

Example Question #4 : Inference Critical Reasoning

Last year, more copies of accounting software programs were sold than in any previous year. For the first time ever, most of the copies sold were not sold to accountants but rather to individuals doing their own taxes or planning their own family budgets. However, the most-purchased copy of accounting software was a program designed for accountants performing corporate audits.

Which of the following is most strongly supported by the information above?

More non-accountants purchased accounting software last year than in any previous year.

Last year more accounting software was sold to corporations than in any previous year.

Last year there were more copies of accounting software sold to non-accountants than in any previous year.

At least some non-accountants purchased the most-purchased copy of software last year.

Last year fewer copies of accounting software were purchased by accountants than in the previous year.

The answer to this Inference problem is "Last year there were more copies of accounting software sold to non-accountants than in any previous year.". Remember - in an Inference question the correct answer must be true based on the premises, and "Last year there were more copies of accounting software sold to non-accountants than in any previous year." can be proven by the facts. You know that 1) the total number of copies of accounting software was its greatest ever and that 2) the percentage that non-accountants purchased was its greatest ever (the first time over 50%). So non-accountants purchased their greatest-ever share of the greatest-ever total, meaning that they must have purchased their greatest number of copies of accounting software ever.

Among the incorrect answer choices:

"Last year more accounting software was sold to corporations than in any previous year." very well might be true, but cannot be proven. What if the growth in accounting software was entirely due to non-accountants (perhaps this was the first-ever year that a program like TurboTax was available, and so the non-accountant software surged while several accountants went out of business and didn't purchase anything)?

"At least some non-accountants purchased the most-purchased copy of software last year." also could be true, but you certainly cannot prove it. What if the most-sold software was a must-buy for any corporation but had no appeal to individuals?

"More non-accountants purchased accounting software last year than in any previous year." is close, but note the precision in language there: all the premises are about the number of  copies  sold, whereas "More non-accountants purchased accounting software last year than in any previous year." draws a conclusion about the number of  purchasers . What if the number of purchasers stayed the same or even decreased, but each purchaser bought multiple different copies (maybe TurboTax came with a "add on Quicken for a dollar" promotion and almost everyone who purchased one piece of software last year bought two this year?).

And "Last year fewer copies of accounting software were purchased by accountants than in the previous year." of course does not have to be true as there is no proof for it anywhere. You know that the highest total number of copies of accounting software was sold so it is difficult to believe that fewer were sold to non-accountants, and that's the only real evidence you have to get close to this conclusion.

Example Question #5 : Inference Critical Reasoning

Meditation can lead to reduced stress, increased concentration, and a longer life. And contrary to what many skeptics believe, regular meditation is more important than the duration of each session. While longer sessions produce better results, all the benefits listed above are possible from daily meditation sessions that are as short as ten minutes.

Which of the following is best supported by the statement above?

Daily meditation sessions of an hour or longer can increase one's life expectancy.

It is possible to achieve as much of a gain in life expectancy from ten minutes of meditation per day as from less frequent meditation sessions of an hour or longer.

People who meditate for ten minutes each day will live longer than those who meditate less frequently.

Mediation is only effective if it is performed on a daily basis.

Meditating less frequently than once per day will lead to less positive benefits than meditating daily.

With any Inference question, you must select the answer choice that must be true based on the information in the passage. Here, several choices might seem very likely, but the "must be true" standard is crucial for inferences.

Choice "Daily meditation sessions of an hour or longer can increase one's life expectancy." must be true. The premises state that "while longer sessions produce better results, all of the above benefits (including a longer life) are possible from daily-ten minute sessions." From that, you can infer that longer sessions (an hour vs. ten minutes) would at least produce the same benefits, if not better. Additionally, note the easier-to-prove word "can" in "can increase one's life expectancy." This is much easier to prove than "will" or "only," words you see in other answer choices.

Among the other choices, choice "Mediation is only effective if it is performed on a daily basis." goes too far with "only." While the last sentence suggests that daily sessions are effective, the previous sentence uses "regular meditation" (so not necessarily "daily"), and ultimately there is nothing to suggest that even infrequent sessions are completely ineffective.

Choice "People who meditate for ten minutes each day will live longer than those who meditate less frequently." goes too far with the prediction "will" - for one, the argument doesn't give enough information to compare daily ten-minute sessions with, say, five-days-per-week hour-long sessions. But just as damning is the word "will" - predictions are just very hard to prove. Can you conceive of a situation in which people who meditate for ten minutes each day live shorter (too much radiation from their Headspace app?)? If so, "will" is not necessarily true.

Choice "It is possible to achieve as much of a gain in life expectancy from ten minutes of meditation per day as from less frequent meditation sessions of an hour or longer." is wrong for similar reasons as "Mediation is only effective if it is performed on a daily basis." is wrong: the hard fact is that "regular" meditation is more important than the duration of each session, but "regular" does not necessarily mean "daily" so this comparison is impossible to make without further information. For the same reason, choice "Meditating less frequently than once per day will lead to less positive benefits than meditating daily." is also incorrect.

Example Question #6 : Inference Critical Reasoning

Gingivitis is a disease that occurs around the teeth and that can lead to periodontitis, a condition that causes tissue destruction in the gums and even tooth loss. Studies show that diets high in vitamin C can help to both prevent gingivitis and treat periodontitis.

Which of the following is best supported by the statements above?

Increasing the amount of vitamin C in one’s diet has helped some periodontitis patients reduce the severity of that condition.

Periodontitis is a condition only contracted by those who have previously contracted gingivitis.

People whose diets are high in vitamin C are less likely to contract periodontitis than those whose diet are low in vitamin C.

A periodontitis treatment plan that does not include vitamin C is less effective than a plan that does.

Some people suffering from periodontitis do so without having contracted gingivitis.

This Inference problem demonstrates the importance of the "Must Be True" standard for GMAT inferences. With Inference problems, you want to attack the answer choices looking to exploit small flaws, and eliminate accordingly.

Choice "People whose diets are high in vitamin C are less likely to contract periodontitis than those whose diet are low in vitamin C." is too general and emphatic a conclusion. Even though vitamin C itself can help to prevent or treat these conditions, one cannot conclude that those who consume vitamin C will be less likely to contract those conditions. Consider a hypothetical: it could be that vitamin C alone would help, but that vitamin C is often present in sugar-containing foods and most people with high vitamin C levels are also guilty of a high sugar diet that leads to even quicker gum disease. Choice "People whose diets are high in vitamin C are less likely to contract periodontitis than those whose diet are low in vitamin C." may very well be true, but if you can create a hypothetical with a case in which it would not be true, you can eliminate it.

"Periodontitis is a condition only contracted by those who have previously contracted gingivitis." is similar: it seems like it's probably true, since you're told that gingivitis "can lead to periodontitis" but you don't know that it's the only thing that can lead to the condition (as choice "Some people suffering from periodontitis do so without having contracted gingivitis." suggests). Since you're unsure whether gingivitis is the only cause, or just one of multiple potential causes, you can eliminate both "Periodontitis is a condition only contracted by those who have previously contracted gingivitis." and "Some people suffering from periodontitis do so without having contracted gingivitis.".

Choice "A periodontitis treatment plan that does not include vitamin C is less effective than a plan that does." is also not proven. There may be other plans that do not include vitamin C but that are extremely effective. Note the language in the last sentence of the stimulus, that vitamin C "can help to treat periodontitis." "Can help" is soft language that leaves plenty of room for another treatment program to be even more helpful.

Choice "Increasing the amount of vitamin C in one’s diet has helped some periodontitis patients reduce the severity of that condition." is correct, in large part because of similarly soft language. If vitamin C can help treat the condition, that means that it must have helped at least some patients in treatment. That's an easy bar to get over, and since you know for a fact that vitamin C is helpful, you can clear that bar. Choice "Increasing the amount of vitamin C in one’s diet has helped some periodontitis patients reduce the severity of that condition." is correct.

Example Question #7 : Inference Critical Reasoning

Health insurance rates have been steadily increasing in this country for decades. Though health insurance companies paid for a smaller percentage of claims last year than they did ten years ago, the overall rise in the number of claims still means that more money is being paid out, and the companies compensate for this by hiking their rates.

From the information above, it can be inferred that ten years ago

fewer people made health insurance claims than was the case last year.

more claims were not paid by insurance companies than were not paid last year.

health insurance companies paid a greater percentage of their claims than they paid twenty years ago.

the percentage of health insurance claims that were unpaid was less than last year's percentage.

profits made by health insurance companies were similar to profits made by health insurance companies last year.

The stimulus states that "...health insurance companies paid for a smaller percentage of claims last year than they did ten years ago." This means that the companies had a greater percentage of unpaid claims last year. Put another way, they had a smaller percentage of unpaid claims ten years ago, which is what choice "the percentage of health insurance claims that were unpaid was less than last year's percentage." says.

Choice "fewer people made health insurance claims than was the case last year." is incorrect because the number of people making claims is never mentioned. One person can make several claims, so we cannot draw any inferences about the number of people.

"more claims were not paid by insurance companies than were not paid last year." is wrong because the overall number of claims and the percentage of claims not paid were both lower ten years ago. Since they were both lower, their product (Total * Percentage) would also be lower, disproving the statement that more claims were not paid.

Answer "health insurance companies paid a greater percentage of their claims than they paid twenty years ago." is incorrect because we do not have any way of knowing the difference in the percentage of claims paid for these two periods (ten years ago versus twenty years ago).

Answer "profits made by health insurance companies were similar to profits made by health insurance companies last year." is incorrect since we already know that the companies have compensated for paying more real dollars by hiking their rates, but there are too many other factors involved in determining profit to make this comparison.

Example Question #8 : Inference Critical Reasoning

A television news network has recently been criticized for failing to give as much time to individuals who do not believe climate change is occurring as they do to scientists who believe climate change is occurring, even though the network does give equal time to all sides of the debates over immigration, tax reform, and gun policy. The network claims that they only give equal time to both sides of a debate when one side cannot be definitively proven by existing scientific research.

Which of the following can be correctly inferred from the information given above?

The television news network believes that it is important to avoid debate on scientific discoveries.

If the news network gave the same time it gave to scientists to individuals who don’t believe in climate change, it would increase its ratings.

There are no effective counter arguments against climate change that might sway viewers to believe that climate change is not occurring.

The television news network believes that the existence of climate change has been definitely proven by existing scientific research.

No individuals who spoke on the network and who did not believe climate change was occurring were scientists.

Whenever you are asked to make an inference from an argument presented on the GMAT, remember that inferences don't need to be interesting or surprising - they only need to be guaranteed.

The argument here states that a television network has been criticized for not giving as much time to climate change deniers as it does to those who believe in climate change even though they do give equal time to all sides of the debates surrounding other issues like tax reform and immigration. The network claims that this is because they only give equal time if one side of the debate cannot be definitively proven by science.

Since the network does not give equal time to both sides of the climate change debate, that means that people at the network believe that it fits the exception given and that one side (the side that believes in climate change) has been definitively proven by science, which matches answer choice "The television news network believes that the existence of climate change has been definitely proven by existing scientific research.".

Among the other answers, "The television news network believes that it is important to avoid debate on scientific discoveries." can be discarded because while the network does not give equal time for all sides of the debate in some cases, it does not provide a blanket dismissal of debating all scientific discovery. Choice "There are no effective counter arguments against climate change that might sway viewers to believe that climate change is not occurring." can be eliminated since while the network believes the science has been settled, this is not the same thing as claiming that no one will be swayed by the arguments against climate change. Choice "No individuals who spoke on the network and who did not believe climate change was occurring were scientists." is a bit harder to eliminate since the stimulus tells you that the people who believe that climate change is occurring are scientists, but it doesn't specifically say that the individuals who don't believe in climate change aren't scientists, so "No individuals who spoke on the network and who did not believe climate change was occurring were scientists." can be eliminated. Choice "If the news network gave the same time it gave to scientists to individuals who don’t believe in climate change, it would increase its ratings." can also be eliminated since even though some people criticize the network for its current policy, it is unknown how a change in policy would affect overall criticism of the network (and in turn how that would effect ratings).

