game addiction essay titles

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

15.9 Cause-and-Effect Essay

Learning objective.

• Read an example of the cause-and-effect rhetorical mode.

Effects of Video Game Addiction

Video game addition is a serious problem in many parts of the world today and deserves more attention. It is no secret that children and adults in many countries throughout the world, including Japan, China, and the United States, play video games every day. Most players are able to limit their usage in ways that do not interfere with their daily lives, but many others have developed an addiction to playing video games and suffer detrimental effects.

An addiction can be described in several ways, but generally speaking, addictions involve unhealthy attractions to substances or activities that ultimately disrupt the ability of a person to keep up with regular daily responsibilities. Video game addiction typically involves playing games uncontrollably for many hours at a time—some people will play only four hours at a time while others cannot stop for over twenty-four hours. Regardless of the severity of the addiction, many of the same effects will be experienced by all.

One common effect of video game addiction is isolation and withdrawal from social experiences. Video game players often hide in their homes or in Internet cafés for days at a time—only reemerging for the most pressing tasks and necessities. The effect of this isolation can lead to a breakdown of communication skills and often a loss in socialization. While it is true that many games, especially massive multiplayer online games, involve a very real form of e-based communication and coordination with others, and these virtual interactions often result in real communities that can be healthy for the players, these communities and forms of communication rarely translate to the types of valuable social interaction that humans need to maintain typical social functioning. As a result, the social networking in these online games often gives the users the impression that they are interacting socially, while their true social lives and personal relations may suffer.

Another unfortunate product of the isolation that often accompanies video game addiction is the disruption of the user’s career. While many players manage to enjoy video games and still hold their jobs without problems, others experience challenges at their workplace. Some may only experience warnings or demerits as a result of poorer performance, or others may end up losing their jobs altogether. Playing video games for extended periods of time often involves sleep deprivation, and this tends to carry over to the workplace, reducing production and causing habitual tardiness.

Video game addiction may result in a decline in overall health and hygiene. Players who interact with video games for such significant amounts of time can go an entire day without eating and even longer without basic hygiene tasks, such as using the restroom or bathing. The effects of this behavior pose significant danger to their overall health.

The causes of video game addiction are complex and can vary greatly, but the effects have the potential to be severe. Playing video games can and should be a fun activity for all to enjoy. But just like everything else, the amount of time one spends playing video games needs to be balanced with personal and social responsibilities.

Online Cause-and-Effective Essay Alternatives

Lawrence Otis Graham examines racism, and whether it has changed since the 1970s, in The “Black Table” Is Still There :

• http://scremeens.googlepages.com/TheBlackTableessay.rtf

Robin Tolmach Lakoff discusses the power of language to dehumanize in From Ancient Greece to Iraq: The Power of Words in Wartime :

• http://www.nytimes.com/2004/05/18/science/essay-from-ancient-greece-to-iraq-the-power-of-words-in-wartime.html

Alan Weisman examines the human impact on the planet and its effects in Earth without People :

• http://discovermagazine.com/2005/feb/earth-without-people

Writing for Success Copyright © 2015 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

Video game addiction and emotional states: possible confusion between pleasure and happiness.

• 1 Research Center for Work and Consumer Psychology, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Brussels, Belgium
• 2 Department of Psychiatry and Neurosciences, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands

Internet gaming disorder is characterized by a severely reduced control over gaming, resulting in an increasing gaming time and leading to negative consequences in many aspects of the individual life: personal, family, social, occupational and other relevant areas of functioning (World Health Organization). In the last years, the significant boom in using video games has been raising health issues that remain insufficiently understood. The extent of this phenomenon (the estimated prevalence is between 1.7 and 10% of the general population) has led the mentioned Organization to include gaming disorders in the list of mental health conditions (2018). Several studies show converging findings that highlight the common brain activities between substance use disorders and behavioral addictions (i.e., gaming disorders). Addiction specialists observed that addict subjects tend to confuse pleasure with happiness when linking emotional states to their addictive activities. As far as we know, beyond the mentioned observations, distinguishing the perception of these two emotional states in the frame of an addiction has not been yet the object of formal research. This study aims at examining the possible confusion between pleasure and happiness within the addiction sphere. Video game addiction has been chosen to explore the possible occurrence of this perceptional distortion. A mixed design lab-based study was carried out to compare between video games addicts and non-addicts (between-subjects), and video games-related activities and neutral activities (within-subject). Emotional reactions were gauged by self-reported scales and physiological data acquired through a range of biosensors: Relaxation and Hearth Rate. From a therapeutic standpoint, this research intends to explore alternatives to deal with this sort of disorders. More specifically, at the cognitive level, the idea is elaborating guidelines to develop patients’ insights into these emotional states and thus increasing their ability to handle them. Overall, several indices resulting from this study constitute a bundle of arguments that argue in favor of the confusion between pleasure and happiness made by addict users when associating their affective states to video gaming. Furthermore, this approach illustrates how reappraising emotions may contribute to reducing the perceptional distortion of these emotional states.

Introduction

In the last years, the significant boom in using video games (VG) has been raising health issues that remain insufficiently understood ( Khazaal et al., 2016 ). The World Health Organization [WHO] (2018) has recently included “gaming disorders” in the list of mental health conditions. According to WHO this affliction is a “persistent or recurrent behavior pattern of sufficient severity to result in significant impairment in personal, family, social, educational, occupational or other important areas of functioning.”

The fifth revision of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) considers the ‘Internet Gaming Disorder’ as a potential new diagnosis that requires further research ( Petry et al., 2015 ). The prevalence of problematic gaming is estimated to range from 1.7% to over 10% among general population ( Griffiths et al., 2012 ).

Compared to the core topics of research in neuroscience such as stress, depression, etc., the chronic use of VG is a rather recent field of investigation. Yet, a growing number of studies have been produced in this field in the last two decades ( Andreassen et al., 2016 ). Indeed, several research projects have been exploring VG addiction from a behavioral, emotional, brain circuits and genetic perspectives ( Griffiths et al., 2012 ; Dong et al., 2017 ).

There seems to be converging findings that highlight the common brain activities between VG disorders (belonging to the cluster of behavioral addictions) and substance use disorders (SUD). It has been shown that the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, orbital frontal cortex, para-hippocampal gyrus and thalamus were activated in both disorders ( Han et al., 2011 ). The limbic structures appear to be the key circuits linked with reward and addiction ( Cooper et al., 2017 ). In subjects suffering from these disorders, cues associated with SUD and with behavioral addiction can trigger craving, which is connected with the dopamine reward system ( Ko et al., 2009 ; Han et al., 2011 ). In addition, it has been observed that the level of dopamine released in the ventral striatum when playing a competition like video game is comparable to that provoked by psycho-stimulant drugs ( Koepp et al., 1998 ; Yau et al., 2012 ). Few studies have been carried out on the genetic aspects of this topic. Some of them indicate that there would be genetic background similarities between these two disorders. For example, the homozygous short allelic variant of the 5HTTLPR gene (encoding the serotonin transporter) is more prevalent among the excessive Internet user, which is also linked with increased drug consumption ( Serretti et al., 2006 , as cited in Yau et al., 2012 ; Lee et al., 2008 , as cited in Yau et al., 2012 ).

As described later, studying the confusion between pleasure and happiness in the frame of addiction requires as clear a demarcation as possible between these two emotional states. Although a consensus among scientists on how to define and distinguish pleasure and happiness remains to be reached (see next section Pleasure and Happiness ), in this research we have adopted the following distinctive traits to describe and to work with these two emotional states: pleasure relates to a transient emotional state resulting from the satisfaction of a desire, a craving, and happiness refers to a lasting emotional state of contentment, euthymia ( Pollard, 2003 ; Lustig, 2017 ).

According to Lustig (2017) , addictions together with depression are two rampant afflictions in the last decades and constitute the harmful extremes of pleasure (associated with the dopaminergic system) and happiness (associated with the serotoninergic system) respectively ( Üstün et al., 2004 ; Lepine and Briley, 2011 ; Szalavitz, 2011 ; Whiteford et al., 2013 ; Gowing et al., 2015 ; Keyes et al., 2015 ). Based on his long practice on addiction issues, this author argues that confusing pleasure (in the sense of longing, craving, strongly driven by a short term reward) with happiness is linked with SUD and with behavioral addictions (i.e., gambling, eating disorders, excessive use of technology like for example social media and VG, etc.), which could lead to depression ( Lawrence et al., 2014 ). According to the author, confusing pleasure with happiness is related to the growth rate of this disorder insofar as it would encourage seeking immediate gratifications perceived as sources of happiness, which in turn triggers the reward system with the risk to sink into the vicious circle of addiction ( Pollard, 2003 ). Besides, the significant industrial development, through its commercial campaigns, probably tended to lead individuals to equate consumption with happiness ( Schmidt, 2016 ; Lustig, 2017 ). From a physiological standpoint, the author highlights that an over excited reward system engenders an excess of dopamine (DA) release from the ventral tegmental area, which in return decreases serotonin (5HT) level (associated with depression) ( Pollard, 2003 ; MacNicol, 2016 ).

Moreover, Lustig underlines that DA and 5HT amino acids (needed for the production of DA and 5HT) share the amino acid transporters, which poses a problem in case of DA amino acid over presence: that is to say, the more amino acids for DA, the less amino acids transporters are available for 5HT amino acids. In short, this DA-5HT unbalance illustrates one of the facets of the DA-5HT interaction in which the low 5HT level, associated with depression, prevents the serotoninergic system to exert its inhibitory role to imped the over drive of the dopaminergic system ( Esposito et al., 2008 ).

Chronic stress and anxiety may further aggravate this problem by increasing the cortisol level and thus creating a loop with dopamine activating the sympathetic nerve system and reinforcing the reward seeking behavior while down-regulating 5HT -1a receptor, which decreases the serotonin signaling and increases the depression likelihood ( Lustig, 2017 ). These findings are in line with studies that associate stress, anxiety and depression with Internet gaming disorders ( Wenzel et al., 2009 ; Griffiths et al., 2012 ).

Fundamentally, from a phylogenetic standpoint, it is likely that pleasure has contributed more than happiness ( Pollard, 2003 ; Lustig, 2017 ), which could explain the stronger drive of the short term gratifications over the quest for medium and long term euthymia. In sum, this suggests that identifying the possible confusion between the mentioned emotional states associated with the addictive activities may contribute to deepen the understanding of this sort of disorders and consequently to explore new therapeutic options.

The emotional states (and their consequences) associated with VG as felt and perceived by chronic users led to thorough interrogations of health professionals. Several studies intended to explore this issue by focusing on the individual characteristics of addict players. For instance, the general level of happiness appears to be a firm candidate to predict addiction to VG playing ( Hull et al., 2013 ). In effect, it has been shown that gaming disorders are positively correlated with depression and loneliness and negatively correlated with well-being ( Lemmens et al., 2011 ; Sarda et al., 2016 ). These two studies relied on a eudaimonic notion of well-being (i.e., life satisfaction, a life well lived). Thus, based on the mentioned definitions of pleasure and happiness, on the semantic net (see Annex ) and on the analysis made in the next section (Pleasure and Happiness), in this research well-being is assimilated to happiness due to the considerable common ground shared between these two concepts. In line with these findings, another study highlights the association between high frequency of online gaming with depression and social phobia ( Wei et al., 2012 ). Similar results were found in a study in which, compared with no addict Internet user, Internet addict subjects used to play online games reported significantly more depressive symptoms ( Geisel et al., 2015 ).

From a psychological symptoms standpoint, it has also been observed that when playing VG, addict gamers have a sense of well being or euphoria while playing VG, inability to stop the activity, craving more time at playing VG, feeling empty, depressed, irritable when not playing VG, with all the pernicious consequences these symptoms have on the private, social and professional life ( Griffiths, 2008 ). At glance, the coexistence of well being and craving might come across as paradoxical, although the mentioned work ( Lustig, 2017 ) on this issue provides some elements of answer to this finding.

Using a video game clip as a stimulation trial, it has been studied ( Kim et al., 2018 ) the craving state of chronic users when playing VG through measures resulting from addiction questionnaires and several bio signals such as eye blinking, eye saccadic movements, skin conductance and respiratory rate. The results of this work showed that during the stimulation trial video game there was a decrease of eye blinking rate, eye saccadic movement rate and mean amplitude of the skin conductance response whereas there was a significant increase of the mean respiratory rate.

Another study ( Lu et al., 2010 ; as cited in Kim et al., 2018 ) focused on a group of individuals with high risks of developing Internet gaming disorders (IGD) and their sympathetic nervous system responses. When using Internet in this experiment, increases were observed in blood volume, body temperature and respiratory rate. Heart rate (HR) has also been used as a reliable indicator of craving in subjects with SUD ( Kennedy et al., 2015 ).

Pleasure and Happiness

The psychophysiological and brain mechanisms of pleasure and happiness are quite complex and probably more research is required to better discerning these processes. Some studies have underlined that the hedonic system includes wanting and liking and each of these two emotional states may operate in a conscious and unconscious mode ( Berridge and Kringelbach, 2011 ). Studies indicate that unconscious wanting would function as a conditioned desire involving the nucleus accumbens, ventral tegmental area, hypothalamus and dopamine; on the other hand the unconscious liking would relate to a sensory hedonic dimension associated with the nucleus accumbens, ventral pallidum, periaqueductal gray, amygdala, opioids and cannabinoids ( Kringelbach and Berridge, 2009 ; Berridge and Kringelbach, 2013 ). The same studies show that conscious wanting would relate to cognitive incentives, subjective desires and dopamine whereas conscious liking would be linked with subjective pleasures, opioids and cannabinoids; both would involve the orbitofrontal cortex, anterior cingulate and insular.

It has been shown that the level of activation of some of the mentioned areas would be altered in subjects with Internet gaming disorders: sensing craving for gaming is associated with an increased activation of the left orbitofrontal cortex (correlated with desire for VG play) and with a decreased activation in the anterior cingulate cortex (probably linked with the reduced capacity to inhibit craving for gaming) ( Wang et al., 2017 ).

There might be a relation between the complexity of these brain circuits linked to these emotional states and the polysemy of these two terms, happiness and pleasure , which may contribute to the possible confusion between them. Indeed, the intense interrelation between them finds expression in subtle distinctive features and in some connotations with vague borders, to the extent that these words might be regarded as almost synonyms. The semantic analysis of these two terms produced in this research intends to show their core meanings, their nuances and the possible intersections between them ( Procter, 1985 ). Trying to unravel and to understand these two emotional states is not a recent endeavor. For instance, Greek thinkers approached the notion of happiness as a state constituted by two components: Hedonia (pleasure) and Eudaimonia (a life well lived) ( Kringelbach and Berridge, 2009 ).

Due to its nature, defining and studying happiness is a quite uneasy task. Although progress has been made on this rather recent area of study, there is still a lack of consensus when it comes to defining this concept. Some authors distinguish fluctuating happiness (self centered) from durable, authentic happiness (self-transcendent) ( Dambrun et al., 2012 ). Another study uses the value-arousal model on emotions to define it, according to which happiness results from a positive valence, high arousal and engaged and satisfied in life ( Cipresso et al., 2014 ). Lustig (2017) emphasizes the time perspective as one of the distinguishing traits between these two emotional states by opposing the short-term logic of pleasure to the longer-term characteristics of happiness .

These last two studies are quite illustrative of the differences with regard to defining happiness , in particular when it comes to including or not pleasure in it. Whilst there seems to be a consensus on “life satisfaction,” “connecting with others” and “contentment” as the main traits of happiness , it is less clear whether pleasure is part of it. Usually, in the literature there are two understandings to articulate these emotional states: either both ( happiness and pleasure) are seen as inseparable concepts or happiness is regarded as a state free from distress (‘liking’ without ‘wanting’) ( Kringelbach and Berridge, 2010 ; Berridge and Kringelbach, 2011 ; Loonen and Ivanova, 2016 ; Lustig, 2017 ). Whether or not pleasure is included in the definition of happiness , to the best of our knowledge there is no study that includes craving (intense desire, longing) as a trait of happiness .

Thus, based on the mentioned definitions and on the association between craving and arousal ( Kennedy et al., 2015 ), craving for playing VG may subscribe itself within the realm of pleasure , but stands outside of the happiness’ sphere.

