good research questions about sleep

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Research Update on Diet
Research Update on Sleep

Research Update 1

By Marie Conley Smith

I n a world full of opportunities, stressors, inequalities, and distractions, maintaining a healthy lifestyle can be challenging, and sleep is often the first habit to suffer. Good sleep hygiene is a huge commitment: it takes up about a third of the day, every day, and works best when kept on a consistent schedule. It does not help that the primary short-term symptoms of insufficient sleep can be self-medicated away with caffeine. However, the effects of sleep loss can range from inconvenient to downright dangerous; people have trouble learning and being productive, take risks more readily, and are more likely to get into accidents. These effects also last longer than it takes to get them, as recovering from each night of poor sleep takes multiple days. When it comes to sleep, every night counts. In this update, we will discuss what Stanford researchers have to say about sleep and why we need it, who is getting too little of it, and some of the latest findings that may help us sleep better.

We have not cracked the code on sleep

Despite this progress, scientists have not been able to crack the code of why sleep is critical to brain function. There is also little consensus about how sleep stages actually affect quality of sleep and how they affect us when we are awake.

Part of the challenge of cracking the code on sleep is how difficult it is to study. The gold standard of sleep study, polysomnography, developed by Dement in the 1960s, 1 is the most reliable tool for measuring many sleep characteristics and detecting sleep disorders such as obstructive sleep apnea and narcolepsy. However, it is expensive and time-consuming to run, which means that usually only a night or two is recorded. This snapshot of sleep may not reflect what normally occurs for a given person, and makes it difficult to draw conclusions about their behavior and performance in the days surrounding the sleep measurement.

The recent explosion in consumer wearable devices is a promising trend for researchers because of their potential to measure thousands of people’s sleep in their natural environments. They have not yet been widely adopted as measurement tools by scientists, however, as it is unclear if they provide the level of precision and measurement consistency required for a scientific study. Researchers at Stanford have called for these devices to be cleared by the FDA before using them to assign a diagnosis. 2 The “holy grail” would be a wearable device that could track sleep accurately while also providing performance information about the rest of the day, which would allow researchers to recognize more nuanced relationships between how people sleep and how it affects their lives.

The short- and long-term effects of insufficient sleep

We all know anecdotally what it is like to get too little sleep; it might be described with words and phrases like “tired,” “cranky,” “sluggish,” and “need caffeine.” Review of the scientific literature reveals how wide-ranging these effects can be. With too little sleep, people have a harder time learning 3 and concentrating, and are more likely to take risks. 4,5 The likelihood of getting into an auto accident increases. 6 Sleep deprivation has a bidirectional relationship with depression, 7,8 in that insomnia often both precedes and follows a depressive episode. Short sleep also interferes with other Healthy Living behaviors: people are more likely to crave sweet and fatty foods 9 and to choose foods that are calorically dense, 10 are more prone to injury during exercise, 11 and have an increased risk of obesity. 12

Sleep deprivation can even affect mundane daily activities. In 2017, then Stanford PhD candidate Tim Althoff and Professor Jamie Zeitzer of the Stanford Center for Sleep Sciences and Medicine took up the sleep measurement challenge by collaborating with Microsoft Research to examine the effects of sleep deprivation through a common daily activity: using an online search engine. 13 They paired users’ Microsoft Band sleep data with their Bing searches among users who had agreed to share their activity for study. By linking quantity and timing of sleep with typing speed during the searches, they were able to draw a number of conclusions about how sleep quality affects performance.

In this study, the researchers captured the sleep duration and search engine interactions of over 31,000 people. The researchers measured the amount of time between keystrokes as people typed their search engine entries, and used this as a measure of daily performance (that is, how well people did after a night of sleep). They were able to track the people who had multiple nights of insufficient sleep (defined as 6 hours of sleep or fewer) to see if their typing speed changed. They found that, on average, one night of insufficient sleep resulted in worse performance for three days, and two nights of insufficient sleep negatively impacted performance for six days. In other words, it took people almost an entire week to recover their performance after two consecutive nights of insufficient sleep. The implication is that the impact of sleep loss can persist for days.

Recent Stanford solutions for better sleep

Ongoing research at Stanford has led both to treatments for sleep disorders and to recommendations for best sleep practices for the public.

There are a few clinics and organizations that offer CBTI remotely in an effort to give more people access. There are apps such as SleepRate , which features content designed by Stanford researchers, Somryst , which was recently approved by the FDA, and Sleepio , which is offered by several large employers as an employee benefit. The Cleveland Sleep Clinic offers a 6-week online program called “ Go! to Sleep ,” and the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs offers one of the same duration called “ Path to Better Sleep .” A physician should be consulted before starting any of these programs to ensure there are not any underlying disorders that need to be addressed.

Ultrashort light flash therapy Professor Jamie Zeitzer was interested in helping people who had a hard time sleeping because their circadian rhythm was not in sync with their desired sleep schedule. He discovered that ultrashort bursts of light directed into a person’s closed eyes while they were sleeping was very effective at shifting the time a person starts getting sleepy. Sleep doctors had already been using continuous light to help people reset their internal clock while they were awake; this new short-flash method shows great promise not only because of its effectiveness, but because it can be administered passively while people are sleeping. The approach involves wearing a sleep mask that emits the bright flashes and has been shown to only wake individuals who are particularly sensitive to light.

Lumos Sleep Mask

Professor Zeitzer and his team administered these ultrashort light flashes to teenagers, whose natural circadian systems have shifted so that their sleep and wake times are considerably later than children or adults. The time structure of our society, and schools in particular, does not take this into account. Professor Zeitzer administered the light flashes to see if it would help teens go to bed earlier. 20 They found that, while the teenagers were getting sleepy earlier, the light flashes alone were not enough to get the teenagers to bed earlier. With a second group of teens, they combined the light therapy with cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) sessions. The CBT sessions served to inform the teens about sleep health and hygiene and helped them schedule their activities to allow for their desired sleep hours. After this combined therapy trial, the teens went to bed an average of 50 minutes earlier, getting an average of 43 more minutes of sleep per night. The researchers found the CBT component to be integral to behavior change – without the added education and support, the teens were not motivated enough to change their behavior and would simply push past their sleepiness.

This ultrashort light flash therapy can be used by anyone who may want to shift their sleep schedule; for example, to rebound from jet lag or to cope with a consistent graveyard shift at work. There is no evidence that other groups would require accompanying CBT like the teens, as long as they are self-motivated to change their sleep schedule. Zeitzer plans to test this technology next with older adults who wish to push their sleep time later. A company has spun out of this work, which Zeitzer advises but in which he has no financial interest, called Lumos . They are currently developing their product, and are hoping to make this intervention widely available.

Data Spotlight on: Black Americans

While most Americans have seen improvements in sleep over the past decade, Black Americans continue to sleep significantly less than other groups. This trend has been examined both by researchers and the popular press. 21,22 Researchers have found that Black Americans, in addition to getting shorter sleep, are also more likely to get poor quality sleep – spending less time in the most restorative stages of sleep 23,24 – and to develop obstructive sleep apnea. 25 Black Americans are also disproportionately affected by diseases that have been associated with poor sleep, such as obesity, diabetes, 26 and cardiovascular disease. 25

The exact reason(s) for Black Americans’ poor sleep is still unclear, though researchers have proposed potential contributing factors, largely related to the social inequality Black Americans face in the U.S.:

Experiences of discrimination : the stress of racial discrimination has been associated with spending lesstime in deep sleep and more time in light sleep among Black Americans. 24

Living environment : neighborhood quality has been linked to sleep quality, 27 and Stanford researchersfound that racial and income disparities persist in neighborhoods. 28 They found that while middle-income white families are more likely to live in resource-rich neighborhoods with other middle-income families, middle-income black families tend to live in markedly lower-income, resource-poorneighborhoods.

Work and income inequality : for example, shift work can cause irregular working hours. This leadspeople to suffer “social jetlag,”; a discrepancy in sleep hours between work and free days, 29 leading tosymptoms of sleep deprivation.

Lack of access to resources : particularly sleep-related healthcare and education.

Some of these factors are being addressed directly. Professor Girardin Jean-Louis from New York University and his team have devoted themselves to addressing the access to healthcare and education issue among local black communities in New York by tailoring online materials about obstructive sleep apnea to the culture, language, and barriers of specific communities. 30 Professor Jamie Zeitzer and his team at Stanford recently completed an initial clinical trial of a drug (suvorexant), which was found to help people who work at night get three more hours of sleep during the day. 31 Professor Zeitzer’s ultrashort light flash therapy (discussed above) may also help with shift work. These interventions could help to improve sleep for Black Americans, but they may not make up the whole picture; it could be that the underlying social inequality needs to be addressed in order to fully close the sleep gap.

Thanks to Jamie Zeitzer and Ken Smith for their insights and edits on this report.

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National Sleep Foundation's sleep quality recommendations: first report

Maurice Ohayon, MD, DSc, PhD Maurice Ohayon Correspondence Corresponding author. Contact Affiliations Stanford Sleep Epidemiology Research Center, Division of Public Mental Health and Population Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, Palo Alto, CA, USA Search for articles by this author
Steven M. Albert, PhD, MS Steven M. Albert Affiliations Department of Behavioral and Community Health Sciences, University of Pittsburgh Graduate School of Public Health, Pittsburgh, PA Search for articles by this author
Alon Avidan, MD, MPH Alon Avidan Affiliations UCLA Sleep Disorders Center, UCLA Neurology Clinic, Department of Neurology, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA Search for articles by this author
Frank J. Daly, PhD Frank J. Daly Affiliations Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Osteopathic Medicine, University of New England, Biddeford, ME, USA Search for articles by this author
Yves Dauvilliers, MD, PhD Yves Dauvilliers Affiliations Sleep Disorders Center, Department of Neurology, Gui-de-Chauliac Hospital, CHU Montpellier, Montpellier, France Search for articles by this author
Raffaele Ferri, MD Raffaele Ferri Affiliations Department of Neurology I.C., Oasi Institute for Research on Mental Retardation and Brain Aging (IRCCS), Troina, Italy Search for articles by this author
Constance Fung, MD, MSHS Constance Fung Affiliations David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, VA Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, CA, USA Search for articles by this author
David Gozal, MD David Gozal Affiliations Department of Pediatrics, The University of Chicago Medicine Comer Children's Hospital, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA Search for articles by this author
Nancy Hazen, PhD Nancy Hazen Affiliations Human Development and Family Sciences, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA Search for articles by this author
Andrew Krystal, MD Andrew Krystal Affiliations Neurosciences Medicine, Duke Clinical Research Institute, Durham, NC, USA Search for articles by this author
Kenneth Lichstein, PhD Kenneth Lichstein Affiliations Sleep Research Project, Department of Psychology, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL, USA Search for articles by this author
Monica Mallampalli, PhD, MSC Monica Mallampalli Affiliations Scientific Affairs, Society for Women's Health Research, Washington, DC, USA Search for articles by this author
Robert Rawding, PhD Robert Rawding Affiliations Department of Biology, Gannon University, Erie, PA, USA. Search for articles by this author
Frank A. Scheer, PhD Frank A. Scheer Affiliations Medical Chronobiology Program, Division of Sleep and Circadian Disorders, Brigham & Women's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA Search for articles by this author
Virend Somers, MD, PhD Virend Somers Affiliations Department of Internal Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA Search for articles by this author
Michael V. Vitiello, PhD Michael V. Vitiello Affiliations Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA Search for articles by this author

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Hirshkowitz M.
Albert S.M.
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Bernstein S.J.
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☆ Endorsed by National Sleep Foundation, American Association of Anatomists, American Physiological Society, Gerontological Society of America, Human Anatomy and Physiology Society, Society for Research on Biological Rhythms, Society for Research of Human Development, and Society for Women's Health Research.

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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleh.2016.11.006

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Psychological and Physical Approaches for Sleep Disorders: What the Science Says

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Current clinical practice guidelines from the American Academy of Sleep Medicine (2021) recommend psychological and behavioral interventions in the treatment of chronic insomnia disorder in adults.

The American Academy of Sleep Medicine guidelines state: “We recommend that clinicians use multicomponent cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia (CBT-I) for the treatment of chronic insomnia disorder in adults (strong recommendation). We suggest that clinicians use relaxation therapy as a single-component therapy for the treatment of chronic insomnia disorder in adults (conditional recommendation).” The authors of the guidelines also noted that there were fewer than three studies meeting their inclusion criteria for the use of cognitive therapy, paradoxical intention, mindfulness, biofeedback, and intensive sleep retraining; as a result, no recommendations were made about these treatments.

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Clinical practice guidelines issued by the American Academy of Sleep Medicine in 2021 recommend psychological and behavioral interventions for the treatment of chronic insomnia disorder in adults. The guidelines state: “We recommend that clinicians use multicomponent cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia (CBT-I) for the treatment of chronic insomnia disorder in adults (strong recommendation).”
A 2018 analysis of pooled data from 4 randomized controlled trials of 546 peri- and postmenopausal women with insomnia and bothersome vasomotor symptoms found that CBT-I produced the greatest reduction in Insomnia Severity Index (ISI) from baseline compared to an education control.
A 2014 randomized controlled trial examined the comparative efficacy of cognitive behavioral therapy, tai chi, and a sleep seminar education control in 123 older adults with chronic and primary insomnia. The study found that cognitive behavioral therapy performed better than tai chi and sleep seminar education in remission of clinical insomnia. The cognitive behavioral therapy group also showed greater improvement in sleep quality, sleep parameters, fatigue, and depressive symptoms than the tai chi and sleep seminar education groups.

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CBT-I is considered safe.

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There is a small amount of low-quality evidence that relaxation techniques by themselves can help with chronic insomnia. Relaxation techniques may be recommended in certain situations, depending on individual preferences, health provider qualifications, and treatment availability.

Current clinical practice guidelines from the American Academy of Sleep Medicine (2021) conditionally recommend relaxation therapy as a single-component therapy for the treatment of chronic insomnia disorder in adults.

Clinical guidelines from the American Academy of Sleep Medicine (2021) made a conditional recommendation to use relaxation therapy as a single-component therapy based on “a small body of low-quality evidence from five studies showing clinically meaningful improvements in one critical outcome, consideration that some patients prefer relaxation therapy, the fact that mental health providers are trained to deliver this form of treatment, and the potential for relaxation therapy to require only limited resources.”
A 2018 systematic review looked at 27 studies of psychological interventions to try to improve sleep. The studies involved 2,776 college students who ranged from healthy sleepers to those with a diagnosed sleep disorder. About 22 percent of the studies investigated “relaxation, mindfulness, hypnotherapy” treatments. This review recommended cognitive behavioral therapy to improve sleep in college students. The review also found that relaxation approaches helped somewhat with sleep quality and sleep problems but especially with mental health. The authors recommended that “relaxation, mindfulness, hypnotherapy” treatments be combined with cognitive behavioral therapy as a way to enhance mental health benefits.
Relaxation therapies for insomnia are considered safe.

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Yoga has been shown to be helpful for sleep in several studies of cancer patients, women with sleep problems, and older adults and in individual studies of other population groups, including people with arthritis and women with menopause symptoms. However, a 2019 clinical practice guideline from the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs and U.S. Department of Defense said there was insufficient evidence to recommend for or against yoga for treating insomnia.

A 2020 systematic review and meta-analysis of 19 studies involving a total of 1,832 participants found positive effects of yoga in 16 randomized controlled trials, compared with the control group, in improving sleep quality among women using Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI); however, 2 studies revealed no effects of yoga compared to the control group in reducing insomnia among women using ISI. Seven studies revealed no evidence for effects of yoga compared with the control group in improving sleep quality for women with breast cancer using PSQI, while four studies revealed no evidence for the effects of yoga compared with the control group in improving the sleep quality for peri/postmenopausal women using PSQI.
A 2020 secondary analysis of a randomized controlled trial involving 320 adults with chronic low-back pain and poor sleep quality prior to the intervention found modest but statistically significant improvements in sleep quality in the yoga (12 weekly yoga classes) and physical therapy groups.
A 2019 systematic review of 11 studies that evaluated the use of yoga to manage stress and burnout in health care workers concluded that yoga is effective in improving physical problems and quality of sleep, as well as reducing stress levels and burnout. However, the authors of the review noted that it would be necessary to broaden the subject further and acquire more robust scientific evidence by designing and implementing research studies equipped with a solid methodological structure on bigger sample groups.
A 2013 multicenter, randomized controlled trial evaluated the effect of yoga on sleep quality in 410 cancer survivors suffering from moderate or greater sleep disruption between 2 and 24 months after surgery, chemotherapy, and/or radiation therapy. The study found that compared with standard care, yoga participants demonstrated greater improvements in global sleep quality and subjective sleep quality, daytime dysfunction, wake after sleep onset, sleep efficiency, and medication use at postintervention.
A 2022 randomized controlled trial investigated the effects of yoga (duration of 20 weeks) on menopausal symptoms and sleep quality across menopause statuses in 208 women. Based on participant responses to questionnaires, the study found that yoga decreased menopausal symptoms, with the strongest effects noted in postmenopausal women, followed by perimenopausal women. In addition, yoga significantly improved sleep quality in postmenopausal and perimenopausal women after controlling for social support, depression, anxiety, stress, and menopausal symptoms; however, yoga did not affect sleep quality in premenopausal women.
Yoga is generally considered a safe form of physical activity for healthy people when performed properly, under the guidance of a qualified instructor. However, as with other forms of physical activity, injuries can occur.
The most common injuries are sprains and strains, and the parts of the body most commonly injured are the knee or lower leg. Serious injuries are rare. The risk of injury associated with yoga is lower than that for higher impact physical activities.
Hot yoga has special risks related to overheating and dehydration.
Pregnant women, older adults, and people with health conditions should talk with their health care providers and the yoga instructor about their individual needs. They may need to avoid or modify some yoga poses and practices.

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Results of several studies, using objective and subjective measures, have shown that tai chi may be helpful for people with sleep problems. However, a 2019 clinical practice guideline from the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs and U.S. Department of Defense said there was insufficient evidence to recommend for or against using tai chi to treat insomnia.

