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Information and communication technology (ICT) in education

Information and communications technology (ict) can impact student learning when teachers are digitally literate and understand how to integrate it into curriculum..

Schools use a diverse set of ICT tools to communicate, create, disseminate, store, and manage information.(6) In some contexts, ICT has also become integral to the teaching-learning interaction, through such approaches as replacing chalkboards with interactive digital whiteboards, using students’ own smartphones or other devices for learning during class time, and the “flipped classroom” model where students watch lectures at home on the computer and use classroom time for more interactive exercises.

When teachers are digitally literate and trained to use ICT, these approaches can lead to higher order thinking skills, provide creative and individualized options for students to express their understandings, and leave students better prepared to deal with ongoing technological change in society and the workplace.(18)

ICT issues planners must consider include: considering the total cost-benefit equation, supplying and maintaining the requisite infrastructure, and ensuring investments are matched with teacher support and other policies aimed at effective ICT use.(16)

Issues and Discussion

Digital culture and digital literacy: Computer technologies and other aspects of digital culture have changed the ways people live, work, play, and learn, impacting the construction and distribution of knowledge and power around the world.(14) Graduates who are less familiar with digital culture are increasingly at a disadvantage in the national and global economy. Digital literacy—the skills of searching for, discerning, and producing information, as well as the critical use of new media for full participation in society—has thus become an important consideration for curriculum frameworks.(8)

In many countries, digital literacy is being built through the incorporation of information and communication technology (ICT) into schools. Some common educational applications of ICT include:

• One laptop per child: Less expensive laptops have been designed for use in school on a 1:1 basis with features like lower power consumption, a low cost operating system, and special re-programming and mesh network functions.(42) Despite efforts to reduce costs, however, providing one laptop per child may be too costly for some developing countries.(41)
• Tablets: Tablets are small personal computers with a touch screen, allowing input without a keyboard or mouse. Inexpensive learning software (“apps”) can be downloaded onto tablets, making them a versatile tool for learning.(7)(25) The most effective apps develop higher order thinking skills and provide creative and individualized options for students to express their understandings.(18)
• Interactive White Boards or Smart Boards : Interactive white boards allow projected computer images to be displayed, manipulated, dragged, clicked, or copied.(3) Simultaneously, handwritten notes can be taken on the board and saved for later use. Interactive white boards are associated with whole-class instruction rather than student-centred activities.(38) Student engagement is generally higher when ICT is available for student use throughout the classroom.(4)
• E-readers : E-readers are electronic devices that can hold hundreds of books in digital form, and they are increasingly utilized in the delivery of reading material.(19) Students—both skilled readers and reluctant readers—have had positive responses to the use of e-readers for independent reading.(22) Features of e-readers that can contribute to positive use include their portability and long battery life, response to text, and the ability to define unknown words.(22) Additionally, many classic book titles are available for free in e-book form.
• Flipped Classrooms: The flipped classroom model, involving lecture and practice at home via computer-guided instruction and interactive learning activities in class, can allow for an expanded curriculum. There is little investigation on the student learning outcomes of flipped classrooms.(5) Student perceptions about flipped classrooms are mixed, but generally positive, as they prefer the cooperative learning activities in class over lecture.(5)(35)

ICT and Teacher Professional Development: Teachers need specific professional development opportunities in order to increase their ability to use ICT for formative learning assessments, individualized instruction, accessing online resources, and for fostering student interaction and collaboration.(15) Such training in ICT should positively impact teachers’ general attitudes towards ICT in the classroom, but it should also provide specific guidance on ICT teaching and learning within each discipline. Without this support, teachers tend to use ICT for skill-based applications, limiting student academic thinking.(32) To sup­port teachers as they change their teaching, it is also essential for education managers, supervisors, teacher educators, and decision makers to be trained in ICT use.(11)

Ensuring benefits of ICT investments: To ensure the investments made in ICT benefit students, additional conditions must be met. School policies need to provide schools with the minimum acceptable infrastructure for ICT, including stable and affordable internet connectivity and security measures such as filters and site blockers. Teacher policies need to target basic ICT literacy skills, ICT use in pedagogical settings, and discipline-specific uses. (21) Successful imple­mentation of ICT requires integration of ICT in the curriculum. Finally, digital content needs to be developed in local languages and reflect local culture. (40) Ongoing technical, human, and organizational supports on all of these issues are needed to ensure access and effective use of ICT. (21)

Resource Constrained Contexts: The total cost of ICT ownership is considerable: training of teachers and administrators, connectivity, technical support, and software, amongst others. (42) When bringing ICT into classrooms, policies should use an incremental pathway, establishing infrastructure and bringing in sustainable and easily upgradable ICT. (16) Schools in some countries have begun allowing students to bring their own mobile technology (such as laptop, tablet, or smartphone) into class rather than providing such tools to all students—an approach called Bring Your Own Device. (1)(27)(34) However, not all families can afford devices or service plans for their children. (30) Schools must ensure all students have equitable access to ICT devices for learning.

Inclusiveness Considerations

Digital Divide: The digital divide refers to disparities of digital media and internet access both within and across countries, as well as the gap between people with and without the digital literacy and skills to utilize media and internet.(23)(26)(31) The digital divide both creates and reinforces socio-economic inequalities of the world’s poorest people. Policies need to intentionally bridge this divide to bring media, internet, and digital literacy to all students, not just those who are easiest to reach.

Minority language groups: Students whose mother tongue is different from the official language of instruction are less likely to have computers and internet connections at home than students from the majority. There is also less material available to them online in their own language, putting them at a disadvantage in comparison to their majority peers who gather information, prepare talks and papers, and communicate more using ICT. (39) Yet ICT tools can also help improve the skills of minority language students—especially in learning the official language of instruction—through features such as automatic speech recognition, the availability of authentic audio-visual materials, and chat functions. (2)(17)

Students with different styles of learning: ICT can provide diverse options for taking in and processing information, making sense of ideas, and expressing learning. Over 87% of students learn best through visual and tactile modalities, and ICT can help these students ‘experience’ the information instead of just reading and hearing it. (20)(37) Mobile devices can also offer programmes (“apps”) that provide extra support to students with special needs, with features such as simplified screens and instructions, consistent placement of menus and control features, graphics combined with text, audio feedback, ability to set pace and level of difficulty, appropriate and unambiguous feedback, and easy error correction. (24)(29)

Plans and policies

• India [ PDF ]
• Detroit, USA [ PDF ]
• Finland [ PDF ]
• Alberta Education. 2012. Bring your own device: A guide for schools . Retrieved from http://education.alberta.ca/admin/technology/research.aspx
• Alsied, S.M. and Pathan, M.M. 2015. ‘The use of computer technology in EFL classroom: Advantages and implications.’ International Journal of English Language and Translation Studies . 1 (1).
• BBC. N.D. ‘What is an interactive whiteboard?’ Retrieved from http://www.bbcactive.com/BBCActiveIdeasandResources/Whatisaninteractivewhiteboard.aspx
• Beilefeldt, T. 2012. ‘Guidance for technology decisions from classroom observation.’ Journal of Research on Technology in Education . 44 (3).
• Bishop, J.L. and Verleger, M.A. 2013. ‘The flipped classroom: A survey of the research.’ Presented at the 120th ASEE Annual Conference and Exposition. Atlanta, Georgia.
• Blurton, C. 2000. New Directions of ICT-Use in Education . United National Education Science and Culture Organization (UNESCO).
• Bryant, B.R., Ok, M., Kang, E.Y., Kim, M.K., Lang, R., Bryant, D.P. and Pfannestiel, K. 2015. ‘Performance of fourth-grade students with learning disabilities on multiplication facts comparing teacher-mediated and technology-mediated interventions: A preliminary investigation. Journal of Behavioral Education. 24.
• Buckingham, D. 2005. Educación en medios. Alfabetización, aprendizaje y cultura contemporánea, Barcelona, Paidós.
• Buckingham, D., Sefton-Green, J., and Scanlon, M. 2001. 'Selling the Digital Dream: Marketing Education Technologies to Teachers and Parents.'  ICT, Pedagogy, and the Curriculum: Subject to Change . London: Routledge.
• "Burk, R. 2001. 'E-book devices and the marketplace: In search of customers.' Library Hi Tech 19 (4)."
• Chapman, D., and Mählck, L. (Eds). 2004. Adapting technology for school improvement: a global perspective. Paris: International Institute for Educational Planning.
• Cheung, A.C.K and Slavin, R.E. 2012. ‘How features of educational technology applications affect student reading outcomes: A meta-analysis.’ Educational Research Review . 7.
• Cheung, A.C.K and Slavin, R.E. 2013. ‘The effectiveness of educational technology applications for enhancing mathematics achievement in K-12 classrooms: A meta-analysis.’ Educational Research Review . 9.
• Deuze, M. 2006. 'Participation Remediation Bricolage - Considering Principal Components of a Digital Culture.' The Information Society . 22 .
• Dunleavy, M., Dextert, S. and Heinecke, W.F. 2007. ‘What added value does a 1:1 student to laptop ratio bring to technology-supported teaching and learning?’ Journal of Computer Assisted Learning . 23.
• Enyedy, N. 2014. Personalized Instruction: New Interest, Old Rhetoric, Limited Results, and the Need for a New Direction for Computer-Mediated Learning . Boulder, CO: National Education Policy Center.
• Golonka, E.M., Bowles, A.R., Frank, V.M., Richardson, D.L. and Freynik, S. 2014. ‘Technologies for foreign language learning: A review of technology types and their effectiveness.’ Computer Assisted Language Learning . 27 (1).
• Goodwin, K. 2012. Use of Tablet Technology in the Classroom . Strathfield, New South Wales: NSW Curriculum and Learning Innovation Centre.
• Jung, J., Chan-Olmsted, S., Park, B., and Kim, Y. 2011. 'Factors affecting e-book reader awareness, interest, and intention to use.' New Media & Society . 14 (2)
• Kenney, L. 2011. ‘Elementary education, there’s an app for that. Communication technology in the elementary school classroom.’ The Elon Journal of Undergraduate Research in Communications . 2 (1).
• Kopcha, T.J. 2012. ‘Teachers’ perceptions of the barriers to technology integration and practices with technology under situated professional development.’ Computers and Education . 59.
• Miranda, T., Williams-Rossi, D., Johnson, K., and McKenzie, N. 2011. "Reluctant readers in middle school: Successful engagement with text using the e-reader.' International journal of applied science and technology . 1 (6).
• Moyo, L. 2009. 'The digital divide: scarcity, inequality and conflict.' Digital Cultures . New York: Open University Press.
• Newton, D.A. and Dell, A.G. 2011. ‘Mobile devices and students with disabilities: What do best practices tell us?’ Journal of Special Education Technology . 26 (3).
• Nirvi, S. (2011). ‘Special education pupils find learning tool in iPad applications.’ Education Week . 30 .
• Norris, P. 2001. Digital Divide: Civic Engagement, Information Poverty, and the Internet Worldwide . Cambridge, USA: Cambridge University Press.
• Project Tomorrow. 2012. Learning in the 21st century: Mobile devices + social media = personalized learning . Washington, D.C.: Blackboard K-12.
• Riasati, M.J., Allahyar, N. and Tan, K.E. 2012. ‘Technology in language education: Benefits and barriers.’ Journal of Education and Practice . 3 (5).
• Rodriquez, C.D., Strnadova, I. and Cumming, T. 2013. ‘Using iPads with students with disabilities: Lessons learned from students, teachers, and parents.’ Intervention in School and Clinic . 49 (4).
• Sangani, K. 2013. 'BYOD to the classroom.' Engineering & Technology . 3 (8).
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• Smeets, E. 2005. ‘Does ICT contribute to powerful learning environments in primary education?’ Computers and Education. 44 .
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• Tileston, D.W. 2003. What Every Teacher Should Know about Media and Technology. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
• Turel, Y.K. and Johnson, T.E. 2012. ‘Teachers’ belief and use of interactive whiteboards for teaching and learning.’ Educational Technology and Society . 15(1).
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• Voogt, J., Knezek, G., Cox, M., Knezek, D. and ten Brummelhuis, A. 2013. ‘Under which conditions does ICT have a positive effect on teaching and learning? A call to action.’ Journal of Computer Assisted Learning. 29 (1).
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New Educational Technologies and Their Impact on Students' Well-being and Inclusion Process

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In the new millennium, education is rapidly changing due to the more and more pervasive use of technology to support teaching and learning. New Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs), such as internet, wikis, blogs, search engines, emails and instant messaging require new literacy frameworks and ...