Within the frame of this research, Pleasure refers to the hedonic reward processes driven by a desire to obtain a gratification that can lead to craving in certain circumstances ( Berridge and Kringelbach, 2011 ). Pleasure has been associated with the dopaminergic circuit which can, in certain circumstances, function in an addictive mode and can affect also habits, conditioning, motivation and executives functions such as decision making, inhibitory control, etc. ( Volkow et al., 2011 ).

Happiness is understood as contentment and euthymic state, in line with a happy emotional state defined by a positive valence and low arousal ( Jatupaiboon et al., 2013 ). Physiologically, this state implies a reposed mind; akin to the relaxation state measured through the brain electrical activity ( Teplan and Krakovskà, 2009 ). In the literature this mood is related to the serotoninergic circuit ( Lustig, 2017 ).

To the best of our knowledge, there is no existing questionnaire focusing on the association between VG and pleasure/happiness. Thus, our study required a preliminary phase to design such self-report tool whose aim is to explore the perceived emotional states (pleasure/happiness) associated with VG play.

As far as we know, distinguishing the perception of these two emotional states in the frame of an addiction has not been yet the object of formal research, hence the reduced literature on this specific issue, in particular the experimental one.

Consequently this research may be seen as a preliminary study, which aims at examining the possible confusion between pleasure and happiness within the addiction sphere. VG addiction has been chosen to explore the possible occurrence of this perceptional distortion. Emotional reactions of VG addicts and VG non-addicts were gauged via self-report scales and physiological data (Heart rate and Relaxation state) acquired by a range of biosensors.

Resulting from the mentioned background, it is hypothesized that addict VG users:

Are likely to confuse the notions of pleasure with that of happiness when associating their emotional states to VG play.

The results of this study are expected to show that addict VG users associate happiness with VG activities while feeling craving for playing accompanied by an increased HR and a low relaxation level. Given the shortage of previous researches on the specific issue related to the confusion between pleasure and happiness in VG addiction, the outcome of this study is approached in an exploratory manner.

From a therapy standpoint, this project intends to explore alternatives to deal with this kind of scenarios. More specifically, at the cognitive level, the idea is finding means to develop patients’ insights into these emotional states and thus increasing their ability to handle them.

Materials and Methods

Preliminary phase: design of the “pleasure and/or happiness and vg” questionnaire, participants.

In total 105 VG players participated in this survey, out of which 61 filled all the questionnaires required for the design of the “Pleasure and/or Happiness and VG” questionnaire. The mean age of these 61 participants was 24.28 and the standard deviation 5.48. There were 33 males (54.1%) and 28 females (45.9%). The mean of playtime during working days was 4.49 h and the standard deviation 6.82, and during holidays and weekends 4.68 h and the standard deviation 3.13.

An online survey was run via video game forum and Reddit site (network of communities with common interests). The purpose of this survey was to evaluate the internal coherence of our self-report tool (Pleasure and/or Happiness and VG) relative to two validated questionnaires (on Hedonic tone and Happiness). Thus the survey consisted in filling the three questionnaires. Participants completed anonymously and voluntarily the questionnaires through their online gamers groups.

Two validated and known questionnaires were used to construct the ‘ Pleasure and/or Happiness and VG’ questionnaire through which the emotional states associated with VG activities were evaluated: the Snaith-Hamilton Pleasure Scale (SHAPS) ( Snaith et al., 1995 ), an assessment tool of hedonic tone, and the Oxford Happiness Questionnaire (OHQ) ( Hills and Argyle, 2002 ). The French version of these two questionnaires was used ( Loas et al., 1997 ; Bruchon-Schweitzer and Boujut, 2014 ).

The abbreviated SHAPS is composed of 14 items to assess the hedonic tone and the absence of it. The answer scale for each item offers four possible options ranging from ‘Definitely agree’ to ‘Strongly disagree.’ The OHQ is extensively used to evaluate the individual level of happiness. For each of its 29 items, the answer scale has 6 options going from ‘Strongly disagree’ to ‘Strongly agree.’

Several items of the SHAPS and the OHQ are quite adapted to the VG paradigm and lend themselves to be contextualized. For example, the first item of the SHAPS questionnaire is formulated as: “I would enjoy my favorite television or radio program.” In this case “television or radio program” is replaced by “video game.” An example of OHQ concerns the item “I am very happy,” which became “I am very happy when playing VG.” So, these kinds of items constitute the questionnaire whose aim is identifying the emotional states that users associate with VG. Initially, eight items were adapted to VG from these two questionnaires: four items from SHAPS and four items from OHQ. The answer scale provides with six possible options ranging from ‘fully disagree’ to ‘fully agree.’

Statistical Analysis

In order to ensure the usefulness of the designed self-report tool, an Alpha Cronbach test was run on the results of this survey to measure the internal coherence between the ‘VG and Pleasure/Happiness’ and the two other questionnaires (SHAPS and OHQ). Moreover, it has been examined whether there is a correlation between VG play frequency and the two areas explored in this survey: the general happiness level (OHQ) and the emotional states associated with VG (‘Pleasure and/or Happiness and VG’).

The Experiment

The study was announced through the Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB) scientific social media as well as via leaflets available in public cyber games centers in Brussels. Gamers interested to participate in this study had to answer an on-line survey ( N = 163), in which the following data was gathered: age, play frequency, name of VG played and a validated test to assess the gaming addiction level (Gaming Addiction Scale, Lemmens et al., 2009 ). The French version of this scale was used ( Gaetan et al., 2014 ). Being used to play to at least one of these five popular VG (Fornite, Overwatch, League of Legends, Counter-Strike or Rocket League) and an age ranging from 18 to 70 years old were the inclusion criteria. Competing against another team and playing in groups are the common characteristics of these VG. The exclusion criteria were having vision impairments and neurological problems.

Two groups of gamers were invited to participate in this study: addict users (AU) and non-addict users (NAU). None of the invitees met the exclusion criteria. The selection and recruitment were based on the score obtained in the test on gaming addiction, resulting in: AU ( N = 12) and NAU ( N = 17) (7 females and 22 males, ranging from 19 to 29 years old). They were all French speakers Belgian residents. The mean age was 23 and the standard deviation of 3. The difference between sexes in terms of VG addiction is not statistically significant (3/7 AU females and 9/22 AU males, U 45.5, p = 0.130).

This experiment took place within the frame in the usability laboratory of the Research Centre of Work and Consumer Psychology, Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB).

Before the experiment all the procedures were explained to participants and their consent was asked on formal basis. They were informed that:

– This experiment aims at better understanding the video game phenomenon (without mentioning the issue relative to the emotional states and VG).

– They have to fill several questionnaires (in French).

– Some non-invasive artifacts are set to gather measurements on physiological signals while they watch video clips.

– The Ethical Committee of ULB approved this study in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.

The participants were welcome into the testing room of the laboratory by the examiner. They were seated and given an informed consent form. Once the form was read and signed, the study procedure was explained. Then, the Electroencephalogram (EEG) headset was placed onto the participant’s head and an impedance check was run.

Before the beginning of the experiment, each participant chose his/her favorite VG he/she uses to play among the five initially proposed. During the experiment, the examiner observed the participant through a one-way-glass, avoiding interference.

Finally, participants were thanked for their participation, compensated and given information on obtaining the results of the study. The whole experimental run took around 1 h.

Prior to starting the operational phases of the experiment, all devices are set to initiate the baseline recording of all the physiological signals.

Six phases compose this experiment ( Figure 1 ). In each phase of the experiment the emotional states associated with VG were examined either through self-report questionnaires or via physiological measures. The physiological measures were recorded during the visioning of two sorts of video clips: VG clips whose aim was to induce craving and neutral video clips (documentaries on nature) intending to reduce craving.

Figure 1. Synthetic view of the experimental phases.

The six experimental phases:

(1) “Pleasure and/or Happiness and VG” (six items): Participants were invited to fill the self-report questionnaire designed in the preliminary phase.

(2) Watching a neutral clip during 2 min while recording physiological signals related the mentioned two emotional states. This phase intends to decrease craving in participants.

(3) Craving score: Participants were asked to express their craving state to play their favorite VG via a one item self-report questionnaire.

(4) Watching a VG clip during 2 min while recording the same physiological signals as in phase two related to the mentioned emotional states. The objective of this phase is to increase craving in participants.

(5) Craving score: the same procedure and self-report tool as in phase 3 were applied.

(6) Submission of three self-report questionnaires:

(6.1) “Pleasure and/or Happiness and VG” (Three bipolar items).

(6.2) “Key words and VG”: participants were invited to associate a list of words to VG activities.

(6.3) “Pleasure and VG or Happiness and VG” (one bipolar item): participants were asked to associate one of the two emotional states to VG play.

The cycle from the 2nd phase to the 5th phase was repeated five times for each participant. In each of these five cycles, different episodes of video clips (the chosen VG and the neutral clip) were shown randomly so as to avoid the habituation phenomenon and minimize the influence that the order of the sequence of episodes could have on participants’ responses.

– Experimental groups: AU and NAU

The Gaming Addiction Scale (GAS) ( Lemmens et al., 2009 ; Gaetan et al., 2014 ) was used to constitute these groups. As a tool to measure game addiction, GAS possesses significant assets. Lemmens et al. (2009) showed the validity of this scale from a cross population point of view and its one-dimensional characteristic resulting from the factorial analysis. In addition, in the same study it has been shown the concurrent validity of GAS insofar as this scale is associated with play frequency as well as with psychological features related with game addiction, namely decreased level of social competence and of well being, and high level of aggression and of loneliness. Moreover, high scores in GAS are also linked with attentional deficiencies in response inhibition when perceiving game cues ( van Holst et al., 2012 ; in Khazaal et al., 2016 ), which converges with results produced by other researches associating impulsivity and cue reactivity with other addictive behaviors ( Billieux et al., 2011 ; Khazaal et al., 2012 ; Torres et al., 2013 ). Relative to other game addiction measurements, GAS has the most complete covering of the Internet gaming disorder criteria of the DSM-5 ( Petry et al., 2014 ). Although it was initially designed for adolescents, there are substantial evidences to state that GAS is applicable for young adults too ( Khazaal et al., 2016 ).

Each of the seven items of this scale starts with the question “How often in the last 6 months…?” to explore the impact of video gaming on different aspects of the subject’s life. The possible answers are: never, rarely, sometimes, often and very often. The first two answers score 0, the last three answers score 1. If the total sum of these scores is 4 or higher, the subject is considered an AU according to this scale.

– The experiment

In the first phase, participants were asked to fill the “ Pleasure and/or Happiness and VG” questionnaire composed by six items: three items that tie Pleasure (P) and VG, three items that tie Happiness (H) and VG (six-items in total).

The answer scale for each item was composed of six options ranging from ‘Fully disagree’ to ‘fully agree.’ Each of these six items is answered separately, thus the overall possible results of this questionnaire can be: (1) P and VG > H and VG or (2) H and VG < P and VG or, (3) P and VG = H and VG.

In the second phase (Neutral video clip), two physiological signals related to Pleasure and Happiness were recorded. Based on the correlates found between HR and craving, this physiological signal is used as an indicator of arousal ( Kennedy et al., 2015 ).

Despite the difficulty in defining and in measuring happiness , the brain electrical activity is recorded (Electroencephalogram, EEG) mainly to detect the relaxation state. This state appears close to the notion of happiness; in the literature it is accepted that the increase of alpha waves is correlated with mental and physical rest ( Teplan and Krakovskà, 2009 ).

In the third phase, participants were asked to express their craving state to play his/her favorite VG. The statement employed in this self-report tool was: “State your present craving for gaming.” Participants have to choose the answer that best fitted their self-assessment among six possible answers offered by the scale ranging from “I do not feel any craving for gaming” to “I feel a very strong craving for gaming.”

In the fourth phase (VG clip), the same physiological signals as in the second phase were measured.

In the fifth phase, the same procedure to assess craving for gaming as in the third phase was employed.

In the sixth phase, three other self-report questionnaires were submitted to participants and used to evaluate the association between the mentioned emotional states and VG:

– “Pleasure and/or Happiness and VG” (three bipolar items). The same six items of the “Pleasure and/or Happiness and VG” questionnaire used in phase 1 were presented in a bipolar structure: three items opposing “Pleasure and VG” vs. “Happiness and VG.” For example, if in the six items questionnaire the items “I would enjoy my favorite VG” (Pleasure/VG) and “I am happy when playing VG” (Happiness/VG) are presented separately, in this questionnaire they are part of the same item: “I would enjoy my favorite VG” vs. “I am happy when playing VG.” By doing so, participants are encouraged to choose which of their emotional states (Pleasure, Happiness) is associated with VG playing. That said, the scale has an uneven number of options (five) between the two extremes, the central option representing the equal association of Pleasure and Happiness with VG play. Thus, the overall possible results are identical as in phase 1.

– “Key words and VG”. Participants were asked to choose three words (out of ten) that they associate most with their VG activities. These 10 key words come from the semantic mapping elaborated in this research of the terms used in the formal statements defining pleasure and happiness in this study. For example, some words from the happiness sphere are contentment and well being , whereas desire and joy relate to pleasure . Besides, they are in line with both definitions Lustig’s (2017) . Only the ten words (French version) were shown to participants. Although the possible results are similar to those of six-item “Pleasure and/or Happiness and VG” questionnaire and three-bipolar item “Pleasure and/or Happiness and VG” questionnaire, this time the same association (emotional states and VG) is tackled via key words directly linked to the two studied emotional states ( Pleasure, Happiness ) but without mentioning them. This self-report format intends to gain accuracy in the identification of gamers’ emotional states associated with VG.

– “Pleasure and VG or Happiness and VG”. The written definitions of both pleasure and happiness , based on work Lustig’s (2017) , were shown to participants. Then they were asked to read carefully these definitions and to take them into account when answering one bi-polar item that opposes “Pleasure and VG” vs. “Happiness and VG.” Unlike in the three-bipolar items questionnaire, the answer scale between these this bipolar item has an even number of options (six). This time is an “either/or” choice they are faced with, therefore the possible results are: P and VG < H and VG or P and VG > H and VG. Basically this questionnaire intends to strengthen consistency in participants’ insights into this issue by inviting them to confront their perception of their emotional states associated with VG play with the mentioned formal definitions, comparable to an emotions reappraisal process ( Seay and Kraut, 2007 ).

In short, four self-report questionnaires (see Annex ) aim at exploring this dependent variable (association between these two emotional states and VG play) by looking at the consistency of participants’ answers to the different formats of questions. The questions’ formats are:

– Pleasure and/or happiness can be associated with VG (six independent items);

– Pleasure and/or happiness can be associated to VG (three bipolar items);

– Pleasure and/or happiness can be associated to VG through key words defining the two emotional states (without mentioning the words pleasure and happiness );

– Pleasure or happiness can be associated to VG (written explicit definitions of pleasure and happiness are given to participants).

This approach aims at exploring the coherence between the self-reported answers and the physiological signals, as a means to objectivize the perceived emotional states associated with VG play by the two mentioned groups of participants (addict gamers and non-addict gamers).

The previously mentioned theoretical framework indicates that the notion of craving relates to an arousal state that could lead to an addictive pattern and consequently stands out of the realm of happiness.

Expected Results

Based on the analysis made on this issue previously as well as on the hypothesis of this study, the expected results could be synthesized as shown in Table 1 .

Table 1. Summary of the expected results.

– Self-Report Questionnaires

For the self-report questionnaires, it is expected that, compared to NAU, the AU group:

– In “Pleasure and/or happiness associated with VG” (six independent items) associates more happiness than pleasure with VG play.

– Reports more craving for playing after watching VG clip.

– In “ Pleasure and/or happiness associated to VG” (three bipolar items) associates more happiness than pleasure with VG play.

– Associates VG play with key words more related to happiness category than to those of pleasure .

– In “ Pleasure or happiness associated to VG” associates VG play with pleasure (like NAU).

– Physiological Signals

It is expected to observe an interaction between the groups (AU, NAU) and the conditions (VG clip, Neutral clip). Namely, it is assumed that visioning the VG clips has an effect on AU increasing HR while decreasing Relaxation.