A 2020 systematic review and meta-analysis of 20 randomized controlled studies from 5 countries involving a total of 1,703 patients found that compared with nontherapeutic and other active treatments, tai chi has a positive effect on improving sleep quality. An in-depth analysis showed that 24-form and 8-form Yang-style tai chi had significant positive effects on sleep quality, as assessed by the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI).
A 2021 randomized controlled trial assigned 320 participants 60 years or older and with chronic insomnia to three groups: 12-week tai chi training, 12-week conventional exercise, and no intervention control. The study found that compared with the control group, the exercise and tai chi groups showed improved sleep efficiency, reductions of wake time after sleep onset, and reduced awakenings as measured by actigraphy. However, there were no significant differences between the exercise and tai chi groups.
Tai chi appears to be safe. A 2019 meta-analysis of 24 studies (1,794 participants) found that the frequency of adverse events was similar for people doing tai chi, another active intervention, or no intervention.

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A 2019 clinical practice guideline from the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs and U.S. Department of Defense said there was not enough evidence to know whether mindfulness meditation is helpful for people with insomnia, and a 2021 clinical practice guideline from the American Academy of Sleep Medicine said there was not enough evidence to make recommendations on using mindfulness by itself for insomnia.

A 2022 review of 20 studies and 2,890 participants found that mindfulness-based stress reduction might be ineffective for improving sleep quality in people with insomnia, but the authors noted that the studies were small and showed bias.
A 2019 systematic review and meta-analysis of 18 studies (1,654 total participants) found that mindfulness meditation practices improved sleep quality more than education-based treatments. However, the effects of mindfulness meditation approaches on sleep quality were no different than those of evidence-based treatments such as cognitive behavioral therapy and exercise.
Results from a 2015 randomized controlled trial involving 60 adults aged 75 years and over with chronic insomnia suggest that the mindfulness-based stress reduction program could be a useful treatment for chronic insomnia for this age group.
Meditation and mindfulness practices usually are considered to have few risks.

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A 2022 review of 13 studies with 1,007 adult participants found that listening to music may lead to improved reports of sleep quality among people with insomnia. However, there was not enough good-quality evidence to determine the effect of listening to music on the severity of insomnia or the number of times a person wakes up.

A 2022 review of 13 studies with 1,007 adult participants found that listening to music may lead to improved reports of sleep quality among people with insomnia. However, there was not enough good-quality evidence to determine the effect of listening to music on the severity of insomnia or the number of times a person wakes up. The results showed that listening to music may slightly improve sleep-onset latency, sleep duration, sleep efficiency, and daytime effects.
In general, research studies of music-based interventions do not show any negative effects. However, listening to music at too high a volume can contribute to noise-induced hearing loss.
Because music can be associated with strong memories or emotional reactions, some people may be distressed by exposure to specific pieces or types of music.

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A 2019 clinical practice guideline from the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs and U.S. Department of Defense said there was not enough evidence to recommend for or against using acupuncture for insomnia, except for a weak recommendation for auricular acupuncture, which involves specific points on the outer ear. Results from some studies suggest that auricular acupuncture may help improve insomnia; however, many of the studies conducted on acupuncture for sleep disorders are small and are of low quality.

A 2021 review of 11 studies and 775 participants suggested that acupuncture may help improve insomnia, but the studies were small, differed from each other in many ways (e.g., treatment dosage, acupoint selection), and judged to be low quality.
A 2019 clinical practice guideline from the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs and U.S. Department of Defense said there was not enough evidence to recommend for or against using acupuncture for insomnia, except for a weak recommendation for auricular acupuncture, which involves specific points on the outer ear.
A 2020 evaluation of 7 systematic reviews (10,001 participants) on auricular acupuncture for insomnia found that the reviews suggested auricular acupuncture may be beneficial, but the quality of most of the reviews was low or critically low and the quality of the studies within the reviews was poor.
Relatively few complications from using acupuncture have been reported. However, complications have resulted from use of nonsterile needles and improper delivery of treatments. When not delivered properly, acupuncture can cause serious adverse effects, including infections, punctured organs, and injury to the central nervous system.

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Cui H, Wang Q, Pedersen M, et al. The safety of tai chi: a meta-analysis of adverse events in randomized controlled trials . Contemporary Clinical Trials . 2019;82:85-92.
Edinger JD, Arnedt JT, Bertisch SM, et al. Behavioral and psychological treatments for chronic insomnia disorder in adults: an American Academy of Sleep Medicine clinical practice guideline . Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine . 2021;17(2):255-262.
Friedrich A, Schlarb AA. Let’s talk about sleep: a systematic review of psychological interventions to improve sleep in college students . Journal of Sleep Research . 2018;27(1):4-22.
Guthrie KA, Larson JC, Ensrud KE, et al. Effects of pharmacologic and nonpharmacologic interventions on insomnia symptoms and self-reported sleep quality in women with hot flashes: a pooled analysis of individual participant data from four MsFLASH trials . Sleep . 2018;41(1):zsx190.
Huang J, Shen M, Qin X, et al. Effectiveness of auricular acupuncture for insomnia: an overview of systematic reviews . Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2020;2020:6920902.
Irwin MR, Olmstead R, Carrillo C, et al. Cognitive behavioral therapy vs. tai chi for late life insomnia and inflammatory risk: a randomized controlled comparative efficacy trial . Sleep . 2014;37(9):1543-1552.
Jespersen KV, Pando-Naude V, Koenig J, et al. Listening to music for insomnia in adults . Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews . 2022;8(8):CD010459.
Li H, Chen J, Xu G, et al. The effect of tai chi for improving sleep quality: a systematic review and meta-analysis . Journal of Affective Disorders . 2020;274:1102-1112.
Mustian KM, Sprod LK, Janelsins M, et al. Multicenter, randomized controlled trial of yoga for sleep quality among cancer survivors . Journal of Clinical Oncology . 2013;31(26):3233-3241.
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NCCIH Clinical Digest is a service of the National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, NIH, DHHS. NCCIH Clinical Digest, a monthly e-newsletter, offers evidence-based information on complementary health approaches, including scientific literature searches, summaries of NCCIH-funded research, fact sheets for patients, and more.

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Clinical Digest Archive

Answers to 20 Questions About Getting a Good Night’s Sleep

By Anahad O’Connor June 8, 2021

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Your trickiest sleep questions, answered by the experts.

According to recent studies, the number of people complaining of insomnia skyrocketed during the pandemic, rising from 20 percent of adults last summer to nearly 60 percent in March.

If you’re one of those people who’s been plagued by poor sleep, the Well desk is here to help. Recently, we asked our readers to tell us two things: What’s keeping you from getting a good night’s rest? And what are the most pressing questions you would ask a sleep expert?

More than 1,200 of you responded. You asked about insomnia, supplements, middle-of-the-night awakenings, snoring bed mates and more. So we collected your most popular questions, brought them to the world’s top sleep experts and shared their answers below.

Grab a pillow, get comfortable and read on to find the cure for those sleepless nights.

Tap on a question to reveal its answer.

Sometimes I am physically tired but can’t fall asleep. How is that possible?

This is what’s known as the tired but wired syndrome. Usually, it’s driven by stress and anxiety. Even if you’re exhausted, a racing mind can activate the “fight or flight” branch of your nervous system, making you alert and unable to fall asleep. “For us to fall asleep and stay asleep, we need to go in the opposite nervous system direction,” said Matthew Walker, a professor of neuroscience and psychology at the University of California, Berkeley, and the author of the best-selling book “Why We Sleep.” “We need to shift over to the calming branch of the nervous system called the parasympathetic nervous system.”

If you have this experience night after night, you’ll want to do relaxation exercises before bed to quell your stress and anxiety, such as breathing exercises, progressive muscle relaxation or guided meditation, which we’ll discuss in more detail below.

When I put my head down at night, my thoughts and heart start racing. How can I quiet my mind and body and fall asleep?

One of the best ways to calm your mind before bed is by doing meditation. In a 2014 study published in the journal Sleep , researchers split 54 people with chronic insomnia into groups and assigned some of them to practice mindfulness meditation. The others served as a control group. After eight weeks, the researchers found that the people assigned to practice meditation gained nearly 45 extra minutes of sleep each night, while the control group showed almost no change. The meditation group had substantial reductions in the overall severity of their insomnia. After six months, between 40 percent and 50 percent of people practicing meditation were in “remission” from their insomnia, the researchers reported.

If you struggle with insomnia, the best time to do meditation is at night, said Dr. Walker. “Practicing meditation throughout the day but particularly in the evening seems to have a beneficial effect,” he said. “It helps people fall asleep faster, and they report superior quality of sleep.” If you’ve never tried meditation, don’t fret: A number of popular meditation apps have entire sections devoted to sleep, such as Calm , Headspace and Insight Timer . Most of these guided mediation apps offer free versions and trial periods, as well as premium versions that you can access with a subscription.

I’ve tried meditation without success. What else can I do?

Another way to calm your mind is to start a worry journal. Every night, an hour or two before you go to bed, write down the concerns or anxieties that are bothering you. Studies have found that this practice helps protect mental health and reduces the time it takes to fall asleep. One reason it works is that it’s a form of catharsis. In today’s busy world, people rarely have time to stop and reflect. For some people, the only time that they get a chance to engage in quiet contemplation is when their head hits the pillow at night. “That’s the last time you should be doing reflection,” said Dr. Walker. “It leads to rumination, and at that point you’re not going to be in good shape for sleep.”

I often fall asleep and wake up 15 minutes later feeling anxious and short of breath. My chest feels tight, my mind races and my skin tingles. Why does this happen?

There are a couple likely causes, said Dr. Bhanu Prakash Kolla, an associate professor of psychiatry and a consultant at the Center for Sleep Medicine at the Mayo Clinic. One explanation could be that you have sleep apnea. People with this condition tend to snore loudly and gasp for air at night because the muscles in the back of their throats relax so much that they constrict their airways. When your brain senses you’ve stopped breathing, it goes into “fight or flight” mode, causing a surge in heart rate, blood pressure and adrenaline . This can jolt you awake and make you feel panicked, explaining the anxiety and shortness of breath you describe.

Another possibility, said Dr. Kolla, is that you have panic disorder. People who have this condition often experience sudden, intense bouts of dread and terror that strike out of the blue. When these episodes occur during sleep they are known as nocturnal panic attacks. If you do indeed have sleep apnea or a panic disorder, there are treatments that can help. But you should see a primary care doctor or sleep specialist to get a proper diagnosis, said Dr. Kolla.

I need help falling asleep. What’s the safest sleep supplement I can take?

One of the safest and best studied sleep supplements is melatonin, a hormone that helps people fall asleep faster and stay asleep longer. Melatonin has minimal side effects and isn’t habit-forming, said Dr. Kolla. But there is a caveat. If you have an underlying disorder that’s keeping you up at night, such as sleep apnea, restless legs syndrome or panic disorder, then taking melatonin won’t address the root cause of your insomnia.

If I decide to take melatonin, how do I know which brand of supplement to buy?

Dietary supplements are not subject to strict government oversight, and as a result, consumers do not always get what they pay for. A study published in the Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine found that the content of more than 70 percent of melatonin supplements varied widely from their label claims, with the concentration of melatonin in the bottles ranging from 83 percent less than the amount listed on the label to more than 470 percent.

To avoid being scammed, look for products that carry a “ USP Verified ” seal, which means that it’s been vetted by the United States Pharmacopeial Convention, an independent group that sets high standards for medicines and supplements. Companies whose melatonin supplements carry the label include Nature Made and Natrol . You can also look for products that carry a blue and white seal provided by NSF International , another group that vets dietary supplements and their ingredients. Lastly, Consumberlab.com and Labdoor routinely test and publish reports on dietary supplements.

I keep hearing that cannabis can help me sleep better. Is that true?

Cannabis has gained a reputation as a sleep aid, but evidence is limited on whether it actually works. One problem is that cannabis comes in different strains, and each contains varying amounts of compounds such as THC, its primary psychoactive component, and cannabidiol, popularly known as CBD. Researchers are still trying to determine whether certain strains or compounds may be good for sleep and others less so.

Some studies have found that cannabis helps people fall asleep faster, but there are concerns that it might also cause disruptions by suppressing slow wave sleep , which is the deep, restorative kind. Some experts liken it to alcohol. “It may help you doze off, but it doesn’t mean that you’re going to get better quality sleep throughout the night,” said Dr. Fariha Abbasi-Feinberg, a spokeswoman for the American Academy of Sleep Medicine and the medical director of sleep medicine at Millennium Physician Group in Florida

In a report published in the journal of Sleep Medicine Reviews , researchers looked at 39 different studies involving the effects of cannabis on sleep. They found that cannabis generally did not affect the amount of sleep that people got, and they concluded that it was probably most helpful as a sleep aid for people who use it to alleviate medical conditions that keep them awake at night, like chronic pain.

One recent study concluded that there was “insufficient evidence to support routine clinical use of cannabinoid therapies for the treatment of any sleep disorder.” And the American Academy of Sleep Medicine published a position statement discouraging people from using cannabis for sleep apnea, warning that there was “insufficient evidence of effectiveness, tolerability and safety.”

Still, many people swear by CBD and other cannabis products for insomnia. Dr. Abbasi-Feinberg does not necessarily discourage patients who believe it works for them. “I tell folks that if it helps you and there are no side effects, then take it,” she added. “But there’s just not enough research out there for me to recommend that someone take it for their insomnia.”

Can my weight affect the quality of my sleep?

Yes. Being overweight can fuel poor sleep because it promotes soft tissue development in your throat, which increases your risk for sleep apnea. The good news is studies also show that shedding excess weight can lead to “ significant and clinically relevant ” improvements in sleep apnea. Studies also show that losing sleep can itself lead directly to weight gain : It increases levels of ghrelin, the so-called hunger hormone, decreases leptin, the “satiety hormone,” and causes people to consume more snacks and high-calorie junk foods throughout the day.

This brings up an important factor that is often overlooked in how well people sleep: Their diet. We know from studies that diets high in sugar, saturated fat and simple carbs — think donuts, pizza, cheeseburgers and sugary drinks and snacks — are linked to both weight gain and poor sleep . Instead of eating junk foods, fill your plate with foods high in protein, fiber and unsaturated fat, fish, fruits, vegetables, nuts, olive oil and avocados. These foods have been shown to promote good sleep . If you suffer from insomnia, then consider adding more complex carbs to your diet, such as beans, whole grains, sweet potatoes, quinoa and oatmeal. Studies show that eating complex carbs can help you fall asleep faster. But sugar, white bread, pastries and other processed carbs can cause more frequent wake-ups throughout the night.

How does the temperature of my bedroom affect my sleep?

For thousands of years, humans could count on one constant in their lives: Every single day the sun rises, and at night it falls. As a result, our bodies follow a 24-hour circadian rhythm that governs many of our metabolic and physiological processes, including our body temperatures, which rise in the morning and fall at night. This decrease in body temperature at night helps initiate sleep, which is one reason people tend to toss and turn when their bedrooms are too hot or humid. A higher body temperature makes it difficult to drift off , and it can disrupt the quality of your slumber, causing you to experience less slow-wave sleep, also known as deep sleep.

So what temperature should I keep my bedroom for optimal sleep?

Studies have found that the best temperature for sleep is quite cool, around 60 to 68 degrees Fahrenheit.

What’s the best way to keep my bedroom cool — besides using a fan or air conditioner?

One way that your body lowers its temperature at night is by sending heat from your core to your hands and feet through a process known as vasodilation, a relaxation of the blood vessels that increases blood flow to the extremities. You can facilitate this process by wearing warm socks at night. It might seem paradoxical, but warm socks will help to pull heat from your core to your extremities, said Dr. Sabra Abbott, an assistant professor of neurology in sleep medicine at the Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine in Chicago.

Second, stop exercising at least a few hours before bedtime, as this could raise your body temperature and make it harder to fall asleep.

And lastly, the next time you purchase a new mattress, look for one that helps cool you down at night. “If you go mattress shopping, you’re going to see that a lot of them specify whether they ‘sleep cool,’ ’” Dr. Abbott said. “They have technology that helps to dissipate heat at night.” For help finding a mattress with cooling technology, read the Wirecutter article “The Best Mattresses for 2021.”

I’m a bad sleeper and so were my parents. Do my genes affect how I sleep?

Yes, in several ways. First, we know that there’s a genetic basis for your circadian rhythm, which determines whether you’re a night owl, a morning person or somewhere in between, said Dr. Walker. If you sleep in a way that goes against your biology — for example, a night owl who stays up late and then has to wake up early for work — that could hamper both the quality and the quantity of your sleep.

Your genes also influence how much time you spend in the different stages of sleep. Some genetic variants appear to increase a person’s “slow-wave” stage of sleep, which is important for memory consolidation. Your genes can influence your risk of sleep disorders such as restless legs syndrome, which causes significant sleep disruptions. And they play a role in insomnia, the most common of all sleep disorders: Studies of twins have found that there’s a strong hereditary component to insomnia, especially among women. So if one or both of your parents routinely grappled with sleepless nights, then it may be in your DNA.

Do women have more difficulty sleeping than men?

Generally speaking, yes. Studies show that women are about 40 percent more likely to suffer from insomnia than men. There are a lot of reasons for this. Part of it is genetics. Some of it is related to hormonal fluctuations that occur during the menstrual cycle, pregnancy and menopause. And another reason is that women have higher rates of depression and anxiety. Studies show that women are twice as likely as men to develop these mental health conditions , which are two of the major causes of insomnia.

I’m approaching menopause and my sleep is worse than ever. What can I do?

Sleep disruptions are one of the most common symptoms of perimenopause, the final years of a woman’s reproductive life, just before menopause, when her period stops. During this time, periods become irregular and reproductive hormones rise and fall sharply, causing hot flashes, night sweats and other symptoms that can rouse women from their sleep or prevent them from dozing off. Making matters worse, these symptoms can last for many years, beginning in perimenopause and continuing long after menopause. One study found that women, on average, experienced hot flashes for five years after menopause, and a third of women continued having them as long as a decade after menopause.

This can spell disaster for sleep. Another study found that more than 80 percent of women with severe hot flashes suffered from sleepless nights. Over all, the study found, about 37 percent of women over 35 who had regular menstrual cycles had insomnia. But among women who were perimenopausal, the rate soared to 57 percent, and after menopause it reached roughly 51 percent. “I take care of a lot of women in their 50s who were fairly good sleepers until they went through the hormonal changes,” said Dr. Abbasi-Feinberg.