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Teachers’ use of ICT in implementing the competency-based curriculum in Kenyan public primary schools

• Julius Murithi 1 &
• Jin Eun Yoo   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7082-5409 2  

Innovation and Education volume  3 , Article number:  5 ( 2021 ) Cite this article

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The use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in education has been widely advocated as much needed 21st-century skills by governments and policymakers. Nevertheless, several challenges in integrating ICT into the curriculum have been reported in previous research, especially in studies on Sub-Saharan African countries. Focusing on the case of Kenyan public primary schools, this study investigated the availability of ICT facilities; teacher capacity to integrate technology into their lessons; and teacher perceptions towards technology in schools. In particular, the study is premised on the constructivist learning theory and the Technology Acceptance Model. A total of 351 teachers completed an online questionnaire. Teachers perceived that ICT facilities were inadequate in schools, which presented a challenge in the integration of technology during the implementation of the new curriculum. Most of the teachers answered that they received only basic computer literacy training. Although teachers perceived the use of computers as necessary, they faced difficulties integrating technology in their lessons. The effect of age and gender on teacher capacity was also investigated in inferential statistics, specifically with Welch tests and Games-Howell post hoc comparisons. Teachers in their 40s had a higher perception of usefulness than teachers in the 30s. Implications of the study are discussed as well as future research topics.

Introduction

Today more than ever before, the world faces competition in all sectors as a result of the advent of a knowledge-based economy. Governments in all parts of the world are striving to achieve access and good quality education for their citizens (UNESCO, 2013 ). For this reason, ICT in education is seen as a means of increasing access to education especially to the rural population and making teaching and learning enjoyable. Different studies have supported the use of ICT in education as an enabler in the process of teaching and learning by assisting the learners to grasp concepts that would otherwise have remained abstract (Kozma, 1991 ). Other scholars contend that the use of ICT in education has little benefit because they are merely delivery mechanisms relying on the teacher’s pedagogical abilities (Clarke, 1983 ). Amid these debates, policymakers have continued to lay foundations for the use of ICT to profit from the perceived benefits.

Even in developing countries, there have been increased investments in ICTs for schools despite the lack of adequate empirical evidence on the outcomes of such efforts (Piper et al., 2015 ). However, the Global Innovation Index (GII) 2019 report by the World Intellectual Property Organization ranks South Africa, Kenya, and Mauritius as the leading innovation hubs in Sub-Saharan Africa. This means that there is a need to explore the opportunities and the challenges that exist in these countries about technology and its use in education. In Kenya, the policymakers view ICT in education as an enabler for knowledge acquisition leading to innovation and skill development to address the challenges faced by the country’s education system (Republic of Kenya, 2019 ). In line with Kenya’s development blueprint, Vision 2030, the education curriculum has been reviewed from the 8-4-4 system to a competency-based curriculum (CBC). The vision of the basic education curriculum reforms is to equip learners with world-class standards and skills needed to thrive in the 21st Century such as digital literacy (KICD, 2017 ). To achieve this, the integration of ICT in the curriculum is emphasized in the teaching of every subject a shift from the previous system which did not include the integration of ICT in primary schools but only in secondary schools as an elective subject.

Distinctly in the year 2020, education systems in all parts of the world were faced with the challenge of the COVID-19 pandemic. Governments in most countries were forced to close schools and minimize any form of gatherings to contain the spread of the deadly respiratory disease. In Kenya, UNICEF estimated that close to 20 million learners spread across the country were out of school because of COVID-19 (Brown & Otieno, 2020 ). Therefore, to get a better understanding of whether alternative methods of learning such as e-learning would succeed, this study focused on how teachers and schools were prepared for technology integration before the crisis. The study focused on the assessment of the availability of ICT facilities in public primary schools, teachers' ability to use technology in teaching and learning, and the perception of teachers on the usefulness and the ease of use of ICT. Since digital literacy is considered an important skill to cope with the 21st C developments, the teacher is a crucial player in the successful implementation of ICT and should be well prepared through adequate training (Hwang et al., 2010 ).

Furthermore, a look at previous studies shows that some challenges have been hindering technology integration in the country. For instance, in a study conducted by Karsenti et al. ( 2012 ) in over ten schools around Kenya, various factors were identified as hindrances to the pedagogical integration of ICT. Some of these factors included: lack of ICT devices, the perception of ICT by teachers as time-consuming and as an additional workload, technophobia by older teachers, teachers’ inadequate ICT expertise among others. To address some of the issues, the Jubilee government had a plan in 2013 to integrate ICT in education by providing laptops to all class one pupils (Muinde & Mbataru, 2019 ). According to Wanzala and Nyamai ( 2018 ), by July 2018 19,000 out of 23,951 public primary schools had been provided with technology devices but only 70,000 out of over 300,000 teachers had been trained just months to the rollout of CBC.

A survey by the Teachers Service Commission that purposefully targeted some schools and 1200 respondents also revealed that teachers in public institutions had serious challenges in using ICT in their teaching. 84.2% of the teachers who responded to the survey agreed that they had problems with the use of technology in classrooms. The survey ranked technology integration as the top professional skills gap affecting the delivery of services by teachers (Oduor, 2018 ; Wanzala & Nyamai, 2018 ). Therefore, although similar studies have been carried out in the country focusing on the integration of ICT in education, they mostly targeted secondary schools and were done under the 8-4-4 curriculum. In the 8-4-4 curriculum ICT integration was not compulsory in the primary level of education and computer studies were taught as an elective subject in secondary schools. The study was guided by the following three research questions (RQ1 to RQ3):

RQ1. To what extend is ICT infrastructure available in schools to enable the integration of technology in teaching and learning? RQ2. What is the capacity of teachers to integrate ICT in primary schools in line with the new competency-based curriculum? Are there statistically significant differences in terms of teacher capacity across different age and gender groups? RQ3. In implementing the new curriculum, what are the perceptions of teachers on the usefulness of ICT, respectively? Are there statistically significant differences in terms of perception on the usefulness across different age and gender groups?

Literature review

Theoretical framework, constructivist theory.

The constructivist approach is based on the belief that learners can construct and create knowledge from prior experiences in their environment (Kalpana, 2014 ; KICD, 2017 ; Waweru, 2018 ). The proponents of this theory shift the focus from the teacher who was traditionally believed to be the source of knowledge to the learner (Wang, 2008 ; Waweru, 2018 ). Two approaches of the constructivist theory were used one targeting teachers' understanding of individual learners and the other that focuses on group learning.

Constructivism can be approached in a way that targets individual learners as well as groups of learners as advanced by Jean Piaget (Kalpana, 2014 ; Wang, 2008 ). The theory explains that a learner assimilates new knowledge that adds to an existing body of knowledge. It is therefore important for teachers in the process of integrating ICT to understand that learning can be based on individual discovery and interpretation of information. This realization would help the teacher to emphasize the active participation and involvement of learners to harness their creativity and produce individuals fit for the 21st Century (Kalpana, 2014 ).

The second approach to the constructivist theory is Vygotsky’s social constructivism that emphasizes collaboration as opposed to individual learning (Waweru, 2018 ). The proponents of this theory argue that learners grasp concepts better when they work in mixed-ability groups where they share experiences and come up with a common understanding. In such a scenario, the teacher must create a classroom environment that is based on cooperation, democratic principles, and shared creation of content that makes the learners have a sense of ownership of knowledge (Sang et al., 2009 ). This theoretical understanding was crucial for this study because, in low-resource settings where ICT facilities may not be enough for every learner, the teachers can encourage collaborative learning through device sharing.

Technology acceptance model

The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) is based on the user’s perception of usefulness and the perceived ease of use as cited by Sharples and Modules ( 2014 ). The theory has been used widely by researchers in the field of technology in education with various modifications as well as criticism (Bagozzi, 2007 ). The perceived usefulness of technology relates to the conviction among users such as teachers that it will make their work or that of their learners easier thus enhance job performance (Muinde & Mbataru, 2019 ). This means that if teachers think that the use of computers would make their day-to-day activities such as preparation of lesson plans, lesson materials, or analyses of student’s results more organized and accurate, then they would probably use them. The perceived ease of use of new or existing technology would mean that the users view technology as one that does not require a lot of effort to learn how to use (Venkatesh et al., 2003 ). This suggests that teachers would possibly adopt technology that they consider easy to learn and use with minimal need for expert consultation.

Venkatesh et al. ( 2003 ) have modified the TAM to include other models in a study that created the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT). The study came up with three variables that were thought to directly influence behavioral intention in the use of technology: performance expectancy (perceived usefulness), effort expectancy (perceived ease of use), and social influence. Venkatesh et al. ( 2003 ) posit that gender, age, experience, and voluntariness could be classified as moderator variables in the studies on the intention to use technology. They argue that based on socialization, men will prefer to use a certain technology if they perceive that it would help them to accomplish a task. The theory also suggests that the moderating effect of age could be based on the tendency for younger people to be motivated by extrinsic factors such as rewards. We used the moderator variables of age and gender of teachers to compare the differences in perception of the use of technology in education. This was based on the presumed effect of the compulsory use of ICTs in education at the primary level (KICD, 2017 ) in implementing the new curriculum on the constructs of voluntariness and experience. Therefore, the inclusion of voluntariness in studying a mandatory use system as well as experience in a new system would lead to inconsistencies.

Global perception of ICT in education

Globalization and rapid changes in technology have created a knowledge-based economy in the 21st Century. Consequently, governments have invested in the integration of ICT in education at all levels to equip the learners with the skills needed for modern life and beyond (Wambiri & Ndani, 2016 ). This inclusion and massive investment in educational technology is believed to have had a positive effect in some countries like South Korea where extraordinary economic growth has been experienced since the 1970s (Sanchez et al., 2011 ).