After verifying the normality of distributions (Kolmogorov–Smirnov), the means comparison between the two groups (NAU, AU) was calculated for self-report questionnaires measuring the association between VG and Pleasure/Happiness (Mann–Whitney U ) for the six-items “Pleasure and/or Happiness and VG,” the three-bipolar items “Pleasure and/or Happiness and VG” and the one-bipolar item “Pleasure and VG or Happiness and VG.” The Chi square was used for “Key words and VG.” In order to determine whether there are differences between independent groups over time and to identify possible interactions between the two independent variables on the dependent variables, a two-way mixed ANOVA (within and between subjects) was used for the craving scores and the physiological signals recorded ( Table 2 ).

Table 2. Synthetic view of independent and dependent variables.

The experiment was run on a desktop computer with an Intel Core i7 quad processor and 8 GB RAM, running Windows 10. Stimuli were displayed on a 22-inch monitor and resolution was set to 1680 × 1050. Participants used standard mouse and keyboard as input devices. EEG measurement includes detecting the fluctuation of voltage potential generated by large group of neurons in the brain. The EEG signal was obtained through the use of EPOC headset. This device allows to remotely getting data of brain activity using a wireless set of fourteen electrodes (AF3, AF4, F3, F4, F7, F8, FC5, FC6, T7, T8, P7, P8, O1, O2) sampled at 128 hertz.

The relaxation state was measured by one of the composite metrics of the Emotiv software. HR was measured by using Schimer 3 (Photoplethysmography). The I. Motions software version 7.1 (Imotions Inc. 2018) was used to recording the mentioned data and presenting stimuli to participants. The statistical analysis was conducted with IBM SPSS statistics v.25.

Design of the “Pleasure and/or Happiness and VG” Questionnaire

The Cronbach’s alpha (0.859) showed a high internal coherence between the SHAPS and three items (out of four) of the “Pleasure and VG” within the “Pleasure and/or Happiness and VG” questionnaire. The fourth item has been disregarded; its presence would have dropped the Cronbach’s alpha to 0.685. The internal coherence obtained between the OHQ and the “Happiness and VG” items within the “Pleasure and/or Happiness and VG” questionnaire was quite high for the four items concerned (alpha 0.901). However, the internal coherence between these four items was too weak due to one item (alpha 0.407). The exclusion of this item raised the alpha significantly (0.836). Consequently, only the consistent items have been kept (six out of the initial eight items: three on “Pleasure and VG,” and three on “Happiness and VG,” see Annex ).

Moreover, it has been examined whether there is an association between VG play frequency and the two areas explored in this survey: the general happiness level (OHQ) and the emotional states associated with VG via the “Pleasure and/or Happiness and VG” questionnaire. The constitution of the group of frequent gamers and that of non-frequent gamers was determined by calculated median (18 h per week). In line with several studies linking problematic gaming and well-being and life satisfaction, a moderate negative correlation ( R = −0.249; p = 0.056) was found between VG high play frequency and the OHQ scores ( Griffiths, 2008 ; Lemmens et al., 2011 ). In addition, there is a marginal significant difference [ T (58) = 1.923; p = 0.059] between frequent VG users and non-frequent VG users relative to the OHQ scores.

The “Pleasure and/or Happiness and VG” Six-Items Questionnaire

The Kolmogorov–Smirnov outcome indicates the need for using a non-parametric test to compare the two groups. The Mann–Whitney test shows that there was no significant difference observed between the AU and NAU relative to association between VG play and pleasure (item 1. U = 78, p = 0.30; item 3. U = 75, p = 0.24 and item 5 U = 86, p = 0.49) ( Table 3 ).

Table 3. Descriptive statistics of “Pleasure and/or Happiness associated with VG” (6-items): [Pleasure (P), Happiness (H) associated with VG].

In contrast, there is a significant statistical difference in the three items where AU associate VG play with happiness (item 2. U = 40, p = 0.005; item 4. U = 54, p = 0.034 and item 6. U = 34, p = 0.002) more than NAU.

Craving Scores

Results in craving ( Table 4 and Figure 2 ) show a statistically significant interaction F (1,25) = 4.78 ( p = 0.038). Indeed, relative to the neutral clip, the VG clip condition has significantly amplified the reported craving difference between the two groups (AU craving score > NAU craving scores).

Table 4. Descriptive statistics for self-report Craving.

Figure 2. Self-report craving (groups: AU, NAU; conditions: Neutral clips, VG clips).

Physiological Signals Measurements

The AU’s relaxation is significantly lower [ F (1,24) = 8.616; p = 0.007] than NAU’s in both conditions (Between-Subjects Effects). The relaxation level decreases in both groups during the VG clip. On the other hand, conditions do not influence the relaxation difference between the two groups [ F (1,24) = 0.001; p = 0.98] ( Table 5 and Figure 3 ). Furthermore, there is a significant statistical gender difference in both conditions (Neutral clip: Male 17.36, Female 7.57. U = 25, p = 0.008 – VG clip: Male 17.09, Female 8.43. U = 31, p = 0.019).

Table 5. Descriptive statistics: Relaxation index (EEG EPOC, Emotiv software).

Figure 3. Relaxation [groups: AU, NAU; Conditions: (1) Neutral clips, (2) VG clips].

Concerning the other physiological variable (HR) ( Table 6 and Figure 4 ), there is an effect of VG clips on both groups [ F (1,15) = 20.802; p < 0.001]. Nevertheless, there was no statistically significant interaction [ F (1,15) = 0.028; p = 0.86], nor an effect of addiction on VG clip condition [ F (1,15) = 0.083; p = 0.777]. It is important noting that due to corrupted data the number of valid subjects taken into account was 17 (8 AU and 9 NAU).

Table 6. Descriptive statistics: Heart Rate (HR).

Figure 4. Heart Rate [groups: AU, NAU; Conditions: Neutral clips (1), VG clips (2)].

The “Pleasure and/or Happiness and VG” Three-Bipolar Items Questionnaire

The descriptive statistics of this three-bipolar items questionnaire ( Table 7 ), indicate that the AU group linked VG activities more with happiness than the NAU group. The Mann–Whitney test shows a significant difference between these two associations ( U = 47; p = 0.013).

Table 7. Descriptive Statistics: Pleasure/VG vs. Happiness/VG (3 bipolar items).

Key Words and VG

Results state the absence of significant difference between AU and NAU in associating the key words from the Pleasure cluster with VG play, and words from the Happiness cluster with VG (Chi square, p = 0.942) ( Table 8 ). When taking words separately, the biggest gap between the two groups relates to the word well-being (belonging to the happiness cluster) associated to VG play (AU: 25%, NAU: 0%).

Table 8. Descriptive statistics: number of words per category (Pleasure, Happiness) associated to VG play chosen by NAU and AU.

“Pleasure and VG or Happiness and VG” (One Bipolar Item Questionnaire With Written Definitions)

The outcome of this questionnaire indicates that there is no significant difference between AU and NAU ( U = 102, p = 1). Both groups have clearly associated VG play with pleasure ( Table 9 ).

Table 9. Descriptive statistics: Happiness/VG or Pleasure/VG (1 bipolar item, with Definitions of Pleasure and Happiness shown to subjects).

The following scheme summarizes the outcomes of the self-report tools used to evaluate the association between the emotional states (Pleasure and Happiness) with VG play ( Table 10 ).

Table 10. Synthetic view of self-report results (Emotional states associated with VG play).

The following table indicates the mean, standard deviation and Skewness and Kurtosis values of the self-report craving, the HR and the relaxation level for both groups in the two conditions ( Table 11 ).

Table 11. Descriptive statistics for self-report Craving, Relaxation, Heart Rate.

Overall, the results of this study show that AU associate happiness to VG while reporting craving for VG play and having a low relaxation level. These outcomes observed in this experiment constitute a bundle of arguments that argue in favor of the hypothesis of this study ( Lustig, 2017 ). Indeed, in AU, the high self-report craving score and low Relaxation level during VG clips visioning do contrast with their association of VG more with happiness than with pleasure in the mentioned “Pleasure and/or Happiness and VG” questionnaires (six-items and three-bipolar-items) relative to NAU. Consistent with previous findings in this area, these four measurements highlight the coexistence of the perception of happiness linked with VG play combined with elements related to pleasure such as craving ( strong desire, wanting ) ( Pollard, 2003 ; Griffiths, 2008 ; Waterman et al., 2008 ). Since craving and low Relaxation are rather incompatible with the mentioned notion of happiness ( Pollard, 2003 ; Waterman et al., 2008 ; Lustig, 2017 ), these indices may raise the question as to how accurate are AU’s insights into their emotional states associated to VG play and may support the idea that AU’s perception of their emotional states is somewhat distorted. In the literature, VG addiction would be linked with impairment in the self-regulation process, this finding may be linked with the difficulties AU have to observe and evaluate their own behavior ( Seay and Kraut, 2007 ). Besides, the mentioned results suggest that VG clip effect on self-report craving would depend on the addiction level.

Considering that sensing happiness and craving are probably experienced as positive emotions by AU, and that usually negative and positive emotional events are reported to last longer and shorter respectively ( Gil and Droit-Volet, 2012 ; Tian et al., 2018 ), the arousal triggered by motivating stimuli, may modify the time perception and could mediate the effect of emotions on behavior ( Gil and Droit-Volet, 2012 ). In other words, the level of excitement produced by VG play could make AU underestimate the time spent at this activity, which may be perceived as an alleviating evasion free from stressors and possibly assimilated with the notion of happiness . This hypothetic mechanism would match one of the possible motives for online gaming ( Demetrovics et al., 2011 ). In this sort of precognitive process, several studies mentioned the involvement of the amygdala in interaction with the thalamus together with the dopaminergic system and a poor inhibitory control ( Gil and Droit-Volet, 2012 ; Petry et al., 2015 ).

It is noteworthy underlining that the bipolar structure of the three-items questionnaire increases the relevance of this outcome. In effect, although participants were incited to choose between the two emotional states opposing each other (VG and pleasure vs. VG and happiness), like in the six-items questionnaire, AU again did choose happiness as the main emotional state linked with VG play. This outcome would further state the difference between these two groups when it comes to associating the two emotional states to VG play. Besides, this would reveal to an important extent that the possibility whereby pleasure and happiness were regarded as synonyms could be overcome. In other words, this outcome shows that the similarity of meanings of these two concepts did not prevent these groups to make a clear choice. Finally, the similar scores obtained in the two questionnaires (six-items and three-bipolar items “Pleasure and/or Happiness and VG”), in spite of the different disposition of the same items in these two instances, strengthen the value of the designed scale (“Pleasure and/or Happiness and VG play”).

The absence of interaction between the two independent variables on HR may be explained by the fact that a higher arousal would take place in AU when playing VG rather than when watching at VG clips. Moreover, the reduced number of valid subjects when measuring this physiological parameter (due to technical recording problems) could have contributed to this outcome too. The fact that the independent variables did not produce the expected different HR effects on AU and NAU could also be linked with one of the limitations of this study: the difficulty in integrating in this research the interaction between HR and depression (as mentioned, VG addiction is positively correlated with depression) ( Griffiths et al., 2012 ) that may lead to HR index modifications ( Cipresso et al., 2014 ). In sum, this issue illustrates that the difficulty to circumscribe the notion of happiness is also reflected in the complexity to establish physiological correlates so as to objectify this emotional state ( Cipresso et al., 2014 ).

Associating the clusters of key words with VG did not produce the expected results. Since AU linked VG with both pleasure and happiness , may be these words played a clarification role and facilitated Au’s insights into their emotional states when playing VG. It could also suggest the inadequacy of this self-report tool. However, it is probably worthwhile mentioning an index related our hypothesis: when taking words separately, the word “well-being” associated with VG play was chosen by 25% of AU and by 0% of NAU.

The outcome of the binary question in the “Pleasure and VG or Happiness and VG” one-item questionnaire with the definitions of pleasure and happiness ( Pollard, 2003 ; Deci and Ryan, 2008 ; Waterman et al., 2008 ; Kashdan et al., 2008 ; Lustig, 2017 ) shows that AU ceased associating happiness to VG play and instead, like NAU, clearly linked pleasure to their cyber activity. Caution is required in the analysis of these results because the validity of this questionnaire remains to be demonstrated. Having instructed participants to answer the bipolar question by taking into account the written definitions of the two measured emotional states, did modify the result of AU group relative to both questionnaires (“Pleasure and/or Happiness and VG” six-items and three bipolar items). Within the framework of this careful approach, it could be hypothesized that explicit definitions of the two emotional states induced AU to adopting an introspection mode through a more pronounced involvement of cortical brain structures, akin to a therapeutic process in which the appropriate verbalization of pleasure and happiness facilitates the clarification of one own feeling as a prerequisite to elaborate more adaptive behavior in spite of the constraining psychological characteristics usually associated with VG addicts ( Kim et al., 2007 ; Kashdan et al., 2008 ; Wenzel et al., 2009 ).

This may be regarded as an example of emotions reappraisal which would increase accuracy of insights into one-self, reduce distorted perception of emotions and assess the adequacy of the behavioral response to a given stimulus ( Compare et al., 2014 ). In other words, it could be posited that the mentioned explicit definitions have somewhat constrained AU to use a cognitive approach to examine their emotional states related to VG play rather than merely relying on the sensory information as it tends to occur when sensing craving for video gaming ( Wang et al., 2017 ).

Moreover, the result of this one-item binary questionnaire would further support the hypothesis. In effect, the studied interrelation between hedonia and eudaimonia suggests that a highly rated hedonic activity (VG play in this case) is usually related with low rating in eudaimonia ( Waterman et al., 2008 ). This interpretation would fit with the resounding association between depression and gaming disorders ( Lemmens et al., 2011 ; Hull et al., 2013 ; Sarda et al., 2016 ; Bonnaire and Baptista, 2019 ) together with the confusion between pleasure and happiness occurring in addictive activities (AU associated VG with happiness in the first two self-report questionnaires and ended linking pleasure with VG in the last one-item questionnaire) ( Pollard, 2003 ; Lustig, 2017 ).

Overall, the more explicit the definition of pleasure and happiness and the narrower the choice offered by the self-report questionnaires, the less confusion of emotional states associated with VG occurred in AU group members whereas NAU invariably associated pleasure to VG as illustrated in Figure 5 .

Figure 5. Shift of AU perception of their emotional states associated with VG according to the self-report tools.

Based on these results, it could be postulated that the tendency of AU to perceive happiness when feeling craving and pleasure linked to VG play, might be moderated by a clarifying cognitive process on the meaning of these studied emotional sates, which would interfere with the behavioral habits linked to the urge of gaming ( Ko et al., 2009 ).

The findings resulting from “Pleasure and/or Happiness and VG” six-items questionnaire could be regarded as an illustration of the confusion that AU might have when linking the studied emotional states with VG play. Unlike NAU, the significantly higher association between VG play and happiness expressed by AU matches the perceived level of well being reported by individuals with Internet gaming disorders ( Griffiths, 2008 ). On the other hand, apart from well-being , the same author cites euphoria as the other main emotional state that addict gamers may report when playing VG. Whilst happiness and well-being rely on each other to define themselves, euphoria would convey the notion of intense excitement, which would rather stand in the pleasure sphere. Moreover, in medical terms, euphoria refers to a feeling of great elation, not necessarily founded (especially when resulting from substances consumption). Since AU also associated VG with pleasure although they did it to a lesser extent than with happiness, it could hypothesized that the feeling of intense excitement derives, at least partially, from satisfying the craving for VG play, which in turn could engender relieve experienced as a sense of well-being ( Loonen and Ivanova, 2016 ).

The impact of VG clips on AU craving and relaxation scores underlines relevant aspects of this study, which support the hypothesis of this research. First of all, it highlights the incongruent perception of AU’s emotional states whereby both craving and happiness coexist as emotional states associated with VG play. Thus, this finding constitutes a relevant component of the confusion that consists in placing a short-term pleasure (VG play) within the sphere of happiness. Besides, the low relaxation state of AU would correspond with their self-reported craving and, therefore, further highlights the contrast between the perceived happiness associated with VG play and the indicators measured during the VG clip visioning (high craving level and low relaxation state level). Finally, it is noteworthy mentioning that relaxation was the only measure in this study where gender differences were observed. The lower relaxation level in female gamers in both conditions might be related to the gender expectation about playing VG in society at large and in the gamers’ community in particular ( Shen et al., 2016 ). Indeed, since female gamers are a minority in these sorts of VG ( Shen et al., 2016 ) (in line with our sample: 7 females, 22 males), it could be posited that they feel under scrutiny in an activity regarded as male oriented.