But there are some things that can help. If your sleep troubles are related to menopause, then hormonal treatments could make it easier to get a good night’s rest, said Dr. Abbasi-Feinberg. Certain antidepressant medications such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors can also help , as can some forms of alternative medicine. One study found that four weeks of acupuncture reduced anxiety and prevented sleep awakenings in people with insomnia. If stress and anxiety are contributing to your sleep troubles, then another potential solution is cognitive behavioral therapy.

My sleep is always abysmal when I’m getting my period. Why does this happen?

First off, you’re not alone. While cramps, bloating and mood swings are some of the most common signs that your period is coming, many women also experience insomnia, nightmares and frequent awakenings. Women with premenstrual syndrome are twice as likely as other women to have insomnia. And about seven in 10 women who have a more severe form of PMS called premenstrual dysphoric disorder, or PMDD, routinely struggle to get a good night’s sleep in the days before their period.

So what gives? Cramps, muscle pain and headaches can wreak havoc on a woman’s sleep. Plus it is normal for core body temperature to rise during menstruation, which makes it harder to doze off. On top of that, the abrupt rise and fall of progesterone, estrogen and other hormones during a woman’s period can influence her circadian rhythm and alter the different stages of her sleep , worsening her sleep quality. Women with severe premenstrual syndrome have also been shown to secrete lower levels of melatonin , the hormone that ushers us to sleep at night.

So what can you do? For starters, if you use birth control pills, consider whether they’re impacting your sleep. Some research indicates that women who use hormonal contraceptives experience more insomnia and daytime sleepiness than women who are not on the pill. On the other hand, some experts speculate that certain contraceptives, particularly those that contain progestin only, might actually help with insomnia. Unfortunately, there is not a lot of data on how contraceptives may impact sleep, but it may be worth discussing their potential impact on sleep with your doctor.

Second, there are things you can try besides sleep medications. Cognitive behavioral therapy, which can help ease stress and anxiety, is one of the best ways to combat insomnia. Another treatment for sleep problems called bright light therapy has been shown to help women with severe PMS. Scientists are not exactly sure why light treatment works. But it involves using a light box to get regular exposure to artificial light, which affects melatonin as well as the hypothalamus , a region in the brain that regulates mood and sleep. You can learn about the best light therapy lamps in this article from Wirecutter .

Lastly, focus on your sleep hygiene in the days before you get your period. Avoid alcohol, which can affect hormone levels and stir you awake at night. Keep a strict sleep schedule, going to bed and waking up at the same time every day. Don’t overdo it on caffeine, and be sure to exercise daily, which can help promote a smoother night of slumber.

Will a nap help me “catch up” on sleep or just contribute to my insomnia?

In general, if you struggle with insomnia, you should not nap during the day to catch up. It’s better to skip the nap so you’ll actually be sleepy by the time your normal bedtime rolls around. Think of it like a pressure cooker. By avoiding naps, you let the pressure of your sleepiness build throughout the day. But taking a nap is like opening the pressure valve and releasing some of the steam. As a result, you won’t have as much pressure to fall asleep when you get into bed at night. If you don’t struggle with insomnia, then daytime naps should be fine. In fact, there are some studies that suggest that naps might be beneficial for cardiovascular and brain health .

If I do nap, should I keep it short? Is napping in the afternoon bad?

If you nap, then follow a few rules. First, don’t nap after 2 p.m., because that will make it harder to fall asleep at night. “Napping too late in the day is like snacking before your main meal: You take the edge off that good night of sleep,” said Dr. Walker. Second, when you do nap, try not to nap for longer than 20 minutes. That will prevent your brain from going into the deeper stages of sleep. By doing this you'll avoid sleep inertia, “which is almost like a sleep hangover that comes from naps,” said Dr. Walker. “It can make you feel worse for the first hour after the nap relative to how you felt before.”

My partner snores so loudly that it constantly wakes me up. How can I sleep soundly with a noisy bed mate?

“This is one of the most common questions that I get,” said Dr. Abbasi-Feinberg. “Quite frequently, patients are brought in not because they themselves think there’s an issue but because their bed partner thinks there’s an issue.”

Snoring itself is not necessarily a medical problem. But it can be a sign of sleep apnea or another underlying sleep disorder. Your best bet is to encourage your partner to see a sleep specialist or primary care doctor for an evaluation.

What else can I do? I have tried using ear plugs but they are uncomfortable.

If your partner is unwilling or unable to see a doctor, then you should do everything you can to make your sleep environment as comfortable as possible. Try a white noise machine. Often, it is not just the loudness of the snoring that wakes people up but the rising and falling sound of the snoring, or crescendo and decrescendo, which a white noise machine can help to mitigate. “Sometimes, that change in tone is what bothers people, not so much that the snoring is constant,” said Dr. Abbasi-Feinberg.

You can encourage your partner to sleep on his or her side, which helps reduce snoring and apnea episodes. There are devices that can help with this, which you can read about in our Guide to Sleep Apnea . Another thing you can do is buy small earbuds that fit snugly in your ears, which may be more comfortable than what you’re currently using. You can also buy an adjustable bed and raise the upper portion of your partner’s side, which may reduce their snoring. You can find some of the best adjustable beds in this guide from Wirecutter .

Lastly, if nothing is working, then you may just have to sleep in separate rooms. “I’m not a big fan of people sleeping separately because there is sometimes a loss of intimacy,” said Dr. Abbasi-Feinberg. “But if it’s so bad that you can’t sleep, then having separate sleeping arrangements can be helpful.”

I’ve had some of the most bizarre dreams of my life this pandemic year. I’ve heard that a lot of people are having more nightmares. Why is that?

Weird and unusual dreams were certainly an element of “Coronasomnia,” the cluster of sleep problems tied to the pandemic. Studies found that people across the globe reported more vivid dreams than usual, often involving the threat of Covid-19. Most dreaming occurs during the stage of sleep known as REM, or rapid eye movement, which gets progressively longer throughout the night and into the morning. The later you sleep, the more REM sleep — and thus the more dreams — you are likely to experience. Combine high anxiety levels with the fact that people tended to sleep a little longer and later than usual this past year, and it may be no surprise that our dreams seemed to get stranger.

But dreams, even bizarre ones, have an upside. They act as therapy, helping us process stressful events like those of the past year so we can recall them without reliving the fraught emotions that were involved, said Dr. Walker. Some studies have found that experiencing more intense and emotional dreams during traumatic events can help protect people from depression. “Dreaming acts like a nocturnal soothing balm,” said Dr. Walker. “It takes sharp edges off the painful sting of difficult emotional experiences so they don’t feel as painful anymore. You’ll still have memories of the emotional event. But it’s no longer emotional itself because REM sleep has come along and stripped the bitter emotional rind from the informational memory orange, as it were.”

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Good Sleep for Good Health

Get the Rest You Need

Illustration of man shutting off light and getting in bed

Sometimes, the pace of modern life barely gives you time to stop and rest. It can make getting a good night’s sleep on a regular basis seem like a dream.

But sleep is as important for good health as diet and exercise. Good sleep improves your brain performance, mood, and health.

Not getting enough quality sleep regularly raises the risk of many diseases and disorders. These range from heart disease and stroke to obesity and dementia.

There’s more to good sleep than just the hours spent in bed, says Dr. Marishka Brown, a sleep expert at NIH. “Healthy sleep encompasses three major things,” she explains. “One is how much sleep you get. Another is sleep quality—that you get uninterrupted and refreshing sleep. The last is a consistent sleep schedule.”

People who work the night shift or irregular schedules may find getting quality sleep extra challenging. And times of great stress—like the current pandemic—can disrupt our normal sleep routines. But there are many things you can do to improve your sleep.

Sleep for Repair

Why do we need to sleep? People often think that sleep is just “down time,” when a tired brain gets to rest, says Dr. Maiken Nedergaard, who studies sleep at the University of Rochester.

“But that’s wrong,” she says. While you sleep, your brain is working. For example, sleep helps prepare your brain to learn, remember, and create.

Nedergaard and her colleagues discovered that the brain has a drainage system that removes toxins during sleep.

“When we sleep, the brain totally changes function,” she explains. “It becomes almost like a kidney, removing waste from the system.”

Her team found in mice that the drainage system removes some of the proteins linked with Alzheimer’s disease. These toxins were removed twice as fast from the brain during sleep.

Everything from blood vessels to the immune system The system that protects your body from invading viruses, bacteria, and other microscopic threats. uses sleep as a time for repair, says Dr. Kenneth Wright, Jr., a sleep researcher at the University of Colorado.

“There are certain repair processes that occur in the body mostly, or most effectively, during sleep,” he explains. “If you don’t get enough sleep, those processes are going to be disturbed.”

Sleep Myths and Truths

How much sleep you need changes with age. Experts recommend school-age children get at least nine hours a night and teens get between eight and 10. Most adults need at least seven hours or more of sleep each night.

There are many misunderstandings about sleep. One is that adults need less sleep as they get older. This isn’t true. Older adults still need the same amount. But sleep quality can get worse as you age. Older adults are also more likely to take medications that interfere with sleep.

Another sleep myth is that you can “catch up” on your days off. Researchers are finding that this largely isn’t the case.

“If you have one bad night’s sleep and take a nap, or sleep longer the next night, that can benefit you,” says Wright. “But if you have a week’s worth of getting too little sleep, the weekend isn’t sufficient for you to catch up. That’s not a healthy behavior.”

In a recent study, Wright and his team looked at people with consistently deficient sleep. They compared them to sleep-deprived people who got to sleep in on the weekend.

Both groups of people gained weight with lack of sleep. Their bodies’ ability to control blood sugar levels also got worse. The weekend catch-up sleep didn’t help.

On the flip side, more sleep isn’t always better, says Brown. For adults, “if you’re sleeping more than nine hours a night and you still don’t feel refreshed, there may be some underlying medical issue,” she explains.

Sleep Disorders

Some people have conditions that prevent them from getting enough quality sleep, no matter how hard they try. These problems are called sleep disorders.

The most common sleep disorder is insomnia. “Insomnia is when you have repeated difficulty getting to sleep and/or staying asleep,” says Brown. This happens despite having the time to sleep and a proper sleep environment. It can make you feel tired or unrested during the day.

Insomnia can be short-term, where people struggle to sleep for a few weeks or months. “Quite a few more people have been experiencing this during the pandemic,” Brown says. Long-term insomnia lasts for three months or longer.

Sleep apnea is another common sleep disorder. In sleep apnea, the upper airway becomes blocked during sleep. This reduces or stops airflow, which wakes people up during the night. The condition can be dangerous. If untreated, it may lead to other health problems.

If you regularly have problems sleeping, talk with your health care provider. They may have you keep a sleep diary to track your sleep for several weeks. They can also run tests, including sleep studies. These look for sleep disorders.

Getting Better Sleep

If you’re having trouble sleeping, hearing how important it is may be frustrating. But simple things can improve your odds of a good night’s sleep. See the Wise Choices box for tips to sleep better every day.

Treatments are available for many common sleep disorders. Cognitive behavioral therapy can help many people with insomnia get better sleep. Medications can also help some people.

Many people with sleep apnea benefit from using a device called a CPAP machine. These machines keep the airway open so that you can breathe. Other treatments can include special mouthguards and lifestyle changes.

For everyone, “as best you can, try to make sleep a priority,” Brown says. “Sleep is not a throwaway thing—it’s a biological necessity.”

Welcome to Sleep Health Topics

Explore articles on various facets of sleep health, gain useful tips for improving your sleep health, and stay up to date on the latest education around sleep.

Basics of Sleep
Drowsy Driving Prevention Week
Healthy Sleep Habits
Sleep and You
Sleep Disorders
Your Sleep Environment

What Does Your Sleep Position Say About You

How Technology Can Help You Sleep Better

Young male teen behind the wheel with parent in passenger seat

Wait. Drowsy Driving is like Drunk Driving?

Father and son navigating safety feature of a vehicle

Sleep Health and Safety: Navigating the Road to Alert Driving

A graphic with text about setting sleep schedules

Setting a Regular Sleep Schedule

Back to School Sleep Tips

Sleep in America® Poll 2023 — The Link Between Our Sleep Health and Mental Health

How is Your Sleep Health Linked to Your Mental Health?

It’s Time to Talk to Teens About Drowsy Driving

Staying Alert on the Road after Work

A Healthy Night’s Sleep Starts the Moment You Wake Up

Healthy Sleep Starts Before You Hit the Sheets

Good Light, Bad Light, and Better Sleep

The Stress-sleep Connection

Get Healthy Sleep by Eating Right on Schedule

Screen Use Disrupts Precious Sleep Time

Get Moving to Get Better Sleep

Not Sleeping Well? It Might Be Time to See a Healthcare Provider

featured image that says in text sleeping well this holiday season

Sleeping Well During the Holidays

Drowsy Driving vs. Driving Under the Influence

What is Microsleep?

How Does the Clock Change Impact Our Roadways?

Woman-in-field-of-flowers-supplements-and-sleep

Can Dietary Supplements Lead to a Better Night’s Sleep?

Sleep by the Numbers

The Benefits of Napping

NSF Sleep Diary

Sleep, Immune Health, and Vaccination

What-is-a-circadian-rhythm-woman-in-field-sunset

Understanding Circadian Rhythms

Do I Have Narcolepsy?

Do I Have Restless Legs Syndrome?

Man-in-shower-worried-about-excessive-sleepiness

Do I Have Excessive Sleepiness?

Do I Have Insomnia?

Circadian Rhythm Helps You Sleep and Stay Awake

How Your Circadian Rhythm Helps You Sleep

Photo of man in hoody pondering Sleep Apnea

Do I have Obstructive Sleep Apnea?

What Are the Common Causes of Snoring?

The Link Between Nutrition and Sleep

Woman's Legs in Bed - Understanding Sleep Stages

What Are the Sleep Stages?

How to Make a Sleep-Friendly Bedroom

Dreamcatcher-recommended-amount-of-sleep

Am I Getting Enough Sleep?

Tips for Staying Alert and Preventing Drowsy Driving

Put Sleep First. Drowsy Driving is Dangerous.

What is REM Sleep?

What Is Sleep Quality?

Understanding Sleep Cycles- What Happens During Sleep

How Much Sleep Do You Really Need?

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A survey on sleep assessment methods

Vanessa ibáñez.

1 Facultad de Enfermería, Universidad Católica de Valencia “San Vicente Mártir”, Valencia, Spain

Josep Silva

2 Departamento de Sistemas Informáticos y Computación, Universitat Politècnica de València, Valencia, Spain

3 Departamento de Enfermería; Universidad de Valencia, Valencia, Spain

Associated Data

The following information was supplied regarding data availability:

This article is a survey and did not use raw data.

A literature review is presented that aims to summarize and compare current methods to evaluate sleep.

Current sleep assessment methods have been classified according to different criteria; e.g., objective (polysomnography, actigraphy…) vs. subjective (sleep questionnaires, diaries…), contact vs. contactless devices, and need for medical assistance vs. self-assessment. A comparison of validation studies is carried out for each method, identifying their sensitivity and specificity reported in the literature. Finally, the state of the market has also been reviewed with respect to customers’ opinions about current sleep apps.

A taxonomy that classifies the sleep detection methods. A description of each method that includes the tendencies of their underlying technologies analyzed in accordance with the literature. A comparison in terms of precision of existing validation studies and reports.

In order of accuracy, sleep detection methods may be arranged as follows:

Questionnaire < Sleep diary < Contactless devices < Contact devices < Polysomnography

A literature review suggests that current subjective methods present a sensitivity between 73% and 97.7%, while their specificity ranges in the interval 50%–96%. Objective methods such as actigraphy present a sensibility higher than 90%. However, their specificity is low compared to their sensitivity, being one of the limitations of such technology. Moreover, there are other factors, such as the patient’s perception of her or his sleep, that can be provided only by subjective methods. Therefore, sleep detection methods should be combined to produce a synergy between objective and subjective methods. The review of the market indicates the most valued sleep apps, but it also identifies problems and gaps, e.g., many hardware devices have not been validated and (especially software apps) should be studied before their clinical use.

Introduction

Sleep is fundamental to health. Sleep disorders can often be a symptom of a disease; or also may be an indicator of a future disease such as depression. For those reasons, sleep assessment is an essential component of any health check. As such, many health care systems stablish mechanisms to prevent sleep disorders by providing specific plans in relation to education and awareness of good sleep habits.

Over the years, many different sleep assessment methods have appeared. Specially in the last years, new methods have emerged with the appearance of new technologies such as mobile apps and novel advanced hardware sensors such as galvanic skin response measurers. In this survey, we review the current methods for the detection of sleep. From simple methods that only distinguish between awake or asleep states to complex methods able to distinguish all the sleep stages; from subjective methods such as sleep questionnaires and sleep diaries to objective methods such as polysomnography.

The main motivation of this survey is to produce a comprehensive and unbiased literature review from which we can extract a complete classification of sleep assessment methods (including new technologies such as mobile apps). There have in the past been different reviews of sleep assessment methods, but most of them are outdated (see, e.g., Lomeli et al., 2008 ; Kelly, Strecker & Bianchi, 2012 ; Winter, 2014 ), or they are partial, or only focus on a specific subset of methods (e.g., sleep questionnaires: Silva et al., 2011 ; Firat et al., 2012 ; El-Sayed, 2012 ; Pataka et al., 2014 ; Singh & Mims, 2015 ; Chai-Coetzer et al., 2015 , mobile apps: Lee & Finkelstein, 2015 ; Ong & Gillespie, 2016 , or contact sleep detection methods: Kolla, Mansukhani & Mansukhani, 2016 ; Maslakovic, 2017 ; Green, 2017 , etc.).

The survey was written to appeal to a range of people, who would have a broad spectrum of interests. It covers all sleep detection methods and, for each method, it also provides a table with the most used market products. Hence, because the survey tackles different technical areas, all technical terms have been conveniently introduced and explained. In all cases, explanations are supported and complemented with adequate references. Of course, not all sleep detection methods have the same precision; in fact, some of them are completely subjective. Therefore, the comparison of methods deserves a critical view on validation. Thus, we also report on the reliability and validity of the methods analyzing previous comparisons and validation studies.

Survey methodology

The literature review begins with a planning phase. This phase formulates research questions and defines inclusion and exclusion criteria. This phase is followed by search and screening of primary studies.