In addition, Kozma ( 2003 ) in a cross-national comparative study of technology and classroom practices involving 28 states posits those different countries such as Taiwan, Finland, the Netherlands, Norway, and Singapore, have had educational reforms to align with global changes. The study adds that the educational reforms in these countries focused on what students learned in school and placed more emphasis on ICT training and interpersonal skills. Various studies have also reported the benefits that technology in education brings to the teachers and learners in different contexts including in developing countries. For instance, Kozma ( 1991 ) summarizes his support for the use of technology in education by arguing that different voices and sounds attract the attention of children leading to mental processes that create meaning. Aktaruzzaman et al. ( 2011 ) further assert that, when used in the right manner, ICTs in education can bring several benefits such as increased access to education making it more relevant, as well as improving the quality since they make teaching and learning an active process.

The World Wide Web has revolutionized access to information and brought opportunities for e-learning and lifelong learning. Omwenga et al. ( 2004 ) argue that this kind of access will not replace the teacher but will provide an opportunity for the learners to meet experts in various fields, researchers, and fellow students. This way they can get firsthand information as well as exchange ideas with their peers from all parts of the world (Redempta, 2012 ). Hennessy et al. ( 2010 ) add that ICTs help in shaping a continued desire for learning that can develop throughout a person’s lifetime, a skill that is needed to survive in a rapidly changing society.

Technology in education also brings a change to the teaching methods used by teachers from the traditional teacher-centered approaches to heuristic styles (Mingaine, 2013a ). This change makes classrooms interactive as learners get the opportunity to manipulate technology adding to their creativity and thinking skills needed in the 21st Century (Mwangi & Mutua, 2014 ). Even in large class size situations where heuristic methods could be difficult to apply, the use of technology can be of great benefit to a teacher in capturing and retaining the attention of learners (Majumdar, 2005 ).

ICT integration in education in Kenya

Kenya like other Sub-Saharan African countries has over the years embedded ICT in its education policies (Mariga et al., 2017 ; Muinde & Mbataru, 2019 ). Despite the scarcity of empirical research to show the impact of ICT in learning improvement in the country, the Kenya National Education Sector Plan 2013–2018 focused heavily on ICT integration (Piper et al., 2015 ). This plan had followed the National ICT policy that was enacted in 2006 to enhance the availability of efficient, affordable, and reliable technology services across all sectors of the economy (Republic of Kenya, 2006).

The value for and recognition of the importance of ICT in education in achieving Kenya’s development blueprint ‘Vision 2030’ led to the provision of tablets to all grade one learners in public primary schools in the country (Langat, 2015 ; Mariga et al., 2017 ; Muinde & Mbataru, 2019 ). This was followed by curriculum reforms aimed at providing every learner in the country with core competencies and world-class digital literacy skills needed to be competitive in the 21st Century (Maluei, 2019 ).

Status of ICT infrastructure in schools

For effective implementation of the policies on ICT in education, there should be adequate infrastructure and facilities. Liang et al. ( 2005 ) in a study that draws from 6 years of experience in analyzing the digital classroom environment suggest that some basic facilities are fundamental for ICT integration. They posit that for effective use of technology in education classrooms should be equipped with learner’s devices, teacher’s devices, shared display projectors, network connectivity as well as other enabling installations. This argument is corroborated by Mingaine ( 2013b ) who notes that facilities such as power, computer devices, software, and connectivity are essential for effective ICT integration.

Further, a study by Langat ( 2015 ) found out that, infrastructure and ICT equipment shortages were among the challenges facing the implementation of ICT in primary schools in Kenya. The study that targeted 40 primary schools and 450 teachers noted that 94% of the schools did not have ICT equipment, all schools had a shortage of classrooms and only two private schools had functional computer laboratories. Similar challenges were noted in other studies that identified inadequate or limited academic use of computers in primary schools in Kenya as well as a lack of digital customization of classrooms (Tonui et al., 2016 ; Muinde & Mbataru, 2019 ).

Teacher capacity for ICT integration

Research has demonstrated that ICT in education helps in creating opportunities for the learners to develop 21st Century skills but this depends on the digital literacy of teachers (UNESCO, 2012 ). Studies on the capacity of teachers in primary schools in Kenya show that, despite the policy formulation for ICT in education and financial investment, the integration of technology in Kenyan classrooms remains low (Piper et al., 2015 ). For instance, Langat ( 2015 ) found that most of the teachers in the study on barriers hindering the implementation of ICT in primary schools in Kenya lacked computer literacy skills. Despite being aware of the importance of technology in education, the teachers blamed the government for the lack of effective planning to offer them in-service training on the use of technology in teaching and learning.

Similar sentiments were made by teachers in a study by Abobo ( 2018 ) who asserts two-thirds of the respondents could not integrate technology in the teaching of Kiswahili language. Further, Omolo et al. ( 2017 ) also found that student-teachers were able to practice the use of technology in the teaching of Kiswahili in classrooms after learning from their tutors. Both studies suggest that the teachers were willing to apply technology in their teaching after going through training sessions.

However, in some cases where teachers received training, it was basic computer literacy on computer programs such as Microsoft Office and Excel that did not equip them for technology integration in classrooms (Mwangi & Khatete, 2017 ). Comparably, Wambiri and Ndani ( 2016 ) opine that their analysis of documents on primary teacher training in Kenya proved that there was a gap in the pedagogical use of ICT. A study by Muinde and Mbataru ( 2019 ) in Machakos County, found that 85% of teachers had received ICT training from the ministry of education. However, 62.3% of the trained teachers felt that the training was not appropriate for teaching and learning. The findings in this study corroborate Majumdar ( 2005 ) who observed that most teachers who receive ICT training as part of the professional development (PD) programs still lacked the self-reliance needed to integrate ICT in teaching and learning because in most cases due to time limitations the training only focused on computer applications.

Further, a study to establish teachers’ computer skills in public primary schools was carried out in Homa Bay County by Omito et al. ( 2019 ). They used a cross-sectional survey design to collect data from 362 teachers and 85 headteachers. The findings indicated that the number of teachers trained by the government was low, and as argued by Omito et al. ( 2019 ) the situation was so since the trained teachers were supposed to train their colleagues. Ngeno et al. ( 2020 ) had a similar finding in Ainamoi sub-county that the PD training for teachers did not include all teachers. This study by Ngeno et al. ( 2020 ) relates to research by Sharples and Moldeus ( 2014 ) that sought to establish the perception of teachers on the readiness for the adoption of technology in public primary schools. The mixed-method case study focused on multi-sites covering different parts of Kenya such as Nairobi, Nakuru, Mandera, and Turkana to compare the integration in both urban and rural areas. Their findings show that only 8% of the teachers felt adequately prepared to use technology in their day-to-day teaching despite 78% of the respondents saying that they perceived computers as easy to use. The study concluded that this difference between the perception of the ease of use and actual use in classrooms was occasioned by poor training on ICT integration.

Teacher perceptions on ICT integration

Studies on how perception affects the integration of ICT in education show that what teachers think about the use of technology affects their acceptance and subsequent application in their activities (Wambiri & Ndani, 2016 ). They argue that the government’s investment through the provision of devices without addressing teachers’ attitudes and beliefs may not yield the desired results. In a study to assess teachers’ beliefs, attitudes, self-efficacy, computer competency, and age, Wambiri and Ndani ( 2016 ) found out that younger teachers had a high positive attitude towards technology. This finding they add could be attributed to the younger teachers having received technology training in the teacher training colleges. However, Bebell et al. ( 2004 ) observe that teachers’ age and the years of service should be used and interpreted sparingly concerning technology use in schools. They argue that in some specific uses of technology the difference by age would be insignificant if a multi-faceted approach were to be applied in measuring technology usage.

A study on the perception of teachers towards the usefulness of ICT in schools was also conducted by Buliva ( 2018 ) in Vihiga County in Western Kenya. The study that used a convenient sample of teachers from the county used the variable of gender to determine whether there were statistically significant differences between male and female teachers. The results obtained from an independent samples t -test suggested that there was no statistically significant difference between the mean scores of male teachers. The study concluded that there was no statistically significant difference in perception of the usefulness of computers between the teachers by gender in the County.

While studying the implementation of the laptops project in public primary schools, Muinde and Mbataru ( 2019 ) found that 68.5% of the sampled teachers had a high perception of the use of laptops in their teaching and learning. However, they established that 39% of the teachers felt that the time allocated for the integration of technology was not adequate and that most of their lessons were spent assembling the gadgets. In such circumstances, teachers are more likely to resist the use of ICTs in their teaching if they feel that they will spend more time and effort to make them work (Omwenga et al., 2004 ).

The perception of time and ICT integration was also noted by Heinrich et al. ( 2020 ) in a study on the potential and prerequisites of effective tablet integration in rural Kenya. The mixed-method study that involved classroom observation, teacher interviews, student surveys, and focus groups, found that teachers often excluded students perceived to be slow learners during technology integration. Some of the teachers interviewed said that they could not cater to the learners experiencing academic challenges due to the limited time in a lesson. The study recommends more professional development of teachers to equip them with the pedagogical ability to accommodate all learners including those with disabilities in a technology-integrated classroom.

Methodology

Participants.

Among the population of 1,436 teachers, this study targeted 30% of them (Mugenda & Mugenda, 2003 ), which was 430. Specifically, convenience and snowball sampling were executed, which was inevitable in the prevailing circumstances occasioned by the global COVID-19 pandemic. By employing snowball sampling, a small number of teachers in the target population responded to the questionnaire and then were asked to assist in reaching out to other prospective participants (Cohen et al., 2018 ). As teacher gender and age were frequently utilized in previous research, they were put into consideration in sampling. Given that previous research on ICT integration in Kenya has focused on urban areas, more representative sampling incorporating non-urban teachers is warranted (Newby, 2014 ). Among the 430 sampled teachers, 351 teachers completed the questionnaire with a response rate of 81.6%. The participants were teachers in urban (54.7%) and non-urban (45.3%) areas. They consisted of 4 age groups: 20s (15.1%), 30s (55.3%), 40s (23.6%), and 50s (6.0%). Male teachers comprised 61% of the sample.

Research instrument and data analysis

A pilot study was conducted to obtain the content validity of the instrument. The process of pre-testing the instrument was done in a neighboring Sub-County outside the area of study but with similar conditions. The respondents were purposively selected from experienced teachers who were asked to comment on the relevance of the content, clarity of the questions, and the time taken to complete the questionnaire. Some items were modified or deleted to accommodate the feedback, which led to the revised questionnaire of 17 items. Frequencies and percentages of the 17 survey items were presented to answer the descriptive part of the three research questions: Items F1 to F6 for RQ1; C1 to C5 for RQ2; and P1 to P6 for RQ3. With regards to the inferential part of the research questions of RQ2 and RQ3, Cronbach’s alphas of the subscales were calculated before proceeding further. The Cronbach’s alpha of all the 17 items was 0.754, but some of the items were removed to increase the internal consistency of the subscales to answer inferential research questions. Specifically, items C1, C2, C4, and C5 had the Cronbach’s alpha of 0.70, and the average of the four items served as the dependent variable of RQ2, teacher capacity for ICT integration. Likewise, the average of P1 and P3 to measure teacher perception on ICT usefulness served as the dependent variable of RQ3, the Cronbach’s alpha of which was 0.66. According to Nunnully ( 1978 ), Cronbach’s alpha at or above 0.70 is acceptable as a test for the internal consistency of an instrument. The subscale internal consistency of teacher perception on ICT usefulness was slightly lower but close to the nominal value of 0.70.