Example Question #9 : Inference Critical Reasoning

A computer equipped with fingerprint recognition software, which denies access to a computer to anyone whose fingerprint is not on file, identifies a person's fingerprint by analyzing not only the detailed structure of the fingerprint, but also such characteristics as the level of pressure upon which the finger is placed on the scanner and the finger's skin tone. Even the most adept computer hackers cannot duplicate all the characteristics the software analyzes.

Which of the following can be logically concluded from the passage above?

Computers equipped with the recognition software will soon be installed in most financial firms that deal with sensitive electronic information.

It is not possible for any top computer hacker to gain access to a computer equipped with the recognition software solely by virtue of skill in replicating the structure of fingerprints.

The fingerprint recognition software is so sensitive that many authorized users are often denied legitimate access.

Fingerprint recognition software has taken many years and tremendous investment to develop and perfect.

Use of the recognition software is largely impractical due to the time it takes to record and analyze a fingerprint.

The correct answer to this question is "It is not possible for any top computer hacker to gain access to a computer equipped with the recognition software solely by virtue of skill in replicating the structure of fingerprints.". This is an INFERENCE question, requiring the test taker to choose the correct answer that must be true based on the information provided in the stimulus. "Use of the recognition software is largely impractical due to the time it takes to record and analyze a fingerprint." is incorrect as the passage provides no information with regard to the speed of recording and analyzing the fingerprint; as such, no related conclusion can be drawn. "Computers equipped with the recognition software will soon be installed in most financial firms that deal with sensitive electronic information." is incorrect as the passage provides no information with regard to the installation of computers that possess the software in specific locations; as such, no related conclusion can be drawn. "It is not possible for any top computer hacker to gain access to a computer equipped with the recognition software solely by virtue of skill in replicating the structure of fingerprints." This is the correct answer. The passage states that the software detects more characteristics than those that the most successful hackers are able to duplicate; as such, we can conclude it would be impossible for any top hacker to gain access to a protected computer solely by replicating one of multiple characteristics analyzed by the software. "Fingerprint recognition software has taken many years and tremendous investment to develop and perfect." is incorrect as the passage provides no information with regard to the time and investment costs associated with the development of the software; as such, no related conclusion can be drawn. "The fingerprint recognition software is so sensitive that many authorized users are often denied legitimate access." is incorrect as the passage provides no information with regard to errors produced by the software; as such, no related conclusion can be drawn.

Example Question #10 : Inference Critical Reasoning

If the minimum wage increases again, MacDowell’s will have to increase the prices it charges for its products. And if that happens, MacDowell’s has a choice: it can spend more on advertising to attract more customers, or its sales and profitability will decrease. But since the extra advertising costs will simply raise total expenses, increasing those costs will still result in an overall decrease in profitability.

Which one of the following conclusions can be logically drawn from the statements above?

MacDowell’s will see its profitability increase if the minimum wage does not increase.

MacDowell’s will be unable to maintain its current profitability if the minimum wage increases.

Unless the minimum wage increases, MacDowell’s will continue to remain profitable.

If MacDowell’s sees a reduction in its profitability, that means that the minimum wage has increased.

If the minimum wage increases, MacDowell’s will no longer be able to remain profitable.

Because this is an Inference question, the degree of proof for the correct answer is that the correct answer MUST BE TRUE. Because of that:

Choice "Unless the minimum wage increases, MacDowell’s will continue to remain profitable." is incorrect because you're not told what happens if the minimum wage does not increase. This prediction is hard to make, then: suppose the minimum wage stayed flat but a disease was traced to MacDowell's ingredients or a fire burned down its top-grossing store. There are plenty of ways for profitability to be cut even if the minimum wage stays flat.

Choice "If the minimum wage increases, MacDowell’s will no longer be able to remain profitable." is incorrect because it goes too far. You know that profitability will decrease, but not that it will go away entirely.

Choice "MacDowell’s will see its profitability increase if the minimum wage does not increase." is incorrect for similar reasons to choice "Unless the minimum wage increases, MacDowell’s will continue to remain profitable.". There are plenty of factors aside from the minimum wage that could decrease profitability, so choice "MacDowell’s will see its profitability increase if the minimum wage does not increase." is not necessarily true.

Choice "MacDowell’s will be unable to maintain its current profitability if the minimum wage increases." is correct. Because you're told in the argument that, of the two options that would face MacDowell's in the event of a minimum wage increase, both will decrease profitability, you know it to be true that a wage increase will cut profitability.

Choice "If MacDowell’s sees a reduction in its profitability, that means that the minimum wage has increased." is incorrect for similar reasons to "Unless the minimum wage increases, MacDowell’s will continue to remain profitable." and "MacDowell’s will see its profitability increase if the minimum wage does not increase.". Plenty of other factors can lead to a decrease in profitability, so that decrease on its own does not allow you to infer that it was specific to a minimum wage hike.

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3 Activities to Enhance Your Inference in Critical Thinking

Practice drawing reasonable conclusions: critical thinking exercise 4.

Posted November 5, 2021 | Reviewed by Tyler Woods

At the beginning of 2021, I posted a piece on this blog asking if any readers wanted to develop their critical thinking as a kind of New Year’s resolution. In light of the positive feedback I received from that piece, I have since posted a series of additional exercises throughout the year—including one on analysis and one on evaluation . Today, I post a set of exercises on inference , which is a critical thinking skill dedicated to the gathering of credible, relevant, logical, balanced, and (as much it can be) unbiased information, for the purpose of drawing a reasonable conclusion (Dwyer, 2017; Facione, 1990).

Critical thinking is a metacognitive process, consisting of a number of skills and dispositions, that when used through self-regulatory reflective judgment, increases the chances of producing a logical conclusion to an argument or solution to a problem (Dwyer, 2017; Dwyer et al., 2016; Dwyer, Hogan & Stewart, 2014; 2015). The purpose of this particular activity set, consistent with the description of inference above, is to provide you with an opportunity to practice drawing reasonable conclusions. If you’re interested in enhancing your critical thinking skills , please start with the first set of exercises and then the second and third, before jumping into this next set below. Remember, when we are given opportunities to think about our thinking , we are engaging our metacognitive processes; and that’s a foundational part of critical thinking.

In the first activity of this exercise, you are asked to infer an appropriate conclusion for each of the three pairs of propositions provided.

Foreign holidays broaden the mind.

I’m going on holiday to Spain.

Conclusion: _____________________________________

The food in the Kebab Hut is terrible.

People don’t want to eat in a restaurant when the food is poor.

Violent television rots the mind.

I don’t like watching violent television.

In the second activity of this exercise, you are asked to gather or develop, a pair of propositions that will appropriately infer each of the three conclusions provided.

1. John’s house will fall down.

Proposition 1: _____________________________________

Proposition 2: _____________________________________

2. Red Rum will win the race.

3. Milk is healthy for humans.

In the third activity of this exercise, you are asked to infer an appropriate conclusion from the first two propositions on level 1. With this resulting conclusion, use the proposition provided on level 2 to infer another conclusion. Finally, use this conclusion, along with the proposition provided on level 3, to infer an overall conclusion. Essentially, what you are doing here is filling-in-the-blanks with your inferences of intermediate conclusions until you reach your overall conclusion.

Proposition: Students who achieve their academic goals report higher life satisfaction.

Proposition: Having higher levels of life satisfaction is associated with lower levels of anxiety .

Intermediate conclusion 1: _______________________________________________

Proposition: Students with lower levels of anxiety do better in exams.

Intermediate conclusion 2: _______________________________________________

Proposition: Students who do better in exams get better jobs and earn more money.

Overall conclusion: _____________________________________________________

I hope you enjoyed this set of activities to exercise your inference skills. Being able to draw reasonable conclusions is an important skill to practice and improve. Though we draw conclusions on a daily basis, quite often they aren't optimal (i.e., either wrong or not entirely accurate) or based on less than credible information. Though it's often the case that some such conclusions will not have a massive impact on decision-making in our lives (e.g., which outfit is best to wear today? ), why take the chance in situations where our conclusions truly do matter (e.g. what should I be looking for in a health insurance policy? )

Along with the completion of the previous exercises, you should be at a stage where you can recognize the cognitive processes necessary in the critical thinking process. However, just because you are able to analyze, evaluate, and infer doesn't ensure that you will approach scenarios that require critical thought. A reflective sensibility— reflective judgment —is also necessary to 'govern' the application of these skills. So, I hope you're looking forward to the final exercise set in this series - on reflective judgment, coming soon.

Dwyer, C.P. (2017). Critical thinking: Conceptual perspectives and practical guidelines.Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Dwyer, C. P., Harney, O., Hogan, M. J., & Kavanagh, C. (2016). Facilitating a Student-Educator Conceptual Model of Dispositions towards Critical Thinking through Interactive Management. Educational Technology & Research, doi: 10.1007/s11423-016-9460-7.

Dwyer, C. P., Hogan, M. J., & Stewart, I. (2014). An integrated critical thinking framework for the 21st century. Thinking Skills & Creativity, 12, 43–52.

Dwyer, C. P., Hogan, M. J., & Stewart, I. (2015). The evaluation of argument mapping-infused critical thinking instruction as a method of enhancing reflective judgment performance. Thinking Skills & Creativity, 16, 11–26.

Facione, P.A. (1990). The Delphi report: Committee on pre-college philosophy. Millbrae, CA: California Academic Press.

Christopher Dwyer, Ph.D., is a lecturer at the Technological University of the Shannon in Athlone, Ireland.

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Distinguishing Between Inferences and Assumptions

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What Is An Inference? And How To Teach It.

WHAT IS AN INFERENCE?

We’ve all been there at some point; a blank-faced student stares back at us in response to our question and states, “I don’t know, teacher. It doesn’t tell us in the story.” Usually, this response has been incited by an inferential question, but what exactly is an inference ?

(An) Inference can be defined as the process of drawing a conclusion based on the available evidence plus previous knowledge and experience. In teacher-speak, inference questions are the types of questions that involve reading between the lines . Students are required to make an educated guess , as the answer will not be stated explicitly. Students must use clues from the text and their experiences to draw a logical conclusion.

Students begin the process of learning to read with simple decoding. From there, they work towards fully comprehending the text by learning to understand what has been said, not only through what is explicitly stated on the page but also through what the writer has implied. It is this ability to read what has been implied that the term inference refers to. For example, if we come across sentences such as:

He placed his hand firmly on her back and ushered her hurriedly out the door. “Yes, yes, yes. I will call you soon to set up another meeting. I will!” George said, punctuating the end of his sentence with a firmly shut door.”

In this extract, the writer does not explicitly state that the man in the story wants to eliminate the person he is addressing. However, he implies this is the case through the action he describes. Reading this correctly is to infer. To imply is the throw, to infer is the catch.

WHY TEACH INFERENCE?

Teaching inference skills is fundamental to our student’s development as critical thinkers. It is a higher-order skill that is essential for students to develop to afford them access to the deepest levels of comprehension. Having a finely tuned ability to infer also has important applications in other subject areas, particularly Math and Science. Given the centrality of pattern reading in these two subjects, it is no surprise that students will find these skills instrumental in prediction and evaluation.

Being able to infer from clues develops in our students an appreciation of the importance of basing our opinions on identifiable evidence. The usefulness of this skill transcends the walls of the classroom. In the world beyond the school gates, the ability to infer will serve students well in their interactions with others on personal, social, and business levels.

INFERENCE EXAMPLES

Explore these examples of inferencing in action based on a simple statement alongside the justification for the inference. More inferences can be made from them than just those stated, so see if you can come up with any others.

Example: “The window is open, and a cool breeze is coming in.”

Inference: The weather outside is likely nice and cool.

Justification: Based on the evidence presented in the sentence, the open window and cool breeze, students can draw an inference about the weather outside.

Example: “The main character’s heart is pounding, and their palms are sweaty.”