Research questions

We formulated two research questions to identify the current state of the art in sleep assessment methods:

This research question aims to provide an overview of the sleep assessment methods, with special emphasis on those that have been developed over the last 10 years.

This question complements the previous one, giving a deeper understanding of the sleep assessment methods.

Search process

The purpose of a literature review is to conduct a review of relevant studies to assess the body of knowledge that exists to support addressing the research questions. This process is rigorous and unbiased, and it involves a wide coverage of sources, such as online databases, journals, and conferences. The search string created to retrieve information from the electronic resources and databases is the following:

This search string was designed after an analysis of the keywords from the relevant literature, which was found from several general searches in the resources outlined above.

With the search terms defined, we started the process of identifying relevant literature in the following electronic databases: PubMed, LILACS, TOXNET, SCOPUS, ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar. Initially, we sought potential primary studies in the databases. In PubMed Health, the search string produced 1,784 results. Therefore, we had to filter the results by refining the search string for that database:

As a result of the search process, 318 studies were identified. Excluding unavailable and duplicated results, we obtained 212 studies.

Inclusion and exclusion criteria

To address the research questions, the following inclusion and exclusion criteria were defined:

• IC1: Those papers that discussed sleep assessment methods were included.
• IC2: Those papers that described the characteristics of a sleep assessment method were included.
• EC1: Those papers that did not describe a sleep assessment method were excluded.

Studies selection

Initially, we performed screening on the titles and abstracts to decide whether to include or exclude each study. As a result, from the six sources that we searched, a total of 114 studies were selected and 98 were excluded. We read in detail the full text of each primary study included in the preliminary selection to decide whether to include or exclude the study. The primary studies included in the final selection correspond to the relevant papers that meet the research questions set out in this study. The QUOROM flow chart of the reviewing process is depicted in Fig. 1 .

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Solid arrows represent the QUOROM flow. Dashed arrows represent the decomposition of a box into several sub-boxes.

Data extraction

With the final set of primary studies decided upon, the data extraction activity was carried out on included papers. For each paper, we identified the kind of article (review, opinion, study, tool description …) and the sleep assessment methods it described. We grouped the data by sleep assessment methods and identified a total of five categories where all sleep assessment methods can be classified (see ‘Classification of Sleep Detection Methods’). For each method, a single document was produced, grouping the data coming from all papers related to the tool. This produced summaries and charts that helped us to study and classify the methods.

Structure of the survey

The rest of the paper has been structured as follows: in ‘Classification of Sleep Detection Methods’, a classification of sleep detection methods is proposed. Then, in ‘Medical Assistance Methods’, those methods that need medical assistance are explained. Similarly, those methods that do not necessarily need medical assistance (self-assessment methods) are explained in ‘Self-Assessment Methods’. In ‘A Critical Discussion About Accuracy and Validation’, we discuss the accuracy and validity of the methods presented. We also discuss the usefulness of some of the methods, and we comment on future developments. Finally, in ‘Conclusions’ we provide a concluding summary.

Classification of Sleep Detection Methods

Essentially, a sleep detection method is a function that classifies the sleep state of a patient. Most sleep detection methods such as wrist actigraphy or mobile apps consider a binary function, where the state can be classified as Awake / Sleep . More sophisticated methods consider a ternary function: Awake / NREM / REM. And, finally, the most advanced methods, such as polysomnography—often used as the gold standard—consider a quinquenary function: Awake / N1 / N2 / N3 / REM. Hence, any method can produce a two-dimensional chart where the X -axis is Time, and the Y -axis is the State of the Patient. In the particular case of polysomnography, the Y -axis has five possible values; thus, it can determine the sleep stage of the patient at any time, and study the transitions occurring between the states. Of course, a sleep study such as a polysomnography often produces much more complementary information that can be used, e.g., to diagnose sleep diseases. Among the information reported by a polysomnography we find oxygen saturations, limb movements, apneas, respiratory events by body position, etc. The interested reader is referred to Robertson, Marshall & Carno (2014) , Pandi-Perumal, Spence & BaHammam (2014) and Armon et al. (2016) for information about sleep study reports and their interpretation and usage.

The information that is common to the majority of sleep detection methods is the one that refers to a binary state classification (i.e., Awake / Sleep), because this is achieved by the basic methods, and subsumed by the advanced methods. Table 1 defines the basic parameters that can be collected by a binary state classification method. In grey, we show the primary data that should be collected by the sleep detection device and, in white, we show the most important parameters that can be derived from the primary data.

This table summarizes the main parameters of a sleep study. The top of the table (light blue) lists the fundamental parameters. Those parameters that can be derived from the primitive variables are listed in the dark blue rows. Each of them includes its associated formula.

These parameters are particularly useful to determine the kind of sleep of patients, and each single parameter is relevant for a different sleep disorder or disease. For instance, the sleep onset, sleep latency, and total sleep time are essential to diagnose patients with insomnia. Similarly, an excess in the awakening and arousal indices suggests increased sleep fragmentation. In addition to the number of sleep states that they are able to detect, a sleep detection method can be classified according to other functional and operational characteristics, such as their underlying technology, which in turn directly affects their precision and validity.

In Fig. 2 , we present a taxonomy of sleep detection methods. They all can be classified into two main groups according to whether they need medical assistance (Medical Assistance) or not (Self-Assessment). In this respect, there are methods that have been classified as not requiring medical assistance, such as Questionnaires and Sleep Diaries, even though their interpretation should be normally done by a professional. However, in the current state of the art there are many systems such as mobile apps that provide custom sleep questionnaires and produce reports without medical assistance. Hence, they are classified as Self-Assessment. They both deserve a deep discussion and will be explained separately in ‘Medical Assistance Methods’ and ‘Self-Assessment Methods’, respectively.

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Grey boxes represent categories. White boxes represent sleep assessment methods or technology used to assess sleep.

Self-Assessment methods include subjective methods such as questionnaires and sleep diaries (the figure lists some instances), and objective methods based on hardware sensors, which in turn can be classified as Contact devices or Contactless devices, depending on whether they need to be in contact with the patient’s body during sleep. Those devices that are based on the echo produced by signals can be further classified into Sonar, Radar, and Lidar devices. All of them will be explained in a dedicated section.

Medical Assistance Methods

There are different studies that can be performed in a sleep laboratory. All of them have one significant advantage and one significant disadvantage that differentiate them from the home detection methods. The obvious advantage is that these methods can use advanced technology such as electroencephalograms, electrocardiograms, etc. that cannot be used at home. The advantage of these methods is that they can be extremely precise, and can be discrete (e.g., are able to distinguish between sleep phases). For this reason, these methods have been often used as the gold standard for sleep evaluation (see, e.g., Silva et al., 2011 ; Firat et al., 2012 ; El-Sayed, 2012 ; Luo et al., 2014 ; Chai-Coetzer et al., 2015 ; Silva et al., 2016 ). Of course, the use of this exclusive technology comes with a cost: these methods are expensive, time-consuming, require professional assistance and, often, they can only be done for a reduced period of time (e.g., one or two days). But, additionally, there is another important functional disadvantage: the assessment made by these methods is done in a context that is not the usual sleep context of the patient (i.e., a sleep clinic or a hospital) and, thus, a normal sleep situation is not measured.

Polysomnogram (PSG)

The term polysomnogram comes from the Greek root poly (many), the Latin noun somnus (sleep), and the Greek verb noun gramma (drawing or diagram). A PSG ( Robertson, Marshall & Carno, 2014 ; Pandi-Perumal, Spence & BaHammam, 2014 ; Armon et al., 2016 ) is a medical procedure composed of several concurrent but independent tests that monitor different body functions during sleep and that are recorded for their later study using different channels. An exhaustive list of tests and information gathered in a modern PSG follows:

∘ Electroencephalogram (EEG) —measures and records the brainwave activity to identify sleep stages and detect seizure activity.
∘ Electrooculogram (EOG) —records eye movements. These movements are important for identifying the different sleep stages, especially the REM stage.
∘ Electromyogram (EMG) —records muscle activity (e.g., teeth grinding and face twitches; but also, limb movements using surface EMG monitoring of limb muscles, periodic or other). Chin EMG is necessary to differentiate REM from wakefulness, limb EMG can identify periodic limb movements during sleep (PLMS).
∘ Electrocardiogram (EKG) —records the heart rate and rhythm.
∘ Pulse oximetry —monitors the oxygen saturation (SO 2 ).
∘ Respiratory monitor —measures the respiratory effort (thoracic and abdominal). It can be of several types, including impedance, inductance, strain gauges, etc.
∘ Capnography —measures and graphically displays the inhaled and exhaled CO 2 concentrations at the airway opening.
∘ Transcutaneous monitors —measure the diffusion of O 2 and CO 2 through the skin.
∘ Microphone —continuously records the snoring volume and kind.
∘ Video camera —continuously records video. It is useful to identify the body motion and position.
∘ Thermometer —records the core body temperature and its changes.
∘ Light intensity tolerance test —determines the influence of light intensity on sleep.
∘ Nocturnal penile tumescence test —is used to identify physiological erectile dysfunctions.
∘ Esophageal tests —includes pressure manometry, to measure pleural pressure; esophageal manometry to assess peristalsis, and esophageal pH monitoring (acidity test).
∘ Nasal and oral airflow sensor —records the airflow and the breathing rate.
∘ Gastroesophageal monitor —is used to detect Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD).
∘ Blood pressure monitor —measures the blood pressure and its changes.

Depending on the particular sleep study that needs to be performed, only some specific tests from the above list are generally selected—and they are also parameterized for each specific case. For instance, the EEG is usually comprised of 10–16 electrodes, but in patients with epilepsy, often 20 electrodes are used. Similarly, to assess bruxism, the EMG electrodes can be placed over the masseter muscle, but to assess other sleep disorders, the EMG electrodes are placed in other muscle groups. For example, the intercostal EMG is used to measure the effort during respiration.

Nowadays, the PSG is the most advanced tool for the diagnosis of many sleep disorders. According to Pandi-Perumal, Spence & BaHammam (2014) and Armon et al. (2016) , the main disorders that a PSG can evaluate are those in Fig. 3 (they are classified following the International Classification of Sleep Disorders ( Sateia, 2014 )), being especially frequent: (i) sleep apnea or another sleep-related breathing disorder, (ii) periodic limb movement disorder, (iii) narcolepsy, (iv) REM sleep behavior disorder, (v) unusual behaviors during sleep, and (vi) unexplained chronic insomnia.

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The main disorders evaluated with a polysomnogram are structured with a three-levels taxonomy that follows the International Classification of Sleep Disorders.

Multiple sleep latency test (MSLT)

This sleep study ( Carskadon, 1986 ; Sullivan & Kushida, 2008 ) is a test to identify excessive daytime sleepiness (i.e., feeling sleepy in a situation where one should be awake and alert, e.g., driving a truck) and determines how long it takes the patient to fall asleep. It also identifies the phases of the sleep (e.g., how quickly and how often the patient enters REM sleep). MSLT is the standard test to diagnose idiopathic hypersomnia and narcolepsy, and it measures how quickly a patient falls asleep during the day in a quiet environment. An MSLT often starts the morning following a PSG and it lasts one complete day. The patient tries to sleep in five scheduled naps separated by two-hour breaks. For this reason, this test is often called a “nap study”.

Each nap trial takes place in a quiet bedroom. The patient is connected with sensors to a device that can detect sleep stages. The standard procedure often includes an EEG, EOG, EMG, and EKG ( Carskadon, 1986 ). The equipment is composed of different electrodes and monitors:

∘ Wires with small cup electrodes attached to the scalp with a conductive paste to measure brain activity (EEG). This detects in what stage of sleep is the patient.
∘ Wire electrodes that are taped to the face near the eyes (EOG) and chin to show muscle activity (EMG).
∘ Two elastic belts around the chest and stomach to measure breathing effort.
∘ A nasal cannula and small heat monitor to measure all breathing activity.
∘ A wire electrode on each leg to measure body movement/muscle activity.
∘ A monitor taped to a finger to detect oxygen levels.
∘ Two to three lead EKG monitors to show heart rate and rhythm.
∘ A small microphone applied to the throat to detect snoring.

Hence, the MSLT can identify exactly when the patient falls asleep, and whether or not they entered REM sleep. If the patient falls asleep, they are awakened after 15 min. The nap trial also ends if the patient does not fall asleep within 20 min. Patients with narcolepsy often have two or more REM periods during the MSLT. People with idiopathic hypersomnia fall asleep easily but do not reach REM sleep during the nap trial.

Maintenance of wakefulness test (MWT)

This test ( Banks et al., 2004 ; Meira et al., 2017 ) is performed over a whole day. Contrary to a PSG, this test is made while the patient is awake. Essentially, it challenges patients to attempt to stay awake during periodic tests. Therefore, an MWT may be helpful in the management of sleepy patients, particularly for driving purposes. It measures how alert a patient is during the day and it determines whether a patient is able to stay awake for a period of time in a quiet and relaxing environment. During the test, there are four to five periods of around 40 min each, spaced apart by 2 h, where the patient is asked to stay relaxed in a quiet, faintly-lit bedroom. The first trial often begins 1.5 to 3 h after the patient’s normal wake-up time. The patient eats breakfast one hour prior to the first relaxing period and they have lunch after the second period. Between the periods, the patient can read the newspaper, watch TV, have a meal, or move freely inside the building, but they cannot go outside because daylight is a factor that must be eliminated during the test.

During the relaxing periods, patients are connected to a set of leads that monitor (i) heart activity with two to three ECG leads, (ii) brain activity with 4 EEG leads, (iii) chin muscle activity with three leads, and (iv) left and right eye movements. If the patient falls asleep for 90 s at any time during the relaxing period, the test is terminated. All data collected are analyzed by a sleep specialist to determine the patient’s level of sleepiness during the day.

CPAP titration test (CTT)

A CTT ( Lopez-Campos et al., 2007 ) is a type of sleep study that is used to calibrate continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) and bi-level positive airway pressure (BIPAP) therapies. CPAP/BIPAP are the common treatments in some sleep-related respiratory disorders (see Fig. 3 ) such as central sleep apnea (BIPAP) and obstructive sleep apnea (CPAP), which eliminate breathing pauses during sleep. Before starting these treatments, a CTT is needed.

The objective of a CTT is to determine the amount of air pressure needed to prevent the upper airway from becoming blocked. This is studied during the sleep of the patient with a nasal mask that periodically changes the air pressure, and different sensors that monitor the sleep in a similar way to a PSG (i.e., they record oxygen levels, breathing, heart rate, brain waves, and leg and arm movements).

Home sleep test (HST)

The HST ( Cruz, Littner & Zeidler, 2014 ; Kapoor & Greenough, 2015 ) is a kind of limited PSG that is made at home (i.e., portable equipment is transported to the patient’s home). The number of channels used is often reduced to three: airflow, respiratory effort, and oximetry. It provides an indication only for high suspicion of obstructive sleep apnea—not other sleep disorders—and it has the obvious advantage that the context in which the sleep is evaluated is the normal one. The main disadvantages are that it cannot determine sleep stage, hypopneas, or arousals; and no one is present to replace leads.

Self-Assessment Methods

Sleep questionnaires.

The preliminary evaluation of sleep in primary care is often completed with a sleep questionnaire (also known as a sleep scale). Sleep questionnaires are a very inexpensive and rapid test, and for these reasons, they are ideal for the first diagnostic test. Moreover, they summarize in a quantitative way the (subjective) perception of the patient about his or her own quality of sleep. Precisely because they are mostly subjective, sleep questionnaires can be influenced by the same sources of bias and inaccuracy as any other such reports. However, their subjectivity does not necessarily render questionnaires inaccurate, as it has been demonstrated by several validation studies (see Silva et al., 2011 ; El-Sayed, 2012 ; Firat et al., 2012 ; Luo et al., 2014 ; Pataka et al., 2014 ; Chai-Coetzer et al., 2015 ).

In general, filling in a sleep questionnaire does not require the assistance of sanitary professionals. They can be self-administered at any moment, even at home. For instance, the Google play’s Sleep Apnea Screener is a mobile app that automatically provides a report after completing a questionnaire. Therefore, sleep questionnaires can be used by people (e.g., with sleep apnea) as a sleep control that can alert them about the need for a proper diagnosis provided by specialists.

Table 2 shows (in chronological order of appearance) the most extended sleep questionnaires used along the last 30 years. For a long time, we have been collecting all of them (some of them are not available online), and we have created a public repository where they all can be downloaded: http://users.dsic.upv.es/ jsilva/Sleep/ .

Each row represents a sleep questionnaire, and includes its acronym, its structure (number of items and scale used), and a reference to the article where it was proposed.

For each questionnaire, the table shows:

• Its structure: number of questions/items and the scale used for the answers.
• The period of time that the questionnaire evaluates: if it is unspecific or unspecified it uses “Recently”, if one or more questions refer to future or hypothetical situations it uses “Future” (e.g., “If I use CPAP I will feel better”, “I would use CPAP, even if I had to pay for some of the cost”, etc.).
• The percentage of objective questions in the questionnaire: a question that is (partially) subjective or that depends on memory is considered subjective. Only questions that are totally objective are considered objective (e.g., “have you taken drugs to sleep?”, “how much do you weight?”, etc.). The level of objectivity is indicated with a 1–4 scale, where 0 means close to 0%, 1 means close to 25%, 2 means close to 50%, 3 means close to 75%, and 5 means close to 100%.

It is important to note that, although the goal of some questionnaires (e.g., PSQI) is to evaluate sleep quality (such as PSG, and actigraphy), others assess concepts distinct from sleep quality. For example, FOSQ measures the concept of sleepiness, which may or may not be related to sleep quality. Treating objective and subjective measures related to some aspect of sleep as evaluating sleep quality would ignore the fundamental concept on which they were developed and the principle that you select a measure based on the concept you are measuring for alignment and accuracy. Therefore, some questionnaires are fundamentally incomparable, and the selection of one questionnaire should be based on the purpose of each specific questionnaire. Table 3 summarizes the objective of each questionnaire.

Each row represents a sleep questionnaire, and it indicates what does this questionnaire intend to measure.