Putative Reasons of Distorted Perceptions of Emotional States Associated With VG Addiction

The social dimension of popular VG has been identified as one of the factors that may explain the addiction pattern ( Hull et al., 2013 ). In this kind of competitive games, improving the required abilities and obtaining better results would be part of the key motives for VG play ( Demetrovics et al., 2011 ), that usually generates the appreciation and the acceptance of the other group players. Getting this sort of feedback from others can be motivating indeed, especially when taking into account the correlation between IGD and social isolation, low self-esteem, traumatic experiences, depression and low life satisfaction ( Petry et al., 2015 ; Schimmenti et al., 2017 ; Bonnaire and Baptista, 2019 ). In turn, these psychosocial characteristics are probably related also with the high impulsivity level in VG addicts ( Billieux et al., 2011 ), which has been found to be associated with difficulties in interpersonal relationships ( Ryu et al., 2018 ). Thus, it would seem that VG activities are, at least partially, sating the mentioned social and psychological deficiencies. This suggests that AU’s emotional states related to VG play may be quite contrasting, in which components of happiness (i.e., interacting with others, fellowship and belonging to a group) are intertwined with those of short-term pleasure (i.e., craving for getting quick results, praise from others, etc.) ( Loonen and Ivanova, 2016 ). Now, craving for undertaking these cyber activities to respond to the mentioned social isolation issues places this emotional state much closer to the ‘pleasure governed by desire’ than to ‘atmosphere of good fellowship’ (Happiness) ( Lawrence et al., 2014 ; Lustig, 2017 ).

The flow, defined as the emotional state embracing perception distortion and enjoyment produced by VG activities, is another element that can create confusion in gamers’ insights into their emotional states ( Chou and Ting, 2003 ; Hull et al., 2013 ). As described in the mentioned study, experiencing flow implies not only losing the notion of time but also merging oneself with the VG actions. In these conditions, the gamer’s senses and attention are in the here and now , with little or no awareness about sources of stress relative to past, present or future events. In this line, the motivation to experience immersion has been associated with problematic gaming ( Billieux et al., 2011 ). Considering the fact that loneliness and depression have been identified as predictors of VG addiction and of Internet Gaming Disorders ( Hull et al., 2013 ; Sarda et al., 2016 ), it is understandable why in gamers’ mind experiencing flow could equate this feeling with a relieving emotional state ( Loonen and Ivanova, 2016 ). This sense of alleviation could match the notion of happiness as free from distress ( Kringelbach and Berridge, 2010 ; Loonen and Ivanova, 2016 ) if it resulted from the quality of real life being lived. Instead, in AU, this relieving and enjoyable emotional state would be engendered by a virtual activity (VG), possibly used as a means to escape from stress and to forget tensions ( Demetrovics et al., 2011 ; Bonnaire and Baptista, 2019 ). In the literature, the escaping strategy is a way to find relieve from stressors through the engagement in a pleasant activity, which may end up representing a space of happiness ( Seay and Kraut, 2007 ).

In sum, the incongruence lies in the coexistence of regarding VG as a space of happiness while using VG to get quick pleasures and relief. Individuals suffering from this disorder tend to pursuit short-term pleasures rather than long-term gains ( Dong and Potenza, 2015 ). Being driven by short-term gratifications rather belongs to the reward-seeking realm ( Waterman et al., 2008 ; Lustig, 2017 ). Thus, this pleasant emotional state could be associated with the arousal linked to a reward seeking behavior through which quick and positive results are obtained, which in turn reinforce the mentioned behavior. Probably, this intense arousal situates itself within the sphere of pleasure as a dysfunction in the rewarding system ( Pollard, 2003 ; Berridge and Kringelbach, 2013 ; Lustig, 2017 ) and not in that of happiness in spite of the relieving benefits it provides.

Another possible reading on why the emotional states generated by these cyber activities are linked with happiness may be related to the way in interpreting the experienced sensations. This representation is probably shaped by the individual background, experiences, culture, etc. From a brain mechanism stand point, conscious liking does not limit it self to a sensory outcome, it is also translated into a subjective liking through the recruitment of cognitive processes ( Berridge and Kringelbach, 2013 ). Indeed, these authors state that conscious pleasure rating is sometimes detached from affective reactions as people can elaborate reasons to themselves for how they should feel. Therefore, associating VG with happiness may be the result of a rationalization process to reduce the cognitive dissonance. In other words, the unwished consequences of the VG addiction pattern (increased stress, problems at working, studying, socializing, etc.) ( Griffiths et al., 2012 ) probably produce an increasing amount of pressure (due to the difficulty to reduce gaming time, guilt, etc.) that can become overwhelming if it lasts too long. Consequently, if the affected individuals are unable to master the yearning for VG, perceiving VG activities as a source of well being may reduce the mentioned pressures insofar as the notion of happiness usually suggests a socially acceptable mood, a legitimate aim and a safe emotional state. In this perspective, equating happiness with satisfying craving and with short-term pleasure might contribute to feed the addictive pattern ( Lustig, 2017 ).

In a broader perspective, the rationalization process described in the previous paragraph may be also related with coping strategies to deal with adversity. For instance, it has been observed that problematic gamers may use VG play as a means to cope with stressors and to enhance mood ( Demetrovics et al., 2011 ). An association has been found between stressful life events and addiction to Internet activities ( Schimmenti et al., 2017 ), with the mediating role of psychological needs satisfaction and the moderating role of coping styles ( Dongping et al., 2016 ). Several theories and studies support this approach that strives for a more holistic understanding of this issue. The self-determination theory postulates that humans share three universal psychological needs ( Deci and Ryan, 2000 ; in Dongping et al., 2016 ): autonomy (i.e., feeling of being self-determining in one’s behavior), relatedness (i.e., the feeling of connectedness to others) and competence (i.e., the feeling of dealing with issues in a competent manner). Besides, individuals can adopt different strategies to cope with adversity ( Lazarus and Folkman, 1984 ; in Dongping et al., 2016 ). According to Zheng et al. (2012 ; in Dongping et al., 2016 ), the positive coping approach is the set of strategies aiming at problem solving, support seeking and cognitive restructuring to address the stressors. On the other hand, according to the same authors, the negative coping consists in strategies such as blaming, social withdrawing, denial and disengagement so as to avoid the stressful situations. Now, a parallel can be established between these two coping styles and the brain activities involved in the goal-directed learning and the habit learning.

The goal-directed learning would correspond to the positive coping style insofar as it focuses on the relationship between an action and the motivational value of the outcome, and is associated with the activation of the prefrontal cortex, the dorsomedial striatum and the dorsomedial thalamus ( Ballaine and Dickinson, 1998 ; in Schwabe et al., 2012 ). On the other hand, habit learning, would be linked with the avoidant coping style. This learning process encodes the relationship between a response and preceding stimuli without taking into account the outcome caused by the response and is related to the activation of the dorsolateral striatum ( Yin et al., 2004 ; Tricomi et al., 2009 ; in Schwabe et al., 2012 ). According to Schwabe et al. (2012) , stressful situations may modulate the processes involved in instrumental learning in a way that may produce the shift from goal-directed learning to habitual learning.

In line with these findings, it has been observed that, like cocaine cues, psychological stress induction can generate the same craving response in a cocaine abusers population ( Bradley et al., 1989 ; Wallace, 1989 ; in Sinha et al., 2000 ). The relevance of these observations lies in the fact that both SUD and behavioral addictions (including gaming disorders, Han et al., 2011 ) recruit to an important extent common brain regions and produce similar physiological patterns, as quoted in the introduction of this document.

Considering the association between unhappiness and VG disorders mentioned earlier, it could be posited that the gamers concerned could not overcome the causes of their unhappiness. Indeed, studies suggest that subjects with Internet gaming disorders embark in VG play more to deal with negative affect than to achieve a good performance in the game ( Schimmenti and Caretti, 2010 ; Billieux et al., 2013 ; both in Bonnaire and Baptista, 2019 ). In this scenario, based on the mentioned studies, a low level of happiness would imply that psychological needs are somewhat unmet and associated with the avoidant coping style together with the habit learning. Furthermore, this pattern is supported by compensatory Internet use theory, which postulates that adversity can operate as a stimulus to seek psychological comfort (i.e., satisfying the psychological needs via the cyberspace) ( Kardefelt-Winther, 2014 ; in Dongping et al., 2016 ).

In other words, the psychological comfort engendered by the VG activities in this population of gamers, combined with the characteristics of the avoidant coping style (denial, social withdrawal, avoiding stressful situation, etc.) and with the traits of the habitual learning (actions’ outcomes are disregarded, with little or no awareness of actions’ consequences), might explain, at least partially, the biased perception of the emotional states in AU ( happiness associated to VG) and of their causes of craving for VG. This assumption suggests that online gaming might not be the cause of VG addiction, but rather that VG excessive use could be a compensatory strategy to deal with pre-existing psychological characteristics and deleterious social context ( Kowert et al., 2015 ). For instance, some studies suggest that traumatic experiences, poor emotions regulation, elements of impulsivity and the motivation to experience immersion in a virtual world would increase the likelihood of IGD and Internet addiction ( Billieux et al., 2011 ; Schimmenti et al., 2017 ).

In sum, it would seem as if for AU the mentioned behavioral pattern is a manner to mitigate the difficulties to deal with stressors. This interpretation would be in line with the motives for play in problematic gaming ( Demetrovics et al., 2011 ). Through a massive survey these authors observed seven dimensions that would cover the entire spectrum of motives for VG play in all sort of on line games: escape (from reality), cope (with stressors, playing as a way to improve mood), fantasy (trying new identities/things in a virtual world), skills development (improving concentration, coordination, new skills) recreation (relaxing aspects of gaming), competing (sense of achievement), and social (knowing/being/playing with others). This study suggests that there would be positive and beneficial motives for playing (entertaining gaming) as well as harmful ones (problematic gaming). The correlations between these factors appear to shed light on the positive and negative aspects of gaming. Whilst the weakest correlation is between escape and recreation (also low correlation was found between escape and both, skills development and competition), the strongest correlations were observed between escape and cope and fantasy. These results would indicate that escape and coping are motives associated with problematic gaming, however, the authors argue that escapism would facilitate the coping efforts to deal with stressors and negative moods. Moreover, it is noteworthy underlining that escapism had the lowest mean score in this study among the seven dimensions, which would match with the prevalence level of problematic gaming mentioned previously ( Griffiths et al., 2012 ).

Probably, regarding AU, the accuracy in perceiving emotional states, the ability to deal with stressors and the quality of insights into oneself are dimensions that deserve much attention in the therapeutic processes.

Therapeutic Implications

A cognitive-behavioral approach may contribute to the recovery process by enabling problematic gamers to explore the motives that lead them to abuse of VG play ( Orzack et al., 2006 ; in Griffiths, 2008 ). Developing strategies to tackle stressors appears to be a therapeutic priority for treating this disorder. Consequently, this axis of work includes the understanding of the environmental demands that are perceived as exceeding the individual abilities to handle them. In this line, ensuring the accuracy of the individual’s insights into the emotional states linked to the sources of stress as well as to the game habit could increase the awareness of the underlying issues to be addressed. In particular, deciphering the conditioned desires (unconscious wanting) and the hedonic dimension (unconscious liking) ( Kringelbach and Berridge, 2009 ; Berridge and Kringelbach, 2013 ) linked to VG play may produce added value information for understanding and overcoming the problematic gaming pattern. Within this frame, it could be hypothesized that distinguishing between happiness and feeling alleviated could be beneficial to the therapeutic process, although it remains to be demonstrated.

Overall, this sort of therapeutic approach may contribute to reduce the alexithymia, usually associated with this kind of disorders ( Kandri et al., 2014 ).

In problematic internet/gaming several studies have explored and highlighted to role of alexithymia and its links with other therapeutic issues. For instance, it has been shown that alexithymic individuals are more associated with Internet addiction than non-alexthymic ones ( Baysan-Arslan et al., 2016 ). In this research, the authors consider that the difficulty in identifying and differentiating emotions that characterizes alexithymia may lead individuals with this affliction to regulate their emotional states via their addictive activities.

Another study showed that IGD would be related with alexithymia, anxiety and depression ( Bonnaire and Baptista, 2019 ).

Schimmenti et al. (2017) observed that traumatic experiences (mainly in males) and traits of alexithymia (mainly in females) were associated with Internet addiction symptoms, which may enable a tailored prevention and treatment approach. Besides, Internet addiction (including online role-playing) would be correlated with alexithymia, dissociation (protecting one-self in a more pleasant created reality as a means to deal with traumatic experiences) and insecure attachment ( Craparo, 2011 ).

However, the causal link in the association between alexithymia and Internet addiction would still need to be verified, as indicated by Mahapatra and Sharma (2018) . Moreover, discerning the nature of alexithymia remains an uneasy task: this emotional identification and differentiation disorder might be regarded as a stable personality trait that could increase risks of mental disorder development, and also may be seen as a defense mechanism to cope with psychological stressors ( Mikolajczak and Luminet, 2006 ; in Mahapatra and Sharma, 2018 ).

Apart from alexithymia and traumatic memories, high urgency (a dimension of impulsivity defined by the proneness to have strong reactions usually tied with negative affect) and being motivated to experience immersion in a virtual world would be psychological predictors of problematic multiplayer online games ( Billieux et al., 2011 ). These findings led the authors to posit that individuals with the two mentioned traits are more likely to use the immersion in the virtual world as a means to avoiding facing real life adverse issues. According to the authors, this behavior will lead to a deleterious outcome (culpability and embarrassment as a result of feeling unable to deal with problems), which in turn is experienced as a pernicious condition likely to activate behaviors related to high urgency and immersion.

Like the previously mentioned clinical issues, this vicious loop reinforcing escapism also appears to be a therapeutic target.

Considering the possible association between alexithymia and problematic gaming as a manner to regulate emotions ( Baysan-Arslan et al., 2016 ; Bonnaire and Baptista, 2019 ), the Emotion Regulation Therapy (ERT) might strengthen the therapeutic process. The aim being that the observed difficulties in Internet (including VG) addicts to identifying emotions and regulating affects ( Caretti et al., 2010 ; in Craparo, 2011 ) could be, at least partially, overcome through the ERT process. In effect, Compare et al. (2014) , show that ERT operates as a means to reappraise emotions that trigger actions leading to negative consequences. Reappraising emotions is associated with the involvement of the medial prefrontal cortex, which attenuates the amygdala activation and, thus, reduces the intensity of negative affect; these two areas being coordinated by the orbitofrontal cortex ( Compare et al., 2014 ). Since AU would be prone to associate happiness with VG play, ERT might facilitate the perceptional change enabling to link VG play with pleasure [ Caretti and Craparo, 2009 ; in Craparo (2011) consider Internet addiction (including VG) “as a syndromic condition characterized by a recurrent and reiterated search for pleasure derived from dependence behavior, associated with abuse, craving , clinically significant stress, and compulsive dependence actions despite the possible negative consequences”]. Within this approach, it may be postulated that enabling problematic gamers to familiarize with and to see the self-transcendent notion of happiness could favor the distinction between pleasure and happiness and would render them less vulnerable from impulses and from environmental circumstances ( Dambrun et al., 2012 ). The idea is to facilitate the shift from wanting more than liking (or even without liking) toward liking with little or without wanting ( Berridge and Kringelbach, 2011 ). Furthermore, regarding motives for playing, it could be posited that helping problematic gamers to identify and distinguish the emotions tied to escaping/coping from those related to recreational gaming ( Demetrovics et al., 2011 ), would be a necessary condition to orient effectively the ERT toward the escaping issues and targeted emotional states requiring therapeutic input. In this line, based on the previously mentioned studies in this section, it might be useful exploring the possible link that the excessive time spent in cyber activity could have with past traumatic experiences, insecure attachment, impulsivity, anxiety and depression.