Inference: The main character is likely feeling nervous or anxious.

Justification: Students can infer the main character’s emotions based on the evidence presented in the sentence, the physical symptoms of a pounding heart and sweaty palms.

Example : “The dog is barking and growling at the mailman.”

Inference: The dog is likely feeling protective or territorial.

Justification: Based on the evidence presented in the sentence, the dog’s behavior towards the mailman, students can make an inference about the dog’s emotions and motivation.

These examples can be used to encourage students to practice making inferences based on evidence from a text. Teachers can use these examples to guide students through the process of identifying clues, drawing conclusions and inferring.

Year Long Inference Based Writing Activities

Tap into the power of imagery in your classroom to master INFERENCE as AUTHORS and CRITICAL THINKERS .

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This YEAR-LONG 500+ PAGE unit is packed with robust opportunities for your students to develop the critical skill of inference through fun imagery, powerful thinking tools, and graphic organizers.

HOW IS INFERENCE TAUGHT?

Learning to apply inference is not easy. For this reason, it is essential to make the process as explicit as possible for our students to gain a firm grasp of it. One effective means of teaching inference is to perform a kind of reverse engineering process. Begin by ensuring the students understand that:

• Our answers must be supported by clues
• These clues must be added to what we already know
• More than one correct answer is possible.

Higher-level reading comprehension questions often ask students to draw on their powers of inference, especially in the why and how questions posed or questions concerned with their thoughts and opinions.

Often students infer answers without being aware they are engaged in inference. For this reason, draw attention to how they arrived at their answers. Ask them how they ‘inferred’ their answer. This means they must explain how they arrived at their answer without referencing explicit information in the text. Ask them further questions to prompt how they arrived at their answer. Encourage them to point to the clues and implicit information in the text that led them to their conclusion. Here, we are working to uncover the mysterious inference process by illuminating it.

WHAT’S THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PREDICTING AND INFERRING?

“PREDICTING and INFERRING are often confused, but they are not interchangable concepts. Predicting is the process of asking what might happen next based on what we already know from inside and outside the text. Inferring is more a process of enquiring as to what the author meant? Predicting focuses more on the WHAT whereas Inferring is more about the WHY ”

— LITERACYIDEAS.COM

Read through these examples to clearly see the difference between a well-considered educated guess that doesn’t jump to conclusions (an inference) as opposed to a hunch. (a prediction)

Always keep an open mind when considering predictions and inferences, as quite commonly, they can arrive at the same outcome which is fine.

Example: A student sees a dark cloud in the sky.

Prediction: It is going to rain.

Inference: The weather is likely going to change, and it may rain.

How are they different? In this example, a prediction is a guess or assumption about a future event based on available information. On the other hand, an inference is a logical conclusion drawn from evidence already present. In this case, the dark cloud is evidence that the weather is changing, and the inference is that it may rain.

Example: A student watches a video of a person skiing down a steep slope.

Prediction: The person will fall.

Inference: Skiing down a steep slope is dangerous.

How are they different? : In this example, a prediction is a guess or assumption based on available information about a future event. On the other hand, an inference is a logical conclusion drawn from evidence already present. In this case, the fact that skiing down a steep slope is shown to be dangerous is evidence that the activity has risks, and the inference is that this is an important consideration for anyone who wants to try it.

Example: A student sees a group of people gathered around a table with a cake on it.

Prediction: They are celebrating someone’s birthday.

Inference: They are likely having a party or celebration.

How are they different? In this example, a prediction is a guess or assumption about a specific event based on available information. On the other hand, an inference is a logical conclusion drawn from the evidence in this scene. In this case, the group of people gathered around a table with a cake is evidence that they are likely having a party or celebration, and the inference is that it may not necessarily be a birthday celebration.

WHAT TO DO BEFORE, DURING, AND AFTER READING

Inferring before reading.

ART STYLE What does the cover artwork tell us about potential characters, setting, genre, audience? What leads us to these conclusions.

TITLE AND TYPOGRAPHY Has the author gone for a whimsical fun title and font style or a bold, clear style? What might this have to do with the text? What clues does the text size and style tell us about the audience they are targeting?

BLURB what hooks or strategies have been used in the blurb to give us some insight into the story. What obvious questions remain unanswered from the blurb? Why might have these decisions been made?

INFERRING DURING READING

ACTION & REACTION If an act or event occurs within the test, note it down or have a shared conversation if reading within a group to decipher your thinking and reaction.

MARK YOUR TEXT Whether you use post-it notes, pencils or otherwise books are meant to be dissected. Use it as a physical resource at times to identify points to question, challenge and infer over.

LITERAL VS INFERENCE Read a challenging paragraph, and discuss it as a literal text, and then re-read it as a metaphorical piece. What is the difference? If any, and why?

INFERRING AFTER READING

LITERAL VS INFERENCE Read a challenging paragraph, and discuss it as a literal text, and then re-read as a metaphorical piece. What is the difference? If any, and why?

PRE-READING REFLECTION Were your expectations met from the pre-reading inference? Do you think this was intended by the author? What impact did this have?

TIPS FOR MAKING WISE INFERENCES

• Look for clues: When trying to make an inference, it’s important to look for clues that will help you figure out what’s going on. These could be things like a character’s actions, what they say, or the story’s setting.
• Connect the dots: Making an inference is like connecting the dots between the clues you find. It would be best to look for patterns and connections between different pieces of information to help you understand what’s happening.
• Use your own experience: Sometimes, the best way to make an inference is to use your experience. If you’re reading a story about a character going through a tough time, you can think about a time when you or someone you know went through something similar.
• Consider different perspectives: Inferences require you to think about different perspectives. This means trying to see things from the point of view of other characters and thinking about how their experiences and beliefs might affect their decisions.
• Be flexible: Making reasonable inferences means being willing to change your mind as you get more information. It’s important to be open to different explanations and interpretations of what’s happening and to be willing to change your initial assumptions as you learn more.

Teaching Resources

Use our resources and tools to improve your students’ inferencing skills.

INFERENCE ACTIVITIES FOR TEACHERS AND STUDENTS

Setting riddles to solve is an excellent way for students to gain the necessary practice to hone their skills in inference. The stronger the students are, the more complex the riddle set can be – this makes for easy differentiation for various abilities. Developing this ability to solve riddles requires students to grow in confidence in reading for inference. Riddle-solving can be a great introductory activity on the subject of inference and can demonstrate to students lacking confidence that they already have some understanding of how the concept works. READ SOME GREAT CLASSROOM RIDDLES HERE

Show, Don’t Tell

We often urge our students to “ Show, Don’t Tell! ” in their writing. As their writing skills improve, we want them to move away from describing the characters in their stories with long lists of adjectives in favor of revealing their characters through the things they do and say.

To help students develop their ability to read inference, set them the task of identifying a character’s traits in a story exclusively through the things they do and say. This excellent reading extension activity can be easily used as homework. Students can work through a story, recording the information in three columns entitled: Character, Trait, Evidence. Remind students they are looking for implicit evidence, not things the writer has stated explicitly in the narration.

You can also bridge this reading activity into writing. Have students write short paragraphs about a personal experience. Tell them not to state any of the emotions they experienced explicitly. Instead, have them write details that help the reader understand how they felt. Have student volunteers share their writing and briefly discuss each piece. What details helped the reader to understand what the writer was going through? What other details could be added to the writing to enhance this?

Give it to Me Straight! Making inferences Task.

This activity works well as an extension of the previous exercise and is basically an inversion of Show, Don’t Tell! In this exercise, students must translate a few inference sentences into explicit statements. The examples of inference identified in the previous activity will serve well as the material here. This exercise helps students recognize precisely what is being implied in this often very subtle means of communication.

A Picture is Worth a Thousand Words – Visual inference questions.

For this activity, pop into the kindergarten library and grab yourself some picture books. Ignore the inevitable eye-rolls and moans of derision of the students in front of you and explain to them that you’re going to give each of them a book, and they are going to ‘read’ the books to each other.

Children’s book illustrators are masters of inference. They tell stories through the skilful use of visual clues. Students must become a translator of these visual clues into words. Encourage stronger students to also translate the inference in the picture into their narration by avoiding explicitly stating things.

You can also do a variation of this task by providing students with captionless photographs or pictures and asking them to tell the story of the picture. Students can compare and contrast their inferences for each picture.

Inference in film

Authors have the luxury of writing endless chapters to paint pictures in our minds and tell a narrative.  Film-makers do not have this luxury and are both bound by more restraints but given a more bottomless toolbox to tell a story.  If you have ever listened to a director’s commentary whilst watching a film, you will appreciate the effort a filmmaker makes to use inference in their craft.

Everything included in a film is there for a purpose; the setting, background props, dialogue, and music are all calculated decisions used to build emotion and story.   Sometimes what is left unsaid or unshown can also tell us more than what is actually in the film.  

Inference and film are a match made in heaven in the classroom and will provide your students with the analytical skills to watch films at a much deeper level.

A WORD ON GUIDED READING

Guided reading works exceptionally well for teaching inference. Working with small groups of students at similar reading levels, you can effectively improve their ability to read a text for inference. In your guided reading groups:

• Discuss the importance of the title to the meaning of the text
• Discuss and compare the different interpretations of the text by other group members and how they arrived at their interpretations.
• Discuss the motivations of characters in the stories and the relationships between those characters.
• Encourage students to explain how they arrived at their opinion by asking, ‘How do you know?’
• Encourage students to activate prior knowledge through timely discussions.

Be sure to offer opportunities for reading inference across a range of genres. While fictional stories offer the most significant number of opportunities to read for inference, other genres also offer opportunities. Expository texts, for example, promote opportunities for more conscious inference-making.

You can significantly help students by modelling answers and by ‘thinking aloud’ to show your students how you arrived at your conclusions. When students are engaged in making their own inferences, encourage them by asking inference-generating questions that will propel them along the path. READ OUR COMPLETE GUIDE TO TEACHING GUIDED READING HERE

MAKE THE IMPLICIT EXPLICIT

The art of inference is a skill, like most skills, that improves with practice. There will be ample opportunity to reinforce inference skills through the course of the average English lesson as students engage in discussion, complete comprehension exercises, study poetry etc. Even though inference skills will be regularly called upon in lessons that are not primarily focused on developing this skill, it is still essential that some discrete lessons focus primarily on inference.

The inference is often complex for students to understand initially, especially for younger students . It can often slip just beyond their grasp due to its subtle nature. Begin with baby steps. Try to climb down the ladder of abstraction and peel back the layers to make the implicit explicit. With practice, students will soon be able to move beyond recognizing and reading inference in the works of others to incorporate it into their work.

TOP TIPS FOR TEACHING INFERENCE IN THE CLASSROOM

• When it comes to teaching inference, it’s important to start with examples that ignite your students’ imaginations. Choose texts or situations that are rich in detail and nuance, that can spark your students’ curiosity and get them excited about the process of making inferences.
• One key to helping your students develop strong inference skills is to emphasize the importance of evidence. Encourage your students to look closely at the details and evidence provided in the text or situation and to use this evidence to support their inferences.
• Graphic organizers can be powerful tools for helping your students visualize and organize their thoughts as they make inferences. Consider using tools like T-charts, Venn diagrams, or concept maps to help your students see the connections between different pieces of evidence.
• Of course, the most crucial aspect of teaching inference is providing your students with plenty of opportunities to practice. Use a variety of engaging materials to give your students a chance to develop and refine their inference skills and encourage them to discuss their inferences with their peers.
• Finally, don’t forget the importance of reflection and discussion. Please encourage your students to share their inferences with each other and to explore the different perspectives and interpretations that can arise from the same set of evidence. By fostering a culture of curiosity and reflection, you can help your students develop strong inference skills that will serve them well throughout their lives.

USEFUL VIDEO FOR TEACHING INFERENCE

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Critical Thinking Tests

• 228 questions

Critical thinking tests, sometimes known as critical reasoning tests, are often used by employers. They evaluate how a candidate makes logical deductions after scrutinising the evidence provided, while avoiding fallacies or non-factual opinions. Critical thinking tests can form part of an assessment day, or be used as a screening test before an interview.