For inferential statistics, two-way ANOVAs were initially conducted with gender and age as independent variables for each of the dependent variables. However, Levene’s tests indicated violations of the equal variance assumption. We instead employed the Welch test, a robust statistic used in violations of the equal variance assumption (Welch, 1947 ). When the Welch test was statistically significant, Games-Howell post hoc tests were conducted for pairwise comparison groups. For the 4 age groups, there were a total of 6 (= 4 combination 2) comparisons per dependent variable.

Availability of ICT facilities

The first research question (RQ1) was to investigate the ICT infrastructure availability in public primary schools for the effective implementation of digital learning. The results on the availability of ICT devices are summarized in Table 1 . Most of the schools (87.7%) lacked internet connectivity (F1). Approximately 70% of the teachers also answered that their schools did not have projectors as a part of the shared devices essential for the integration of technology in schools (F2). Further, teachers indicated that their schools lacked the customization required for the introduction of digital devices. Specifically, 80% of them answered that their classrooms and computer laboratories did not have sockets and power extension cables (F6) and 73.5% of them also said that they did not have access to the laptops provided by the government (F4). Despite the challenges faced by teachers in accessing devices, 55.8% of the teachers reported that learners had relatively high access to tablet PCs (F5) and 82.9% of them reported reliable power supply (F3).

The second research question (RQ2) investigated teachers’ ability to use technology in the performance of their duties (Table 2 ). Most of the teachers in public primary schools had basic computer skills. The high percentage of teachers with basic computer skills was corroborated by the finding that 77.7% of the respondents had basic computer training as part of their teacher training course. Although many teachers received technology training as part of their pre-service course, we found that there was a challenge in the follow-up in-service training. When asked whether they attended in-service training on technology integration, 66.4% of the teachers disagreed and strongly disagreed; this group of teachers had not participated in any professional development courses to equip them with any relevant pedagogical skills for the application of technology in their lessons. Relatedly, 44.7% of the respondents did not use computers to prepare their instructional materials in preparation for teaching, and 58.4% of the teachers could not plan and integrate technology into their lessons.

Teacher perceptions on usefulness

Despite the challenges faced by teachers in terms of the availability of facilities and inadequate training, our study demonstrated that teachers had a high perception of technology use (Table 3 ). The results show that almost all the teachers (98.9%) had the belief that technology would make them more organized and enable student-centered learning to take place in their schools. Further, there was a high belief that the integration of technology would enhance collaboration among learners as shown by 67.5% of the teachers who responded in the affirmative (RQ3). Teachers also had a high attitude towards the usefulness of technology to them as 97.7% of the respondents felt that the integration of technology would make the teachers more organized in their duties. However, the study found that 52.7% of the teachers perceived ICT to be time-consuming and would need more time allocation in the school timetable for successful integration. The findings also suggest that teachers were worried about the learners’ access to the internet as perceived by 60.1% of the teachers who considered it unsafe.

Inferential statistics on the teacher capacity and perceived usefulness

The effect of age.

Age had a statistically significant effect on the perception of usefulness (RQ3, p  = 0.000), but had no statistical significance on teacher capacity (RQ2, p  = 0.059) (Table 4 ). The Games-Howell post hoc tests indicated that teachers in their 40 s (M = 3.40, SD = 0.34, n  = 83) had a higher perception of usefulness than those in their 30 s (M = 3.15, SD = 0.36, n  = 194). Other groups were not statistically different in terms of the perception of usefulness or teacher capacity.

The effect of gender

Both teacher capacity (RQ2) and perceived usefulness (RQ3) were not statistically different by gender (Table 5 ). Male teachers and female teachers did now show a difference in terms of teacher capacity and perceived usefulness.

Following the importance attached to technology in most parts of the world in almost all sectors, developing countries also have had to make the necessary investments and changes to cope with the 21st Century developments. As a result, education systems have been changed and curricula adjusted to have technology integration in schools. Our study sought to establish the preparedness of Kenyan primary schools for the rollout of mandatory technology use in all subjects of the new curriculum. On infrastructure development, our findings show that shared devices (i.e., projectors, sockets, and extension) cables were not available in most public primary schools. Although access to a computer or laptop by teachers is key in the integration of technology in education (Liang et al., 2005 ), teachers in most primary schools did not have access to these devices. The findings were consistent with other studies that pointed at the lack of devices for teachers as a threat to technology integration in Kenyan schools (Langat, 2015 ; Tonui et al., 2016 ; Mingaine, 2013a , 2013b ). This reveals a challenge that has existed over the years despite the significance attached to ICT availability (Langat, 2015 ; Liang et al., 2005 ) a situation that calls on stakeholders to prioritize infrastructure installation (Mingaine, 2013a ).

On the other hand, learners had relatively high access to technology devices such as tablet PCs. The power supply in schools also appears reliable, which could be attributed to the government’s commitment and investment towards digital learning in public primary schools in the country (Muinde & Mbataru, 2019 ; Piper et al., 2015 ). Since not all schools had a one-to-one ratio in terms of technology devices like tablet PCs, Heinrich et al. ( 2020 ) suggest that the teachers in such settings could change their approach by encouraging peer collaborative learning as learners share the available devices. This argument supports the social constructivist approach by Vygotsky that emphasizes collaboration as opposed to individual learning (Waweru, 2018 ). As Sang et al. ( 2009 ) explain, teachers in areas without adequate ICT devices need to apply teaching methods that create an environment of cooperation and democracy to enable content sharing among learners. Nonetheless, for this to happen a teacher needs to be equipped with the requisite technology integration skills to be able to assess the learners' use of technology and their use in instruction.

For this reason, we sought to investigate the teachers’ capacity for technology integration in primary schools. The findings pointed to an increase in computer literacy among primary school teachers which has been highlighted as a key determinant in the successful integration of technology in various studies (Hwang et al., 2010 ; UNESCO, 2012 ). The results were consistent with previous research which attributed the increase in the number of computer-literate teachers with the introduction of computer courses in the Kenyan teacher training colleges (Omito et al., 2019 ; Muinde & Mbataru, 2019 ). However, although computer literacy among teachers is important, it does not guarantee that teachers would use technology in their lessons (Mwangi & Khatete, 2017 ; Wambiri & Ndani, 2016 ) because of gaps in the pedagogical application in actual teaching.

Relatedly, we found that most teachers did not integrate ICT in their lessons and had not attended in-service training after the start of the implementation of the new curriculum. This corroborates other studies which concluded that computer literacy training was not enough to guarantee the integration of technology and that teachers needed a deeper understanding of the pedagogical use of ICT (Omito et al., 2019 ; Ngeno et al., 2020 ; Sharples & Moldeus, 2014 ). Further, we found that younger teachers had better technology integration skills compared to older teachers consistent with previous studies which showed that age correlates negatively with skill level in the use of technology (Harrison & Rainer, 1992 cited by Wambiri & Ndani, 2016 ). However, as noted by Bebell et al. ( 2004 ) teachers’ age and years of work may not be conclusive in the measurement of teachers’ technology use. Therefore, a study designed to include a variety of technology uses in schools would give a more detailed account of how teachers interact with technology daily.

Despite the skill gap that exists among teachers in technology integration, our study shows that generally, teachers had a high perception. Similarly, Wambiri and Ndani ( 2016 ) concluded that teachers in Kenyan primary schools had high attitudes towards the use of various technologies indicating that with the requisite support the use of ICT in schools would be achieved. This is also supported by the finding that teachers had the high belief that ICT use would not only benefit them in the organization of instruction but also their learners. The perception of the usefulness of technology to learners by teachers is important because it helps the teacher to invoke the innovativeness and creativity of the learner (Kalpana, 2014 ; KICD, 2017 ; Wang, 2008 ; Waweru, 2018 ). The perception of technology as time-consuming, however, can be attributed to inadequate training on the pedagogical use of ICT as found in previous studies (Sharples & Moldeus, 2014 ). This means that due to inadequate preparation, such teachers would need the help of computer technicians for successful integration. According to Heinrich et al. ( 2020 ), the teachers’ beliefs about time and the effort needed for technology integration generally affect their perception of the ease of use and perceived usefulness to their learners. The perception of learner safety while using the internet could be attributed to inadequate teacher preparation for the safe use to both learners and teachers.

We also analyzed the effect of age and gender on the perception of usefulness and age. Teachers in their 40 s found ICT more useful than their counterparts in the 30 s. This finding was different from previous research that found the perception to be higher among younger teachers (Wambiri & Ndani, 2016 ). This difference could have been occasioned by sample composition in our study since the number of teachers in the 30 s was two times more than those in the 40 s. However, Bebell et al. ( 2004 ) warn that it is not obvious that younger teachers would have a higher perception of technology. A test of how teachers of different ages perceive the usefulness of specific technologies in the performance of their duties would lead to a more detailed analysis. Additionally, our analysis on the effect of gender on the perceived usefulness of technology among teachers did not show any statistical difference. This was consistent with Buliva ( 2018 ) who found no significant difference in the perception of technology use among teachers by gender. It, therefore, suggests that exemplary performance in the integration of technology should be expected from all teachers. The results also indicate that policymakers should formulate ways to equip male and female teachers with technology integration skills since they all have high perceptions and significant skill gaps. However, Venkatesh et al. ( 2003 ) noted that based on socialization, men would perceive certain technology as more useful if it allowed them to accomplish a task faster.

Limitations and areas of future research

The sampling schemes can be improved in subsequent research. The online survey combined with convenience sampling was an unavoidable choice at the time of data collection; the Global COVID-19 pandemic led to the closure of schools in Kenya, which may have caused sampling bias and limit the generalizability of the findings. Particularly, only 6% of the respondents were in the age bracket of 50 s, while there were 29% of them in the population. Male teachers were also oversampled in our study. While we had 61% male and 39% female teachers, the proportion in the population was 3:7. We should be cautious in interpreting the findings relating to this class of respondents. Follow-up studies are also recommended to take additional steps to increase validity of the instrument such as obtaining content validity ratio (CVR).

Further, our use of the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) as the theoretical base of the study could have left out other constructs that would give further understanding of acceptance of ICT. We, therefore, recommend the use of other models such as the United Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) in further studies to include other constructs such as social influence and facilitating conditions which would improve the prediction of the intention to use technology.

A replication of this study using a mixed-methods approach would give an in-depth understanding of the issues affecting the implementation of ICT integration in Kenya and other developing countries. More research is needed on the perceptions of technology use among teachers in their 30 s and 40 s as well as the effect of gender on the capacity and perception of teachers. A study on how teachers are using technology for the formative assessment of learners in various subjects would also contribute to accumulating knowledge on the progress of ICT integration in all areas of the curriculum. It would be important to study head teachers’ use of technology in the supervision of curriculum implementation. Future research may also focus on the perception of male and female teachers on the usefulness and ease of use of a specific technology in accomplishing various tasks. Finally, it would be important to do a comparative study between the East African countries since they are in the process of implementing the harmonized curriculum structures and framework for primary education.