In conclusion, this study suggests that the mentioned confusion of emotional states (pleasure and happiness) associated with addiction ( Lustig, 2017 ), could take place in subjects with VG addiction, and potentially in the entire spectrum of addictions. Moreover, from a cognitive therapeutic perspective, it shows the potential benefits of reappraising emotions as a means to contribute to the emotional distortion reduction.

Limitations

The small sample of this study demands cautiousness when making generalizations from its results. Besides, watching VG clips rather than actually playing VG might be less stimulating for chronic gamers and could have influenced the physiological values recorded during the clip visioning phases. That said, many gamers do attend to public competitions to watch other gamers playing VG. Although, to the best of our knowledge, there is no information available to affirm that there are VG addicts in these audiences.

We also faced the usual paradox when assessing craving via self-report tools. Indeed, participants were asked to judge their craving intensity for VG play whereas sensing craving often may imply a compromised self-awareness level and thus a self-assessment whose value needs to be interpreted carefully.

Although the GAS is a validated tool, which has shown its usefulness in screening addict gamers, having complemented this measurement with thorough diagnostic-driven interviews run by specialists when choosing participants to form the AU and the NAU groups would have strengthened the selection process.

The participants’ selection was centered on the gamer status (gaming addiction/non-addiction and names of games usually played) rather than on the cultural and/or educational background of the persons. Future researches could complete this approach by assessing the possible cultural and educational bias in perceiving the studied emotional states.

Moreover, including more physiological parameters related to pleasure and happiness could further complete the self-reported information and may enable reaching more robust results.

Prospective Research

Further research is required to better understand the relationship between the studied emotional states and this addiction. For instance, since VG addiction decreases with age ( Wittek et al., 2016 ) a longitudinal study could reveal the factors (psychophysiological, environmental, etc.) that operate that change. Moreover, VG addiction is only one area of the spectrum of addictions. Undertaking similar researches on other addictions and with larger samples could also contribute to deepening the comprehension of this issue. Finally, keep enhancing the scales that measure pleasure and happiness may provide with more accurate information about the range of nuances intrinsic to these two emotional states.

Data Availability Statement

All datasets generated for this study are included in the article/supplementary material.

Ethics Statement

The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by the Université Libre de Bruxelles Ethical Committee. The patients/participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

Author Contributions

LG developed the proposal and the conception of the original project research, searched and articulated the theoretical background, participated in the study and protocol design, elaborated the results interpretation, assembled all the chapters of the study, and in charge of the manuscript writing. ND was involved in the scientific and publication management, participated – as the Research Center Manager – in the study and protocol design, and in charge of the configuration and writing of the physiological measures. JL, as a member of the Research Center, was involved in the study and protocol design, also involved in the configuration of physiological measures, managed the experimental phases in the laboratory, and elaborated the data analysis. CL, as a full Professor at the Faculty of Psychology and Director of the Research Center for Work and Consumer Psychology, assured the scientific and publication management, participated in the study and protocol design, in charge of making the critical reviews of the manuscript along the process, and involved in the manuscript writing.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Acknowledgments

We would like to express our gratitude to Maastricht University (Department of Psychiatry and Neuropsychology) as well as Université Libre de Bruxelles (Faculty of Psychological Sciences and of Education – Research Center for Work and Consumer Psychology). This work was performed as a partial fulfillment toward the International Master in Affective Neuroscience of Maastricht University and the University of Florence.

Abbreviations

AU, addict users; EEG, Electroencephalogram; ETR, Emotions Regulation Therapy; GAS, Gaming Addiction Scale; H, happiness; HR, heart rate; I.G.D., Internet Gaming Disorders; NAU, non-addict users; OHQ, Oxford Happiness Questionnaire; P, pleasure; SHAPS, Snaith-Hamilton Pleasure Scale; VG, video games.

Andreassen, C. S., Billieux, J., Griffiths, M. D., Kuss, D. J., Demetrovics, Z., Mazzoni, E., et al. (2016). The relationship between addictive use of social media and video games and symptoms of psychiatric disorders: a large-scale cross-sectional study. Psychol. Behav. 30, 252–262. doi: 10.1037/adb0000160

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Ballaine, B. W., and Dickinson, A. (1998). Goal-directed instrumental action: contingency and incentive learning and their cortical substrates. Neuropharmacology 37, 407–419. doi: 10.1016/s0028-3908(98)00033-1

Baysan-Arslan, S., Cebeci, S., Kaya, M., and Canbal, M. (2016). Relationship between Internet addiction and alexithymia among university students. Clin. Invest. Med. 39, S111–S115.

Google Scholar

Berridge, K., and Kringelbach, M. (2011). Building a neuroscience of pleasure and well being. Psychol. Well Being 1, 1–3.

PubMed Abstract | Google Scholar

Berridge, K. C., and Kringelbach, M. L. (2013). Neuroscience of affect: brain mechanisms of pleasure and displeasure. Current Opin. Neurobiol. 23, 294–303. doi: 10.1016/j.conb.2013.01.017

Billieux, J., Chanal, J., Khazaal, Y., Rochat, L., Gay, P., Zullino, D., et al. (2011). Psychological predictors of problematic involvement in massively multiplayer online role-playing games: illustration in a sample of male cybercafé players. Psychopathology 44, 165–171. doi: 10.1159/000322525

Billieux, J., Van der Linden, M., Achab, S., Khazaal, Y., Paraskevopoulos, L., Zullino, D., et al. (2013). Why do you play Warcraft? An in-depth exploration of self-reported motivation to play online and in the game behaviors in the virtual world of Azeroth. Compt. Hum. Behav. 29, 103–109. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2012.07.021

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Bonnaire, C., and Baptista, D. (2019). Internet gaming disorder in male and female young adults: the role of alexithymia, depression, anxiety and gaming type. Psychiatry Res. 272, 521–530. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2018.12.158

Bradley, B. P., Phillips, G., Green, L., and Gossop, M. (1989). Circumstances surrounding the initial lapse to opiate use following detoxification. Br. J. Psychiatry 154, 354–359. doi: 10.1192/bjp.154.3.354

Bruchon-Schweitzer, M., and Boujut, E. (2014). Psychologie de la Santé: Concepts, Methods et Modèles. Paris: Dunod, doi: 10.3917/dunod.bruch.2014.01

Caretti, V., and Craparo, G. (2009). “Psychological issues of technological addiction. New diagnostic criteria for addiction,” in Annual Review of Cybertherapy and Telemedicine 2009. Advanced Technologies in the Behavioural, Social and Neurosciences , eds B. K. Wiederhold and G. Riva, (Amsterdam: IOS Press), 227–280.

Caretti, V., Craparo, G., and Schimmenti, A. (2010). “Alcune evidenze empireche sul construtto di trance dissi-ociativa da videoterminale,” in Addiction , eds V. Caretti and D. La Barbera, (Milano: Rafaelo Cortina), 167–182.

Chou, T., and Ting, C. H. (2003). The role of flow experience in cyber-game addiction. Cyber Psychol. Behav. 6, 663–675. doi: 10.1089/109493103322725469

Cipresso, P., Serino, S., and Riva, G. (2014). The pursuit of happiness measurement: a psychometric model based on psychological correlates. Sci. World J. 2014:139128.

Compare, A., Zarbo, C., Shonin, E., van Gordon, W., and Marconi, C. (2014). Emotional regulation and depression: a potential mediator between heart and mind. Cardiovasc. Psychiatry Neurol. 2014:324374. doi: 10.1155/2014/324374

Cooper, S., Robinson, A. J., and Mazei-Robinson, M. (2017). Reward circuitry in addiction. Neurotherapeutics 14, 687–697. doi: 10.1007/s13311-017-0525-z

Craparo, G. (2011). Internet addiction, dissociation and alexithymia. Proc. Soc. Behav. Sci. 30, 1051–1056. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.10.205

Dambrun, M., Ricard, M., Després, G., Drelon, E., Gibelin, E., Gibelin, M., et al. (2012). Measuring happiness: from fluctuating happiness to authentic, durable happiness. Front. Psychol. 3:16. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00016

Deci, E. L., and Ryan, R. M. (2000). The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: human needs and the self-determination of behaviour. Psychol. Inq. 11, 227–668.

Deci, E. L., and Ryan, R. M. (2008). Hedonia, eudamonia, and well-being: an introduction. J. Happiness Stud. 9, 1–11. doi: 10.1007/s10902-006-9018-1

Demetrovics, Z., Urbán, R., Nagygyörgy, K., Farkas, J., Zilahy, D., Mervó, B., et al. (2011). Why do you play? The development of the motives for online gaming questionnaire (MOGQ). Behav. Res. Methods 43, 814–825. doi: 10.3758/s13428-011-0091-y

Dong, G., Li, H., and Potenza, M. (2017). Cognitive control and reward/loss processing in Internet gaming disorders: results from a comparison with recreational Internet game users. Eur. Psychiatry 44:3038.

Dong, G., and Potenza, M. (2015). A cognitive-behavioural model of Internet gaming disorders: theoretical underpinnings and clinical implications. J. Psychiatry Res. 58, 7–11. doi: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2014.07.005

Dongping, L., Wenhau, Z., Xian, L., Yueyue, Z., Liyan, Z., and Yanhui, W. (2016). Stressful life events and adolescent Internet addiction: the mediating role of psychological needs satisfaction and the moderating role of coping style. Comp. Hum. Behav. 63, 408–415. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2016.05.070

Esposito, E., Di Matteo, V., and Di Giovanni, G. (2008). Serotonin-dopamine interaction: an overview. Prog. Brain Res. 172, 3–6. doi: 10.1016/S0079-6123(08)00901-1

Gaetan, S., Bonnet, A., Brejard, V., and Cury, F. (2014). French validation of the 7-item Game Addiction Scale for adolescents. Rev. Eur. Psychol. Appl. 64, 161–168. doi: 10.1016/j.erap.2014.04.004

Geisel, O., Panneck, P., Stickel, A., Schneider, M., and Müller, C. A. (2015). Characteristics of social network gamers: results of an online survey. Front. Psychiatry 6:69. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2015.00069

Gil, S., and Droit-Volet, S. (2012). Emotion time distortions: the fundamental role of arousal. Cogn. Emot. 26, 847–862. doi: 10.1080/02699931.2011.625401

Gowing, L., Ali, R. L., Allsop, S., Marsden, J., Turf, E. E., West, R., et al. (2015). Global statistics on addictive behaviours: 2014 status report. Society for the study of addiction. Addiction 110, 904–919. doi: 10.1111/add.12899

Griffiths, M. (2008). Diagnosis and management of video game addiction. New Direct. Addict. Treat. Prevent. 12, 27–41.

Griffiths, M., Kuss, D., and King, D. (2012). Video game addiction: past. Present and future. Curr. Psychiatry Rev. 8, 308–318. doi: 10.2174/157340012803520414

Han, D. H., Bolo, N., Daniels, M. A., Arenella, L., Lyoo, I. K., and Renshaw, P. F. (2011). Brain activity and desire for Internet video game play. Comprehen. Psychiatry 52, 88–95. doi: 10.1016/j.comppsych.2010.04.004

Hills, P., and Argyle, M. (2002). The oxford happiness questionnaire: a compact scale for the measurement of psychological well-being. Pers. Individ. Differ. 33, 1073–1082. doi: 10.1016/s0191-8869(01)00213-6

Hull, D., William, G. A., and Griffiths, M. D. (2013). Video game characteristics, happiness and flow as predictors of addiction among video game players: a pilot study. J. Behav. Addict. 2, 145–152. doi: 10.1556/JBA.2.2013.005

Jatupaiboon, N., Pan-ngum, S., and Israsena, P. (2013). Real-time EEG-based happiness detection system. Sci. World J. 2013:618649. doi: 10.1155/2013/618649

Kandri, T. A., Bonotis, K. S., Floros, G. D., and Zafiropoulou, M. M. (2014). Alexithymia components in excessive internet users: a multi-factorial analysis. Psychiatry Res. 220, 348–355. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2014.07.066

Kardefelt-Winther, D. (2014). A conceptual and methodological critique of Internet addiction research: towards a model of compensatory Internet use. Comput. Hum. Behav. 31, 351–354. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2013.10.059

Kashdan, T., Bsiwas-Diener, R., and King, L. (2008). “Reconsidering Happiness: the cost of distinguishing between hedonics and eudemonia”. .J. Posit. Psychol. 3, 219–233. doi: 10.1080/17439760802303044

Kennedy, A., Epstein, D. H., Jobes, M. L., Agage, D., Tyburski, M., Phillips, K. A., et al. (2015). Continuous in-the-field measurement of heart rate: correlates of drug use, craving, stress and mood in polydrug users. Drug Alcohol Depend. 151, 159–166. doi: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.03.024

Keyes, K. M., Jager, J., Hamilton, A., O’Malley, P. M., Miech, R., and Schulenberg, J. (2015). National multi-cohort time trends in adolescent risk preference and relation with substance use and problem behavior from 1976 to 2011. Drug Alcohol Depend. 155, 267–274. doi: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.06.031

Khazaal, Y., Chatton, A., Rothen, S., Achab, S., Thorens, G., Zullino, D., et al. (2016). Psychometric properties of the 7-item game addiction scale among French and German adults. BMC Psychiatry 16:132.

Khazaal, Y., Zullino, D., and Billieux, J. (2012). The Geneva smoking pictures: development and preliminary validation. Eur. Addict. Res. 18, 103–109. doi: 10.1159/000335083

Kim, E. J., Namkoong, K., Ku, T., and Kim, S. J. (2007). The relationship between online game addiction and aggression, self, control and narcissistic personality traits. Eur. Psychiatry 23, 212–218. doi: 10.1016/j.eurpsy.2007.10.010

Kim, H., Ha, J., Chang, W. D., Park, W., Kim, L., and Im, C. H. (2018). Detection of craving for gaming in adolescents with internet gaming disorders using multimodal bio signals. Sensors 18:102. doi: 10.3390/s18010102

Ko, C.-H., Gin-Chung, L., Sigmund, H., Ju-Yu, Y., Ming-Jen, Y., Wei-Chen, L., et al. (2009). Brain activities associated with gaming urge of online gaming addiction. J. Psychiatry Res. 43, 739–747. doi: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2008.09.012

Koepp, M. J., Gunn, R. N., Lawrence, A. D., Cunningham, V. J., Dagher, A., Jones, T., et al. (1998). Evidence for striatal dopamine release during a video game. Nature 393, 266–268. doi: 10.1038/30498

Kowert, R., Vogelgesang, J., Festl, R., and Quandt, T. (2015). Psychological causes and consequences of online video game play. Comput. Hum. Behav. 45, 51–58. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2014.11.074

Kringelbach, M., and Berridge, K. (2009). Towards a functional neuro-anatomy of pleasure and happiness. Trends Cogn. Sci. 13, 479–487. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2009.08.006

Kringelbach, M., and Berridge, M. (2010). The neuroscience of happiness and pleasure. Soc. Res. 77, 659–678.

Lawrence, L. M., Ciorciari, J., and Kyrios, M. (2014). “Relationships that compulsive buying has with addiction, obsessive-compulsiveness, hoarding and depression”. Compr. Psychiatry 55, 1137–1145. doi: 10.1016/j.comppsych.2014.03.005

Lazarus, R. S., and Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, Appraisal and Coping. New York, NY: Springer.

Lee, Y., Han, D., Yang, K. C., Daniels, M. A., Na, C., Kee, B. S., et al. (2008). Depression like characteristics of 5HTTLPR polymorphism and temperament in excessive Internet users. J. Affect. Disord. 2, 165–169. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2007.10.020

Lemmens, J., Valkenburg, P., and Peter, J. (2011). Psychological causes and consequences of pathological gaming. Comput. Hum. Behav. 27, 144–152. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2010.07.015

Lemmens, J. S., Valkenburg, P. M., and Peter, J. (2009). Development and validation of game addiction scale for adolescents. Media Psychol. 12, 77–95. doi: 10.1080/15213260802669458

Lepine, J.-P., and Briley, M. (2011). The increasing burden of depression. Neuropsychiatr. Dis. Treat. 7(Suppl. 1), 3–7.