What is a critical thinking test?

A critical thinking test assesses your ability to use a range of logical skills to evaluate given information and make a judgement. The test is presented in such a way that candidates are expected to quickly scrutinise the evidence presented and decide on the strength of the arguments.

Critical thinking tests show potential employers that you do not just accept data and can avoid subconscious bias and opinions – instead, you can find logical connections between ideas and find alternative interpretations.

This test is usually timed, so quick, clear, logical thinking will help candidates get the best marks. Critical thinking tests are designed to be challenging, and often used as part of the application process for upper-management-level roles.

What does critical thinking mean?

Critical thinking is the intellectual skill set that ensures you can process and consider information, challenge and analyse data, and then reach a conclusion that can be defended and justified.

In the most simple terms, critical reasoning skills will make sure that you are not simply accepting information at face value with little or no supporting evidence.

It also means that you are less likely to be swayed by ‘false news’ or opinions that cannot be backed with facts – which is important in high-level jobs that require logical thinking.

For more information about logical thinking, please see our article all about logical reasoning .

Which professions use critical thinking tests, and why?

Typically, critical thinking tests are taken as part of the application process for jobs that require advanced skills in judgement, analysis and decision making. The higher the position, the more likely that you will need to demonstrate reliable critical reasoning and good logic.

The legal sector is the main industry that uses critical thinking assessments – making decisions based on facts, without opinion and intuition, is vital in legal matters.

A candidate for a legal role needs to demonstrate their intellectual skills in problem-solving without pre-existing knowledge or subconscious bias – and the critical thinking test is a simple and effective way to screen candidates.

Another industry that uses critical thinking tests as part of the recruitment process is banking. In a similar way to the legal sector, those that work in banking are required to make decisions without allowing emotion, intuition or opinion to cloud coherent analysis and conclusions.

Critical thinking tests also sometimes comprise part of the recruitment assessment for graduate and management positions across numerous industries.

The format of the test: which skills are tested?

The test itself, no matter the publisher, is multiple choice.

As a rule, the questions present a paragraph of information for a scenario that may include numerical data. There will then be a statement and a number of possible answers.

The critical thinking test is timed, so decisions need to be made quickly and accurately; in most tests there is a little less than a minute for each question. Having experience of the test structure and what each question is looking for will make the experience smoother for you.

There are typically five separate sections in a critical thinking test, and each section may have multiple questions.

Inference questions assess your ability to judge whether a statement is true, false, or impossible to determine based on the given data and scenario. You usually have five possible answers: absolutely true, absolutely false, possibly true, possibly false, or not possible to determine.

Assumptions

In this section, you are being assessed on your ability to avoid taking things for granted. Each question gives a scenario including data, and you need to evaluate whether there are any assumptions present.

Here you are given a scenario and a number of deductions that may be applicable. You need to assess the given deductions to see which is the logical conclusion – does it follow?

Interpretation

In the interpretation stage, you need to read and analyse a paragraph of information, then interpret a set of possible conclusions, to see which one is correct. You are looking for the conclusion that follows beyond reasonable doubt.

Evaluation of Arguments

In this section, you are given a scenario and a set of arguments that can be for or against. You need to determine which are strong arguments and which are weak, in terms of the information that you have. This decision is made based on the way they address the scenario and how relevant they are to the content.

How best to prepare for a critical thinking test

The best way to prepare for any type of aptitude test is to practice, and critical thinking tests are no different.

Taking practice tests, as mentioned above, will give you confidence as it makes you better understand the structure, layout and timing of the real tests, so you can concentrate on the actual scenarios and questions.

Practice tests should be timed. This will help you get used to working through the scenarios and assessing the conclusions under time constraints – which is a good way to make sure that you perform quickly as well as accurately.

In some thinking skills assessments , a timer will be built in, but you might need to time yourself.

Consistent practice will also enable you to pinpoint any areas of the critical thinking test that require improvement. Our tests offer explanations for each answer, similar to the examples provided above.

Publishers of critical thinking tests

The watson glaser critical thinking test.

The Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal (W-GCTA) is the most popular and widely used critical thinking test. This test has been in development for 85 years and is published by TalentLens .

The W-GCTA is seen as a successful tool for assessing cognitive abilities, allowing recruiting managers to predict job success, find good managers and identify future leaders. It is available in multiple languages including English, French and Spanish.

The test itself can be used as part of an assessment day or as a screening assessment before an interview. It consists of 40 questions on the 5 sections mentioned above, and is timed at 30 minutes. Click here for more information on Watson Glaser tests .

SHL critical reasoning test

SHL is a major aptitude test publisher, which offers critical thinking as part of its testing battery for pre-employment checks.

SHL tests cover all kinds of behavioural and aptitude tests, from logic to inference, verbal to numerical – and with a number of test batteries available online, they are one of the most popular choices for recruiters.

Cornell critical thinking test

The Cornell critical thinking test was made to test students and first developed in 1985. It is an American system that helps teachers, parents and administrators to confidently predict future performance for college admission, gifted and advanced placement programs, and even career success.

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5 Example critical thinking practice questions with answers

In this section, you need to deduce whether the inferred statement is true, false or impossible to deduce.

The UK Government has published data that shows 82% of people under the age of 30 are not homeowners. A charity that helps homeless people has published data that shows 48% of people that are considered homeless are under 30.

The lack of affordable housing on the sales market is the reason so many under-30s are homeless.

• Definitely True
• Probably True
• Impossible to Deduce
• Probably False
• Definitely False

The information given does not infer the conclusion given, so it is impossible to deduce if the inference is correct – there is just not enough information to judge the inference as correct.

The removal of the five-substitution rule in British football will benefit clubs with a smaller roster.

Clubs with more money would prefer the five-substitute rule to continue.

• Assumption Made

Assumption Not Made

This is an example of a fallacy that could cause confusion for a candidate – it encourages you to bring in any pre-existing knowledge of football clubs.

It would be easy to assume the assumption has been made when you consider that the more money a club has, the more players they should have on the roster. However, the statement does not make the assumption that the clubs with more money would prefer to continue with the five-substitute rule.

All boys love football. Football is a sport, therefore:

• All boys love all sports
• Girls do not love football
• Boys are more likely to choose to play football than any other sport

In this section we are looking for the conclusion that follows the logic of the statement. In this example, we cannot deduce that girls do not love football, because there is not enough information to support that.

In the same way the conclusion that all boys love all sports does not follow – we are not given enough information to make that assumption. So, the conclusion that follows is 3: boys are more likely to choose football than any other sport because all boys like football.

The British Museum has a range of artefacts on display, including the largest privately owned collection of WWII weaponry.

There is a larger privately owned collection of WWII weaponry in the USA.

• Conclusion Follows

Conclusion Does Not Follow

The fact that the collection is in the British Museum does not make a difference to the fact it is the largest private collection – so there cannot be a larger collection elsewhere.

The Department for Education should lower standards in examinations to make it fairer for less able students.

• Yes – top grades are too hard for lower-income students
• No – less fortunate students are not capable of higher standards
• Yes – making the standards lower will benefit all students
• No – private school students will suffer if grade standards are lower
• The strongest argument is the right answer, not the one that you might personally believe.

In this case, we need to assess which argument is most relevant to the statement. Both 1 and 4 refer to students in particular situations, which isn’t relevant to the statement. The same can be said about 2, so the strongest argument is 3, since it is relevant and addresses the statement given.

Within two hours of practice I have improved my score from 50% correct to 88%.

Critical Thinking Tests FAQs

What are the basics of critical thinking.

In essence, critical thinking is the intellectual process of considering information on its merits, and reaching an analysis or conclusion from that information that can be defended and rationalised with evidence.

How do you know if you have good critical thinking skills?

You are likely to be someone with good critical thinking skills if you can build winning arguments; pick holes in someone’s theory if it’s inconsistent with known facts; reflect on the biases inherent in your own experiences and assumptions; and look at problems using a systematic methodology.

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Critical Thinking Tests Tips

The most important factor in your success will be practice. If you have taken some practice tests, not only will you start to recognise the way questions are worded and become familiar with what each question is looking for, you will also be able to find out whether there are any parts that you need extra practice with.

It is important to find out which test you will be taking, as some generic critical thinking practice tests might not help if you are taking specific publisher tests (see the section below).

2 Fact vs fallacy

Practice questions can also help you recognise the difference between fact and fallacy in the test. A fallacy is simply an error or something misleading in the scenario paragraph that encourages you to choose an invalid argument. This might be a presumption or a misconception, but if it isn’t spotted it can make finding the right answer impossible.

3 Ignore what you already know

There is no need for pre-existing knowledge to be brought into the test, so no research is needed. In fact, it is important that you ignore any subconscious bias when you are considering the questions – you need logic and facts to get the correct answer, not intuition or instinct.

4 Read everything carefully

Read all the given information thoroughly. This might sound straightforward, but knowing that the test is timed can encourage candidates to skip content and risk misunderstanding the content or miss crucial details.

During the test itself, you will receive instructions that will help you to understand what is being asked of you on each section. There is likely to be an example question and answer, so ensure you take the time to read them fully.

5 Stay aware of the time you've taken

This test is usually timed, so don’t spend too long on a question. If you feel it is going to take too much time, leave it and come back to it at the end (if you have time). Critical thinking tests are complex by design, so they do have quite generous time limits.

For further advice, check out our full set of tips for critical thinking tests .

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Watson glaser 01.

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Jozef Bailey

United Kingdom

April 05, 2022

Doesn't cover all aspects of Watson-Glaser tests but useful

The WGCTA uses more categories to assess critical thinking, but this was useful for the inference section.

April 01, 2022

Just practicing for an interview

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March 31, 2022

Aptitude test

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Mental arithmetic

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Madupoju Manish

February 16, 2022

Analytics are the best questions

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Population/exchange rates were the hardest

Great test as it felt a bit time pressured. Very different types of questions in terms of difficulty.

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January 02, 2022

More attention to detail + be more time conscious

It was asking about daily stuff we all deal with, but as an assessment it's scrutinising how we approach these problems.

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85 Critical Thinking Questions to Carefully Examine Any Information

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The ability to think critically will often determine your success in life.

Let’s face it. Every day, we are bombarded by news, social media updates, and an avalanche of information. If you take all of this at face value, it’s easy to be deceived, misled or ripped off.

That’s why it’s important to  develop a mindset that focuses on critical thinking . This is a skill that needs to be developed in the classroom. But it’s also a valuable life skill.

With that in mind, the following post will share 85 critical thinking questions you can use to increase your awareness about different problems by carefully examining available information. 

Let’s get started…

Table of Contents

What Are Critical Thinking Questions?

Critical thinking questions are inquiries that help you think rationally and clearly by understanding the link between different facts or ideas. These questions create a seemingly endless learning process that lets you critique, evaluate, and develop a depth of knowledge about a given subject. Moreover, you get to reinforce your viewpoints or see things in a new way.

We make decisions every day, whether at work or home. Adopting logical, rational, and practical approaches in addressing various issues requiring critical thinking is essential in decision-making. Therefore, before arriving at a decision, always ask yourself relevant questions and carefully analyze the matter’s pros and cons.

Critical Thinking Questions When in an Argument

When you make an argument using a critical thinking approach, you focus on justified claims that are valid and based on evidence. It helps one establish a strong argument.

• Do I disagree with the other person? Might the person I'm arguing with be misinformed on what they are saying?
• Would I be comfortable saying what I am telling him/her if I was in front of a group of people? 
• What would happen if I lose this argument? Is engaging in this argument worth my time and energy? How will I feel if I lose?
• Is there room for ambiguity or misinterpretation? Are we arguing because I didn't make my point explicit? Should I take my time to understand his school of thought?
• Do I need some rest before saying something? Am I arguing because of other reasons other than the issues at hand? Do I need to take some time and cool down?