Conclusions

The findings from this study suggest that the ICT facilities were inadequate including laptops for teachers, projectors, tablets PC devices for pupils, as well as other enabling installations. There is a need to provide computers to teachers so that they can easily access materials and prepare for technology integration. This will help to familiarize the teachers with computer hardware and software hence reducing the need for computer technicians in schools.

Secondly, we noted that although most of the teachers had basic computer literacy there was a challenge in technology integration due to inadequate pedagogical knowledge on integration. Teachers implementing the new curriculum should be involved in frequent PD programs and training that goes beyond basic computer literacy to technology integration in various subjects. In circumstances where the shortage of devices is inevitable, teachers should be trained on how to encourage collaboration among learners through the sharing of the technology devices and working on tasks as a team.

The results further indicated that teachers have a high attitude towards the use of ICT regardless of gender and the numerous challenges that they face. To encourage the younger teachers to use technology and to train their older colleagues on integration in teaching, the government should consider giving incentives. A reward such as official recognition or sponsorship for further ICT in education training could act as a good motivator to younger teachers.

Availability of data materials

All the data sets are available on request.All the data sets are available on request.

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This manuscript is based on the first author’s master’s thesis.

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Murithi, J., Yoo, J.E. Teachers’ use of ICT in implementing the competency-based curriculum in Kenyan public primary schools. Innov Educ 3 , 5 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1186/s42862-021-00012-0

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Enhancing the roles of information and communication technologies in doctoral research processes

• Sarah J. Stein   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0024-1675 1 &
• Kwong Nui Sim 2  

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While information and communication technologies (ICT) are prominent in educational practices at most levels of formal learning, there is relatively little known about the skills and understandings that underlie their effective and efficient use in research higher degree settings. This project aimed to identify doctoral supervisors’ and students’ perceptions of their roles in using ICT. Data were gathered through participative drawing and individual discussion sessions. Participants included 11 students and two supervisors from two New Zealand universities. Focus of the thematic analysis was on the views expressed by students about their ideas, practices and beliefs, in relation to their drawings. The major finding was that individuals hold assumptions and expectations about ICT and their use; they make judgements and take action based on those expectations and assumptions. Knowing about ICT and knowing about research processes separately form only part of the work of doctoral study. Just as supervision cannot be considered independently of the research project and the student involved, ICT skills and the use of ICT cannot be considered in the absence of the people and the project. What is more important in terms of facilitating the doctoral research process is students getting their “flow” right. This indicates a need to provide explicit support to enable students to embed ICT within their own research processes.

Background/context

Information and communication technologies (ICT) can bring either joy or challenge to well-versed academic practices, and either create barriers to learning and development or be the answer to needs. While some grasp and pursue opportunities to make use of various ICT for study, research and teaching, others struggle. Despite documented and anecdotal positive urges to adopt ICT to increase and improve efficiency and effectiveness, staff and students struggle experience ICT as needless and difficult-to-use interruptions. There is often little need seen to change practices by introducing ICT into ways of working. Exploring these views and experiences was the focus of this project. Being empathetic to views such as those expressed by Castañeda and Selwyn ( 2018 ), we did not approach this investigation from a position that assumes that ICT are natural and needed solutions to problems related to improving and facilitating effective learning, teaching and research. Rather, we took a more neutral stance, wishing to explore the experiences of those involved, namely, students and staff, through discussion with them about their ICT practices and views, and with a specific focus on doctoral study and supervision.

Doctoral supervision and the role, place and nature of the doctorate are receiving increasing attention in higher education research literature. A wide range of topics have been covered from, for example, the importance and types of support for students throughout candidature (e.g., Zhou & Okahana, 2019 ); to the teaching and supervision aspects of doctoral supervision (e.g., Åkerlind & McAlpine, 2017 ; Cotterall, 2011 ; Lee, 2008 ).

With advancements in, accessibility to, and development of, ICT within education settings has come a plethora of research into online and blended learning. These studies often highlight the capacity of ICT for facilitating teaching, learning and administrative activity within educational institutions and systems (e.g., Marshall & Shepherd, 2016 ). They cover numerous areas of importance from theoretical, practical, and philosophical angles and include the perspectives and needs of learners, educators and institutions (e.g., Nichols, Anderson, Campbell, & Thompson, 2014 ).

There are also studies on student use of ICT, though not necessarily doctoral students, and these cover a wide range of topics including specific ICT skills (e.g., Stensaker, Maassen, Borgan, Oftebro, & Karseth, 2007 ). Where postgraduate research students are concerned, some studies on ICT skill development and support provide some insights about students (e.g., Dowling & Wilson, 2017 ), and institutional ICT systems (Aghaee et al., 2016 ).

Notable about the many of these studies cited above is the use of self-reporting tools as mechanisms for gathering data about student use and views about ICT. While self-reports are valuable ways to collect such data about self-efficacy, they do have limits. In online learning environments, the role of self-efficacy, for example, is still being contested. It has been argued that learners from a variety of disciplines and learning settings will tend to overestimate claims about their performance and/or knowledge and skills (e.g., Mahmood, 2016 ).

All these studies help to ‘map the territory’ of ICT, their use at individual and institutional levels and related practices. Much advice and guidance can be gleaned from the literature as well, although relatively little for the specific integration of ICT within the doctoral research and supervision environment. Based on the literature that is available though, all indications are that (doctoral) students adopt educational practices incorporating limited ICT use, even though the use of ICT has grown enormously in the last 10 to 20 years. With the current interest in ensuring success of students and completion of doctoral degrees being closely related to high quality supervision, there is a need to improve supervision practices and within that, advance understandings about how to support students in their use of ICT for their doctoral research.

This project

This project aimed to explore doctoral student and supervisor views and use of ICT within the doctoral process. The intention was to bring to light perceptions that could give clues as to how to make practical modifications to the content and scope of professional development support for supervisors and students, in order to help them to make best use of ICT. In addition, consideration was given to the way data would be collected to ensure that more than just the self-reported perspectives of the participants were included.

An interpretivist research approach (Erickson, 2012 ) framed this study to support a focus on understanding the world from the perspectives of those who live it. Thus, the approach was well-suited to exploring perceptions about the use of ICT in our context.

Thus, this study did not commence with any hypotheses related to the influence of ICT in doctoral research in mind. Instead, as the interpretive frame of the research implies, this study investigated ways in which participants expressed their experiences of engaging and integrating ICT in support of their doctoral research processes. The data tapped into the participants’ (PhD students and doctoral supervisors) perspectives, as they expressed them. The research approach thus defined and shaped all aspects of the data gathering, analyses and presentation. In this way, alignment was ensured among the ontological, epistemological and practical implementation of the research project.

The study took place in two New Zealand universities where participants were either employees or students. Both universities are research-intensive, with histories of producing high-level research across many disciplines. Both institutions have clear and well-formulated policies and practices governing doctoral study - PhD and professional doctorate - and these include supporting that study through supervision. A specialised unit in each institution manages the administration of the doctoral degree. Couching “supervision” as essentially a (specialised) teaching activity, each unit also provides or coordinates professional development for staff in the art of supervision, and for students in the skills and processes of undertaking doctoral degree study.

Participants

Participants included doctoral students and supervisors from the two universities. As a result of an invitation to all students and supervisors, in total, 11 students and two supervisors responded. The students were PhD students at varying levels of completion. There was a mix of part time and full-time students from a variety of discipline backgrounds including health sciences, sciences, commerce and humanities. The supervisors were experienced and were from humanities and sciences.

Data sources

Data were collected using a 3-tier participative drawing process (Wetton & McWhirter, 1998 ). This strategy involved a series of two or three interview/discussions, along with participant-made drawings, which formed the focus of the interview/discussions.

This strategy generated two sources of data - interview transcripts and participant drawings – and involved the following (3-tier) phases:

Initial semi-structured interview/discussion to ascertain information about participants’ backgrounds and other details they saw relevant to share. In addition, they were asked about their use of ICT generally as well as within the doctoral process. It was a chance for the researchers to gain some understanding of participants’ views and practices in relation to ICT and their doctoral/supervision journeys.

Participant drawing . The participants were asked to make a drawing in their own time and before the second interview/discussion. Guidelines for the drawing suggested that they think of a way to illustrate their research process first, then to add onto the drawing any ICT (such as devices, websites, programmes, applications) that they make use of in the process.

Follow-up interview/discussion . During this phase, each participant was asked to explain the drawing’s features and how it made sense in terms of the project he or she was undertaking. This included discussion about how their supervision was working, how they worked with supervisors, and how the ICT they had included in the drawing worked within the process. They were also asked about elements that were not in the drawing, for example, certain ICT or activities that might have appeared in a typical account of a doctoral research process but were not included.

All interview/discussions were audio recorded and transcriptions of the recordings were returned to the participants for checking. The drawings were scanned and stored electronically.

In line with the interpretive approach that framed and governed our study, the data were analysed shortly after being gathered. Analysis of the data contributed to the development of ideas about participants’ perceptions, and these were refined progressively across the instances that researchers met with participants. Perceptions were thus checked, rechecked and refined against each data set.

This iterative and inductive approach (Thomas, 2006 ) involved thematic analysis (Silverman, 2001 ) and the capture of major and common ideas (Mayring, 2000 ) expressed by participants about how ICT are perceived and used in doctoral research processes. This approach helped to operationalise a process of co-construction between researchers and participants. Through checking, rechecking, refining and confirming, the researchers were able to articulate their understanding of participant perceptions that matched participants’ expressed thoughts.

The outcome of the analysis process was four assertions concerning ways the students perceived and understood ICT within doctoral study. Because there were only two supervisor participants, the data from the supervisors served to support the assertions we were more confidently able to make about student perceptions.

Research approach, quality assurance conditions and context

Despite the (what might be argued, small) number of volunteer participants who showed interest in, and committed themselves to, this study (i.e., no drop-outs or selection being made from a pool), it is worth noting that the researchers worked with each participant over an extended period of time (prolonged engagement), focused on investigating and gathering identifiable, as well as documentable, aspects of the participants’ ICT understandings and practices (persistent observation), and employed analysis techniques that incorporated peer debriefing, member checking, and fair presentation of assertions (Guba & Lincoln, 1989 ).

The aim was to unlock and identify views of reality held by the participants. The empirical evidence was used to help develop commentary and critique of the phenomenon which was the focus of the study (i.e., ICT use), including what the phenomenon is and how it occurs/is enacted/revealed in a particular context (viz., in doctoral research). This was, therefore, a different kind of study from one that might commence with a hypothesis, which would be concerned more with objectivity, explanation and testable propositions. In short, the methods employed in the current study fitted the intention to solve a “puzzle” about a phenomenon in relation to a particular context.

As this study involved human participants, ethical approval was gained through the institutional processes. This approval (University of Otago Human Ethics Committee reference number D17/414 and Victoria University of Wellington, Ethics Committee reference number 0000023415) enabled data collection methods described in the previous section to be carried out for any doctoral students and supervisors who volunteered to participate in this study. Ethical consent, use and care of the data as well as the ethical treatment of students and staff as participants were integral to the research design, planning and implementation of the whole study.