Loas, G., Dubal, S., Perot, P., Tirel, F., Nowaczkowski, P., and Pierson, A. (1997). Etude de validation de la version française de l’échelle de plaisir de Snaith et Hamilton. L’Encephale 23, 454–458.

Loonen, A., and Ivanova, S. (2016). Circuits regulating pleasure and happiness – mechanisms of depression. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 10:571.

Lu, D., Wang, J. W., and Huang, A. C. (2010). Differentiation of internet addiction risk level based on autonomic nervous responses: the internet-addiction hypothesis of autonomic activity. Cyberpsychol. Behav. Soc. Netw. 13, 371–378. doi: 10.1089/cyber.2009.0254

Lustig, R. (2017). The Hacking of the American Mind. New York, NY: Avery.

MacNicol, B. (2016). The biology of addiction. Can. J. Anesthesia 64, 141–148. doi: 10.1097/YPG.0000000000000095

Mahapatra, A., and Sharma, P. (2018). Association of internet addiction and alexithymia – A scoping review. Addict. Behav. 81, 175–182. doi: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2018.02.004

Mikolajczak, M., and Luminet, O. (2006). Is alexithymia affected by situational stress or is it a stable trat related to emotion regulation? Pers. Individ. Differ. 40, 1399–1408. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2005.10.020

Orzack, M. H., Vouse, A. C., Wolf, D., and Hennen, J. (2006). An on-going study of group treatment for men involved in problematic Internet enabled sexual behaviour. CyberPsychol. Behav. 9, 348–360. doi: 10.1089/cpb.2006.9.348

Petry, N. M., Rehbein, F., Gentile, D. A., Lemmens, J. S., Rumpf, H. J., Mößle, T., et al. (2014). An international consensus for assessing Internet gaming disorder using new DSM-5 approach. Addiction 109, 1399–1406. doi: 10.1111/add.12457

Petry, N. M., Rehbein, F., Ko, C. H., and O’Brien, C. H. (2015). Internet gaming disorders in the DSM-5. Curr. Psychiatry Rep. 17:19.

Pollard, I. (2003). From Happiness to Depression”. Today’s Life Science. Available at: www.biotechnews.com.au (accessed August, 2019).

Procter, P. (1985). Longman Concise English Dictionary. England: Longman Group Limited.

Ryu, H., Lee, J., Choi, A., Park, S., Kim, D., and Choi, J. (2018). The relationship between impulsivity and internet gaming disorders in young adults: mediating effects of interpersonal relationships and depression. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 15:458. doi: 10.3390/ijerph15030458

Sarda, E., Bègue, L., Bry, C., and Gentile, D. (2016). Internet gaming disorders and well-being: a scale validation. Cyberpsychol. Behav. Soc. Netw. 19, 674–679. doi: 10.1089/cyber.2016.0286

Schimmenti, A., and Caretti, V. (2010). Psychic retreats or psychic pits? Unbearable states of mind ad technological addiction. Psychoanalogy 27, 115–132. doi: 10.1037/a0019414

Schimmenti, A., Passanisi, A., Caretti, V., La Marca, L., Granieri, A., Iacolino, C., et al. (2017). Traumatic experiences, alexithymia and Internet addiction symptoms among late adolescents: a moderated mediation analysis. Addict. Behav. 64, 314–320. doi: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2015.11.002

Schmidt, L. A. (2016). “What are addictive substances and behaviours and how far do they extend?,” in Impact of Addictive Substances and Behaviours on Individual and Societal Well-Being , eds P. Anderson, J. Rehm, and R. Room, (London: Oxford Unversity Press).

Schwabe, L., Tegenhoff, M., Höffken, O., and Wolf, O. (2012). Simultaneous glucocorticoid and noradrenergic activity disrupts the neural basis of goal-directed action in the human brain. J. Neurosci. 32, 10146–10155. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1304-12.2012

Seay, A. F., and Kraut, R. E. (2007). “Project massive: self-regulation and problematic use of on-line gambling,” in Proceedings of the ACM CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems , San Jose, CA.

Serretti, A., Calati, R., Mandelli, L., and Ronchi, D. D. (2006). Serotonin transporter gene variant and behaviour: a comprehensive review. Curr. Drug Targets 7, 1659–1669. doi: 10.2174/138945006779025419

Shen, C., Ratan, C., Dora, Y., and Leavitt, A. (2016). Do men advance faster than women? Debunking the gender performance gap in two massively multiplayer online games. J. Comput. Med Commun. 21, 312–329. doi: 10.1111/jcc4.12159

Sinha, R., Fuse, T., Aubin, L. R., and O’Malley, S. S. (2000). Psychological stress drug-related cues and cocaine craving. Psychopharmacology 152, 140–148. doi: 10.1007/s002130000499

Snaith, R. P., Hamilton, M., Morley, S., and Humayan, A. (1995). A scale for the assessment of the hedonic tone: the Snaith-Hamilton Pleasure Scale. Br. J. Psychiatry 167, 99–103. doi: 10.1192/bjp.167.1.99

Szalavitz, M. (2011). What does a 400% increase in antidepressant use really mean?. Patna: Time.

Teplan, M., and Krakovskà, A. (2009). “EEG features of psycho-physiological relaxation,” in Proceedings of the 2nd International Symposium on Applied Sciences in Biomedical and Communication Technologies ISABEL 2009 , (Bratislava: Institute of Measurement Science SAS).

Tian, Y., Liu, P., and Huang, X. (2018). The role of emotion regulation in reducing emotional distortions of duration perception. Front. Psychol. 9:347. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00347

Torres, A., Catena, A., Megias, A., Maldonado, A., Candido, A., Verdejo-Garcia, A., et al. (2013). Emotional and non-emotional pathways to impulsive behavior and addiction. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 7:43. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2013.00043

Tricomi, E., Ballaine, B. W., and O’Doherty, J. P. (2009). A specific role for posterior dorsolateral striatum in human habit learning. Eur. J. Neurosci. 29, 2225–2232. doi: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2009.06796.x

Üstün, T. B., Ayuso-Mateos, J. L., Chatterji, S., Mathers, C., and Murray, C. J. (2004). Global burden of depressive disorders in the year 2000. Br. J. Psychiatry 184, 386–392. doi: 10.1192/bjp.184.5.386

van Holst, R. J., Lemmens, J. S., Valkenburg, P. M., Peter, J., Veltman, D. J., and Goudriaan, A. E. (2012). Attentional bias and disinhibition toward gaming cues are related to problem gaming in male adolescents. J. Adolescent. Health 50, 541–546. doi: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2011.07.006

Volkow, N., Wang, G., Fowler, J., Tomasi, D., and Telang, F. (2011). Addiction: beyond dopamine reward circuitry. PNAS 108, 15037–15042. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1010654108

Wallace, B. C. (1989). Psychological and environmental determinants of relapse in crack cocaine smokers. J. Subst. Abuse Treat. 6, 95–106. doi: 10.1016/0740-5472(89)90036-6

Wang, L., Wu, L., Wang, Y., Li, H., Liu, X., Du, X., et al. (2017). Altered brain activities associated with craving and cue reactivity in people with Internet gaming disorders: evidence from the comparison with recreational Internet game users. Front. Psychol. 8:1150. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01150

Waterman, A., Schwartz, S., and Conti, R. (2008). The implication of the two conceptions of happiness (Hedonic. (enjoyment)and Eudamonia) for the understanding of intrinsic motivation. J. Happiness Stud. 9, 41–79. doi: 10.1007/s10902-006-9020-7

Wei, H.-T., Chen, M. H., Huang, P. C., and Bai, Y. M. (2012). The association between online gaming, social phobia and depression: an internet survey. BMC Psychiatry 12:92. doi: 10.1186/1471-244X-12-92

Wenzel, H. G., Bakken, I. J., Johansson, A., Götestam, K. G., and Øren, A. (2009). Excessive computer game playing among Norwegian adults: self-reported consequences of playing and association with mental health problems. Psychol. Rep. 105, 1237–1247. doi: 10.2466/pr0.105.f.1237-1247

Whiteford, H., Degenhardt, L., Rehm, J., Baxter, A. J., Ferrari, A. J., Erskine, H. E., et al. (2013). “Global burden of attributable to mental and substance use disorders: findings from the global burden of disease study 2010”. Lancet 382, 1575–1586. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(13)61611-6

Wittek, C. T., Reiten Finseras, T., Pallesen, S., Mentzoni, A., Hanss, D., Griffiths, M., et al. (2016). Prevalence and predictors of video game addiction: a study based on a national and representative sample gamers. Int. J. Mental Health Addict. 14, 672–686. doi: 10.1007/s11469-015-9592-8

World Health Organization [WHO] (2018). Available at: https://www.who.int/features/qa/gaming-disorder/en/ (accessed December, 2018).

Yau, Y., Crowley, M., Mayes, L., and Potenza, M. (2012). Are Internet use and video game play addictive behaviours? Biological, clinical and public health implications for youths and adults. Minerva Psichiatrica 53, 153–170.

Yin, H. H., Knowlton, B. J., and Ballaine, B. W. (2004). Lesions of dorsolateral striatum preserve outcome expectancy but disrupt habit formation in instrumental learning. Eur. J. Neurosci. 19, 181–189. doi: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2004.03095.x

Zheng, Y., Fan, F., Liu, X., and Mo, L. (2012). Life events, coping and posttraumatic stress symptoms among Chinese adolescents exposed to 2008 Wenchuan Earthquake. China. PLoS One 7:e29404. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0029404

Self-Report Questionnaires

– Six items Questionnaire: Pleasure and/or Happiness associated with VG play (Items 7 and 8 were suppressed after the preliminary phase)

(1) I enjoy playing video games.

(2) I am happy when I play video games.

(3) I would find pleasure in my video game activities.

(4) I find video games amusing.

(5) I enjoy playing my favorite video game.

(6) I often experience joy and exaltation when playing video games.

(7) I would feel pleasure when I receive praise from other people on my capacity to play video games.

(8) I don’t have fun when playing video games with other people.

fully disagree disagree slightly disagree slightly agree agree fully agree

<———I——————I——————I————————I——————I—————I———>

– Questionnaire on Craving for playing VG

– After having watched this clip I feel craving for playing video games.

– Three bipolar items Questionnaire: Pleasure and/or Happiness associated with VG play

Bipolar items.

(1) I enjoy playing video games I am happy when I play video games

I——————I——————I——————I—————I

(2) I would find pleasure in I find video games amusing my video game activities

(3) I enjoy playing my favorite I often experience joy and exaltation video game when playing video games

– Ten key words [resulting from the semantic mapping of pleasure (P) and happiness (H)]: 3/10 words to be associated with VG play

– Joy

– Craving

– Well-being

– Impulsivity

– Fellowship

– Desire

– Fun

– Contentment

– Gratification

– Serenity

Pleasure cluster: joy, craving, impulsivity, desire, fun, gratification.

Happiness cluster: well-being, fellowship, contentment, serenity.

– One bipolar item Questionnaire: Pleasure or Happiness associated with VG play (with explicit definitions)

Happiness : emotional state of lasting contentment.

Pleasure : transient emotional state when satisfying a desire, a craving.

A bipolar item

Keywords : video games, addiction, confusion, pleasure and happiness, emotional states

Citation: Gros L, Debue N, Lete J and van de Leemput C (2020) Video Game Addiction and Emotional States: Possible Confusion Between Pleasure and Happiness? Front. Psychol. 10:2894. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02894

Received: 03 July 2019; Accepted: 06 December 2019; Published: 27 January 2020.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2020 Gros, Debue, Lete and van de Leemput. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Lucio Gros, [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Academia.edu no longer supports Internet Explorer.

To browse Academia.edu and the wider internet faster and more securely, please take a few seconds to  upgrade your browser .

Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link.

• We're Hiring!
• Help Center

Social Effects of Online Game Addiction in Adolescents: A Systematic Review

This study aimed to determine the social effects of online game addiction in adolescents and increase our knowledge of adolescents who experience online game addiction. This was a systematic review of the literature using the Scopus, Science Direct and SAGE Journals databases during five years with a randomized controlled trial. All the studies included online game addiction, focusing on the effect of social influence on online gaming addiction in adolescents. Based on the findings of 15 research articles used showed that there was a social influence on online gaming addiction experienced by adolescents. Social constraints proved to be an essential factor in the excessive internet use of adolescents. Other findings showed that associated internet gaming disorders and a lack of attention suggests that individualistic cultural orientations exacerbate these relationships without gender differences

Related Papers

Polish Journal of Public Health

Jolanta Szymańska

Introduction. Dependence on the Internet and online games is a growing problem worldwide. Aim. The aim of this study was to determine the differences between girls and boys as well as between adolescents living in urban vs. rural areas in regard to prevalence of playing online games, the amount of time devoted to playing games, the severity of symptoms of online gaming addiction, and preferences for game genres. Also, significant predictors of online game addiction in the studied group of young people were identified. Material and methods. The study involved 827 adolescents aged 14 to 19 years. When it comes to 488 (60.02%) of them, they lived in the countryside and 325 (39.98%) in a city. The following instruments were used: a sociodemographic questionnaire, the Online Gaming Addiction Questionnaire and the Disturbed Family Relations Questionnaire, all developed by Pawłowska and Potembska. Results. Statistically significant differences were found between girls and boys and between ...

Mark D Griffiths

Research suggests that excessive online gaming may lead to symptoms commonly experienced by substance addicts. Since games are particularly appealing to children and adolescents, these individuals may be more at risk than other groups of developing gaming addiction. Given these potential concerns, a literature review was undertaken in order (i) to present the classification basis of online gaming addiction using official mental disorder frameworks, (ii) to identify empirical studies that assess online gaming addiction in children and adolescents, and (iii) to present and evaluate the findings against the background of related and established mental disorder criteria. Empirical evidence comprising 30 studies indicates that for some adolescents, gaming addiction exists and that as the addiction develops, online gaming addicts spend increasing amounts of time preparing for, organizing, and actually gaming. Further evidence suggests that problematic online gaming can be conceptualized as a behavioral addiction rather than a disorder of impulse control.

Selahattin Çavuş , Bünyamin AYHAN

This study carried out in order to analyze the characteristics of game addiction among the adolescents. The research was tackled within the frame of screening model and data was collected in accordance with it. The questionnaire used as a data collecting instrument was applied in a secondary school and a high school which are considered to have the capacity of representing the socioeconomic and cultural structure of Selçuklu district of Konya province. After the analysis, it was determined that the average of the boys as for game addiction were higher than those of girls. Moreover, the boys were observed to spend more money on games. The socioeconomic reasons such as educational status of parents, the number of siblings, having computers and having a private room weren't seen to be discriminative characteristics. However, a differentiation related to addiction was observed among genders and stages. The research suggests that it is necessary to activate the patterns of social communication networks such as friendly footing, taking more responsibilities, and highlighting social life to diminish game addiction.

Research suggests that excessive online gaming may lead to symptoms commonly experienced by substance addicts. Since games are particularly appealing to children and adolescents, these individuals may be more at risk than other groups of developing gaming addiction. Given these potential concerns, a literature review was undertaken in order (i) to present the classification basis of online gaming addiction using official mental disorder frameworks, (ii) to identify empirical studies that assess online gaming addiction in children and adolescents, and (iii) to present and evaluate the findings against the background of related and established mental disorder criteria. Empirical evidence comprising 30 studies indicates that for some adolescents, gaming addiction exists and that as the addiction develops, online gaming addicts spend increasing amounts of time preparing for, organizing, and actually gaming. Evidence suggests that problematic online gaming can be conceptualized as a behavioral addiction rather than a disorder of impulse control.

Research suggests that excessive online gaming may lead to symptoms commonly experienced by substance addicts. Since games are particularly appealing to children and adolescents, these groups may be more at risk than other groups of developing gaming addiction. Given these potential concerns, a literature review was undertaken in order (i) to present the classification basis of online gaming addiction using official mental disorder frameworks, (ii) to identify empirical studies that assess online gaming addiction in children and adolescents, and (iii) to present and evaluate the findings against the background of related and established mental disorder criteria. Empirical evidence comprising 30 studies indicates that for some adolescents, gaming addiction exists and that as the addiction develops, online gaming addicts spend increasing amounts of time preparing for, organizing, and actually gaming. Further evidence suggests that problematic online gaming can be conceptualized as a behavioral addiction rather than a disorder of impulse control.