Having such an availability of different questionnaires (as shown in Table 2 , their number of questions and scales vary a lot), the natural question is: “ Which sleep questionnaire should I use? ” Of course, those questionnaires with less questions are easier to administer, but those questionnaires with more questions collect more information. However, the question remains for those questionnaires with the same number of questions (e.g., SACS, SQ, SFV, OSA50). This question has motivated several studies to compare their sensitivity (true positive rate) and specificity (true negative rate). Some important studies comparing sleep questionnaires for the identification of sleep apnea are summarized in Table 4 . The interested reader is referred to Ibáñez, Silva & Cauli (2018) for a survey on sleep questionnaires.

Each row represents a study that compares 3–5 sleep questionnaires. For each study, the table shows the size of the sample used (amount of people that participated in the study) and which questionnaire produced the best sensitivity and specificity. The reference to each study is also included.

Sleep diaries

Sleep diaries allow patients to self-assess their sleep. Sleep diaries have one important advantage over sleep questionnaires. While sleep questionnaires are filled in once, sleep diaries are filled in over a period of time (usually one or two weeks). This means that sleep diaries contain more information, and also that the information contained is more precise. This happens because a sleep questionnaire provides an overall perception, often ignoring the details, and it is highly dependent on the patient’s memory because they summarize information about the previous one or two weeks. Contrarily, the sleep diary collects data every day, so that good and bad days are recorded. Moreover, the sleep diary is not so dependent on memory, because they are often filled in just after waking up. We have been collecting sleep diaries from hospitals, sleep centres and different studies. In our repository, there are more than 25 sleep diaries. The most representative are shown in Table 5 . We have made them publicly available at: http://users.dsic.upv.es/ jsilva/Sleep/ .

Each row represents a sleep diary, and it indicates the number of questions included in the diary and the scale used to complete the answers.

The Pittsburgh Sleep Diary ( Monk et al., 1994 ) is the oldest sleep diary in our records (although there is evidence that sleep diaries were in clinical use for decades before its 1994 publication ( Weitzman et al., 1982 )). After it was proposed, many other diaries have been defined by researchers, hospitals, and sleep centres. In March 2005, 25 researchers attending the Pittsburgh Assessment Conference developed an initiative to compare a collection of sleep diaries in order to extract the best from each diary studied and integrate all together, producing an improved sleep diary. As a result, they proposed the “Consensus Sleep Diary” ( Carney et al., 2012 ) (see Table 5 ). The diaries included in Table 5 are classified according to the information required from the user. In particular, they include different questions about their sleep such as time used to fall asleep, the amount and kind of food in the dinner, or use of drugs, etc. Specific information about the structure and information gathered by sleep diaries can be found at Ibáñez, Silva & Cauli (2018) .

There is also the existence of sleep diaries that are distributed as mobile apps. The most used and better valued sleep diaries according to Google Play are Sleep Diary Pro (423 reviews with a mark of 4.2/5), Healthy Sleep Diary (223 reviews with a mark of 3.9/5), and Sleep Diary Lite (2,263 reviews with a mark of 3.8/5). Tonetti, Mingozzi & Natale (2016) compared the use of paper and electronic sleep diaries and concluded that they are similar with respect to their diagnostic power.

Hardware devices

Contactless hardware devices to detect the sleep.

Contactless methods to assess sleep use one or more of the following technologies: Microphone (in Nakano et al. (2014) there is an informative discussion about how to quantify snoring and sleep apnea severity), video camera, (infrared) thermometer, pressure strap or belt, pillow or mattress accelerometer , echo-based devices ( Lee, Hong & Ryu, 2015 ) such as sonar, radar, or also lidar (still under development).

There exist periodic expert’s reviews (see, e.g., Langley, 2017 ; Green, 2017 ; ASA, 2017 ) that rank the most valued contactless devices according to the market (e.g., Amazon reviews). However, currently the most used device to assess the sleep is the smartphone. Because a smartphone contains a microphone, a camera, and an accelerometer, it can use these hardware features to monitor sleep. This has promoted the appearance of many mobile apps to assess sleep. The main contactless sleep detection apps according to the number of reviews in Google Play are shown in Table 6 . Even though several experts’ reviews (see, e.g., Hacktosleep, 2016 ; Maslakovic, 2017 ) report high performance and reliability of these apps, there are still few scientific validation studies that support this claim. In contrast, several studies report that mobile apps are not yet prepared for clinical use ( Kolla, Mansukhani & Mansukhani, 2016 ; Ong & Gillespie, 2016 ; Patel, Kim & Brooks, 2017 ; Lorenz & Williams, 2017 ). For instance, a recent study ( Patel, Kim & Brooks, 2017 ) performed with 25 children (ages: 2–14) and where a smartphone recorded data simultaneously with a PSG suggested that smartphone apps may have value in increasing the user’s awareness of sleep issues but would not yet be accurate enough to be used as a clinical tool.

Each row shows a sleep app. Rows are sorted in descending order according to the average review mark.

Contact hardware devices to detect the sleep

Contact hardware devices to assess sleep are small devices that can be attached to the wrist, chest, ankle, or head. Some of these devices use the Cartesian representation to record the activity of the body and thus they are known as actigraphs . Most actigraphs use an accelerometer to register movements. The information collected is used to analyse sleep. Even though contemporary actigraph devices are electronic, the first actigraphs were mechanical (contrary to common belief). In fact, the first actigraphs date from the 1950s ( Tryon, Bellak & Hersen, 1991 ).

Due to the usefulness of the information collected by actigraphs, the use of actigraphy has been included in the ICSD-3 diagnostic criteria for several circadian sleep-wake rhythm disorders. Even though there is a clear continual improvement in the precision of sensors, and in the accuracy of algorithms, the use of actigraphs for clinical diagnosis should be considered when the device and algorithm used have been validated. In particular, the algorithm used to interpret the data is of major importance, because many proprietary algorithms do not pass enough quality controls, and some of them are even worse than the human inspection of the actigraphy data (see, e.g., Boyne et al., 2013 ).

The performance and reliability of hardware devices have been compared by experts’ reviews (see, e.g., Maslakovic, 2017 ) and also by validation studies ( Evenson, Goto & Furberg, 2015 ; Kolla, Mansukhani & Mansukhani, 2016 ). However, it is important to note that fitness trackers and phone apps tend to underestimate sleep disruptions and overestimate total sleep times and sleep efficiency in normal subjects ( Kolla, Mansukhani & Mansukhani, 2016 ).

A Critical Discussion About Accuracy and Validation

Each sleep detection method has its own level of reliability and precision. If we place the presented methods in order of accuracy, as reported in the literature ( Boyne et al., 2013 ; Evenson, Goto & Furberg, 2015 ; Ibáñez, Silva & Cauli, 2018 ), we have:

It is important to note that this formulation does not pretend to sort the methods according to their usefulness. It would be erroneous to state that self-reporting is inferior (or less useful) to more objective measures. This would fail to appreciate that data based on patient perception may be valuable in understanding sleep problems.

Being both mostly subjective, there is an important difference in the way that sleep diaries and questionnaires are completed. Questionnaires are filled in once, usually before the interview with the sleep therapist, thus, not just after waking up. Consequently, (1) the patient’s memory strongly influences the quality of the information provided (he or she has to remember his or her sleep for a week or a month); and (ii) the information provided is a summary of many sleeps, thus, losing details about special days. In contrast, sleep diaries (1) are filled in every day, and (2) they are completed just after waking up. Hence, they are potentially more accurate and less influenced by the memory of the patient. Therefore, the amount of information and accuracy of sleep diaries is objectively superior to that of questionnaires. Here again, the superiority in precision of sleep diaries does not substitute the global assessment of sleep questionnaires, and the latter may be the relevant data therefore making the questionnaire more pertinent.

The accuracy of sleep questionnaires has been widely studied (see, e.g., Silva et al., 2011 ; Firat et al., 2012 ; El-Sayed, 2012 ; Pataka et al., 2014 ; Luo et al., 2014 ; Chai-Coetzer et al., 2015 ; Silva et al., 2016 , and see Table 4 where studies that evaluated sleep questionnaires are compared). All these studies used the PSG as a gold standard and tried to evaluate the sensitivity/specificity of the questionnaires in identifying sleep apnea. The sensitivity reported was in the interval 73.0%–97.6%, while the specificity reported was in the interval 50%–96% (see Table 4 ). Most of the studies reported the STOP-BANG questionnaire as the one producing the best sensitivity. These studies are definitely useful, and provide good indicators, but our selection of a specific questionnaire must consider the specific illness and population targeted. Precisely because they target different populations the results of these studies are not always directly comparable. For instance, the study in Silva et al. (2011) was performed on highway bus drivers in Turkey and the study in Chai-Coetzer et al. (2015) only considered men, etc.

The effectiveness of sleep diaries has been evaluated in Jungquist et al. (2015) and Tonetti, Mingozzi & Natale (2016) . These studies also compare paper diaries and electronic diaries using an actigraph as the gold standard. Both studies found that, statistically, paper and electronic diaries collect the same data; thus, their accuracy and reliability is similar.

The main difference between contact and contactless devices is their underlying technology. In general, contact devices are more accurate because most of the sensors used to monitor sleep are strongly dependent on their distance from the patient (the closer the better). A good example are the accelerometers, which are sensors used in both contact devices such as wrist watches, and contactless devices such as mattress or pillow clips. It is fairly evident that it is much more reliable to directly measure the movements of the body than approximating them by measuring the movements of the mattress or pillow. The same happens with sonars, for example. A phone’s microphone and speaker using ultrasounds as a sonar have an effective range of about 1 metre and its reliable distance is 0.5 m. Of course, the results are more precise as the patient is closer. Unfortunately, the movements of the sonar can negatively affect its measurements and results, hence it is preferable putting it on a bedside table, lying still, instead of putting it on the mattress. As a consequence, the sonar is often at least 0.5 m away from the patient. This problem also happens with similar radio frequency technology used to monitor the body movements and breathing.

One of the main factors that influence the accuracy of sleep detection devices is the quality of their sensors. An informative discussion and comparison of sensors’ accuracy appears in Lee & Finkelstein (2015) . Another important factor is the software that process the data collected by the sensor. Currently, there are more than 100,000 health apps in the Apple and Google Play app stores ( Research 2 Guidance, 2016 ). Many of these apps focus on sleep, and a large proportion of them implement proprietary sleep detection algorithms. As a consequence, the same device (e.g., a mobile phone with an accelerometer) can produce different results depending on the underlying software that process the data collected.

It is therefore very important to highlight that most of the publicly available sleep apps have not been clinically validated. Most of them are implemented and maintained by independent (non-clinical) programmers and, thus, their clinical use is not recommended. Of course, there have been many studies devoted to validating hardware devices and reporting on their accuracy and precision. Some studies devoted to validating actigraphs are Sivertsen et al. (2006) , Paquet, Kawinska & Carrier (2007) , Sitnick, Goodlin-Jones & Anders (2008) , Montgomery-Downs, Insana & Bond (2012) , Marino et al. (2013) , Meltzer et al. (2014) , De Zambotti, Baker & Colrain (2015) , Bhat et al. (2015) , Toon et al. (2016) and Meltzer et al. (2016) . They all study the correlation between one commercial actigraph and a PSG (the patient wore the actigraph during the PSG). The sensitivity reported is in the interval 86%–98%, and the specificity is in the interval 20%–54%, because commercial actigraphs prioritize sensitivity over specificity. The interested reader is referred to Evenson, Goto & Furberg (2015) and Kolla, Mansukhani & Mansukhani (2016) where systematic reviews of validation studies for sleep detection hardware devices can be found. Other works study the precision of actigraphy with specific populations (children, adults, old women, mentally disordered, etc.) ( Blackwell et al., 2008 ; Martin & Hakim, 2011 ; Marino et al., 2013 ; Baandrup & Jennum, 2015 ; Min et al., 2014 ; De Zambotti et al., 2015 ; Meltzer et al., 2016 ).

The review of the state of the technology together with the review of the validation studies advise against using contactless devices in the clinical study of sleep. Their low precision renders them far from being a reliable method. This does not mean that they are useless. They are good sleep indicators, and a good resource for patients to monitor and be aware of their own sleep quality. But their use as a definitive diagnostic tool is to be discouraged. In the case of contact devices, their precision is acceptable for many populations. In general, they should be used as an indicator but not as a definitive diagnostic tool, because several studies report that their sensitivity can fall down to 86% and their specificity to 20%. However, these numbers are on the increase because the advances in technology are continuously improving such devices. This is also observable in the continuous increment of precision reported over time by validation studies.

Conclusions

The first conclusion of this review is that a perfect sleep assessment method does not exist. All methods have advantages and disadvantages, thus, they should be combined and adapted to the specific applicable needs. In terms of accuracy, the PSG is the best method, reporting the most complete and precise information (e.g., differentiating the sleep phases). Nevertheless, PSGs are expensive, exclusive (they require special hardware and medical support), can only be administered once, or for a few days, and they assess sleep in a stressful context (e.g., a hospital with video cameras recording and several machines registering the information provided by electrodes placed in the patient’s body).

For these reasons, sleep diaries and questionnaires are often used to complement the PSG. They provide information that is gathered over medium to long periods of time, including information about sleep habits. Because they are mostly subjective, they have been erroneously considered as unreliable. But, in contrast, several studies (see Table 4 ) have proven that their sensitivity is often above 90%, and between 73% and 97.7% in all the discussed studies. Specificity ranges in the interval 50%–96%. In the specific case of electronic diaries, the studies demonstrate that they produce the same results as their paper counterparts, but also that they provide functional advantages: automatic data processing, metadata such as information about when the patient filled in the diary, alerts, etc. Sleep questionnaires and diaries have been classified in Tables 2 and and5, 5 , respectively.

The literature review shows that the accuracy of hardware devices is superior to that of questionnaires. This superiority, however, must be considered only in terms of precision, but not in terms of diagnostic usefulness. The information provided by questionnaires regarding self-perception of sleep quality is essential and cannot be replaced by hardware measures. The sensitivity of hardware devices is 88–98%, while their specificity is 20–52%. The adherence of hardware devices is also superior, because they require less effort from the patient (e.g., actigraphs are mostly automatic). The accuracy and reliability of hardware devices have been continuously increased with the advances of the technology. The continuous improvement of sensors and the appearance of new technologies (good examples are the imminent use of infrared thermometers and lidars) clearly improve the sleep detection devices.

We have presented a taxonomy of sleep methods that comprises all methods presented. This taxonomy classifies hardware devices into contact and contactless devices, because their functionality, accuracy, and reliability are different. In both cases, many studies reach the similar conclusion that current sleep trackers are useful tools to assess sleep and have been used successfully in many sleep studies. In particular, the studies that have evaluated concrete actigraphs with their respective software/app conclude that actigraphy is a reasonably reliable method to detect sleep with an average sensibility higher than 90%. Nevertheless, the studies also report that the results obtained are particularly influenced by the patient that wears the actigraphy, which can produce bad results in many cases. Therefore, the use of actigraphy as a diagnostic tool should be complemented and contrasted with other methods to produce a more definitive diagnostic.

Finally, sleep apps are another important tool to assess sleep, especially in smartphones, where they are becoming very common nowadays. We have shown the most significant apps with regard to their number of reviews, and to their overall mark given by users. It is important to highlight that, contrasted with hardware, software apps are often implemented by independent (non-clinical) developers, and they do not pass any quality test. Therefore, they must be validated, at least before they are applied in clinically. The few scientific validation studies that have compared smartphone apps against PSG report that they are still not accurate enough to be used as clinical tools.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank Roger Nolan for reviewing a preliminary version of this article. His help to improve our work is greatly appreciated.

Abbreviations List

Funding statement.

The authors received no funding for this work.

Additional Information and Declarations

The authors declare there are no competing interests.

Vanessa Ibáñez , Josep Silva and Omar Cauli conceived and designed the experiments, performed the experiments, analyzed the data, contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools, prepared figures and/or tables, authored or reviewed drafts of the paper, approved the final draft.

Sleep Research Questions

Our research team has made progress on the first step of our Sleep & Learning research synthesis pilot - distill a list of relevant and actionable questions.

As compared to the generic advice to "get more sleep" or "sleep 8ish hours", this list of research questions is a much more nuanced and practical approach to parsing and synthesizing the sleep science literature. Specifically, knowing the answers to even a third of these questions could notably change how I orient to and prioritize my own sleep routine to maximize learning. Exciting!

Everyone on the team pitched in their respective questions and here is the master list of what we came up with. I loosely bucketed these into categories, though there is potential overlap between groupings for any specific article.

Partial sleep deprivation or deviation

These questions focused on the the impact of less sleep or offset sleep patterns on learning.

What is the decay rate on learning from an hour loss of sleep?
What are the quantitative dynamics of the effects of deviations from (individually) optimal sleep patterns on learning?
Under what conditions might sleep deprivation enhance aspects of learning?

Incidentally, here is a fascinating single-subject experiment from Alexey Guzey (on himself) with partial sleep deprivation and cognitive performance tests (conclusion: no impairment from 4 hours a night for 2 weeks)

Individuation

These questions focused on applying sleep themes and averages to the individual.

How much do I need to sleep to maximize my learning potential?
How do learning-related sleep requirements change at different life stages? --> Related: How much do my children need to sleep to empower their best learning?
What is the nature of individual differences in the effects of sleep on learning? --> Related: What are the key individual differences that influence sleep and learning?
What are the most important and reliable leading indicators of the effects of sleep variations on learning that are available to laypeople?

Sleep + learning mechanics

These questions relate to either the mechanics of sleep or the mechanics of learning and how the two relate.

How does afternoon nap affect learning throughout the day? Related: --> Is napping throughout the day and night an effective substitute for total overnight sleep hours measured by impact on learning? --> How might the timing of daytime naps be optimized if we use naps as a compensatory strategy? ‍
How might my sleeping position (i.e. face up, side) affect later learning after waking?
What is the ideal time that you should learn before sleep to retain most information?
What level of learning cognitive load should you do before sleeping and when?
How do alarm-triggered vs. natural wake ups compare in terms of their impact on learning?
What pre-sleep or post-wake-up rituals can we engage in to enhance learning?
How does the impact of sleep on learning vary by type of information/learning?
Can individual memories be reactivated and strengthened during sleep? (i.e. using auditory and olfactory cues)
Are there any consequences or advantages to being a monophasic, biphasic or polyphsic sleeper? Is there an optimal sleep pattern?
Can we learn new material while we are sleep? Distinct from consolidating / encoding what we learned while we are awake?
What aspects of learning are impacted by sleep?
How does sleep differentially consolidate different kinds of learning (procedural, factual, conceptual, ... ?)
How do the stress hormones, which are affected by sleep, fit into the bigger picture of learning?