Findings and discussion

The four assertions are now presented. Each assertion is described and quotations from the interview/discussions along with examples of drawings from the student participants are used to illustrate aspects of each assertion.

Assertion 1: ICT are impartial tools; it does not matter how ICT are used, because the endpoint, that is, thesis completion, is the justification. ICT and people are separate and separated entities.

Students talked about how they worked on their thesis document and on the process of the study they were undertaking. Comments focused on various ICT being used and often on skills needed in order to use them. Some students expressed the view that ICT were tools, separate from the project and the person involved, to be used to achieve an endpoint. For example,

So long as it's formatted – it shouldn't matter - that's their [editors’] responsibility, not mine.

There’s probably a bit more about Zoom [web conferencing application] I could learn but again for me unless it’s a problem, I’m not going to go looking for it… not just for the sake of it at the moment.

Motivation to achieve an outcome was a focus of comments that support this assertion. For many participants, the aim to complete the study and write a thesis was, naturally, a large driver for how they were managing their study. Time was precious, and they would do what they had to do to reach their goal. To be motivated to learn about a new ICT, there needed to be a purpose that sharply focussed on achieving that end.

If the technologies are suddenly not available] I’m happy to sit down with a typewriter and learn it… If I’m not driven, I won’t bother.

This focus is illustrated in Fig.  1 . The drawing shows clearly identified components that make up major elements within the stages of producing the research for the thesis. ICT are listed in relation to those components.

ICT and people are separate and separated entities

Supervisors too, tended to focus on thesis production rather than on the process of producing a thesis that includes the use of ICT (i.e., as opposed to their very clear and explicit focus on the research process). An example illustrating this is:

Generally, people think the standard of the people getting or earning a PhD is that this person should be an independent researcher. [But no] After all, we only examine a particular thesis [and] there are lots of inputs from supports and supervision from supervisors.

In summary, this assertion focusses strongly on the experience of doctoral study being about getting the project done within a research journey that gives minimal regard to the affordances of ICT. ICT are framed as necessary but also fraught, especially due to the effort and time that draw attention away from the primary goal.

Assertion 2: ICT are tools or mechanisms that prompt active thought on practices with respect to planning and managing thesis writing and project execution. ICT and individuals work alongside each other.

Views that expressed notions of there being a close interactive relationship between students and ICT came through in several of the discussions with the participants. The focus on achieving goals and endpoints was strong, but the expression of how to achieve those goals, capitalising upon the affordances that ICT present, was different from the way views were expressed in relation to Assertion 1.

On a simple level, this student describes the checking he did when weighing up the merits of a piece of software to meet his needs.

I normally do a trial version… have a play with it. And if I think they are useful then I might try it on a project. And if then I feel it’s definitely worth investing… then I’ll go buy it.

Others simply liked to explore, to see whether there was potential in any ICT they encountered, as in,

Sometimes I just like playing with stuff to see what they can do and then if they tick my boxes then I keep them and if they don't, I move on. So it's more kind of ‘search and discover’ than kind of looking for something, you know.

Describing a deeper level of activity, a degree of critique and active reflection were indicated by another student when he said,

…we tried an electronic version of putting together a programme for a New Zealand conference and I was surprised how long it took us. Whereas in the past I’ve worked with [colleagues] and we’ve just moved pieces of paper around on the floor for abstracts and we were done really quickly.

These sentiments are well-captured in Fig.  2 . Here, the focus is on experimenting with ICT rather than the research process. The process of working things out to suit the individual is foregrounded.

ICT and individuals work alongside each other

Whereas Assertion 1-type expressions presented effort in a generally negative light, Assertion 2-type expressions couched effort as an assumed part of learning something new. There was a sense expressed in comments that there will be a way to manage the “problem” to be solved, which then generated the necessary motivation to engage effort. For example,

You just know what you know when you start off; when you're unsure about what you need to do. There's a bit of a barrier in front of you. It feels a bit intimidating and overwhelming, and then you get into it and it just works. And you just kind of put all the pieces together and get something out at the end.

There was a sense that supervisors’ perspectives of ICT might support this assertion too. For instance,

[ICT are] integral to everything now – there's no such thing as doing it without [them] anymore – these are the tools with which we do all the things we do.

In summary, this assertion captures the views of students who engage actively in making decisions about which, how and why they incorporate ICT into doctoral research practices.

Assertion 3: Knowing about ICT is only part of the thinking; what is more important is getting the “flow” right. ICT and the individual are in a complementary partnership.

Perhaps prompted by the nature of the drawing task, which was to illustrate how ICT fitted within the whole process of doctoral study, several students described the challenges to bringing everything together into one process made up of many parts, sections and subsections. One participant focussed on her “workflow” in order to manage the multiple documents, tasks and schedule involved in her doctoral research journey.

What systems do I use, what's my workflow? So, I actually spent some weeks looking at … ideas from other PhD students about their workflows and how they manage it.

Similar to Assertion 2-type comments, ‘getting one’s flow right’ involved exploration and an amount of reflective decision-making. For example,

So I did a play around with that [ICT] and found it was quite useful … So I’m trying to be quite disciplined about when I’ve got a document, entering it at the time, reading an article, throw in heaps of tags rather than not …And I simply keep a note, cross referencing to the actual articles. I like to have the articles and for some key ones I like to make a note. So, if it’s a seminal paper that I know I’ll be referring back to.

Thus, students talked about how hard they worked to set up routines and processes to enable them to manage time and their research projects. As in the above excerpts, they referred to categorising documents, searching for resources, undertaking analysis, managing data, and producing the thesis itself.

In working out one’s system or flow, this student highlighted the need to know about the affordances of ICT and how others had made use of them.

…you do need to know a bit about each of the individual … capabilities of the different systems to know what's even possible… but alongside that you're kind of reading other people's ideas of how they did it, and you think that bit might work for me oh, but that bit won't… so then you can kind of mix and match a bit.

The drawing in Fig.  3 highlights the “flow”. Absent of all words, this illustration draws attention to the movement of ideas, thoughts, processes and actions, from a number of different points but all ultimately converging or contributing to the one path.

ICT and the individual are in a complementary partnership

There was a hint that at least one of the supervisors saw the need for a workflow in this same vein: “So long as [the students are] happy with what they’re using – they should use ‘a’ system,”

In summary, this assertion highlights that what is important with respect to ICT and the doctoral process is how it all comes together within one’s flow. That flow incorporates active effort on the part of the individual in finding ICT and practices that suit the individual’s approaches as well as their project demands.

Assertion 4: ICT are not neutral; there is a two-way interaction between technologies as artefacts and the use of them to achieve ends. ICT and the person are intricately linked through multiple active, practical, goal-oriented connections.

This assertion draws attention to the nature of technology as a phenomenon; that technology is not an impartial tool that has no influence on the way humans act and react. This assertion presents ICT as an artefact of technological design activity; as a source of improving efforts to achieve an endpoint; but also as an influencer and even determiner of the thinking and practices of the person interacting with the ICT (e.g., Baird, 2002 ).

On what could be argued a superficial level, this student noted some active connection between the person and the software application, beyond simple use, when he commented:

I think it goes both ways, the product has to be intuitive and you’ve got to have a little bit of inclination to try out different things.

Others went beyond the superficial to describe more in-depth relationships between themselves and the ICT they were using. When discussing her use of software to help her manage her project and her time, this student talked about how the ICT she was using supported and enhanced her thinking.

Using the application] really changed the way I started to think about [my research]. I started to be less worried about the big overwhelming long term stuff that was out there and just think, okay, this week, what am I going to do this week, how am I going to be really efficient and targeted, and I think that really helped me.

Following is another example of how ICT helped solve a problem while simultaneously having an influence on behaviour; in this instance with organising notes, ideas and documents.

“… and it's the same with my note-taking because [the programme] that I use has a similar sort of functionality that it can search text that you've written but also search notes and PDF docs and those kind of things, so it means that when you've had a random thought and put it somewhere you can find it again. Which is huge for me, so I guess that … the power of the search engine is probably the thing that drove me to become paperless, so it helps me to organize myself much better. … filing paper is a skill that I have not mastered whereas filing digital stuff is not as important because you can always just find it again.

Figure  4 illustrates this intricately intertwined interactivity among person, purpose, project, ICT and outcomes.

ICT and the person are intricately linked through multiple active, practical, goal-oriented connections

While we did not find strong evidence for supervisors’ thoughts about this integrated and embedded notion of ICT, one supervisor did note “I could probably build them into my system, but I just never have”.

In summary, Assertion 4 highlights the integral role that ICT can be perceived to play in doctoral research processes. This is more than the working-alongside connection illustrated by Assertion 2 and the complementary partnership characterised by Assertion 3.

Assertions 1 and 2 highlight that individuals hold assumptions about, and have expectations of, ICT use; and those expectations and assumptions influence and determine their judgements about ICT and their use of ICT. The assertions point to connections between perceptions and practices. Assertion 1 describes a perception that ICT are separate from the person and the task-at-hand, while Assertion 2 presents a perception in which the person and the ICT are working alongside each other in harmony or at least in a loose partnership. Both assertions focus on endpoints, but the endpoints vary according to the perception of where ICT fit into the journey towards their achievement. For Assertion 1-type expressions, there is one major endpoint. For Assertion 2-type expressions, there are multiple, shorter-term endpoints that build towards achieving the major goal of completing the thesis.

Building on Assertions 1 and 2 are Assertions 3 and 4, which highlight what may be argued as more complex levels of perceiving and working with ICT. Both assertions give some focus to inter-connections, where people and ICT partner or collaborate. Assertion 3 depICT a perception that is about complementarity; where ICT affordances are seen as worthwhile when they support and enhance the work of the individual in ways that make sense to that individual. Assertion 4 builds on Assertion 3 by bringing to light the relationship in which the person alters and changes thinking or practices because of the influence that ICT affordances can have. No evidence was found to support a possible additional claim that as well as ICT causing individuals to alter and modify thinking and behaviours due to their existence, ICT, in turn, are perceived to be able to alter their ways of responding to the people who use them. This is not out of the realms of possibility of course, with ICT increasingly being designed and built to be able to respond to users’ needs.

It is also worth mentioning that the ‘types’ of ICT and the extent of their use by the participants was not the focus of this study. However, the findings suggested that the participants’ ICT use, regardless of their PhD phase and broad discipline background, might have reflected their inability to realise the advantages of learning how to use current ICT-related devices, tools, and applications to enhance the process of undertaking their doctoral research. The evidence that emerged in this study indicated that participants’ perspectives of ICT determined their adoption practices in general (i.e., as illustrated through the four assertions). The boarder higher education context including the specific institution and supervisors, might have neglected the explicit support of PhD students’ ICT capability development in this process.