• Is it more important that I’m right? Am I trying to ask to prove an unnecessary point?
• Is this argument inductive, deductive, or abductive? Is it a weak or strong argument that I need to engage in? Is it compelling or sound? 
• Is my opponent sincere? Given that they are wrong, are they willing to admit that they are wrong? Can they depend on available evidence, wherever it leads?
• Are my opponents only trying to shift their burden to me? What is the best way to prove them wrong without making them feel bad?
• Are the people I'm arguing with only interested in winning, or are they trying to pass some information across and help me discover the truth?

Critical Thinking Questions When Reading a Book 

When you read a book, you probably ask yourself many “why” questions. Why is this a problem? Why did the character say that? Why is this important? The most challenging part of reading a book is assessing the information you are reading. These questions can help.

• If I learn only two things from this book, what will they be? How will they help me? How will I apply them in my daily life?
• What message are the authors trying to pass across? Are they making suggestions or providing evidence for their arguments?
• Given that almost every book is about solving problems, what is the most prevalent issue that the author is trying to solve?
• What is the author’s writing style? What strategy or master plan does the author employ to convey his/her main ideas throughout the book?
• Do I have background information about the book’s topic? If so, how is what the author is saying different from what I already know?
• What didn’t I understand from the book? Should I re-read the book to understand everything the writer is trying to convey?
• Which sections of the book do I love the most, and why? Generally, do I like this book? Should I look for more books that are written by the same author?
• If I had a chance to meet this book’s author, what questions would I ask him/her? What would I tell the writer about the book? Is it a great book worth recommending to your friends and family members?
• Who are the main characters of the book? If there is only one main character, what overarching goal does the character accomplish?
• In what ways did the protagonist change from the start of the book to the end? What caused the changes? Was the protagonist reckless in some ways? Which ways?

Critical Thinking Questions to Spot a Scam

Asking questions when you feel that a fraud or a scam is being presented to you is a good way to stretch your critical thinking muscles. Are you being emailed or messaged by a stranger? Or maybe there are other red flags you are unsure about. If so, ask these questions.

• Does it seem to be too good to be true? Is this stranger pushy or trying to lure me into making a poor decision?
• When trying out online dating: Is my new “friend” professing strong feelings towards me although we’ve only interacted for a few hours?
• Why is a stranger calling me to ask about my Social Security Number (SSN), personal contact information, or bank details while claiming they are from the bank or a phone company? 
• When buying products online, why does the seller ask me to pay for goods using an insecure payment option like Bitcoin or money order?
• Does the email I have received have any spelling or grammatical errors? Is the language used overly formal or informal?
• If I do a quick search about the exact words of the email I received, does Google indicate it's a fraud or scam?
• Why should a stranger manipulate me using obvious questions like “Would you want to be rich or poor?” While they already know the answer?
• Is the email asking me to download an attachment? Or click a link to some insecure website? 
• Is the person trying to make me feel selfish or guilty for not sending them money, whether for a donation or buying a product? 
• Is the stranger portraying a sense of urgency and using pressure tactics? Are they telling me that their family member needs urgent medical attention?

Critical Thinking Questions About Your Life

It can also help to ask yourself a few critical thinking questions about your life. This way, you can gather basic information and uncover solutions to problems you might not have otherwise thought of.

• Where do I wish to be in a few years, probably two, three, or five years? What short-term and long-term goals should I set?
• What have I achieved so far from the time I set my previous goals? What should I be grateful for?
• Do I have any values that guide me in life? If so, what are these values? Am I always true to these values?
• Am I always worried about what people around me think? Can I act independently without the need to meet social expectations?
• What should people say about me at my funeral? Would they talk about how good I made them feel or how rich and flashy I was?
• If I wasn't afraid of anyone or anything, what would I have done? What if I didn't have any fear in me?
• If today was my last day, what extraordinary thing would I do? Can I do it right now?
• What should I do with the things that matter the most to me? 
• What things will make the greatest difference in my future life if I take action now?
• How should I react when I feel unwanted by the people I love the most? Should I tell them?

Critical Thinking Questions for a Debate or Discussion

When you are in the middle of a debate or discussion, you need to know that what you are saying is fact, have evidence to support your claim, and position yourself as an expert in what you are saying. Here are some critical thinking questions to ask when you are in a debate or discussion.

• Is there fairness in this discussion? Is the moderator supporting one side? Do they want to make one side look stupid or wrong? 
• What is the aim of this discussion? Is there a major problem that needs to be solved? If so, how can I help solve it?
• Who are the people affected by this discussion? If they were here, what would they say?
• Do my views on this discussion matter? If I raise my point, will I be redundant?
• What am I supposed to learn from this debate, and how can I use what I have learned in my daily life?
• Does the audience seem to be biased towards one side? Are they booing one side? What can I do even if it's our opponents being booed?
• Who are the discussion panel members? What views have they held about this kind of discussion or any other related discussions in the past?
• How can I make my point without being ambiguous? Before I speak, should I take down some notes to avoid any confusion during my speech?
• Am I ready to apologize if I make a mistake during the discussion? If so, what are the limits?
• What information does my team, or I need before this discussion? 

Critical Thinking Questions About Lying

Admitting when you are wrong, choosing not to cheat, and sharing constructive feedback are all ways to show your honesty. Here are some critical thinking skills to ask regarding lying.

• Will the lie hurt those I am telling, or will it help them? What if being honest might cause my friend unnecessary pain?
• Should I be the one telling this person a lie, or I let someone else do it? 
• Will I be the one hurt if I tell this lie? Will my friend feel I am a betrayer? Will it affect our friendship?
• Do they answer my questions in detail, or are they always trying to ignore and dodge the main problem?
• What if I ask these people the same question using different terms and wording? Will they give me the same response?
• Did the tone of my friend suddenly change after I asked him/her this question? Do they sound louder, faster, or slower compared to how they usually speak?
• Does this person have something to gain by lying to me? What is their motive?
• Does this person take a sudden pause or hesitate more than usual when responding to my question?
• When I look at these people's faces, do their facial expressions match what they say?
• Should I believe this person or not? What are my intuitions? Does it look like they are telling the truth?
• Do they blink like other days when I ask them questions? Are they always trying to avoid direct eye contact?
• Why do they seem uncomfortable when it’s just a normal conversation?  

Critical Thinking Questions When Presented With a Claim

Critical thinking is much more than just evaluating whether a claim is true or not. It also means a critical thinker reflects on what follows from true claims.

• What does this claim mean, and what are its implications? What if it's a false claim?
• Which of my morals, values, or beliefs do I have to give up to accept this claim?
• Do professionals in this field agree or disagree with the claim that has been made?
• Do they have evidence to back their claim? Which is the most robust evidence to support the claim?
• What argument can I come up with to refute this claim? Or what is the best view that can support this claim?
• Who is the primary source of the claim being made? Is the basis of the claim reliable?
• Is it a claim, or it's just an opinion?
• Is the claim likely to be 100% false, true, or partially true?
• Am I allowed to refute the claim and table my evidence, or is it one-sided?

Critical Thinking Interview Questions

Critical thinking skills are valuable in any industry or field and for almost all roles. During a job interview, you will be asked questions so the potential employer can assess your skills and see how you use logic. Your critical thinking ability is just one vital part that can play into your professional development.

• Is there a time you had to convince someone to use an alternate approach to solve a problem?
• Have you ever had to make a difficult decision quickly?
• How would you handle a situation where your supervisor handled something wrong or made a mistake?
• What is one of the most difficult decisions you have ever had to make at work?
• How would you solve a disagreement between coworkers when approaching a project?
• Can you describe a time when you anticipated a problem ahead of time and took the appropriate steps to stop the problem from becoming an issue?
• If you discover a cheaper way to do something or a better solution to a problem and try to explain it to your supervisor, but they don’t understand, what do you do?

Critical Thinking Questions for Kids

We can’t leave the kids out either. Critical thinking questions for kids get them thinking and talking. It also allows a parent to get to know their child better.

• How many grains of sand do you think are on the beach?
• What would happen if it stopped raining?
• Do you think there is life on other planets?
• Should children be able to set their own bedtimes?
• How would you describe what a tree looks like without saying green or leaves?
• Can you name five different emotions?
• Can you talk for five minutes without uttering “um?”

What Are the Basic Principles of Critical Thinking?

Your critical thinking skills involve gathering complete information, understanding and defining terms, questioning the methods by which we get facts, questioning the conclusions, and looking for hidden assumptions and biases.

Additionally, we can’t expect to find all of the answers, and we need to take the time to examine the big picture of it all.

Here are the basic principles:

• Disposition: Someone with critical thinking skills is often skeptical, open-minded, and practices fair-mindedness. They can look at different viewpoints and change positions if the evidence and reason lead them to do so.
• Criteria: In order to think critically, one must also apply criteria. Certain conditions must be met before someone believes in something. The information needs to be from credible sources.
• Argument: An argument is simply a statement or proposition that is shown with supporting evidence. When you use your critical thinking skills, you identify, evaluate, and construct your argument.
• Reasoning: With critical thinking comes reasoning. You must examine logical relationships among the statements being made.
• Point of View: Critical thinkers can see things from different perspectives and different points of view.

What Are Good Analysis Questions?

Analysis is a part of critical thinking that allows you to examine something carefully. Someone with analytical skills can examine the information presented, understand what that information means, and then properly explain that information to others. Analysis in critical thinking provides more clarity on the information you process.

When analyzing, you may ask yourself, “how do I know this,” how would I solve this problem,” and “why does it matter?”

Why Is Critical Thinking an Important Skill?

Critical thinking skills allow you to express thoughts, ideas, and beliefs in a better way. It also leads to improved communication while allowing others to understand you better. Critical thinking fosters creativity and encourages out-of-the-box thinking. This is a skill that can be applied to many different areas of your life.

For example, knowing the answers to critical thinking questions for a job interview will better prepare you for the interview. Many employers, during questioning, are likely to ask you critical thinking questions to assess if you have the ability to evaluate information effectively so you can make more informed decisions.

Final Thoughts on Critical Thinking Questions

Although it's common to get torn between making two or more choices, nobody wants to make the wrong decision. The only thing you can do to avoid this is use critical thinking questions to examine your situation. The answers to these questions will help you make informed decisions and help you comprehend crucial matters in your life. 

Want to learn more about critical thinking and decision-making using a real-life example? Here is  how Jeff Bezos uses critical thinking  to make some of the most challenging life decisions.

Finally, if you want to ask better questions, then watch this short, 20-minute course to learn how to have a great conversation with virtually anyone .

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100+ Critical Thinking Questions for Students To Ask About Anything

Critical thinkers question everything.

In an age of “fake news” claims and constant argument about pretty much any issue, critical thinking skills are key. Teach your students that it’s vital to ask questions about everything, but that it’s also important to ask the right sorts of questions. Students can use these critical thinking questions with fiction or nonfiction texts. They’re also useful when discussing important issues or trying to understand others’ motivations in general.

“Who” Critical Thinking Questions

Questions like these help students ponder who’s involved in a story and how the actions affect them. They’ll also consider who’s telling the tale and how reliable that narrator might be.

• Is the protagonist?
• Is the antagonist?
• Caused harm?
• Is harmed as a result?
• Was the most important character?

• Is responsible?
• Is most directly affected?
• Should have won?
• Will benefit?
• Would be affected by this?

• Makes the decisions?

“What” Critical Thinking Questions

Ask questions that explore issues more deeply, including those that might not be directly answered in the text.

• Background information do I know or need to know?
• Is the main message?
• Are the defining characteristics?

• Questions or concerns do I have?
• Don’t I understand?
• Evidence supports the author’s conclusion?
• Would it be like if … ?
• Could happen if … ?
• Other outcomes might have happened?
• Questions would you have asked?
• Would you ask the author about … ?
• Was the point of … ?
• Should have happened instead?
• Is that character’s motive?
• Else could have changed the whole story?