Out of scope backlog

These questions were all interesting but ultimately out of scope for our focus on sleep & learning. They have been added to a backlog for future inquiry at a later time.

Improving sleep

These questions focus on improving sleep.

How can I motivate myself to make sleep a priority?
How does physical exercise fit into the picture - since cardio exercise is known to facilitate sleep, if timed appropriately, can it be used to establish a "virtuous cycle"?
What are the most significant "low hanging fruit" (i.e. low effort, high yield) interventions to improve sleep quality?
How is sleep debt payable?

Sleep + rest

These questions focus on the relationship of rest and sleep. Rest is a superset of activities that includes, but is not limited to, sleep.

How do restful activities impact sleep?
What is the relationship between creativity and rest?
What are some correlations between sleep, rest, and getting into the state of flow?

This is the catchall bucket for the remaining questions that didn't quite fit anywhere else.

What correlation is there between one’s commitments and sleep?
What impact does the existence of our market economy have on the quality of our sleep?
What is the significance of social ritual and individual entrainment in establishing Circadian rhythms?
Are there any long term consequences of consistently using melatonin sleep aid supplements?

Do any of these questions trigger any inquiries about sleep and learning for you? Drop me a note and let me know and I will add them to our inquiry or backlog.

Next up, we'll vote on the top 5 questions to actively focus on then start parsing academic articles for our active questions. I'll post another update after we have parsed our first dozen or so articles.

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Every week you'll receive fascinating finds and synthesized sensemaking in physical, intellectual, emotional, and relational arenas.

Rachel Ziegler, M.D.

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8 common sleep study questions

Sleep is important to your physical, emotional and mental health. Many people experience trouble sleeping at some point, and more than 50 million U.S. adults are considered poor sleepers.

Chronic sleep loss can affect your health, safety and quality of life. It leads to slowed thinking, poor memory, less motivation, drowsiness and irritability. The good news is that many sleep disorders can be diagnosed and managed successfully.

Here are answers to 8 common questions about sleep studies:

1. why do i need a sleep study.

Your health care provider has referred you for a sleep study because you are having trouble getting a restful night's sleep. A sleep study, also called a polysomnography or sleep evaluation, can determine if you are suffering from a sleep disorder like sleep apnea or restless leg syndrome. The study also provides information on which treatment option is right for you.

2. How is the test completed?

A sleep study involves overnight monitoring of your breathing and other bodily functions during sleep. When you arrive, a technologist will attach wires, or leads, to you. These are used to monitor your breathing, brain waves, oxygen saturation, pulse and leg movements. Some of the leads are glued in place, and the glue is dried with pressurized air. Soft bands will be put around your stomach and chest to measure your breathing.

When you're ready to go to sleep, a technologist will connect your leads to a monitoring device. A device will be placed on your face to measure your airflow. It may have short tubes going into your nose. A clip will be attached to your ear or finger to measure your oxygen levels. A small microphone will be clipped to your pajamas so your snoring can be recorded.

The technologist will go to a nearby control room and monitor you throughout the night. A video camera will record your sleep study. The technologist will note if he or she feels there's something in your movements or breathing your physician should review.

During the night, the technologist may come into your room and ask you to change to a different sleeping position to see if that affects your symptoms. If it appears you have even mild obstructive sleep apnea, the technologist may help you try a continuous positive airway pressure machine for a portion of the night.

3. Where will I be sleep?

Sleep study rooms are set up like a hotel and usually are in a quiet area of the hospital. You have a private room, some of which include a TV. The technologist will monitor you from a nearby control room.

4. Can I bring my own pajamas and pillow?

Yes. You may bring items you use for your bedtime routine, including pajamas, a robe, slippers and reading material that may help you fall asleep. You also should bring any medications you may need during your sleep study.

5. How long does the test take?

In most cases, you will arrive to the sleep center in the evening and your test will take place overnight. A full night's sleep isn't required to obtain accurate polysomnography results, but you will remain in the lab until around 6 a.m. the next day. Don't worry if you can't fall asleep as easily or sleep as well during your sleep study as you do at home, as this usually doesn't affect the test results.

6. What is monitored during the sleep study?

While you sleep, a technologist monitors your:.

Brain waves
Eye movements
Breathing pattern
Blood oxygen level
Body position
Limb movement
Snoring and other noise you may make as you sleep

These measurements are recorded on a continuous graph. The results help your sleep physician determine if treatment may improve the quality of your sleep.

7. How soon will I get my sleep study results?

In most cases, your follow-up appointment with your sleep physician is scheduled within a few days after your sleep study. During this appointment, your physician will review your results and recommend treatment options, if necessary. You also can review your sleep study results in Patient Online Services , Mayo Clinic Health System's patient portal.

8. Will my insurance cover my sleep study or treatment?

Most health insurance plans, including Medicare and Medicaid, cover sleep studies and positive airway pressure therapy devices. Plans vary in coverage, so you should check with your insurance carrier for details and to determine if prior authorization is required.

Rachel Ziegler, M.D. , is a physician in Sleep Medicine in Fairmont and Mankato , Minnesota.

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45 Sleep survey questions for your next research questionnaire

45 Sleep survey questions for your next research questionnaire

According to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, sleep is one of the basic requirements for human beings , so sleeping has an essential role in our lives. In case of deprivation of sleep, many diseases and stress break out in the human body and mind. That’s why, for a healthy body and mind, every person should sleep at least 8 hours a day.

Sleep problems and irregular sleeping hours may cause abnormal weight gain, skin problems, and dark under-eye bags. To avoid these problems, having regular and quality sleeping habits is very substantial. Sleep survey questionnaires are a kind of source for learning people’s sleeping habits that are mostly used for psychological research. In this article, you will learn what sleep surveys are used for and see various types of questions under different categories for your next analysis.

What is a sleep survey?

A sleep survey is a type of survey that includes questions about people’s sleeping routines . These surveys are generally conducted by mental health specialists, doctors, psychiatrists, and psychology professors . Many physical and mental illnesses can be caused by sleep deprivation or poor sleep. For this reason, sleep questionnaires are used to collect information about the sleep patterns of both healthy and unhealthy people.

45 Amazing sleep survey questions to conduct a successful research

If you are an expert who wants to research sleep routines and the causes of poor sleep, deciding which questions you should include in the survey may be challenging. For best results, you should examine the respondents' answers in a very detailed way . In addition, it is an important feature to have various question types to keep respondents' interest alive. We have divided sleep questionnaire questions into 5 different categories, so you can benefit from the following question types according to your needs.

Survey questions about sleeping habits

Habits are an area in our lives that we usually get used to with difficulty and have a hard time quitting. In case of any stress or anxiety disorder, the first habit we leave is sleep . For this reason, you should definitely include questions about sleep habits in your research.

1. How long does it take you to fall asleep?

a - As soon as I close my eyes.

b - Within 15 minutes

c - Within 30 minutes

d - Within 1 hour

e - It can even take hours.

2. Does the presence of sound and light affect your sleep?

a - Always

b - Very often

c - Sometimes

d - Rarely

e - Never

3. Do you go to bed at the same time every night?

4. Do you need a special item for sleeping?

a - Yes

b - No

5. Do you have trouble sleeping anywhere other than your bed?

6. Do you have trouble waking up?

7. Is there a sleeping position you particularly like? If so, what is it?

a - Yes ( A new answer box should appear for those who say yes .)

8. Do you have a video that you like to listen to/watch while you sleep?

9. Is your average sleep time the same every day?

Survey questions about sleep quality

Every person may be sleeping enough to sustain his life, but the quality of sleep plays an equally vital role as the time of sleep. A few hours of quality sleep may be equivalent to long hours of poor-quality sleep . For people who say they get enough sleep but don't feel healthy and energized, you can include these sleep quality survey questions in your research to understand their problems.

10. Does where you sleep affect your sleep quality?

11. Is it difficult for you to wake up in the morning?

12. Does the choice of pillow affect your sleep?

13. Is your sleep often interrupted?

b - No

14. Can you sleep at regular hours?

15. What range are your sleeping hours in general?

a - 10 P.M. - 07 A.M.

b - 01 P.M. - 08 A.M.

c - 02 A.M. - 12 P.M.

d - 06 A.M. - 03 P.M.

16. Do you often experience uninterrupted sleep?

17. Are you exposed to devices such as television and telephone before sleep?

18. Do you consume drinks containing caffeine before going to sleep at night?

Survey questions about dreams & nightmares

One of the leading causes of people's sleep problems is dreams or, worse, nightmares. According to Mayo Clinic , nightmares are often caused by psychological causes such as anxiety, stress, and trauma . On the other hand, dreams are visuals that help you preserve your memories and make sense of your emotional attitudes. Although it is normal to dream every night, remembering every dream is quite tiring for the human brain .

19. How often do you have bad dreams?

20. To what extent does dreaming affect your daily life?

a - Not at all

b - Not that much

c - Partly

d - Somewhat

e - Totally

21. Do you feel you can control your dreams?

22. Do you feel that you are losing your sense of reality due to dreams?

23. How often do you dream?

a - Every night

b - Every two days

c - Once a week

d - Once a month

e - Once in a six month

24. Do you remember your dreams or nightmares after you wake up?

25. Do you dream of an event that you experienced during the day?

26. Are the people in your nightmares people you know?

27. Do you have dreams about your past traumatic experiences?

Survey questions about sleep deprivation

Sleep deprivation is also one of the important categories you should include in your research. As you can understand from the name, sleep deprivation means having trouble sleeping , and this deprivation can cause problems in people's daily lives. You can add the following questions to your survey to understand the root of the problem.

28. Could you rate your sleep time?

a - Very poor

b - Poor

c - Good

d - Very good

e - Excellent

29. In spite of having sufficient sleep, do you ever feel exhausted during the day?

30. What would make your nighttime sleep more pleasant? Please explain.

31. Do you take any medical pills to sleep?

32. Do sound and light affect your sleep?

33. Are there any activities you do to sleep? Please explain.

34. Does being stressed affect your sleep hours?

35. Do you have strict rules about your sleeping and waking times?

36. What do you do to sleep again on the nights you can't sleep?

a - Try to sleep

b - Play a game

c - Surf on social media

d - Listen to a podcast/music

e - Watch a film/series

Survey questions about sleeping disorders

All sleep-related diseases that occur during sleep can be called sleep disorders. These disorders often negatively affect your sleep quality and have a negative impact on your life. In addition, disorders such as snoring and sleepwalking can disturb not only you but also your partners. The following questions may be included in your research to ask patients suffering from these disorders.

37. Does anyone in your family have a sleep disorder?

38. Do you routinely take any nutritional supplements or drugs for sleep?

39. Do you consume a lot of caffeine and alcohol in your daily life?

40. Do you have any health problems? Please explain. (e.g., asthma, heart, and lung diseases)

41. Do you have a problem with your mental health? Please explain

42. Do you have irregular working hours? (e.g., night shifts, flexible working hours)

43. On average, how often do you get up at night because of sleep disorders?

44. Do you have difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep?

45. Do you experience any unusual symptoms while trying to fall asleep (e.g., rapid breathing, racing thoughts)?

In short, Sleep is one of the most basic necessities we need in our lives. Sleep deprivation and poor sleep also reduce the quality of life for many people because they generally feel fatigued and sluggish during the day. For this reason, sleep is a need that should be given importance, and people who suffer from sleep disorders should consult doctors about any problem.

Using the examples of questions above, both doctors and experts can contribute to their research and uncover the root cause of sleep problems. If you would like to create a sleep survey questionnaire, start with forms.app’s one of the ready-made templates, and share it with the respondents!

Sleeping Habits Survey

Sleep Deprivation Survey

Dreams & Nightmares Survey

Ebru is an Outreach Operations Specialist and content writer at forms.app. Writing is her passion, particularly on topics such as eCommerce, social media, customer engagement, surveys, and online forms. During her free time, Ebru enjoys watching movies and exploring new destinations.

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13 Controversial Questions About Sleep, Answered and Finally Put To Rest

While we'll continue to snuggle sleep robots and crash on smart mattresses in the name of researching questions about sleep, we wanted to address what we've learned to this point. Below, find 13 of the most common (and, in some cases, bizarre) questions about sleep, investigated and answered.

Below, get answers to 13 of the most controversial questions about sleep.

1. can you work in your bed and still get a good night's sleep.

If you've transitioned fully to the WFH life during the pandemic, this question might be weighing on your mind because you, quite simply, may not have many options of where you can work. Despite changing time, sleep experts still frown upon mixing business with pleasure in such a way.

"I’m not a huge fan of lingering in bed overall, since spending more time in bed can actually worsen insomnia for some people," Shelby Harris, PsyD , sleep psychologist and author of The Women’s Guide to Overcoming Insomnia , previously told Well+Good . "The bed is for sleep and sex."

"I’m not a huge fan of lingering in bed overall, since spending more time in bed can actually worsen insomnia for some people. The bed is for sleep and sex." —Shelby Harris, PsyD, sleep psychologist

But if working in your bedroom is unavoidable, a few things can help: decluttering your room, putting your devices on snooze, and setting strong boundaries between work hours and sleep hours.

Verdict: You can make it work, but it isn't advised.

2. Do you need less sleep as you get older?

There's a kernel of truth in this tidbit that your nana may or may not humble brag about all the time. In the journey from newborn baby to senior, you'll typically require less sleep. According to the National Sleep Foundation , a baby requires 14 to 17 daily hours of zzz's, but by the time you're 65+, you might need more like seven to nine hours. But that's not because, like, you have all this energy.

"As we age, we tend to have less deep sleep, with more broken sleep and awakenings throughout the night," Dr. Harris says. "Naps and dozing occur more throughout the day as well. When taken into account, an average older adult should get approximately the same amount of sleep as [they] did normally before aging, maybe half an hour to an hour less. And this is because the new, extra broken sleep in the middle of the night is made up for by those little naps."

Verdict: Technically yes, but your sleep quality can get shoddier.

3. When should you stop drinking coffeeto sleep soundly at night?

According to Dan Reardon, MD, the CEO and co-founder of FitnessGenes who has studied how coffee affects people, that really all depends on your metabolism. "The speed at which you metabolize caffeine creates a natural cut off point through the day," he previously told Well+Good . "Whereas a fast metabolizer might clear 100-200 milligrams—what’s in a typical cup of coffee—in just a few hours, it might take a slow metabolizer 12-hours-plus, which could impact sleep."

For slow coffee metabolizers, Dr. Reardon suggests a cut-off time between 12 p.m. and 2 p.m., because it can take your body a full eight hours to process said caffeine burst. But even if it goes right through your system, fast metabolizers should have their last cup no later than 5 p.m., when it's time to start prepping for bed anyway.

Verdict: Pay attention to how you process coffee, but 5 p.m. is an absolute deadline for everyone.

4. Does counting sheep actually work?

Counting sheep is perhaps the original sleep hack many of us learned as children, and it's essentially just the meditative practice of "susokukan," or "observing the breath with numbers." "Counting sheep can help to calm the mind because it gives you a specific and neutral focus, which allows the busy, active mind to settle down," meditation teacher Stephen Sokoler and founder and CEO of Journey Meditation previously told Well+Good.

To that end, it doesn't have to be sheep! It could be goats, it could be pigs, it could be water buffalo, it could be elephants, it could be flamingos. Your brain doesn't give a damn.

Verdict: It could, and don't be afraid to switch it up with other members of the animal kingdom.

5. Can you sleep well with the light on?

I'm actually afraid of the dark , and I do sleep with the light on...but not well. That's because, as the American Medical Association points out, blue or white nighttime light suppresses melatonin release and interrupts circadian biological rhythms. Also, the dark just helps us know that it's bedtime, so keeping your lamps on does not help.

That being said, there's research that supports that red light will allow you to sleep soundly, albeit not as well as straight darkness. So if you need a night light, lean toward warmer shades always.

Verdict: Maybe, so long as you have the right (read: red) light.

6. How many days do you feel sleepy after Daylight Saving Time?

Um, because it feels like forever. Though this is specifically a twice-a-year-problem in most regions of the country, rest assured that it takes the body only five to seven days to adjust to the new time, lighting, and alarms post-Daylight Saving Time . Taking day walks or doing light aerobics for 20 to 30 minutes (but not close to bed) can help expedite the process.

Verdict: You'll probably feel on track in a week, max.

7. Does the full moon mess with your sleep?

According to a sleep study analyzing a million nights of sleep, on nights of the full moon , people required 9 percent more time to fall asleep, and clocked 7 percent less deep sleep. And according to Quentin Soulet de Brugiere, co-founder and CTO of Dreem , the cultural association of the moon evoking bad behavior is what might impact our sleep.

"I have clients who tell me they feel the effect of full moons in relation to not being able to sleep, in particular," astrologer Courtney O’Reilly previously told Well+Good. "Some also say they feel a little drained or depleted."

Verdict: A little, so just get the lavender oil flowing on those wild, restless nights.

8. Does sleeping naked help you sleep?

Research tends to support that sleeping nude cools the body down, and lower temps are optimum for a good night's rest. And from my personal experience, doing so will also make you feel more confident !

Verdict: It can, but definitely make sure to wash your sheets regularly.

9. Is it bad if your partner doesn’t want to spoon while sleeping?

It's may be typical for couples to cuddle up during the honeymoon phase, but a lot of people drift apart over time...to the other side of the bed. And a lot of people (especially light sleepers!) just like their own space. None of this means any specific sleep position is a sign of a doomed relationship. "One of the basic things about those positions is that they’re just not that comfortable for a long period of time, so we would never think of them as sleeping positions," body-language expert and co-author 365 Ways to Get a Good Night’s Sleep Maryann Karinch previously told Well+Good. "We would think of them as ‘waking-up positions’ or ‘going-to-bed positions.’"

"One of the basic things about [cuddling] positions is that they’re just not that comfortable for a long period of time, so we would never think of them as sleeping positions." —body-language expert Maryann Karinch

In fact, if you're facing away from one another, back-to-back, that could signify a strong, secure independent relationship. "You’re very secure back-to-back," Karinch says. "You’re saying, ‘Hey, I feel good with you.’"