Belitung Nursing Journal

Siripattra Juthamanee

Background: Understanding factors influencing Internet and game addiction in children and adolescents is very important to prevent negative consequences; however, the existing factors in the literature remain inconclusive.Objective: This study aims to systematically map the existing literature of factors related to Internet and game addiction in adolescents.Methods: A scoping review was completed using three databases - Science Direct, PROQUEST Dissertations and Theses, and Google Scholar, which covered the years between 2009 to July 2020. Quality appraisal and data extraction were presented. A content analysis was used to synthesize the results.Results: Ultimately, 62 studies met inclusion criteria. There were 82 associated factors identified and grouped into 11 categories, including (1) socio-demographic characteristics, (2) parental and family factors, (3) device ownership, Internet access and location, social media, and the game itself, (4) personality/traits, psychopathology fa...

International Journal of Advanced Computer Science and Applications

Maha A B D U L L A H AlDwehy

Open Access Macedonian Journal of Medical Sciences

ira nurmala

International Conference on Humanities, Social and Education Sciences

Mustafa Tevfik Hebebci

Digital games are tools where individuals from all ages have fun, socialize, and spend time. They have positive effects as well as negative effects. One of the most notable negative effects is addiction. In general terms, digital game addiction is playing games without control. To that end, this study examines adolescents' digital game addictions by their digital game tendencies, gender, and gaming spending. In this direction, the research sample consists of a total of 191 adolescents, 90 female and 101 male. Descriptive statistics and independent samples t-tests were used in the data analysis. When the digital game-playing tendencies of adolescents are analyzed, it is concluded that the games are generally played on the smartphone, are in the battle royale type, and are played for entertainment purposes. Another result collected in the study is that the mean addiction score is statistically significantly higher for males than for females and for those who spend money on games compared to those who do not. The research results were discussed in relation to the studies in the literature, and suggestions were made.

Patti Valkenburg

RELATED PAPERS

Caderno de Letras

Matías Campoy

Kajian Malaysia

Esther Perry

Meat and Muscle Biology

Elisabeth Huff-Lonergan

Proceedings of the 2021 ACM Asia Conference on Computer and Communications Security

Maryam Sepehri

Vidya Gogate

Biomedicine &amp; Pharmacotherapy

Sonia Eligini

Indian Journal of Chemistry Section a

Rita Kakkar

Matahari Bhakti Nendya

Schizophrenia Research

Homology, Homotopy and Applications

Revista Peruana de Medicina Experimental y Salud Pública

Daniel Comandé

Journal of Diabetes Mellitus

Modibo Mariko

Rodrigo Fernandes

Journal of Low Temperature Physics

Research on Chemical Intermediates

R. K. Vatsa

Society &amp; Animals

Garry Marvin

Transplantation Proceedings

Chen-Shuan Chung

Michael Kassner

Eirini Geraniou

Sri Okta Mulyani

LiNQ (Literature in North Queensland)

Gerry Turcotte

Volker Dietrich

Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences

Gwo-dong Chen

Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research

Phil Marshall

Thais Sanjad

RELATED TOPICS

•   We're Hiring!
•   Help Center
• Find new research papers in:
• Health Sciences
• Earth Sciences
• Cognitive Science
• Mathematics
• Computer Science
• Academia ©2024

245 Addiction Essay Topics

🏆 best essay topics on addiction, 🔎 easy addiction research paper topics, 👍 good addiction research topics & essay examples, 🔥 hot addiction ideas to write about, ✍️ addiction essay topics for college, 🌶️ simple & easy addiction essay titles, 🎓 most interesting addiction research titles, 💡 simple addiction essay ideas, 📌 easy addiction essay topics.