In addition, while there is no similar study being found thus far, the insights gained from this study are actually similar to the findings in the research studies into the role of ICT in undergraduate education (Butson & Sim, 2013 ; Sim & Butson, 2013 , 2014 ). Results in those studies, demonstrated students’ low levels of ICT use, may be an indication that digital devices and digital tools do not play a significant role in daily study practices. Researchers such as Esposito, Sangrà & Maina ( 2013 ) also show that the PhD students’ learning to become researchers in the digital age is much more complex than is often suggested (e.g., the skills of Prenksy ( 2001 ) “digital natives”). Becoming a researcher involves developing a complex set of knowledge, intellectual abilities, techniques and professional standards. The Researcher Development Framework (Careers Research and Advisory Centre (CRAC), 2010 ) illustrates one useful attempt at mapping out that complexity. It could be that both students’ and supervisors’ adoption of ICT for academic purposes has been overshadowed or taken for granted as a consequence of their advanced academic level.

Implications

The four assertions can be used to provide some guidance to those supporting and participating in doctoral research processes. Students and supervisors do possess a vast array of skills, knowledge and abilities. They have a variety of experiences as well as varying reasons and levels of motivation. Their skills and capacity to make use of ICT to support their roles in the research process vary as well. The assertions that have emerged from this study will inform the planning for support activities to enhance supervisors’ and students’ professional development, whatever their background and needs.

Depending on the perceptions held about ICT and the relationship between ICT and the person in the context of the task and its goals (i.e., the doctoral study) within the doctoral research process as depicted in the four assertions, ICT tend to be seen as a challenge, a change or an opportunity. In the context of ICT use, doctoral students and supervisors may:

assume that if they do not already know how to use something it is not worth learning or exploring as that learning brings with it risk to quality, efficiency and effectiveness of the doctoral research process; and/or.

assume that students will work out the place that ICT play within the research process for themselves.

The findings of this study suggest the need to.

challenge existing ICT knowledge and skill, and to support acceptance of the need to change practices;

teach technological thinking, to enable choice and decision making about ICT;

embed ICT into practices in meaningful ways to suit individual and project needs;

highlight (explicit) responsibilities about thinking and planning skills with respect to making the best use of ICT, to ensure efficiency and effectiveness;

realise that the research process is as much about how it happens as what happens;

recast assumptions about the doctoral research process to embed ICT within it;

reflect on the meaning of effectiveness and efficiency in the context of doctoral research; and the effects of ICT in supporting and facilitating them;

understand that there is a link among ICT thinking and practice: using ICT can enhance or raise ideas that were never thought of before.

This study explored perceptions of doctoral supervisors and students of the role and place of ICT in supervision and study. It generated four assertions characterising those perceptions the relationships among people, ICT and the task-at-hand, that is, the supervised research process. As Castañeda and Selwyn ( 2018 ) argue, it is important that we have an active commitment to ‘think otherwise’ about how ICT might be better implemented across higher education settings” (p. 8). We should not assume that ICT are not important enough to let them fade into the background as they become normalised, without questioning the interrelationships that are happening between the person and the ICT. In the doctoral research setting, as one example of a higher education context, ICT do have a role to play. They cannot and should not be ignored. But seeing ICT in relationship to the person and to the setting is essential.

This project has provided insights into the doctoral students and supervisors’ perceptions of the roles played by ICT during doctoral research process. There are complex human factors, including assumptions, attitudes and conceptions about academic practices, influencing and determining perspectives as well as how ICT are incorporated into doctoral research process, behaviours and practices. Just as Kandiko and Kinchin ( 2012 ) argue that supervision cannot be looked at in the absence of the research work in which it occurs, we argue that doctoral students’ understanding and use of ICT cannot be considered independently of their research work; and that work includes relationships with their project, their supervisors, within the context of the institution, and with the ICT they do and could engage with.

Directly associated with the outcomes of this study, future studies and further exploration could focus on:

ICT use by larger and more diverse groups of doctoral students from a range of fields within discipline areas at institutions outside New Zealand;

building on the findings in order to determine how intensity of ICT use might change for students across the course of their candidature, and in relation to the nature of their research projects;

the role of supervisors, academic departments, and institutions in supporting and enhancing students’ practices and beliefs about ICT in research processes;

the ways in which supervisors engage ICT in their daily academic practices, with a view to exploring how, or if, their ICT use is an influence on PhD students’ beliefs and behaviours in using ICT.

Studying ICT in these directions could offer fresh perspectives and opportunities to think differently and reveal an active way of understanding the role of ICT in doctoral education.

Availability of data and materials

These are not available for open access as their access is bound by the ethical agreement approved by the two institutions and made with the participants in the study.

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Acknowledgements

We thank the students and supervisors who shared their reflections and willingly engaged with us in this project.

We acknowledge the support of Ako Aotearoa, The National Centre for Tertiary Teaching Excellence, New Zealand through its Regional Hub Project Fund (RHPF), and the support of our institutions, University of Otago and Victoria University of Wellington.

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Stein, S.J., Sim, K.N. Enhancing the roles of information and communication technologies in doctoral research processes. Int J Educ Technol High Educ 17 , 34 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-020-00212-3

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Research Topics & Ideas: Education

170+ Research Ideas To Fast-Track Your Project

If you’re just starting out exploring education-related topics for your dissertation, thesis or research project, you’ve come to the right place. In this post, we’ll help kickstart your research topic ideation process by providing a hearty list of research topics and ideas , including examples from actual dissertations and theses..

PS – This is just the start…

We know it’s exciting to run through a list of research topics, but please keep in mind that this list is just a starting point . To develop a suitable education-related research topic, you’ll need to identify a clear and convincing research gap , and a viable plan of action to fill that gap.

If this sounds foreign to you, check out our free research topic webinar that explores how to find and refine a high-quality research topic, from scratch. Alternatively, if you’d like hands-on help, consider our 1-on-1 coaching service .

Overview: Education Research Topics

• How to find a research topic (video)
• List of 50+ education-related research topics/ideas
• List of 120+ level-specific research topics 
• Examples of actual dissertation topics in education
• Tips to fast-track your topic ideation (video)
• Free Webinar : Topic Ideation 101
• Where to get extra help

Education-Related Research Topics & Ideas

Below you’ll find a list of education-related research topics and idea kickstarters. These are fairly broad and flexible to various contexts, so keep in mind that you will need to refine them a little. Nevertheless, they should inspire some ideas for your project.

• The impact of school funding on student achievement
• The effects of social and emotional learning on student well-being
• The effects of parental involvement on student behaviour
• The impact of teacher training on student learning
• The impact of classroom design on student learning
• The impact of poverty on education
• The use of student data to inform instruction
• The role of parental involvement in education
• The effects of mindfulness practices in the classroom
• The use of technology in the classroom
• The role of critical thinking in education
• The use of formative and summative assessments in the classroom
• The use of differentiated instruction in the classroom
• The use of gamification in education
• The effects of teacher burnout on student learning
• The impact of school leadership on student achievement
• The effects of teacher diversity on student outcomes
• The role of teacher collaboration in improving student outcomes
• The implementation of blended and online learning
• The effects of teacher accountability on student achievement
• The effects of standardized testing on student learning
• The effects of classroom management on student behaviour
• The effects of school culture on student achievement
• The use of student-centred learning in the classroom
• The impact of teacher-student relationships on student outcomes
• The achievement gap in minority and low-income students
• The use of culturally responsive teaching in the classroom
• The impact of teacher professional development on student learning
• The use of project-based learning in the classroom
• The effects of teacher expectations on student achievement
• The use of adaptive learning technology in the classroom
• The impact of teacher turnover on student learning
• The effects of teacher recruitment and retention on student learning
• The impact of early childhood education on later academic success
• The impact of parental involvement on student engagement
• The use of positive reinforcement in education
• The impact of school climate on student engagement
• The role of STEM education in preparing students for the workforce
• The effects of school choice on student achievement
• The use of technology in the form of online tutoring

Level-Specific Research Topics

Looking for research topics for a specific level of education? We’ve got you covered. Below you can find research topic ideas for primary, secondary and tertiary-level education contexts. Click the relevant level to view the respective list.

Research Topics: Pick An Education Level

Primary education.

• Investigating the effects of peer tutoring on academic achievement in primary school
• Exploring the benefits of mindfulness practices in primary school classrooms
• Examining the effects of different teaching strategies on primary school students’ problem-solving skills
• The use of storytelling as a teaching strategy in primary school literacy instruction
• The role of cultural diversity in promoting tolerance and understanding in primary schools
• The impact of character education programs on moral development in primary school students
• Investigating the use of technology in enhancing primary school mathematics education
• The impact of inclusive curriculum on promoting equity and diversity in primary schools
• The impact of outdoor education programs on environmental awareness in primary school students
• The influence of school climate on student motivation and engagement in primary schools
• Investigating the effects of early literacy interventions on reading comprehension in primary school students
• The impact of parental involvement in school decision-making processes on student achievement in primary schools
• Exploring the benefits of inclusive education for students with special needs in primary schools
• Investigating the effects of teacher-student feedback on academic motivation in primary schools
• The role of technology in developing digital literacy skills in primary school students
• Effective strategies for fostering a growth mindset in primary school students
• Investigating the role of parental support in reducing academic stress in primary school children
• The role of arts education in fostering creativity and self-expression in primary school students
• Examining the effects of early childhood education programs on primary school readiness
• Examining the effects of homework on primary school students’ academic performance
• The role of formative assessment in improving learning outcomes in primary school classrooms
• The impact of teacher-student relationships on academic outcomes in primary school
• Investigating the effects of classroom environment on student behavior and learning outcomes in primary schools
• Investigating the role of creativity and imagination in primary school curriculum
• The impact of nutrition and healthy eating programs on academic performance in primary schools
• The impact of social-emotional learning programs on primary school students’ well-being and academic performance
• The role of parental involvement in academic achievement of primary school children
• Examining the effects of classroom management strategies on student behavior in primary school
• The role of school leadership in creating a positive school climate Exploring the benefits of bilingual education in primary schools
• The effectiveness of project-based learning in developing critical thinking skills in primary school students
• The role of inquiry-based learning in fostering curiosity and critical thinking in primary school students
• The effects of class size on student engagement and achievement in primary schools
• Investigating the effects of recess and physical activity breaks on attention and learning in primary school
• Exploring the benefits of outdoor play in developing gross motor skills in primary school children
• The effects of educational field trips on knowledge retention in primary school students
• Examining the effects of inclusive classroom practices on students’ attitudes towards diversity in primary schools
• The impact of parental involvement in homework on primary school students’ academic achievement
• Investigating the effectiveness of different assessment methods in primary school classrooms
• The influence of physical activity and exercise on cognitive development in primary school children
• Exploring the benefits of cooperative learning in promoting social skills in primary school students