Verdict: Chill, you're going to be fine.

10. Can hypnosis help you sleep?

The National Sleep Foundation considers auditory hypnosis as a helpful tool for falling asleep, as does Well+Good writer Allie Flinn . Likewise, a small 2014 study from the University of Zurich, Switzerland found that "young, healthy, suggestible females" who listened to audio hypnosis before sleeping had 80 percent more slow-wave sleep. So to the point of "suggestible," if you think hypnosis isn't a thing, this probably isn't for you, my friend.

Verdict: Worth a shot if you believe in it.

11. Are sleep and rest the same?

Rest, here, is loosely defined as not sleep—not even napping, just lying in bed and staring at the window having an existential crisis (or whatever). It's basically not being engaged in anything mentally or physically, and while that can be good for hitting your reset button , it ain't the same as sleep.

"There are restorative and regenerative properties of sleep that don’t happen during during any other state," Elliott Exar, MD , a sleep specialist with John Hopkins Medicine, previously told Well+Good.

Verdict: No, but feel free to embrace some Niksen nonetheless.

12. Can orgasming help you fall asleep?

“When you have an orgasm, you release a cocktail of hormones that helps you feel relaxed and sleep better,” Rebecca Alvarez Story , sexologist and founder of Bloomi previously told Well+Good . “Think of this cocktail as the body’s natural sleep remedy.” This includes endorphins, vasopressin, oxytocin, norepinephrine, serotonin, and prolactin. The cuddle hormone in particular has an important role in this.

"During sexual arousal, levels of oxytocin can increase significantly, and this can have a calming effect on the mind and body and induce a restful sleep,” sexologist Jess O’Reilly, PhD , host of the @SexWithDrJess Podcast , told Well+Good. "Some research suggests that the process of quashing sexual desire that occurs post-orgasm can result in slumber inducing chemicals that promote some drowsiness."

Verdict: Best. Sleep Hack. Ever.

13. What's the best noise for sleep?

White noise ? Pink noise ? Brown noise ?

Verdict: Brown noise, don't @ us.

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127 Sleep Essay Topics and Essay Examples

🏆 best sleep topic ideas & essay examples, 👍 good sleep topics to write about, 💡 interesting sleep topics, ❓ research questions about sleep.

Problem of Sleep Deprivation This is due to disruption of the sleep cycle. Based on the negative effects of sleep deprivation, there is need to manage this disorder among Americans.
Sleep Habits and Its Impact on Human Mind Activity The researchers paid attention to the quality of sleep and mentioned such characteristics as the time of going to bed and waking up, the duration, and quality of sleep. We will write a custom essay specifically for you by our professional experts 808 writers online Learn More
Cross-Cultural Sleeping Arrangements in Children The aim of this paper is to study the different sleep patterns such as solitary or co sleeping in the United States of America and different cultures around the world.
Effects of Sleeping Disorders on Human On the other hand, Dyssomnia relates to sleep disorders that develop as a result of lack of adequate sleep. In some cases, antidepressants have been used to cure sleep disorders that are as a result […]
The Influence of Sleep Deprivation on Human Body It contradicts living in harmony with God, as when the person is irritated and moody, it is more difficult to be virtuous and to be a source of joy for others.
Insomnia: A Sleeping Disorder Type Causes of insomnia can be classified into two; factors contributing to acute insomnia and chronic insomnia. Chronic insomnia can be as a result of emotional stress.
Effects of Sleep Deprivation While scientists are at a loss explaining the varying sleeping habits of different animals, they do concede that sleep is crucial and a sleeping disorder may be detrimental to the health and productivity of a […]
Blue Light Effect on Human Sleep The introduction is comprised of a thesis statement and a description of the critical thoughts of the paper. At the end of the paper, recommendations on how to reduce the adversarial effect of the blue […]
The Importance of Sleeping and Dreaming Finally, I would not take this pill since I love seeing dreams and realize that this “miracle medicine” will cause too many negative consequences.
The Effect of Sleep Quality and IQ on Memory Therefore, the major aim of sleep is to balance the energies in the body. However, the nature of the activity that an individual is exposed to determines the rate of memory capture.
How the Modern Life Has Affected Sleep Czeisler mentioned in the DW documentary about sleep: “The electric light to which we are exposed in terms of resetting our internal clock is like light on steroids”. That is why we should affect the […]
Sleep May Be Nature’s Time Management Tool by Carey The author states that no one knows why sleep exists therefore setting the context for the article in which she advances the numerous theories that are advanced as to the role that sleep plays.
How Sleep Deprivation Affects College Students’ Academic Performance The study seeks to confirm the position of the hypothesis that sleep deprivation leads to poor academic performance in college students.
Psychology of Sleep: Article Study The field of sleep and sleep disorders has been an integral part of psychological investigations: a number of scientists find it necessary to contribute sleep education and offer the ideas which help people improve their […]
Sleep and Sensory Reactivity in the School-Aged Children The interaction of these elements should be considered in therapies expressly designed to improve sleep disruptions or sensory processing difficulties in children as a possible negative determinant that may adversely affect children’s health and normal […]
Stages of Sleep, Brain Waves, and the Neural Mechanisms of Sleep As sleep is extremely important for a person’s well-being, I believe it is essential to pay attention to the mechanisms of sleep and how they work.
The Issue of Chronic Sleep Deprivation The quality of sleep significantly impacts the health and performance of the human body. These findings point to significant promise for the use of exercise in the treatment of sleep disorders, but a broader body […]
Sleep-Wake, Eating, and Personality Disorders Treatment On the other hand, treatment with prazosin and mianserin was effective; for example, the drug mianserin benefits patients suffering from sleep disorders. Psychotherapy approaches like Cognitive Behavioural Therapy for Insomnia and Imaginary Rehearsal Therapy are […]
Sleep and Meditation Can Predict an Individual’s Satisfaction With Life This aim of this study is to investigate the effects of quality sleep and mindfulness on life satisfaction. In a nutshell, life satisfaction depends on the quality of sleep and meditation.
Water Consumption and Sleep Hygiene Practices First, I will discuss that safe and sufficient water facilitates the practice of hygiene and well-being and is a critical determining factor for health.
Depression Associated With Sleep Disorders Y, Chang, C. Consequently, it directly affects the manifestation of obstructive sleep apnea, restless leg syndrome, and periodic limb movement disorder in people with depression.
How Technology Affects Sleep in Adolescents The critique will focus on the various sections of the article, where the strengths and weaknesses of each are outlined and discussed. The title of the article excellently reflects the essence of the research.
Sleep Disturbance in Children Any disorder that alters the craniofacial or pharyngeal anatomy predisposes the child to obstructive narcolepsy is considered a medical problem associated with sleep disturbances in children. Central Sleep Apnea is the repeated cessation or decrease […]
ADHD and Problems With Sleep This is because of the activity of a person in the middle of the day and the condition around them. The downside of the study is that the study group included 52 adults with ADHD […]
Solving the Sleep Problem through TQM Principles The initiative to address the lack of sleep among employees and consequently improve their performance and the quality of services requires teamwork optimization.
Effects of Lullaby Music on Quality of Sleep in Adults With Insomnia Insomnia consists of deprivation of the duration and quality of sleep, which affects the psychological and physical condition of people. In addition, the main limitation may be the unreliability of the information provided by the […]
Eat, Sleep, and Console: Narcotic Abstinence Syndrome in Infants The choice of the quantitative design is justified by the necessity to prove the superiority of the proposed solution to the one that is currently deployed as the alternative way of managing the needs of […]
Hippocampus-Dependent Memories During Sleep The smell was chosen because it was not necessary to interrupt the integrity of the subjects’ sleep to introduce it into the experiment.
Programs in Family Sleep Institute She explained to me the sleep cycle of the child and the adult, how many hours my child is supposed to sleep, the bedtime routine, and the method that we had to adopt during the […]
Sleeping Habits & Physical Health: Students’ Perception Using the survey as the data collection tool, the investigators state that most students do not have appropriate sleep habits, although they agree that their academic success and physical health suffer because of the lack […]
Sleep Deprivation and Insomnia: Study Sources The topic of this audio record is a variety of problems with sleep and their impact on an organism. They proved the aforementioned conclusion and also paid attention to the impact of sleep deprivation on […]
Sleep Problems Among Student-Athletes Despite the importance of the topic under study and the conclusions reached, the work raised additional questions and had some limitations.
Excessive Sleepiness May Be Cause of Learning, Attention, and School Problems The information in the article “Excessive Sleepiness May Be Cause of Learning, Attention, and School Problems” by Calhoun and Fernandez-Mendoza is used to show that heavy daytime sleeping may be a cause of attention, learning, […]
Sleep Hygiene Intervention Plan for Young Adults The main goals of this plan are to develop a list of guidelines for nurses on how they can offer a kind of educational program to their patients based on which young adults can understand […]
Neurocognitive Consequences of Sleep Deprivation The CNS consists of the brain and the spinal cord while the PNS consists of all the endings of the nerve extensions in all organs forming the web that extends throughout the entire organ.
Sleep Apnea, the Heart and the Brain in the Elderly They should get the necessary treatment of heart diseases and neuromuscular disorders Be attentive to yourself and live a full life!
Sleepiness Level and Degree: Research Instruments A sum ranging from 0 to 24 of the score on the eight items makes the total score of the ESS.
Evolutionary Biology: Sleep Patterns in Mammals This synthesis addresses the question of the origin of sleep in mammals and traces this phenomenon by studying the evolution of the mammalian brain and suggesting possible external factors that affect sleep patterns.
“Childbirth Fear and Sleep Deprivation in Pregnant Women” by Hall To further show that the information used is current, the authors have used the APA style of referencing which demand the naming of the author as well as the year of publication of the article/book […]
African Sleeping Sickness Using the various forms of detection and diagnosis it was discovered that African sleeping sickness is a major problem in Sub-Saharan Africa.
The Use of Sleephormone in Children With Neuro-Developmental Disorders For the better management of the data that are planned to be retrieved from the clinical trial procedures, the following list of the definitions and acronyms used in the trial process is given.
Sleep Deprivation and Learning at University It is a widely known fact that numerous people face the problem of lack of sleep. Second, sleeping is essential for increasing the productivity of students in the context of learning.
Communication Between Sleep, Behavior and Obesity The purpose of the study seeks to evaluate the association between nighttime media use with sleep behaviors and variation in weight status for first-semester college students.
Obstructive Sleep Apnea and Heart Diseases In children with Down syndrome, incidence rates of hypertension and sleepiness are high, and the problem is compounded in the presence of OSA.
Sleep is a Vital Stage of a Day Cycle in Humans During the first stage of sleep, the EEG shifts to theta waves, with a frequency of 4 7 Hz. There are numerous sleep disorders, which can affect the well-being of a person.
“The Effect of Nursing Quality Improvement and Mobile Health Interventions on Infant Sleep Practices” by Moon The following analysis is related to the article, “The effect of nursing quality improvement and mobile health interventions on infant sleep practices” by Moon et al.
Sleep Deprivation: Biopsychology and Health Psychology Another theory that has been proposed in relation to sleep is the Circadian theory which suggests that sleep evolved as a mechanism to fit organisms into the light dark cycle of the world.
Study of the Sleeping Process The paper entails a comprehensive analysis of the sleeping process in addition to evaluating the factors that affect the sleeping process.
Sleep Disorders: Sleep Deprivation of the Public Safety Officers The effects of sleep disorders and fatigue on public safety officers is a social issue that needs to be addressed with more vigor and urgency so that the key issues and factors that are salient […]
Sleep, Satisfaction With Life and Cognitive Function Sleep is the state of the mind involving temporary loss of consciousness leading to the resting of the mind. Sleep is one of the most important requirements in individuals so as to ensure the well-being […]
Sleep Versus Social Demands in Students The effects of has been exhibited more greatly in animals through studies and all animals have been shown to sleep in different forms.
Sleep Deprivation: Personal Experiment As I had been perplexed, I did not take a step of reporting the matter to the police neither did I inform my neighbors.
Sleep Patterns and Memory Performance of Children The article presents the essence, the methods and the results of the experiment which had to show the influence of TV and computer games on German children’s sleep.
Recuperative Versus Circadian Theory of Sleep The Recuperative theory of sleep is based on the premise that humans require sleep to rejuvenate and recoup spent energy during the waking period.
Biology. Adolescent Sleep Pattern The habit of sleep is very individual specific therefore a study of the pattern of sleep of a group needs to be evaluated to get an understating of the pattern of sleep.
Non- and Rapid Eye Movement Sleep Non REM sleep represents 75% of sleep duration and occurs in four stages and REM sleep represents stage 5 of sleep.
Main Information about Sleeping Disorders In the introduction part the paper provides an overview of sleep and sleep disorders. This led to the conclusion that instead of being a quite and peaceful period of rest and resuscitation as everyone would […]
Memory Consolidation and Reconsolidation After Sleep The memory consolidation of the visual skill tasks is related to the REM sleep and the short wave component of the NREM.
Sleep Disorders: Narcolepsy, Obstructive Sleep Apnea, Insomnia An important aspect of the pathogenesis is the autoimmune lesion of the orexin neurons of the hypothalamus, which leads to a decrease in the level of hypocretin-1.
Sleeping Sickness Transmission and Control Measures Most of the cases of sleeping sickness are usually recorded in the Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, northern parts of Uganda, Sudan, Angola, Zambia, Uganda, Tanzania, and Malawi.
Electronic Devices Use and Sleep in US Adolescents During the process of data collection, the authors discovered that most of the participants tended to go to bed very late, which affected the quality of their sleep and their ability to normally function over […]
The Role of Sleep in Humans’ Well-Being Each of the speakers in the videos focuses on a different characteristic of sleep, but all of them agree that without enough sleep, one does not perform to the fullest potential.
Sleep Helps to Repair Damaged DNA in Neurons The researchers found that the chromosomes in the fish’s neurons would often change shape while their owners slept, enabling the repair of the damage accumulated in periods of activity.
Co-Sleeping Impact on Child Development At the same time, it is crucial to pay attention to the phases of sleep and the cycles of awakening. It will help to facilitate the process of sleep in the future and eliminate any […]
Adolescent Sleep and the Impact of Technology Use Particularly, the authors of the study explain why there is the need to know the answer to the question by providing a profound background to the case and stating that innovative technology has a profound […]
Sleeping Patterns Within Infants Infant A is put to sleep in the bassinet, and the parents use the sleeping bag in order to make the infant’s sleep more comfortable.
Sleep Deprivation: Research Methods The purpose of the research will be to determine sleep deprivation, what causes it, the effect, and why sleep is important.
Coffee Effects on Sleeping Patterns: Experiment Consumption of coffee before going to bed will cause individuals to have difficulty falling asleep The amount of coffee the subjects drink before going to bed The time after going to bed that subjects fall […]
Sleep Disruptions in Healthcare Professionals First of all, the sleep disruption may lead to a lack of coordination in the team because some members would be fatigued during the working hours, which would interfere with their functioning and concentration in […]
Physical Activity and Sleep Health in Adults In the introduction to the analysed study, a substantial scientific background for the problem of improving physical activity and sleep in adults is presented.
Sleep-Disordered Breathing and Acute Ischemic Stroke In this case study, the investigator focused on ischemic stroke, one of the most common types of stroke in the world.
Insomnia and Narcolepsy: Sleeping Disorders Besides, it was established that people with insomnia are inclined to overestimate the negative effect of sleeping disorder and underestimate the total time of sleep.
Sleep Patterns’ Impact on Academic Performance Because some university classes begin as early as 7 o’clock in the morning and finish in the evening, the only option for such students is to reduce the length of night-time sleep in order to […]
Prevalence of Sleep Disorders among Medical Students Nightmares and dreams arise in the course of REM sleep as it is linked to desynchronized and quick brain waves, deferral of homeostasis, and failure of muscular tonus.
Emotions Clusters and Sleep Failure Earlier critics had argued that PANAS was not suitable for children, and this led to the development of specific PANAS-C for children.
Sleep Deprivation and Specific Emotions The purpose of this study is to develop an understanding of the relationship between sleep deprivation and emotional behaviors. The study looks to create a link between the findings of past researches on the emotional […]
Sleep Disturbance, Depression, Anxiety Correlation The above imply that many questions are still unanswered with respect to the kinds of sleep complaints affecting undergraduates and the impact on their psychological health.
Relationship Between Depression and Sleep Disturbance It was emphasized that persistent disturbance, its severity, and the intermittent nature of the sleep were not associated with depression and its recurrence in the following years. The sleeping disturbance is a risk factor that […]
Sleep and Psychopathology Relationships – Psychology Generally, available evidence shows that feelings of negative emotions such as anxiety are characterized by the dysfunction in cognitive and interpersonal spheres.
Sleep Disorder Consequences on the Immune System Consequently, the research question for this paper is: what are the consequences of sleep disorder on the immune system? The primary goal of the study is to determine the effects of sleep disorder on the […]
Importance of Sleep – Psychology Precisely, most of the organs of the body are at rest during sleep. It is during sleep that the body encodes the information it obtains during the day into the memory.
Dream and Sleep Cycle Dreams occur in any of the phases of sleep, nonetheless, the most concise, clear, vivid and memorable dreams are observed in the last phase of sleep (known as the rapid eye movement REM sleep.
Changes of Sleep in the Course of One Night Furthermore, voltage generated by eye rotation in their sockets and electrical activities of the muscles all help in the study of the cycles of sleep in the course of one night.
Sleep Deprivation Impacts on College Students Additional research in this field should involve the use of diverse categories of students to determine the effects that sleep deprivation would have on them.
Relationship Between Sleep and Depression in Adolescence Using SPSS for data analysis, the results indicate the presence of a correlation between elements of depression and sleep duration and quality.
Ethical Issues in Treating Obstructive Sleep Apnea with Exercise Independently The approaches should ensure that necessary preventive and curative measures are put in place to facilitate the process of eradicating the disease that is causing immense sleep related complications.
The Eight Hour Dilemma: Sleeping Time Reduction. When a Single Hour Makes a Difference While reducing the amount of sleeping hours to seven and less can possibly lead to sleep deprivation and the further changes for the worse in a human body, eight hours are no longer the borderline […]
Infant Sleep Disturbance (ISD) The uniqueness of this study stems from the fact that it would provide a clear understanding of the most effective intervention/basis for physicians and parents to pursue in the management of sleep disorders among infants […]
Underlying Issues Associated with Sleep Disorders and Stress Of fundamental importance to this research paper is the realization that the amount of sleep that an individual gets is one of the internal factors that influence his or her own capacity to handle stress.
The Consequences of Poor Sleep Conducting a research devoted to human sleep habits in children and feeling the affect on their confidence as adults, the existing data should be evaluated and the conclusions are to be drawn in the sphere […]
The Role of Melatonin in Determining the Sleep-Wake Cycle Melatonin plays a significant role in the circadian control of sleep as well as in restraining the development of malignant cells.
The Phantom Menace of Sleep-Deprived Doctors This is one of the problems that should be addressed by hospital administrators. Therefore, it is vital to develop strategies that can improve the work of medical institutions.
The Biological Basis of Sleep The authors suggest that it needs more accurate measurement of sleep and wake pattern by the use of the electrooculogram, the recording of the movement of the eye, EEG and electromyogram, the recording of the […]
Sleep and Dreams: How Do They Work? During sleep, the brain is at rest while the rest of the body system is in active state. Thus, to prevent most of the body disorders in human both psychiatrists and health experts recommend sleep.
Sleep Disorders with Children and Adolescences This study is important in terms of understanding of the effectives of empirical and theoretical research in the field and attracting the scientist’s attention to the problem so that appropriate and effective treatment to be […]
Sleepwalking Through Life In this case, there is a large context of life that people can be part of which should be understood. All in all, there is a lot that can be done to ensure that people […]
Sleep and Its Implication on Animals This paper is set to synthesize the evolution sleep in animals, its benefits and the recent knowledge that is linked to this natural phenomenon of near unconsciousness.”A Third of Life” addressed what is sleep and […]
Sleep Stages and Disorders A more elaborate look into understanding sleep take a look at the two aspects of sleep which is the behavior observed during sleeping periods as well as the scientific explanation of the physiological processes involved […]
Sleep Process Research There are said to have five sleep stages, which are divided in to two: the rapid eye movement and the non rapid eye movement during which the dreams occur.
A Day in the Sleep Clinic: Culture and Health The third aspect of the PEN-3 Model looks at the cultural issues and health beliefs. For instance, the Sudanese family belief in superstition may not affect the health outcome in the hands of the doctor.
Using Depressants During Sleep Time The paper also holds up the notion that, today it is important to control the sleeping patterns, to conform to the lifestyle demands. The drugs are mainly used generally to reduce the sleep delays, thus […]
Sleep Improves Memory It is possible to replace a traumatic memory with a pleasant one then take a brief moment of sleep to reinforce the pleasant memory.
How Much Sleep Do You Need by Age?
What Is an Sleep?
What Is the Purpose of Sleep?
What Is Good Sleep?
Why Is Sleep Important for Health?
What Happens if We Don’t Sleep?
Why Is It Called Sleep?
What Causes Lack of Sleep?
What Age Gets the Most Sleep?
What Is the Most Healthy Time to Wake Up?
Why Do Older People Need Less Sleep?
How Much Sleep Is Healthy?
What Are Interesting Facts About Sleep?
What Happens During Sleep?
Why Should We Drink Water Before Sleeping?
How to Fall Asleep Fast Within 5 Minutes?
Which Foods Make Sleepy?
What to Drink to Sleep Faster?
What Are the Sleep Tricks?
What Part of the Brain Causes Sleep?
How Can I Get Better Sleep?
Which Oil Helps You Sleep?
Does Warm Milk Help You Sleep?
How Can I Relax When I Can’t Sleep?
At What Time Is the Body Ready for Sleep?
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Sleep Apnea What Is Sleep Apnea?