• Can you conclude?
• Would your position have been in that situation?
• Would happen if … ?
• Makes your position stronger?
• Was the turning point?
• Is the point of the question?
• Did it mean when … ?
• Is the other side of this argument?
• Was the purpose of … ?
• Does ______ mean?
• Is the problem you are trying to solve?
• Does the evidence say?
• Assumptions are you making?
• Is a better alternative?
• Are the strengths of the argument?

• Are the weaknesses of the argument?
• Is the difference between _______ and _______?

“Where” Critical Thinking Questions

Think about where the story is set and how it affects the actions. Plus, consider where and how you can learn more.

• Would this issue be a major problem?
• Are areas for improvement?
• Did the story change?
• Would you most often find this problem?

• Are there similar situations?
• Would you go to get answers to this problem?
• Can this be improved?
• Can you get more information?
• Will this idea take us?

“When” Critical Thinking Questions

Think about timing and the effect it has on the characters or people involved.

• Is this acceptable?
• Is this unacceptable?

• Does this become a problem?
• Is the best time to take action?
• Will we be able to tell if it worked?
• Is it time to reassess?
• Should we ask for help?
• Is the best time to start?
• Is it time to stop?
• Would this benefit society?

• Has this happened before?

“Why” Critical Thinking Questions

Asking “why” might be one of the most important parts of critical thinking. Exploring and understanding motivation helps develop empathy and make sense of difficult situations.

• Is _________ happening?
• Have we allowed this to happen?
• Should people care about this issue?

• Is this a problem?
• Did the character say … ?
• Did the character do … ?
• Is this relevant?
• Did the author write this?
• Did the author decide to … ?
• Is this important?

• Did that happen?
• Is it necessary?
• Do you think I (he, she, they) asked that question?
• Is that answer the best one?
• Do we need this today?

“How” Critical Thinking Questions

Use these questions to consider how things happen and whether change is possible.

• Do we know this is true?
• Does the language used affect the story?
• Would you solve … ?
• Is this different from other situations?

• Is this similar to … ?
• Would you use … ?
• Does the location affect the story?
• Could the story have ended differently?
• Does this work?
• Could this be harmful?
• Does this connect with what I already know?
• Else could this have been handled?
• Should they have responded?

• Would you feel about … ?
• Does this change the outcome?
• Did you make that decision?
• Does this benefit you/others?
• Does this hurt you/others?
• Could this problem be avoided?

More Critical Thinking Questions

Here are more questions to help probe further and deepen understanding.

• Can you give me an example?

• Do you agree with … ?
• Can you compare this with … ?
• Can you defend the actions of … ?
• Could this be interpreted differently?
• Is the narrator reliable?
• Does it seem too good to be true?

• Is ______ a fact or an opinion?

What are your favorite critical thinking questions? Come exchange ideas on the WeAreTeachers HELPLINE group on Facebook .

Plus, check out 10 tips for teaching kids to be awesome critical thinkers ., you might also like.

5 Critical Thinking Skills Every Kid Needs To Learn (And How To Teach Them)

Teach them to thoughtfully question the world around them. Continue Reading

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Language Comprehension Interventions

• All Literacy Interventions
• Activate Prior Knowledge
• Build Background Knowledge
• High Frequency and Domain Specific Vocabulary
• Defining Words in Context
• Defining Words in Isolation
• Morphology (Prefixes, Suffixes, Roots)
• Sentence Length, Structure, and Type
• Punctuation
• Asking and Answering Factual Questions
• Asking and Answering Inferential Questions

Introduction

How do i break down this skill for students, response to error: answering inferential questions, feedback during the lesson, strategies to try after the lesson.

• Asking and Answering Questions Using Mnemonics
• Summarizing Text
• Synthesizing Text (Critical Thinking)
• Narrative Text Structures
• Informational Text Structures
• Instructional Scopes and Sequences

Inferential, or implicit, questions are answered by interpreting clues from part of the text to figure something out. Students need to be able to answer inferential questions to see if they are understanding the meaning behind certain events/character's feelings. They also need to know how to use this skill to make inferences about what the text does not implicitly state. This questioning skill can be taught once students are able to ask and answer factual questions. As students begin to ask and answer inferential questions as they read, they can begin to think critically about a text, which is the third level of questioning we teach students (you can find more information about critical thinking in the next activity). This page includes intervention strategies that you can use to support your students' ability to ask and answer inferential questions. As you read, consider how you can teach your students the question-asking skills that best align with their strengths and needs in the whole-learner domains.

Explicit Instruction

To support your students' understanding of asking and answering inferential questions, you should start by explicitly teaching this concept. This sounds like:

Explain the Skill/Concept.  Define inferential questions and explain the activity  ( "Inferential, or implicit, questions can be answered by interpreting clues from part of the text to figure something out. It is important to ask and answer inferential questions so that we can see if we understand the meaning behind certain events or character's actions. To make an inference, we use some information from the text, combined with what else we already know in our heads, to come up with an answer." "Today, we are going to learn how to ask and answer inferential questions as we read." ) Model Skill with Examples.  Think aloud about how you ask and answer inferential questions.  ( "Watch as I read this line and share my thinking with you: 'Toad ran to Frog's house. 'Frog, Frog,' cried Toad, 'taste these cookies that I have made'. (Teacher pauses.) Toad is running to Frog's house after he made cookies. Why is he doing that? Oh, he must be excited about the cookies he made because he ran to Frogs house. If he didn't like them, he wouldn't want to share them, would he? Or he would just walk over to Frog's, not run. While I was reading, I asked an inferential question about the character's action of running to Frog's house. I inferred, using some information from the text, and some information from my head that I know people run when they are excited to learn more about what Toad was thinking and feeling. Asking and answering inferential questions helps me better understand the events and the characters in the story. If I couldn't answer a question I asked, I could go back and reread.   ) Model Skill with Non-Examples . Think aloud about how to read without making inferences.  ( "If I read that line without asking myself inferential questions, I don't learn important information about Toad. Imagine if I read the whole story without stopping to ask inferential questions about the characters, I wouldn't understand how their dialogue and actions helps me learn ore about the characters. I would have lifeless, boring characters, and the story wouldn't be nearly as interesting! ) Practice the Skill.  Engage in teaching students to ask and answer specific questions, providing feedback as necessary. ( "Now you try asking and answering inferential questions as you read. " )

Look at the following document to see how you might teach students to ask and answer inferential questions in narrative and informational texts:

Inferential Questions Resource PDF

Wilson, A. (2016). Asking and answering inferential questions. Copyright at Relay GSE. New York, NY:  Relay Graduate School of Education.

Teaching Inferential Questions in Action

To learn about how to ask and answer inferential questions, start by reading the following excerpt from Frog and Toad Together , by Arnold Lobel. Frog and Toad PDF

Lobel, A. (1979). Frog and toad together. New York, NY: Harper Collins.

Now, read the lesson plan below that describes how to teach students to ask and answer questions about character motivation. As you read, think about how you might apply this process to teach students how to ask and answer other types of inferential questions in both narrative and informational texts. 

Inferential Lesson Plan PDF

Wilson, A. (2016). Inferential questions lesson plan. Copyright at Relay GSE. New York, NY:  Relay Graduate School of Education.

Think about the following scenario, which takes place after a teacher has explicitly taught students to ask specific types of questions and given them multiple opportunities to practice.      Teacher: "The text says that Toad felt so sick that his green was turning green. What inference can we make about what Toad was thinking based on this description?"      Student: "Toads are always green! I don't know what it means."

In such a case, what might you do?   

When you are planning your lessons, you should anticipate that your students will make errors throughout. Here are a series of prompts that you can use to respond to errors. Keep in mind that all students are different, and that students might respond better to some types of feedback than others.

If your student struggles to meet your objective, there are various techniques that you might try to adjust the activity so as best to meet your student's needs. 

• << Previous: Asking and Answering Factual Questions
• Next: Asking and Answering Questions Using Mnemonics >>
• Last Updated: Jul 26, 2023 6:35 PM
• URL: https://relay.libguides.com/language-comprehension

• Choosing Effective Vocabulary
• How to Fill a Page (When You Have Nothing to Say)
• Resources – Books
• Critical Thinking and Reading Skills
• Key Terms and the Inference Continuum
• Bad Inferences – Fallacies and Biases
• Application: Inferences and History
• An Aside: Strong Inferences vs. Ghosts
• Eight Types of Evidence – Strengths and Weaknesses
• Bad Evidence – Fallacies and Poor Appeals
• Value Conflicts and Key Terms
• Tragic Application of Values
• Common Value Systems
• Fallacies and a Few Fun Techniques
• Donna Hicks’s Essential Elements of Dignity
• Fundamental Needs
• Mapping Classroom Culture – Support and Humiliation
• The Dignity Pledge
• Separation and Segregation
• Stripping Away Resources and Protections
• Violence and Intimidation
• Murder and Elimination
• Toxic Mythologies and Deep Narratives
• Scapegoating and Conspiracy Theories
• Caricature and Stereotypes
• Denial and Willful Ignorance
• Conclusion and FAQs

The pages below offer an introduction and exploration of inferences, a.k.a. educated guesses. Using this vocabulary in the classroom allows students to explore a larger world of causation and prediction. They can then apply this power to literary, historical, and scientific claims and questions.

The program offered here is an attempt to teach students how to generate and analyze inferences and how to avoid relying on weak inferences when strong inferences are available.

Benefits of teaching inferences and related skills explicitly: 

1. It requires students to “zoom out,” to move beyond their initial intuitions or past impressions, and to search for a wide variety of causal explanations .

2. It reinforces the uncertainties of historical, literary, and scientific inquiry and opens the door to understanding biases and fallacies, quality and quantity of evidence, and other practical limitations.

3. It allows students to question openly without fear of getting “the right answer,” or trying to guess what’s in the teacher’s head.

4. It underscores the importance of understanding the underlying mechanisms and engines of history, e.g. Economics, Government, Social Groups, Religion, etc. and various analytic lenses of literature.

1. Key Skills and the Inference Continuum

2. Bad Inferences: Fallacies and Biases

3. Application: Inferences and History

Summary Points:

1. The ability to generate and evaluate inferences, both weak and strong, is a crucial skill and measure of intelligence. A vocabulary of inferences helps students increase both the quality and quantity of the inferences they generate, and allows them to measure the relative strengths and weaknesses of a given inference.

2. Like any skill, these abilities are plastic and current ability is simply a reflection of a student’s experience, prior knowledge, and practice.

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5.4 Types of Inferences

Learning objectives.

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Define deductive, inductive, and abductive inferences.
• Classify inferences as deductive, inductive, or abductive.
• Explain different explanatory virtues used in abductive reasoning.

Inferences can be deductive, inductive, or abductive. Deductive inferences are the strongest because they can guarantee the truth of their conclusions. Inductive inferences are the most widely used, but they do not guarantee the truth and instead deliver conclusions that are probably true. Abductive inferences also deal in probability.

Deductive Reasoning

Deductive inferences, which are inferences arrived at through deduction (deductive reasoning), can guarantee truth because they focus on the structure of arguments. Here is an example:

• Either you can go to the movies tonight, or you can go to the party tomorrow.
• You cannot go to the movies tonight.
• So, you can go to the party tomorrow.

This argument is good, and you probably knew it was good even without thinking too much about it. The argument uses “or,” which means that at least one of the two statements joined by the “or” must be true. If you find out that one of the two statements joined by “or” is false, you know that the other statement is true by using deduction. Notice that this inference works no matter what the statements are. Take a look at the structure of this form of reasoning:

• X or Y is true.
• X is not true.
• Therefore, Y is true.

By replacing the statements with variables, we get to the form of the initial argument above. No matter what statements you replace X and Y with, if those statements are true, then the conclusion must be true as well. This common argument form is called a disjunctive syllogism.

Valid Deductive Inferences

A good deductive inference is called a valid inference , meaning its structure guarantees the truth of its conclusion given the truth of the premises. Pay attention to this definition. The definition does not say that valid arguments have true conclusions. Validity is a property of the logical forms of arguments, and remember that logic and truth are distinct. The definition states that valid arguments have a form such that if the premises are true, then the conclusion must be true. You can test a deductive inference’s validity by testing whether the premises lead to the conclusion. If it is impossible for the conclusion to be false when the premises are assumed to be true, then the argument is valid.