Secondary Education

• Investigating the effects of school discipline policies on student behavior and academic success in secondary education
• The role of social media in enhancing communication and collaboration among secondary school students
• The impact of school leadership on teacher effectiveness and student outcomes in secondary schools
• Investigating the effects of technology integration on teaching and learning in secondary education
• Exploring the benefits of interdisciplinary instruction in promoting critical thinking skills in secondary schools
• The impact of arts education on creativity and self-expression in secondary school students
• The effectiveness of flipped classrooms in promoting student learning in secondary education
• The role of career guidance programs in preparing secondary school students for future employment
• Investigating the effects of student-centered learning approaches on student autonomy and academic success in secondary schools
• The impact of socio-economic factors on educational attainment in secondary education
• Investigating the impact of project-based learning on student engagement and academic achievement in secondary schools
• Investigating the effects of multicultural education on cultural understanding and tolerance in secondary schools
• The influence of standardized testing on teaching practices and student learning in secondary education
• Investigating the effects of classroom management strategies on student behavior and academic engagement in secondary education
• The influence of teacher professional development on instructional practices and student outcomes in secondary schools
• The role of extracurricular activities in promoting holistic development and well-roundedness in secondary school students
• Investigating the effects of blended learning models on student engagement and achievement in secondary education
• The role of physical education in promoting physical health and well-being among secondary school students
• Investigating the effects of gender on academic achievement and career aspirations in secondary education
• Exploring the benefits of multicultural literature in promoting cultural awareness and empathy among secondary school students
• The impact of school counseling services on student mental health and well-being in secondary schools
• Exploring the benefits of vocational education and training in preparing secondary school students for the workforce
• The role of digital literacy in preparing secondary school students for the digital age
• The influence of parental involvement on academic success and well-being of secondary school students
• The impact of social-emotional learning programs on secondary school students’ well-being and academic success
• The role of character education in fostering ethical and responsible behavior in secondary school students
• Examining the effects of digital citizenship education on responsible and ethical technology use among secondary school students
• The impact of parental involvement in school decision-making processes on student outcomes in secondary schools
• The role of educational technology in promoting personalized learning experiences in secondary schools
• The impact of inclusive education on the social and academic outcomes of students with disabilities in secondary schools
• The influence of parental support on academic motivation and achievement in secondary education
• The role of school climate in promoting positive behavior and well-being among secondary school students
• Examining the effects of peer mentoring programs on academic achievement and social-emotional development in secondary schools
• Examining the effects of teacher-student relationships on student motivation and achievement in secondary schools
• Exploring the benefits of service-learning programs in promoting civic engagement among secondary school students
• The impact of educational policies on educational equity and access in secondary education
• Examining the effects of homework on academic achievement and student well-being in secondary education
• Investigating the effects of different assessment methods on student performance in secondary schools
• Examining the effects of single-sex education on academic performance and gender stereotypes in secondary schools
• The role of mentoring programs in supporting the transition from secondary to post-secondary education

Tertiary Education

• The role of student support services in promoting academic success and well-being in higher education
• The impact of internationalization initiatives on students’ intercultural competence and global perspectives in tertiary education
• Investigating the effects of active learning classrooms and learning spaces on student engagement and learning outcomes in tertiary education
• Exploring the benefits of service-learning experiences in fostering civic engagement and social responsibility in higher education
• The influence of learning communities and collaborative learning environments on student academic and social integration in higher education
• Exploring the benefits of undergraduate research experiences in fostering critical thinking and scientific inquiry skills
• Investigating the effects of academic advising and mentoring on student retention and degree completion in higher education
• The role of student engagement and involvement in co-curricular activities on holistic student development in higher education
• The impact of multicultural education on fostering cultural competence and diversity appreciation in higher education
• The role of internships and work-integrated learning experiences in enhancing students’ employability and career outcomes
• Examining the effects of assessment and feedback practices on student learning and academic achievement in tertiary education
• The influence of faculty professional development on instructional practices and student outcomes in tertiary education
• The influence of faculty-student relationships on student success and well-being in tertiary education
• The impact of college transition programs on students’ academic and social adjustment to higher education
• The impact of online learning platforms on student learning outcomes in higher education
• The impact of financial aid and scholarships on access and persistence in higher education
• The influence of student leadership and involvement in extracurricular activities on personal development and campus engagement
• Exploring the benefits of competency-based education in developing job-specific skills in tertiary students
• Examining the effects of flipped classroom models on student learning and retention in higher education
• Exploring the benefits of online collaboration and virtual team projects in developing teamwork skills in tertiary students
• Investigating the effects of diversity and inclusion initiatives on campus climate and student experiences in tertiary education
• The influence of study abroad programs on intercultural competence and global perspectives of college students
• Investigating the effects of peer mentoring and tutoring programs on student retention and academic performance in tertiary education
• Investigating the effectiveness of active learning strategies in promoting student engagement and achievement in tertiary education
• Investigating the effects of blended learning models and hybrid courses on student learning and satisfaction in higher education
• The role of digital literacy and information literacy skills in supporting student success in the digital age
• Investigating the effects of experiential learning opportunities on career readiness and employability of college students
• The impact of e-portfolios on student reflection, self-assessment, and showcasing of learning in higher education
• The role of technology in enhancing collaborative learning experiences in tertiary classrooms
• The impact of research opportunities on undergraduate student engagement and pursuit of advanced degrees
• Examining the effects of competency-based assessment on measuring student learning and achievement in tertiary education
• Examining the effects of interdisciplinary programs and courses on critical thinking and problem-solving skills in college students
• The role of inclusive education and accessibility in promoting equitable learning experiences for diverse student populations
• The role of career counseling and guidance in supporting students’ career decision-making in tertiary education
• The influence of faculty diversity and representation on student success and inclusive learning environments in higher education

Education-Related Dissertations & Theses

While the ideas we’ve presented above are a decent starting point for finding a research topic in education, they are fairly generic and non-specific. So, it helps to look at actual dissertations and theses in the education space to see how this all comes together in practice.

Below, we’ve included a selection of education-related research projects to help refine your thinking. These are actual dissertations and theses, written as part of Master’s and PhD-level programs, so they can provide some useful insight as to what a research topic looks like in practice.

• From Rural to Urban: Education Conditions of Migrant Children in China (Wang, 2019)
• Energy Renovation While Learning English: A Guidebook for Elementary ESL Teachers (Yang, 2019)
• A Reanalyses of Intercorrelational Matrices of Visual and Verbal Learners’ Abilities, Cognitive Styles, and Learning Preferences (Fox, 2020)
• A study of the elementary math program utilized by a mid-Missouri school district (Barabas, 2020)
• Instructor formative assessment practices in virtual learning environments : a posthumanist sociomaterial perspective (Burcks, 2019)
• Higher education students services: a qualitative study of two mid-size universities’ direct exchange programs (Kinde, 2020)
• Exploring editorial leadership : a qualitative study of scholastic journalism advisers teaching leadership in Missouri secondary schools (Lewis, 2020)
• Selling the virtual university: a multimodal discourse analysis of marketing for online learning (Ludwig, 2020)
• Advocacy and accountability in school counselling: assessing the use of data as related to professional self-efficacy (Matthews, 2020)
• The use of an application screening assessment as a predictor of teaching retention at a midwestern, K-12, public school district (Scarbrough, 2020)
• Core values driving sustained elite performance cultures (Beiner, 2020)
• Educative features of upper elementary Eureka math curriculum (Dwiggins, 2020)
• How female principals nurture adult learning opportunities in successful high schools with challenging student demographics (Woodward, 2020)
• The disproportionality of Black Males in Special Education: A Case Study Analysis of Educator Perceptions in a Southeastern Urban High School (McCrae, 2021)

As you can see, these research topics are a lot more focused than the generic topic ideas we presented earlier. So, in order for you to develop a high-quality research topic, you’ll need to get specific and laser-focused on a specific context with specific variables of interest.  In the video below, we explore some other important things you’ll need to consider when crafting your research topic.

Get 1-On-1 Help

If you’re still unsure about how to find a quality research topic within education, check out our Research Topic Kickstarter service, which is the perfect starting point for developing a unique, well-justified research topic.

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53 Comments

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Special education

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Research title related to students

Good idea I’m going to teach my colleagues

You can find our list of nursing-related research topic ideas here: https://gradcoach.com/research-topics-nursing/

Write on action research topic, using guidance and counseling to address unwanted teenage pregnancy in school

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I learned a lot from this site, thank you so much!

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parental involvement and students academic performance

Science education topics?

How about School management and supervision pls.?

Hi i am an Deputy Principal in a primary school. My wish is to srudy foe Master’s degree in Education.Please advice me on which topic can be relevant for me. Thanks.

Every topic proposed above on primary education is a starting point for me. I appreciate immensely the team that has sat down to make a detail of these selected topics just for beginners like us. Be blessed.

Kindly help me with the research questions on the topic” Effects of workplace conflict on the employees’ job performance”. The effects can be applicable in every institution,enterprise or organisation.

Greetings, I am a student majoring in Sociology and minoring in Public Administration. I’m considering any recommended research topic in the field of Sociology.

I’m a student pursuing Mphil in Basic education and I’m considering any recommended research proposal topic in my field of study

Kindly help me with a research topic in educational psychology. Ph.D level. Thank you.

Project-based learning is a teaching/learning type,if well applied in a classroom setting will yield serious positive impact. What can a teacher do to implement this in a disadvantaged zone like “North West Region of Cameroon ( hinterland) where war has brought about prolonged and untold sufferings on the indegins?

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request suggestions on a topic in managing teaching and learning, PhD level (educational leadership and management)

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Am a PhD student in Educational Foundations would like a sociological topic. Thank

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Greetings and Regards I am a doctoral student in the field of philosophy of education. I am looking for a new topic for my thesis. Because of my work in the elementary school, I am looking for a topic that is from the field of elementary education and is related to the philosophy of education.

Masters student in the field of curriculum, any ideas of a research topic on low achiever students

In the field of curriculum any ideas of a research topic on deconalization in contextualization of digital teaching and learning through in higher education

Amazing guidelines

I am a graduate with two masters. 1) Master of arts in religious studies and 2) Master in education in foundations of education. I intend to do a Ph.D. on my second master’s, however, I need to bring both masters together through my Ph.D. research. can I do something like, ” The contribution of Philosophy of education for a quality religion education in Kenya”? kindly, assist and be free to suggest a similar topic that will bring together the two masters. thanks in advance

Hi, I am an Early childhood trainer as well as a researcher, I need more support on this topic: The impact of early childhood education on later academic success.

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Using ICT in Inquiry-Based Science Education pp 1–37 Cite as

ICT-Based Science Education: Main Digital Resources and Characterisation

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• António M. Rodrigues 5 &
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Part of the book series: SpringerBriefs in Education ((BRIEFSEDUCAT))

This chapter analyses the main digital resources and Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) and their effects on science education. Different studies were used to reflect on two aspects: (1) science teaching and learning through ICT tools and digital resources and (2) science teaching and learning through the use of digital laboratories. It is verified that in the literature in science education, there are different emphases, such as an emphasis on the use of software, the Internet, computer games, and virtual and remote laboratories, among others. Also, there are examples of the effective use of ICT; however, studies suggest that the essential component for ICT-based science teaching and learning is determined by the teacher’s pedagogical approaches. In particular, there are few studies that report strategies and didactics for the use of ICT in science classes, and they place a greater emphasis on outcomes and resources rather than on the teaching process.

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Rocha Fernandes, G.W., Rodrigues, A.M., Rosa Ferreira, C.A. (2019). ICT-Based Science Education: Main Digital Resources and Characterisation. In: Using ICT in Inquiry-Based Science Education. SpringerBriefs in Education. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-17895-6_1

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