Language switcher.

Man sleeping while wearing a CPAP machine

There are two types of sleep apnea.

Obstructive sleep apnea happens when your upper airway becomes blocked many times while you sleep, reducing or completely stopping airflow. This is the most common type of sleep apnea. Anything that could narrow your airway such as obesity , large tonsils, or changes in your hormone levels can increase your risk for obstructive sleep apnea.
Central sleep apnea happens when your brain does not send the signals needed to breathe. Health conditions that affect how your brain controls your airway and chest muscles can cause central sleep apnea.

To diagnose sleep apnea , your provider may have you do a sleep study. Breathing devices such as continuous positive air pressure (CPAP) machines and lifestyle changes are common sleep apnea treatments . If these treatments do not work, surgery may be recommended to correct the problem that is causing your sleep apnea. If your sleep apnea is not diagnosed or treated, you may not get enough good quality sleep. This can lead to trouble concentrating, making decisions, remembering things, or controlling your behavior. Sleep apnea is also linked to serious health problems .

Your Guide to Healthy Sleep

Learn basic facts about sleep and how sleep disorders such as sleep apnea can affect your health.

133 Sleep Research Topics & Essay Ideas

Sleep, a fundamental yet mysterious aspect of human life, has captivated the curiosity of scientists, researchers, and health enthusiasts for decades. Sleep research topics in this article will take you on a journey through the fascinating realm of sleep. Discover a list of sleep deprivation and disorder topics that cover various dimensions of this physiological phenomenon.

🔝 Top 7 Research Questions About Sleep

🏆 best sleep topics to write about, 💡 controversial sleep research topics, 👍 good sleep research topics & essay examples, 🎓 most interesting research topics about sleep, ❓ sleep research questions.

Why Do We Need Sleep?: InFormative Speech
The Effect of Sleep Deprivation on Academic Achievement
Sleep and Exercise Effectiveness
The Effects of Sleep Deprivation
SIDS and Safe Sleep Practices
Sleep Paralysis: Causes and Consequences
Discussion of Sleep and Its Influence
Influence of Sleep on Human Thinking Abilities, Emotional State, and Memory Sleep can be called one of the most critical conditions for maintaining brain performance, the violation of which can negatively affect human thinking abilities and mental state.
The Importance of a Healthy Sleep Routine Sleep has a major impact on people’s health and overall well-being. Certain people tend to ignore their sleeping needs.
The Purpose of Dreaming and Personal Sleep Habits This paper aims to state the theories and the general purpose of dreaming and describe the author’s personal sleep habits.
Phone Use and the Quality of Sleep in Young Adults The present study describes overnight smartphone activity in young adults (age 18-26) and its effect on the amount of night sleep that they are receiving.
Insomnia and Sleep Disorders Prevention and Management Insomnia and sleep disorders are one of the chief complaints among women who go through or are at the beginning of their menopause.
Sleep: Non-REM and REM Phases Sleep has great general biological significance, playing an important role in the function of the brain. The sleep period consists of two phases: non-REM and REM.
Sleep Disorders Analysis: Reasons and Effects In this paper, the topic of sleep health will be explored in great detail, with particular attention placed on the needs of the target population
Relation Between Sleep and Work Productivity In the work, the discussion regarding sleep will cover both the benefits and detriments of a healthy sleep, as well as some issues concerning people’s sleep patterns.
The Effects of Sleep Deprivation The effects of sleep deprivation are well-studied, however, they are often ignored by the majority during schedule planning.
Sleep Apnea and Nursing Management The article discusses obstructive sleep apnea characterized by the obstruction of the upper airways resulting in sleep disruption leading to fatigue during the day.
Sleep Apnea Types, Diagnosis and Treatment Sleep apnea is characterized by shallow breaths or infrequent pauses in breathing while a person is asleep. The paper reviews its types, diagnosis and treatment.
Meditation, the Quality of Sleep, and the Role of Mental Separation The paper discusses the association between meditation and the quality of sleep and the role of mental separation as a moderator from a day-to-day viewpoint.
Study of Differences in Sleep Patterns Between Men and Women The paper investigates potential differences in sleep duration among male and female patients and uses the Independent Samples t-Test.
The Impact of Sleep Deprivation on Human Health The importance of sleep to one’s health cannot be overstated. Getting too little sleep has severe repercussions, including slower reaction times.
Scientific Investigation of Sleep: A Biology Lab According to the experiment, sleep is a critical component of human well-being. Adequate sleep refreshes a person’s mind, body, and heart, minimizing stress.
The Biological Effects of Sleep Stages The paper summarizes and provides basic information on sleep stages. It shows the biological effects and human behavior at each stage.
The Characteristics of Sleep Deprivation This paper explores sleep deprivation by addressing the causes, symptoms, the number of people affected, and ways to prevent the disorder.
Healthy Sleep and Its Importance Healthy sleep is physiologically necessary for humans and is an important factor in their physical and mental health. This paper discusses the importance of healthy sleep.
Two Main Phases of Sleep, and Results of Sleep Deprivation It is customary to divide sleep into two main phases: slow or NREM – non-rapid eye movement – and fast or REM – rapid eye movement.
The Impact of a Regular Sleep Schedule on Responsibility A sense of responsibility can help people achieve their goals in any area of life. Compliance enables individuals to create value.
Sleep From the Angle of the Biological Process and Its Features During our recent studies, particular attention has been paid to the necessity for a healthful schedule and a decent amount of sleep for a productive and wholesome life.
Sleep Deprivation Effects on Adolescents Who Suffer From Obesity The academic literature on sleep deprivation argues that it has a number of adverse health effects on children and adolescents, with obesity being one of them.
Autonomic Dysfunction Increases Cardiovascular Risk in the Presence of Sleep Apnea
Sleep Deprivation and Its Neurotransmitters
Memory Consolidation Requires Both Rem and Non-rem Sleep
Sleep Deprivation Causes Immune System Failure
Bed Rest and Hypoxic Exposure Affect Sleep Architecture and Breathing Stability
Anxiety and Sleep Disorders in Children and Adolescents
Mechanisms Underlying Memory Consolidation by Adult-born Neurons During Sleep
Acupressure Improves Sleep Quality of Psychogeriatric
Association Between Sleep Patterns and Health in Families With Exceptional Longevity
Sleep Disorders Affecting People of People Across the Globe
Preventing Sleep Impaired Mental Function
Sleep Promotes Lasting Changes in Selective Memory for Emotional Scenes
Relationship Between the Sleep Amount and Its Effect on One‘s Memory
Chronic Sleep Disorder: Narcolepsy
Anxiety and Sleep Problems of College Students During the Outbreak of COVID-19
The Causes and Treatment of Insomnia, a Sleep Disorder
Chronic Sleep Deprivation Can Affect Your Overall Health
Novel Mechanisms, Treatments, and Outcome Measures in Childhood Sleep
Post-stroke Sleep-disordered Breathingpathophysiology and Therapy Options
Sleep State Modulates Resting-state Functional Connectivity in Neonates
Distractions That Cause Sleep Disturbance
Natural Rhythms and Sleep Regulation Correlation
Correlation Between Sleep Deprivation and Depression
Relationship Between Sleep Quality, Stress, and Academic Performance
Cognitive Behaviors That Intrude a Person’s Sleep Cycle
Healthy Sleep Analysis and Recommendations Changes in sleep quality and its duration have inevitable repercussions connected with health’s psychological and physical aspects.
Factors Influencing Sleep Quality Among Female Staff Nurses The number of confirmed cases and deaths from COVID-19 is growing daily, overwhelming healthcare institutions with a shortage of staff.
Good Night’s Sleep for Brain Function and Waste Disposal The paper concerns the connection between sleep, the brain, and waste disposal. The body’s biological system processes create the problem of waste disposal.
“Sleep, Health, and Wellness at Work”: Article Analysis The source under analysis is a scholarly article that focuses on how sleep impacts individual health and wellness titled “Sleep, health, and wellness at work: A scoping review”.
ICU Sleep Quality Improvement Case Report This case report will discuss patient sleep difficulties in intensive care units and how they may be addressed.
Understanding and Treating Sleep Disorders When a person finds themselves having difficulty sleeping, they are known to suffer from insomnia. When a person sleeps excessively, then they are known to suffer from hypersomnia.
Gwen Dewar’s Research of the Electronic Media Impact on the Sleeping Gwen Dewar is an anthropologist with a big experience in studying issues related to parenting, psychology, biology, and many other topics.
Sleep Deficite: Sleep Deprived Society Implications Good sleep plays a vital role in an individual’s state of health and wellbeing overall. It impacts people’s quality of life, their performance, and even relationships.
Insomnia and Sleep Disorders Analysis Insomnia diagnosis requires a deep and comprehensive examination of the patient, taking into account the characteristics of sleep, somatic, and psychological characteristics.
Sleep, Experiences and Podcast Sleep Through Week The podcast interview with Matthew Walker discussed how not getting enough sleep severely affects people’s health and well-being.
“Sleep, Hunger, and Caloric Intake in Adolescents” by Landis The critique reveals a clear identification of the significance of the study “Sleep, hunger, satiety, food cravings, and caloric intake in adolescents” to the nursing profession.
Sleep Deprivation: Article Review and Reaction The primary purpose of the article by the American Heart Association is to examine the causes, dangers, risk factors, and possible treatment of sleep deprivation.
Sleep Stages, Brain Waves, and the Neural Mechanisms of Sleep The paper reviews information on sleep stages and neurons operating sleep inside the human body, and the relationship between brain waves and dream structure.
Research on Stress Levels During Scheduled Sleep Behavior Different studies have revealed that there are several strategies used to reduce stress. Most scholars agree that there is a relationship between sleep and stress.
Sleep Disturbance and Neuropsychological Function Within ADHD Sleep disruption is an inherent behavioral feature in childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, known as ADHD.
Hyperactivity Disorder Symptoms and Sleep Issues The document to be analyzed is “The moderating roles of bedtime activities and anxiety/depression in the relationship between attention-deficit/hyperactivity” by Tong
Insomnia and Sleep Disorders Insomnia and sleep disorders are one of the chief complaints among women who go through or are at the beginning of their menopause.
Sleep Disorders: Medical Analysis This essays aim at providing a brief yet a comprehensive review on the types, causes, and common treatments of sleep disorders.
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Hypersomnia Subtypes, Sleep and Relapse in Bipolar Disorder Kaplan et al.’s “Hypersomnia subtypes, sleep and relapse in bipolar disorder” identifies subtypes of the disease, which promotes the clarification of its definition.
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Circadian Rhythm Sleep-Wake Disorder Circadian Rhythm Sleep-Wake Disorder is a sleep disorder caused by a disrupted biological sleep-wake cycle or a mismatch among environmental demands and a person’s internal clock.
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Two nights of broken sleep can make people feel years older, finds study

Beyond simply feeling decrepit, perception of being older can affect health by encouraging unhealthy eating and reducing exercise

Two nights of broken sleep are enough to make people feel years older, according to researchers, who said consistent, restful slumber was a key factor in helping to stave off feeling one’s true age.

Psychologists in Sweden found that, on average, volunteers felt more than four years older when they were restricted to only four hours of sleep for two consecutive nights, with some claiming the sleepiness made them feel decades older.

The opposite was seen when people were allowed to stay in bed for nine hours, though the effect was more modest, with participants in the study claiming to feel on average three months younger than their real age after ample rest.

“Sleep has a major impact on how old you feel and it’s not only your long-term sleep patterns,” said Dr Leonie Balter, a psychoneuroimmunologist at the Karolinska Institute in Stockholm and first author on the study. “Even when you only sleep less for two nights that has a real impact on how you feel.”

Beyond simply feeling more decrepit, the perception of being many years older may affect people’s health, Balter said, by encouraging unhealthy eating, reducing physical exercise, and making people less willing to socialise and engage in new experiences.

The researchers ran two studies. In the first, 429 people aged 18 to 70 answered questions about how old they felt and on how many nights, if any, they had slept badly in the past month. Their sleepiness was also rated according to a standard scale used in psychology research.

For each day of poor sleep the volunteers felt on average three months older, the scientists found, while those who reported no bad nights in the preceding month felt on average nearly six years younger than their true age. It was unclear, however, whether bad sleep made people feel older or vice versa.

In the second study, the researchers quizzed 186 volunteers aged 18 to 46 on how old they felt after two nights of plentiful sleep, in which they stayed in bed for nine hours each night, and two nights when they slept for only four hours a night. After two nights of restricted sleep, the participants felt on average 4.44 years older than when they had ample sleep. Feeling older was linked, unsurprisingly, to feeling sleepier.

“If you want to feel young, the most important thing is to protect your sleep,” Balter said.

Writing in Proceedings of the Royal Society B , the psychologists describe differences in people’s responses to sleep loss depending on whether they were a morning person, who woke and went to bed early, or an evening person who rose late and retired late. Evening types typically felt older than their true age even after plenty of sleep, but morning types were hit harder in how old they felt when their sleep was disrupted.

Balter says the findings, if confirmed, could be put to good use. “It’s important to realise how malleable subjective age is,” she said. “If we can make people feel younger, they may be able to have the associated benefits, such as being more willing to take on new experiences and being socially active and physically active.”

Dr Serena Sabatini, a psychologist at the University of Surrey, who was not involved in the study, called the results “promising”, but said investigating whether they held up in older people should be a priority for future research.

“Another important thing to consider in future research is an exploration of these mechanisms over time,” she added. “This study tells us that a bad night of sleep can impact how we feel the day after, but what are the cumulative effects of bad sleep for months and years?”

Dr Iuliana Hartescu, a senior lecturer in psychology at Loughborough University, who was also not involved in the study, said insufficient or poor sleep quality was important for lifestyle behaviours that ultimately affect long-term health.

“Sleep is one modifiable behaviour which has an immediate, noticeable effect on health,” she said. “The effects of poor diet and low physical activity take some time to notice. The effect of a poor night of sleep is immediate and influences all the other 24-hour lifestyle behaviours.”

In separate work, a 10-year study of more than 4,000 Europeans found those who consistently exercised two to three times a week were significantly less likely to suffer from insomnia than inactive people, and better able to clock up the recommended six to nine hours of sleep each night.

The international team of researchers analysed questionnaires from people enrolled in the European community respiratory health survey on their exercise habits, how well and how long they slept, and how sleepy they felt in the day. Volunteers at 21 sites in nine countries were followed for a decade.

Those who exercised two or more times a week, for at least an hour a week, were 42% less likely to have problems falling asleep than inactive people, the study found, and 55% more likely to be “normal sleepers” who got a healthy amount of shut-eye each night.

“This study has a long follow-up period, 10 years, and indicates strongly that consistency in physical activity might be an important factor in optimising sleep duration and reducing the symptoms of insomnia,” the authors write in BMJ Open .

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