Deductive reasoning can use a number of valid argument structures:

Disjunctive Syllogism :

• Therefore X.

Modus Ponens :

• If X, then Y.
• Therefore Y.

Modus Tollens :

• Therefore, not X.

You saw the first form, disjunctive syllogism, in the previous example. The second form, modus ponens, uses a conditional, and if you think about necessary and sufficient conditions already discussed, then the validity of this inference becomes apparent. The conditional in premise 1 expresses that X is sufficient for Y. So if X is true, then Y must be true. And premise 2 states that X is true. So the conclusion (the truth of Y) necessarily follows. You can also use your knowledge of necessary and sufficient conditions to understand the last form, modus tollens. Remember, in a conditional, the consequent is the necessary condition. So Y is necessary for X. But premise 2 states that Y is not true. Because Y must be the case if X is the case, and we are told that Y is false, then we know that X is also false. These three examples are only a few of the numerous possible valid inferences.

Invalid Deductive Inferences

A bad deductive inference is called an invalid inference . In invalid inferences, their structure does not guarantee the truth of the conclusion—that is to say, even if the premises are true, the conclusion may be false. This does not mean that the conclusion must be false, but that we simply cannot know whether the conclusion is true or false. Here is an example of an invalid inference:

• If it snows more than three inches, the schools are mandated to close.
• The schools closed.
• Therefore, it snowed more than three inches.

If the premises of this argument are true (and we assume they are), it may or may not have snowed more than three inches. Schools close for many reasons besides snow. Perhaps the school district experienced a power outage or a hurricane warning was issued for the area. Again, you can use your knowledge of necessary and sufficient conditions to understand why this form is invalid. Premise 2 claims that the necessary condition is the case. But the truth of the necessary condition does not guarantee that the sufficient condition is true. The conditional states that the closing of schools is guaranteed when it has snowed more than 3 inches, not that snow of more than 3 inches is guaranteed if the schools are closed.

Invalid deductive inferences can also take general forms. Here are two common invalid inference forms:

Affirming the Consequent:

• Therefore, X.

Denying the Antecedent:

• Therefore, not Y.

You saw the first form, affirming the consequent, in the previous example concerning school closures. The fallacy is so called because the truth of the consequent (the necessary condition) is affirmed to infer the truth of the antecedent statement. The second form, denying the antecedent, occurs when the truth of the antecedent statement is denied to infer that the consequent is false. Your knowledge of sufficiency will help you understand why this inference is invalid. The truth of the antecedent (the sufficient condition) is only enough to know the truth of the consequent. But there may be more than one way for the consequent to be true, which means that the falsity of the sufficient condition does not guarantee that the consequent is false. Going back to an earlier example, that a creature is not a dog does not let you infer that it is not a mammal, even though being a dog is sufficient for being a mammal. Watch the video below for further examples of conditional reasoning. See if you can figure out which incorrect selection is structurally identical to affirming the consequent or denying the antecedent.

The Wason Selection Task

Testing deductive inferences.

Earlier it was explained that logical analysis involves assuming the premises of an argument are true and then determining whether the conclusion logically follows, given the truth of those premises. For deductive arguments, if you can come up with a scenario where the premises are true but the conclusion is false, you have proven that the argument is invalid. An instance of a deductive argument where the premises are all true but the conclusion false is called a counterexample . As with counterexamples to statements, counterexamples to arguments are simply instances that run counter to the argument. Counterexamples to statements show that the statement is false, while counterexamples to deductive arguments show that the argument is invalid. Complete the exercise below to get a better understanding of coming up with counterexamples to prove invalidity.

Think Like a Philosopher

Using the sample arguments given, come up with a counterexample to prove that the argument is invalid. A counterexample is a scenario in which the premises are true but the conclusion is false. Solutions are provided below.

Argument 1:

• If an animal is a dog, then it is a mammal.
• Charlie is not a dog.
• Therefore, Charlie is not a mammal.

Argument 2:

• All desserts are sweet foods.
• Some sweet foods are low fat.
• So all desserts are low fat.

Argument 3:

• If Jad doesn’t finish his homework on time, he won’t go to the party.
• Jad doesn’t go to the party.
• Jad didn’t finish his homework on time.

When you have completed your work on the three arguments, check your answers against the solutions below.

Solution 1: Invalid. If you imagine that Charlie is a cat (or other animal that is not a dog but is a mammal), then both the premises are true, while the conclusion is false. Charlie is not a dog, but Charlie is a mammal.

Solution 2: Invalid. Buttercream cake is a counterexample. Buttercream cake is a dessert and is sweet, which shows that not all desserts are low fat.

Solution3: Invalid. Assuming the first two premises are true, you can still imagine that Jad is too tired after finishing his homework and decides not to go to the party, thus making the conclusion false.

Inductive Inferences

When we reason inductively, we gather evidence using our experience of the world and draw general conclusions based on that experience. Inductive reasoning (induction) is also the process by which we use general beliefs we have about the world to create beliefs about our particular experiences or about what to expect in the future. Someone can use their past experiences of eating beets and absolutely hating them to conclude that they do not like beets of any kind, cooked in any manner. They can then use this conclusion to avoid ordering a beet salad at a restaurant because they have good reason to believe they will not like it. Because of the nature of experience and inductive inference, this method can never guarantee the truth of our beliefs. At best, inductive inference generates only probable true conclusions because it goes beyond the information contained in the premises. In the example, past experience with beets is concrete information, but the person goes beyond that information when making the general claim that they will dislike all beets (even those varieties they’ve never tasted and even methods of preparing beets they’ve never tried).

Consider a belief as certain as “the sun will rise tomorrow.” The Scottish philosopher David Hume famously argued against the certainty of this belief nearly three centuries ago ([1748, 1777] 2011, IV, i). Yes, the sun has risen every morning of recorded history (in truth, we have witnessed what appears to be the sun rising, which is a result of the earth spinning on its axis and creating the phenomenon of night and day). We have the science to explain why the sun will continue to rise (because the earth’s rotation is a stable phenomenon). Based on the current science, we can reasonably conclude that the sun will rise tomorrow morning. But is this proposition certain ? To answer this question, you have to think like a philosopher, which involves thinking critically about alternative possibilities. Say the earth gets hit by a massive asteroid that destroys it, or the sun explodes into a supernova that encompasses the inner planets and incinerates them. These events are extremely unlikely to occur, although no contradiction arises in imagining that they could take place. We believe the sun will rise tomorrow, and we have good reason for this belief, but the sun’s rising is still only probable (even if it is nearly certain).

While inductive inferences are not always a sure thing, they can still be quite reliable. In fact, a good deal of what we think we know is known through induction. Moreover, while deductive reasoning can guarantee the truth of conclusions if the premises are true, many times the premises themselves of deductive arguments are inductively known. In studying philosophy, we need to get used to the possibility that our inductively derived beliefs could be wrong.

There are several types of inductive inferences, but for the sake of brevity, this section will cover the three most common types: reasoning from specific instances to generalities, reasoning from generalities to specific instances, and reasoning from the past to the future.

Reasoning from Specific Instances to Generalities

Perhaps I experience several instances of some phenomenon, and I notice that all instances share a similar feature. For example, I have noticed that every year, around the second week of March, the red-winged blackbirds return from wherever they’ve wintering. So I can conclude that generally the red-winged blackbirds return to the area where I live (and observe them) in the second week of March. All my evidence is gathered from particular instances, but my conclusion is a general one. Here is the pattern:

Instance 1 , Instance 2 , Instance 3  . . . Instance n --> Generalization

And because each instance serves as a reason in support of the generalization, the instances are premises in the argument form of this type of inductive inference:

Specific to General Inductive Argument Form:

• General Conclusion

Reasoning from Generalities to Specific Instances

Induction can work in the opposite direction as well: reasoning from accepted generalizations to specific instances. This feature of induction relies on the fact that we are learners and that we learn from past experiences and from one another. Much of what we learn is captured in generalizations. You have probably accepted many generalizations from your parents, teachers, and peers. You probably believe that a red “STOP” sign on the road means that when you are driving and see this sign, you must bring your car to a full stop. You also probably believe that water freezes at 32° Fahrenheit and that smoking cigarettes is bad for you. When you use accepted generalizations to predict or explain things about the world, you are using induction. For example, when you see that the nighttime low is predicted to be 30°F, you may surmise that the water in your birdbath will be frozen when you get up in the morning.

Some thought processes use more than one type of inductive inference. Take the following example:

Every cat I have ever petted doesn’t tolerate its tail being pulled. So this cat probably will not tolerate having its tail pulled.

Notice that this reasoner has gone through a series of instances to make an inference about one additional instance. In doing so, the reasoner implicitly assumed a generalization along the way. The reasoner’s implicit generalization is that no cat likes its tail being pulled. They then use that generalization to determine that they shouldn’t pull the tail of the cat in front of them now. A reasoner can use several instances in their experience as premises to draw a general conclusion and then use that generalization as a premise to draw a conclusion about a specific new instance.

Inductive reasoning finds its way into everyday expressions, such as “Where there is smoke, there is fire.” When people see smoke, they intuitively come to believe that there is fire. This is the result of inductive reasoning. Consider your own thought process as you examine Figure 5.5 .

Reasoning from Past to Future

We often use inductive reasoning to predict what will happen in the future. Based on our ample experience of the past, we have a basis for prediction. Reasoning from the past to the future is similar to reasoning from specific instances to generalities. We have experience of events across time, we notice patterns concerning the occurrence of those events at particular times, and then we reason that the event will happen again in the future. For example:

I see my neighbor walking her dog every morning. So my neighbor will probably walk her dog this morning.

Could the person reasoning this way be wrong? Yes—the neighbor could be sick, or the dog could be at the vet. But depending upon the regularity of the morning dog walks and on the number of instances (say the neighbor has walked the dog every morning for the past year), the inference could be strong in spite of the fact that it is possible for it to be wrong.

Strong Inductive Inferences

The strength of inductive inferences depends upon the reliability of premises given as evidence and their relation to the conclusions drawn. A strong inductive inference is one where, if the evidence offered is true, then the conclusion is probably true. A weak inductive inference is one where, if the evidence offered is true, the conclusion is not probably true. But just how strong an inference needs to be to be considered good is context dependent. The word “probably” is vague. If something is more probable than not, then it needs at least a 51 percent chance of happening. However, in most instances, we would expect to have a much higher probability bar to consider an inference to be strong. As an example of this context dependence, compare the probability accepted as strong in gambling to the much higher probability of accuracy we expect in determining guilt in a court of law.

Figure 5.6 illustrates three forms of reasoning are used in the scientific method. Induction is used to glean patterns and generalizations, from which hypotheses are made. Hypotheses are tested, and if they remain unfalsified, induction is used again to assume support for the hypothesis.

Abductive Reasoning

Abductive reasoning is similar to inductive reasoning in that both forms of inference are probabilistic. However, they differ in the relationship of the premises to the conclusion. In inductive argumentation, the evidence in the premises is used to justify the conclusion. In abductive reasoning, the conclusion is meant to explain the evidence offered in the premises. In induction the premises explain the conclusion, but in abduction the conclusion explains the premises. 

Inference to the Best Explanation

Because abduction reasons from evidence to the most likely explanation for that evidence, it is often called “inference to the best explanation.” We start with a set of data and attempt to come up with some unifying hypothesis that can best explain the existence of those data. Given this structure, the evidence to be explained is usually accepted as true by all parties involved. The focus is not the truth of the evidence, but rather what the evidence means.

Although you may not be aware, you regularly use this form of reasoning. Let us say your car won’t start, and the engine won’t even turn over. Furthermore, you notice that the radio and display lights are not on, even when the key is in and turned to the ON position. Given this evidence, you conclude that the best explanation is that there is a problem with the battery (either it is not connected or is dead). Or perhaps you made pumpkin bread in the morning, but it is not on the counter where you left it when you get home. There are crumbs on the floor, and the bag it was in is also on the floor, torn to shreds. You own a dog who was inside all day. The dog in question is on the couch, head hanging low, ears back, avoiding eye contact. Given the evidence, you conclude that the best explanation for the missing bread is that the dog ate it.

Detectives and forensic investigators use abduction to come up with the best explanation for how a crime was committed and by whom. This form of reasoning is also indispensable to scientists who use observations (evidence) along with accepted hypotheses to create new hypotheses for testing. You may also recognize abduction as a form of reasoning used in medical diagnoses. A doctor considers all your symptoms and any further evidence gathered from preliminarily tests and reasons to the best possible conclusion (a diagnosis) for your illness.

Explanatory Virtues

Good abductive inferences share certain features. Explanatory virtues are aspects of an explanation that generally make it strong. There are many explanatory virtues, but we will focus on four. A good hypothesis should be explanatory, simple , and conservative and must have depth .

To say that a hypothesis must be explanatory simply means that it must explain all the available evidence. The word “explanatory” for our purposes is being used in a narrower sense than used in everyday language. Take the pumpkin bread example: a person might reason that perhaps their roommate ate the loaf of pumpkin bread. However, such an explanation would not explain why the crumbs and bag were on the floor, nor the guilty posture of the dog. People do not normally eat an entire loaf of pumpkin bread, and if they do, they don’t eviscerate the bag while doing so, and even if they did, they’d probably hide the evidence. Thus, the explanation that your roommate ate the bread isn’t as explanatory as the one that pinpoints your dog as the culprit.

But what if you reason that a different dog got into the house and ate the bread, then got out again, and your dog looks guilty because he did nothing to stop the intruder? This explanation seems to explain the missing bread, but it is not as good as the simpler explanation that your dog is the perpetrator. A good explanation is often simple . You may have heard of Occam’s razor , formulated by William of Ockham (1287–1347), which says that the simplest explanation is the best explanation. Ockham said that “entities should not be multiplied beyond necessity” (Spade & Panaccio 2019). By “entities,” Ockham meant concepts or mechanisms or moving parts.

Examples of explanations that lack simplicity abound. For example, conspiracy theories present the very opposite of simplicity since such explanations are by their very nature complex. Conspiracy theories must posit plots, underhanded dealings, cover-ups (to explain the existence of alternative evidence), and maniacal people to explain phenomena and to further explain away the simpler explanation for those phenomena. Conspiracy theories are never simple, but that is not the only reason they are suspect. Conspiracy theories also generally lack the virtues of being conservative and having depth .

A conservative explanation maintains or conserves much of what we already believe. Conservativeness in science is when a theory or hypothesis fits with other established scientific theories and explanations. For example, a theory that accounts for some physical phenomenon but also does not violate Newton’s first law of motion is an example of a conservative theory. On the other hand, consider the conspiracy theory that we never landed on the moon. Someone might posit that the televised Apollo 11 space landing was filmed in a secret studio somewhere. But the reality of the first televised moon landing is not the only belief we must get rid of to maintain the theory. Five more manned moon landings occurred. Furthermore, the reality of the moon landings fits into beliefs about technological advancement over the next five decades. Many of the technologies developed were later adopted by the military and private sector (NASA, n.d.). Moreover, the Apollo missions are a key factor in understanding the space race of the Cold War era. Accepting the conspiracy theory requires rejecting a wide range of beliefs, and so the theory is not conservative.

A conspiracy theorist may offer alternative explanations to account for the tension between their explanation and established beliefs. However, for each explanation the conspiracist offers, more questions are raised. And a good explanation should not raise more questions than it answers. This characteristic is the virtue of depth . A deep explanation avoids unexplained explainers, or an explanation that itself is in need of explanation. For example, the theorist might claim that John Glenn and the other astronauts were brainwashed to explain the astronauts’ firsthand accounts. But this claim raises a question about how brainwashing works. Furthermore, what about the accounts of the thousands of other personnel who worked on the project? Were they all brainwashed? And if so, how? The conspiracy theorist’s explanation raises more questions than it answers.

Extraordinary Claims Require Extraordinary Evidence

Is it possible that our established beliefs (or scientific theories) could be wrong? Why give precedence to an explanation because it upholds our beliefs? Scientific thought would never have advanced if we deferred to conservative explanations all the time. In fact, the explanatory virtues are not laws but rules of thumb, none of which are supreme or necessary. Sometimes the correct explanation is more complicated, and sometimes the correct explanation will require that we give up long-held beliefs. Novel and revolutionary explanations can be strong if they have evidence to back them up. In the sciences, this approach is expressed in the following principle: Extraordinary claims will require extraordinary evidence. In other words, a novel claim that disrupts accepted knowledge will need more evidence to make it credible than a claim that already aligns with accepted knowledge.

Table 5.2 summarizes the three types of inferences just discussed.

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Inferential Comprehension Questions Guide (With Examples)

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Reading engages the mind, sparks people’s curiosity, and leads to deeper intellectual pursuits.

It goes beyond simply decoding words but requires the reader to process lengthy and complex sentences and comprehend the author’s argument. Reading comprehension can be  inferential ,  literal , or  evaluative .

Inferential comprehension refers to the implied meaning of a text derived using clues.  Inferential comprehension questions  are a form of investigative questioning that taps into students’ deeper cognitive reasoning. 

Without comprehension skills, you’ll fail to understand the deeper nuggets of information that the writer has buried in the text. This guide discusses inferential questions and how to answer them effectively.

What are Inferential Comprehension Questions?

Inferential comprehension requires critical thinking skills to garner understanding or determine the deeper meaning that is not explicitly stated. Inferential questions are a type of questioning that stimulates thinking and critical analysis . It involves processing written information and understanding the underlying meaning of the text. 

Inferential comprehension questions require students to combine ideas, draw a logical conclusion from a text, and interpret and evaluate information. A higher level of comprehension needs readers to be critical, form opinions, and identify authors’ points of view and attitudes. It also expects readers to identify and consider the authority of texts and their messages and infer the characters’ motives and themes.

Answers to inferential comprehension questions can never be found directly from the passage but are supported by evidence in the text. You can only arrive at your solution using background knowledge and clues from the text.

The questions may ask about the meaning of a word, phrase, sentence, or paragraph. They may also cover “why” and “how” questions.

Types of Inferential Questions

1.  direct inferential questions.

These questions ask readers to deduce or fill in the missing information. But they require that you make a logical deduction rather than get the answer directly from the passage.

2.  Content Inferential Questions

These questions ask readers to identify appropriate content from the text and provide further explanation. 

3.  Vocabulary Inferential Questions

These questions ask readers to speculate about the meaning of a statement, description, or something in the passage. Answers to vocabulary inferential questions need to be specific.

Another type of vocabulary inferential question may ask about the writer’s or character’s internal life (feelings, motivations, thoughts) in the passage. 

Examples of Inferential Questions

Inferential comprehension requires deep reading and critical analysis of a text. Answers to inferential questions come from analyzing background information and clues and finding a conclusion without letting your opinion shape the answer.

Examples of inferential comprehension questions are:

• Why do you think..?
• How does the author feel about…
• What lesson does this text teach?
• Predict what would happen if…
• What is most likely true about…
• What can you conclude about…
• How did you arrive at that conclusion?
• Why does salt cause ice to melt?
• Explain why the character acted in the way they did…
• What are some other possible outcomes…
• What were the motives behind…
• What might have caused…
• What was the turning point…

Answering Inferential Questions

The steps to answering inference questions include:

• Identify keywords or ideas in the text.
• Understand the context and identify relevant clues that relate to the question.
• Craft your answer. Rephrase the question and use the clues and context in the passage.

Wrapping Up

Inferential questions can be challenging to answer because they don’t have a single correct answer. Answering such questions require in-depth reading and careful analysis of the text. Developing an inferential comprehension skill may take time and practice, but it’s essential to improving your critical thinking skills .

If you’re faced with inferential questions, read the text carefully, and identify clues that relate to the question. And then, answer the question using the clues and context given in the passage. With constant practice, answering inference questions will become easier.

Abir Ghenaiet

Abir is a data analyst and researcher. Among her interests are artificial intelligence, machine learning, and natural language processing. As a humanitarian and educator, she actively supports women in tech and promotes diversity.

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Critical Reasoning: Inference Questions

Monarchy, a stable form of government for many centuries, came under greater and greater social pressure in the 18th and 19th centuries, in particular in Europe and in North America. In many countries, the end result was a complete change of regime.

Which of the following conclusions is most strongly supported by the information above?

It makes no difference that this answer choice is historically correct. It is a new premise , which is not an acceptable answer in inference questions. Remember, we are looking for a conclusion , not a premise .

We are told of only one reason for the regime changes: social pressure ( Premise B ). To conclude that there were many reasons is, therefore, a leap . Remember, we are looking for a small step forward.

Quite right, your highness!

Since some of the monarchies in the beginning of the 18th century weren't monarchies by the beginning of the 20th century, you were more likely to be living in a monarchy during the former rather than during the latter.

Note that this answer choice does rely on a certain unwritten assumption that the socio-political situation in the other parts of the world, outside Europe, is either unchanged, or reflects the same de-monarchizing trend that occurred in Europe. In this sense, answer choice E is less than perfect, but remember that in the GMAT it is frequently necessary to opt for the best answer choice among the five given, not the perfect answer choice.

We are told nothing of democracy as a form of government, so to infer anything having to do with democracy would require a leap , whereas we are looking for a small step.

We are indeed told that there were many regime changes ( Premise C ). However, many doesn't mean most . To infer that would be a leap , whereas we are looking to make a small step.

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Why cbse’s new exam format for classes 11, 12 is futuristic, the focus on conceptual and application-based questions aims to discourage rote learning and foster critical thinking.

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The new format will focus on conceptual and application-based questions instead of long-form answers. The change, which aligns with the New Education Policy (NEP) 2020, will enable learners to develop critical-thinking and problem-solving abilities in order to meet the future challenges.

“The reason for this type of change is to create an ecosystem that reduces rote learning and focuses on competency-based application of concepts taught in the classroom,” explains Mamta Wadhwa, director-principal, Manav Rachna International School, Faridabad.

The proposed changes in the examination system for classes 11 and 12 seem to be far-reaching, with a deep impact on students and their information-grasping level. There will now be an increased focus on competency-based questions, constituting 50 per cent of the total marks, up from the previous 40 per cent.

“There will be reduced emphasis on long-answer questions, now comprising 30 cent of the total marks,” informs Saurabh Sardana, head of commerce department at Shiv Nadar School, Faridabad. Various question formats will also be introduced, such as multiple-choice with application scenarios, case studies analysing real-life situations, and source-based integrated questions.

In simple terms, the percentage of competency-based questions has been increased from 40 per cent to 50 per cent while the percentage of constructed-response questions, which includes both short and long answers, has been reduced from 40 per cent to 30 per cent.

Such changes, educationists agree, will have a positive effect on learners as they will get a chance to put their practical skills to use and focus on conceptual knowledge rather than rote-memorisation.

“Students can apply these concepts in real-life situations, and this will enable them to think critically and come up with solutions to real-world problems,” says Wadhwa. For example, children may be presented with case studies or other scenarios where they would need to analyse information, identify relevant concepts and propose solutions.

All of this will encourage a deeper understanding and application of concepts. “The proposed changes will improve students’ learning outcomes by promoting a deeper understanding of concepts,” adds Sardana.

Students, on their part, can practise a few dos and don’ts while preparing themselves for the revamped examination system. They can stick to time management and allocate sufficient time to each subject and stay informed about the modifications or additions to the curriculum. They should not depend on rote memorisation of facts or figures. Wadhwa recommends that they definitely not procrastinate and resort to last-minute cramming, should not neglect revision of sample papers and mock tests or ignore feedback from teachers, classmates and parents.

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