• How and Why TikTok Addiction Affects Academic Performance
• Drug Addiction: Advantages and Disadvantages
• Social Media Addiction Causes and Solutions
• Analysis of Gwen’s Addiction in the Film “28 Days”
• Social Media Addiction: Causes and Effects
• Social Media Addiction: How to Overcome the Problem
• Causes and Effects of Drug Addiction
• Addiction to Online Gaming The paper is an overview of scholarly sources on online gaming addiction and the analysis of narrative inquiry as to the most suitable qualitative research method.
• Teenage Drug Addiction Problem The modern world is full of diverse activities and hobbies that can have both positive and negative effects. This essay aims at discussing the phenomenon of teenage drug addiction.
• Addiction Among Adolescents and Christianity View This research paper explained three widespread addictions among young people from a Christian perspective, relying on statistical data about each one.
• Substance Abuse and Addiction Treatment: The Humanistic Theory The Humanistic theory was first formulated by Carly Rogers who suggests that therapists and counselors need to help clients achieve the best outcomes during therapy and counseling.
• Case Study of Drug Addiction The case study provides a platform for evaluating treatment priorities and agencies crucial for the full recovery of substance abuse patients.
• Drug Addiction in America: Effects and Solutions The problem of illegal drug use is a major health issue in the United States, it affects thousands of people, the specified concern must be handled on the level of state policies.
• Addiction in “Dragged High on Alcohol” Documentary The “Dragged High on Alcohol” documentary is about an alcohol addict Ryan, and the film crew follows him and his family, showing how Ryan experiences his addiction.
• TikTok Addiction Among Teenagers Teenagers who are addicted to TikTok are more likely to experience severe depression, anxiety, and limited working memory.
• The Impact of Ageism on Mental Health and Addiction Ageism refers to prejudice towards persons because of their age. This form of discrimination is exhibited in the unfair treatment of older people.
• Internet Addiction as a Teenage Issue This paper evaluates Internet addiction as an issue affecting teenagers today and assesses the causes, assessment tools, and support options.
• Renton’s Addiction in the “Trainspotting” Movie This paper reviews the character of Renton in the “Trainspotting” movie and looks at ways and steps through which can be helped him to overcome his addiction.
• Causes and Effects of Fast-Food Addiction Studies show that those who frequently eat fast food have an increased risk of progressing from simple consumption to addiction.
• The Crisis of Drug Addiction This essay will focus on the crisis of drug addiction in general. It will also include some factors that lead to drug abuse. The paper will cover the dynamics of drug addiction in the USA.
• Overcoming the Stigma of Addiction Addiction is a disease that is recognized as a major public health concern but is generally regarded by society as the result of an individual’s personal choice or a moral failure.
• Treating Addictions from a Christian Perspective Alcoholics Anonymous and its founders formulated the 12 guidelines with the aim of helping members of different faiths to deal with different forms of addictions.
• Social Media Addiction and How It Affects People Every year people spend more and more time on their smartphones or computers. The present essay discusses the topic of addiction to social media and smartphones.
• Person With an Addiction: Mr. Smith Case Study In this case, this paper will examine on the issues involved and possible interventions for a person with an addiction.
• The Addictions That Have Effects on Marriage The addictions that have effects on marriage can be classified into two groups: substance addiction and process addiction.
• The Effects Of Addictions On The Family System Alcohol addicts are unable to properly discharge family responsibilities, their family members become codependent and are frequently assaulted of having abnormal children is high.
• The Problem of Technology Addiction Among College Students The rapid development of technologies has impacted every aspect of modern people’s lives, from work and education to leisure and recreation.
• Whip Whitaker’s Alcoholic Addiction and Its Influence on His Life In this case study, the author dwells on the alcoholic addiction of Whip Whitaker, a fictional character, alongside the impact of this addiction on his way of doing things.
• Fighting Addictions: A Personal Reflection Thinking of addiction, I realize that it comes at a high cost, and we must be aware of its consequences to not let ourselves or anyone become an addict.
• Sugar Addiction and Its Negative Effects The researchers have estimated that sugar has a significant impact on the human brain, with uncontrolled consumption leading to addiction and cognitive impairments.
• Drug Addiction: A Choice or a Medical Disease? This article examines two opposing points of view on the problem of drug addiction – does a person have a choice to be a drug addict or is drug addiction a medical disease?
• Addiction Theories and Counseling Techniques Addiction to substances can develop as a result of several factors, and researchers have tried to explain this occurrence via different approaches.
• Video Game Addiction: History and Future Implications This study will describe the history of video games and video game addiction, including the current state, the future of the problem, and the best ways to handle the issue.
• Drug Addiction: A Disease or a Choice? Drug addiction remains a serious health concern for contemporary society. The problem of whether drug addiction can be viewed as a disease or a choice remains topical.
• Cause and Effect of Drug Addiction As a result of drug misuse, there are changes in the functioning of neurological pathways in the human brain, with the associated physical; and mental health deterioration.
• The Relationship Between Drugs and Addiction to Crime Systemic crime emerges from the arrangement of drug circulation. It includes conflicts over the region in rival drug traders, attacks, and executions committed in involved groups.
• Smartphone Addiction Among American Youth While the smartphone is a valuable tool that has benefited civilization, the ensuing mental addiction has a profound, lasting impact on individuals’ health.
• Drugs in Perspective: Models of Addiction The moral model of addiction is a notion that has very little in common with biological or genetic components of addiction. The disease model of addiction is a lifelong addiction.
• The Neuroscience of Internet Addiction Technology firms play a great role in exploiting the neuroscience of internet addiction through marketing, as revealed in the article.
• Causes and Consequences of Alcohol and Drug Addiction Drug addiction is a psychological and physical disorder that affects the brain of an individual. It is caused by dependence on drugs, alcohol, and specific behaviors.
• Transcending Addiction and Redefining Recovery To treat addiction, the underlying mental health issue must be resolved. This is connected to the third factor, hope for the future.
• Addiction to Cellphone Limits Engagement in an Active Social Life The paper proposes and describes a Comprehensive Integrated Approach Program that combines methods of research and solution to the root.
• Computer Use and Dangerous Computer Addiction The society has changed a lot with the technological developments that have come up in the world. This technology has had many advantages to the contemporary world.
• Role of Internet in Internet Addiction This paper will use qualitative data to analyze the role of the web in digital media addiction amid the young people. The paper will begin with a literature review of internet addiction.
• Gambling Addiction in “The Power of Habit” The paper analyses reasons of gambling addiction at the heart of the chapter in Charles Duhigg’s book, “The Power of Habit”.
• Public Policies Related to Drug Addiction Public policies related to drug addiction need to be enforced in a compassionate manner that pays attention to the unique needs of American society.
• Addiction and Its Impact on John and His Family System The purpose of this paper is to examine John’s family system and history in order to identify the most beneficial recovery strategies for him.
• Chemical Dependency: Crisis of Addiction This paper researches the roots of the issue of substance addiction, its degree of impact, individual and system factors that influence subjects.
• The Dangers of Addiction or at Risk Behavior This topic is very important nowadays. The addictions can be different. It can be drugs, the alcohol addiction. Very often it can be cartoons, computer games, TV.
• Cognitive Psychology and Addiction The work describes the cognitive processes that explain addictive behavior and dependence as a body’s reaction to the objective external world through its internal attitudes.
• Neuroscience of Addictions and Their Origin Any type of addiction worsens a person’s health and leads to quicker or unexpected death, meaning that curing this disorder is paramount to saving one’s life.
• Case Study on Addiction and Mental Disorder This essay will discuss the case of Gerard, including his mental health, addictions, factors affecting them, and the role of the healthcare system in the patient’s wellbeing.
• Cell Phone Addiction in Canadian Teens As a consequence of excessive mobile phone use, teens in Canada face social, behavioral, and emotional difficulties.
• Trauma-Addictions and Mental Health The purpose of the assignment is to integrate key concepts about trauma, trauma-informed practice, trauma-specific services, and practice approaches as related to social work.
• Trauma and Addiction: Complex Treatment Addiction is a issue that needs to be examined but there is a lack of emphasis on the evidence that trauma and addiction are similar in terms of effects on neurochemistry.
• Analysis of the Interview Response by an Addiction Counselor This report provides a brief summary and analysis of the interview response by an addiction counselor who works at a rehabilitation center.
• Addiction Treatment: Standards and Best Practices The ethical and legal standards in addiction treatment outline the expected professional conduct of counselors, their observance protects clients’ rights, etc.
• Methamphetamine Addiction and Interventions Today, methamphetamine, also known as crank, speed, meth, and glass is one of the most widespread drugs worldwide because of its ease of manufacture.
• Alcohol Addiction Group Manual The present manual offers key information about the formation of a psychotherapeutic group that is focused on addressing the problem of alcohol addiction.
• Drug Use and Heroin Addiction: Informative Speech The illegality of drugs makes it impossible to research the actual numbers of people using drugs and situations making these persons initiate drug abuse and harm their health.
• Cognitive Behavioral Theory as Addiction Treatment The paper compares Cognitive Behavioral Therapy and Motivational Interviewing as two main procedures through which patients with addiction problems can be treated.
• Interpersonal Psychotherapy and Alcohol Addiction Interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT) is a highly adaptable approach to treating an array of disorders, and it has been used to address the needs of various patient groups.
• Reality in Drug Addiction Research: Ethnography Ethnography as a research method is the most suitable for the study of drug use. The method has already has established itself as effective in studies of closed groups.
• How Ageism Affects Mental Health and Addiction? Essay demonstrates how negative prejudices towards the elderly influence their mental health in the long run, and how it affects their relationship with addiction.
• Smoking: Addiction Treatment Methods The therapists advise those who are daily tobacco users to quit, despite their willingness. However, the intervention for smokers without any desire to stop is a complicated one.
• The Effects of Addiction on Cognition The effect of drugs to impair cognition has been researched extensively and all major substances of abuse have been found to affect cognition.
• Story Telling and America’s Reality TV Addiction Storytelling is as ancient as the cave paintings found in ancient lands. It is as ancient as the oral histories passed on from generation to generation
• Drug Addiction Is a Chronic Disease Drug addiction is a disease that can be considered chronic in nature and relies heavily on the influence of hereditability, environmental conditions.
• Addiction and Substance Use Disorder This paper has identified addiction and substance use disorder (SUD) as some of the health challenges many people in the global society face.
• Substance Abuse Versus Addiction When abuse of psychoactive substances is regularly repeated, dependence syndrome develops a person begins to crave the drug or alcohol more.
• Drug Addiction among Nurses The United States of America has one of the best healthcare systems in the world. Drug abuse among nurses is a serious problem that threatens the quality care that is offered.
• Optimal Addiction Counselling and Its Impact The importance of addiction counseling professions grows every day as humanity grapples with the modern world’s challenges.
• Theoretical Approaches to Addictions This paper illustrates four approaches to addictions, including the personality theory, the neurobiological, the family disease, and the genetic models of addiction.
• Annual Burnout and Turnover Rates of Addiction Treatment Counselor in Chicago The problematic situation of burnout among narcologists in Chicago was exacerbated by the aftermath of the pandemic.
• How Would You Define Addiction? The attachment process occurs in people in different ways and under other circumstances. Most people do not even realize they are participating in such a process.
• Meth Addiction Among Low-Income Americans The problem of methamphetamine addiction is a global health problem. Social and economic factors are of particular importance for this aspect.
• Drug Addiction: The Brain Disease Drug addiction acts similarly to neurological diseases. Substances directly affected the brain, with addiction being the most acute phase of substance use disorder.
• Aspects of Cocaine Addiction Cocaine addiction raises and improves through the allocation of particular brain functions. Cocaine affects neurons that secrete gamma-aminobutyric acid.
• Opioid Addiction Struggles and Coping Methods The present case discussion focuses on a patient’s struggles with opioid addiction, coping methods, and possible interventions to improve his adaptation.
• Microeconomic Factors of Opioid Addiction It was distinguished that people who struggle with employment or financial difficulties often develop unhealthy coping mechanisms such as opioid addictions.
• Drug Addiction and Best Treatment Practices This paper will determine the role of treatment in the recovery process and analyze the best evidence-based practices.
• The Issue of Rising Levels of Opioid Addiction in the Military The proposed research will seek to establish the correlation between veterans’ injuries and opioid addictions among this population.
• Drug Addiction as Moral Failure The paper shows that drug abuse cannot be viewed as a moral failure. Kuhar’s scientific examinations made him come to that conclusion.
• Overcoming the Drug Abuse Addiction The use of narcotic drugs brings irreparable harm to health and diminishes the quality of life. Opioid abuse is a predominant problem that continues to be a concern.
• Alcohol Addiction and Its Effects on the Body and Specific Organs The more an individual use alcohol to cope with pain and adversity, the more the body adapts to it and becomes dependent on its effects.
• Fast Food Addiction: Comparison of Articles Both presented articles argue the harmfulness of fast food, but the scientific article provides evidence of the existence of healthy fast food.
• The Problem of the “Technological Bondage”: The Internet Addiction Psychologists compare Internet addiction, which appeared with the development of the Internet, with alco- and drug dependency.
• Mindfulness as a Method of Treating Addiction When it comes to MBIs, these are among the newest additions to the addiction treatment toolkit, which can be effectively utilized by professionals.
• Programming: Correlates of Internet Addiction in Turkish Adolescents Variable gender respondent, labeled Q101 in the data set, is a nominal variable that measures the type of response that the researcher is recording.
• Opioid Use and Opioid Addiction This paper is an annotated bibliography of the ten articles devoted to the topics of opioid use and opioid addiction.
• The Integrated Approach to Studying Addiction The integrated approach to studying addiction is beneficial because it goes to the root of the problem and attempts to rectify it before its onset.
• Assessment and Therapeutic Approaches for Drug Addiction Clients The paper uses various drug addiction assessment methods to examine the severity, give clinicians insight into the problem and assist in psychotherapy.
• COVID-19 Epidemic and Alcohol and Drug Addiction The sudden life changes during the COVID-19 epidemic make it difficult for people who suffer from alcohol and drug dependence to fight their addictions.
• Issues of Obesity and Food Addiction Obesity and food addiction have become widespread and significant problems in modern society, both health-related and social.
• Drug Addiction and Stigmatization The horrifying nature of stigmatization is one of the perplexing factors of drug addiction, so society should understand the role of mental and physical help for such people.
• Adolescent Addiction and Behavioral-Based Alcoholism Addiction to substances can be difficult to comprehend because, despite the progressively unfavorable consequences, addicted people take drugs and alcohol obsessively.
• Planned Change Process in Alcohol Addiction A social worker at a high school in a midwestern state should work with four teenagers who were suspended for two weeks for drinking alcoholic beverages at school.
• Drug Addiction: Analysis of Goeders and Guerin Research Goeders & Guerin (1994) point out that anxiety and stress may be involved in drug use and increased risk of dependency, as these are involved in the etiology of cocaine use.
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and Substance Addiction Treatment The paper presents the case study of a client struggling with PTSD and substance addiction, including disposition, suggested treatment protocol, and resources for treatment.
• Behavioral Addictions in Adolescents Gambling, video gaming, and Internet use are among the most executed activities in modern society, especially the young.
• Drug Addiction Treatment & Benchmark Program Drug addiction is an illness that has no easy cure but instead requires in-depth research to take into account various therapy factors.
• Dealing With Addiction: Harm Reduction The harm reduction program is carried out by addressing the population’s declining health quality. It is risky to take intravenous drugs in public settings.
• Substance Abuse Addiction: Guide for Colleagues in the Workplace If a colleague exhibits an addictive behavior, there is need to handle the situation properly and professionally to ensure better productivity after addressing the issue.
• Six Stages of Change: Treatment Approaches for Drug Addiction Recovery from addiction leads to lifestyle change. Individuals whose loved ones undergo the recovery process may feel long when they have doubtful expectations.
• Marijuana Addiction: A Sociological Perspective Marijuana use issues are frequently connected with reliance in which an individual feels withdrawal manifestations when not taking the medication.
• Addiction Counseling Competency of Assessment The addiction counseling competency is selecting and using a “comprehensive assessment process that is sensitive to age, gender, racial and ethnic culture, and disabilities”.
• Policy Memo for Opioid Addiction Among Senior Citizens
• Drug Use and Addiction Correlations
• Drug and Alcohol Addiction Treatment Program
• Alcohol Addiction in a 59-Year-Old Man: Case Study
• Genes and Epigenetic Regulation of Learning and Memory, Addiction, and Parkinson’s Disease
• Addiction: Relapse Dynamics and Prevention
• Opioid Addiction Between 1850 and 1900 in America
• Human Services Ethical Considerations as to Tobacco Addiction
• Behavioral Addictions: Mental Disorders
• Cocaine Addiction and Parkinson Disease
• The Problem of Adolescent Addiction
• Addiction and 12-Step Programs
• Pain Management in Patients with Addiction
• Chemical Dependence: Crisis of Addiction
• Psychoactive Substance Addiction Treatment
• “Addicts Who Survived” by David Courtwright: American Addiction to Narcotics Problem and Anti-drug Policies
• Chemical Dependency: Crisis of Addiction
• Treatment of Opioid Addiction With Buprenorphine
• Alcohol Addiction: Assessing and Diagnosing the Client
• The Problem of Alcohol Addiction in Russia
• Neurobiology: Epigenetics in Cocaine Addiction
• Comparison of Adolescent and Adult Addiction Treatment
• Drug Addiction: Elimination of Incarcerations
• Medical Coverage for Addiction Recovery Expansion Act Analysis
• “Addicts Who Survived” by David Courtwright: Crucial Work on Drug Addiction
• Treatment of Opiate Addiction: A Program Evaluation
• Misguided Perception of Drug Addiction
• Alcohol Addiction: Alcoholics Anonymous Program
• How Opioid Addiction Impact Young Kids
• Development of Addiction Services in County Wicklow
• Treating Addictions: Harm Reduction in Clinical Care and Prevention
• Social Media as a Type of Addiction
• Drug Abuse and Addiction: Risk Factors
• Alternative Treatment for Chronic Pain and Addiction
• Internet Addiction Affect on Person Normal Functioning
• Support Services and the Case Review: Drug and Alcohol Addiction
• Remedies for Marijuana Addiction
• Phobias and Addictions as Manifestations of the Human Mind Weakness
• A Medical Treatment of Addiction
• Drug Abuse and Drug Addiction and Various Policies Related to Drugs
• Comparing a Behavioral and Chemical Addiction on the Example of Alcohol and Pornography
• Drug Addiction: The Problem of Xanax Abuse and Its Consequences
• Alcohol Addiction and Its Adverse Effects on the Victim and Family
• Energy and the Economy. Oil Addiction in America
• Philosophical Approach to Addictions
• Chemical Dependency: The Crisis of Addiction
• Addiction Among Nurses: Professional and Personal Experience of Nurses
• Gaming Addiction: Creating a Blog to Help People With Gaming Addiction
• Preventing Opioid Abuse and Addiction
• Black Theology and Its Impact on Drug Addiction
• “Adolescent Alcoholism and Drug Addiction” by Choate
• IPhone Addiction and Health of Hispanic Adolescents
• People with Addiction and Substance Use Disorder
• Suboxone Treatment for Opioid Addiction in Adult Clients
• Stimulants, Depressants, Opioids Causing Addiction
• The Problem of Drug Use and Heroin Addiction in US
• Healthcare Financing and Drug Addiction
• Prescription Opioid Addiction in the United States
• Miami-Dade Community Needs: Alcohol and Drug Addiction
• Youth Addiction Prevention and Rehabilitation
• Problem of the Alcohol Addiction in Modern Families
• Drug Dependency and Behavioral Addictions
• Best Practices in Addiction Treatment
• Family Crisis Addictions in Psychology
• Prevalence of Use, Abuse, Addiction to Crack Cocaine in African-American Children Living in Low Income Housing
• How Pornographic Addiction Ruins Our Lives?
• Internet Addiction and Its Effects on Educational Succes
• The Causes and Effects of Heroin Addiction in the United States
• Common Signs of Alcohol Dependence, Alcoholism and Drug Addiction
• Technology Addiction Among Youth and Its Impact
• Addiction and Substance Abuse During Pregnancy
• The Relationship Between Sleep Quality and Internet Addiction Among Female College Students
• Associations Between Internet Addiction and Physical Activity Among Vietnamese Youths and Adolescents
• Religious Treatments for Drug Addiction: An Exploratory Study in Brazil
• General Information About Sex Addiction and Possible Treatments
• The Physical and Social Effects of Computer Addiction
• General Information About Youth and Internet Addiction in China
• General Information About Alcohol Addiction Among Teenagers in New Zealand
• Tobacco Users’ Addiction and the Effects of the Use of Tobacco
• Characteristics of the Neurological Effects of Alcohol Dependence
• General Information About the Alcoholic Addiction: How to Stop Drinking
• What Factors Influence the Onset of Drug Addiction?
• Cognitive Behavior Therapy for Methamphetamine Addiction
• Addiction and Alcohol Consumption: Evidence From Italian Data
• Understanding Addiction and Compulsive Behaviour: Analysis of Gambling Addiction
• Association Between Internet Addiction and the Risk of Musculoskeletal Pain in Chinese College Freshmen a Cross-Sectional Study
• Addiction Counseling for Children of Addicts
• Alcohol, Drug Addiction, and Political Socialization in America
• Gambling: The Problems and History of Addiction, Helpfulness, and Tragedy
• Sexual Addiction and Its Devastating Effects
• Information Shocks and Cigarette Addiction: Views From Dynamic Panels With Common Structural Changes
• Cognitive Dysfunction, Affective States, and Vulnerability to Nicotine Addiction: A Multifactorial Perspective
• Why Video Game Addiction Is One of the Urgent Problems Today
• Treatment Approaches for Interoceptive Dysfunctions in Drug Addiction
• What the Phone Addiction Is a Big Problem of 21 Century
• Psychological Problems Associated With Mobile Phone Addiction
• Similarities Between Romeo and Juliet’s Passion and Heroin Addiction or Heroin Withdrawal
• Selfie Addiction and Its Psychological Effects on Adolescents
• Impact of Mobile Phone and Social Media Addiction on Family Relationships
• Gambling Addiction and Its Impact on the Individual and the Members of the Family
• Risk Factors for Addiction and Their Association With Model-Based Behavioral Control
• The Relationship Between Anxiety and Depressant Drug Addiction
• Women and Substance Use: Are Women Less Susceptible to Addiction
• Technology for Treating and Overcoming Social Media Addiction
• Addiction, Social Interactions and Gender Differences in Cigarette Consumption
• Companies Should Help Treat Their Employee’s Addiction
• Video Game Addiction and the Emotional States: Possible Confusion Between Pleasure and Happiness?
• Alcohol Addiction and Its Effects on the Family in the Novel a Tree Grows in Brooklyn by Betty Smith
• Children, Computer Addiction, and Problems of Social Development
• Comparing and Contrasting Biblical and Professional Views of Addiction
• Addiction and the Internet Provides Negatively Affected Psychosocial Factors
• Substance Abuse and Addiction: Is There a Solution?
• What Are the Effects of Internet Addiction of a Large Number of Youth of Today
• Addiction Changes the Way the Brain Processes Information
• Substance Abuse and Addiction: Choice or Disease?
• Violence, Aggression, Addiction Equals Violent Video Games
• The Rational Addiction, Health Information and Dynamic Demand of Energy Drinks
• Sex Addiction and Its Effects on Children and Adult Are Facing
• Children and Video Games – Addiction, Engagement, and Achievement
• What Are the Disadvantages of Computer Addiction
• How Neuroscience Can Assist With the Treatment of Addiction?
• Correlation Between Loneliness and Internet Addiction
• How Quit Smoking Using Patches and Say Good-Bye to Addiction?
• General Information About Addiction Internet Overeating and Gambling
• The Relationship Between Adolescents Stress and Internet Addiction: A Mediated-Moderation Model
• Correlation Between Internet Addiction and Academic Assignment
• Addicts Are Extremely Adept at Hiding Evidence of Addiction
• Psychoanalytic, Genetic, Exposure, and Other Theories Concerning Addiction and Responsibility
• Relationship Between Consuming Palatable Food and the Risk of Food Addiction in Children and Adolescents
• The Characteristics and Treatment of Drug Addiction in the United States
• Trait Emotional Intelligence Profiles of Parents With Drug Addiction and of Their Offspring
• What Biological, Psychological, and Social Facts Underlie Addiction
• Association Between Internet Addiction and Obesity
• Romantic Love vs. Drug Addiction May Inspire a New Treatment for Addiction
• Sexual Addiction Among Christians and Sexual Abuse
• The Benefits, Health Hazards, and Addiction Concerns of E-Smoking in the United States
• Social Networking Addiction Among Hong Kong University Students: Its Health Consequences and Relationships With Parenting Behaviors
• Overview of Drug Rehabilitation Programs in the United States
• Uncovering the Behavioral Implications of the Rational Addiction Assertion

Cite this post

• Chicago (N-B)
• Chicago (A-D)

StudyCorgi. (2021, November 12). 245 Addiction Essay Topics. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/addiction-essay-topics/

"245 Addiction Essay Topics." StudyCorgi , 12 Nov. 2021, studycorgi.com/ideas/addiction-essay-topics/.

StudyCorgi . (2021) '245 Addiction Essay Topics'. 12 November.

1. StudyCorgi . "245 Addiction Essay Topics." November 12, 2021. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/addiction-essay-topics/.

Bibliography

StudyCorgi . "245 Addiction Essay Topics." November 12, 2021. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/addiction-essay-topics/.

StudyCorgi . 2021. "245 Addiction Essay Topics." November 12, 2021. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/addiction-essay-topics/.

These essay examples and topics on Addiction were carefully selected by the StudyCorgi editorial team. They meet our highest standards in terms of grammar, punctuation, style, and fact accuracy. Please ensure you properly reference the materials if you’re using them to write your assignment.

This essay topic collection was updated on March 8, 2024 .

Home — Essay Samples — Entertainment — Video Games — Gaming Addiction

Gaming Addiction

• Categories: Gambling Addiction Video Games

About this sample

Words: 902 |

Published: Nov 7, 2018

Words: 902 | Pages: 2 | 5 min read

Cite this Essay

Let us write you an essay from scratch

• 450+ experts on 30 subjects ready to help
• Custom essay delivered in as few as 3 hours

Get high-quality help

Verified writer

• Expert in: Nursing & Health Entertainment

+ 120 experts online

By clicking “Check Writers’ Offers”, you agree to our terms of service and privacy policy . We’ll occasionally send you promo and account related email

No need to pay just yet!

Related Essays

2 pages / 808 words

2 pages / 1132 words

1 pages / 464 words

7 pages / 3039 words

Remember! This is just a sample.

You can get your custom paper by one of our expert writers.

121 writers online

Still can’t find what you need?

Browse our vast selection of original essay samples, each expertly formatted and styled

Related Essays on Video Games

In recent years, video games have become a significant part of popular culture, with millions of people worldwide playing them daily. While some may view gaming as simply a form of entertainment, it is also essential to [...]

The notion that video games cause violence has been a topic of debate and concern for many years. However, a wealth of research challenges this belief, suggesting that the relationship between video games and violent behavior is [...]

Video games have become an integral part of modern society, with millions of people engaging in gaming activities on a regular basis. The prevalence of video games raises important questions about their impact on individuals, [...]

Video games have become an integral part of modern society, with millions of people across the globe engaging in gaming activities. Despite the widespread popularity of video games, they are often criticized for their negative [...]

An article “Student Opinion: Video Gaming Can Be Harmless and Even Helpful” by Cheney Wu talks about benefits of playing video games. He also says that too much video game is not a good thing, but with right the portion of [...]

One of the ideas that the twenty-first century has brought to us is a new form of play and how often we as individuals associate it with technology. But why do we associate it with technology and what is that reason? Our [...]

Related Topics

By clicking “Send”, you agree to our Terms of service and Privacy statement . We will occasionally send you account related emails.

Where do you want us to send this sample?

By clicking “Continue”, you agree to our terms of service and privacy policy.

Be careful. This essay is not unique

This essay was donated by a student and is likely to have been used and submitted before

Download this Sample

Free samples may contain mistakes and not unique parts

Sorry, we could not paraphrase this essay. Our professional writers can rewrite it and get you a unique paper.

Please check your inbox.

We can write you a custom essay that will follow your exact instructions and meet the deadlines. Let's fix your grades together!

Get Your Personalized Essay in 3 Hours or Less!

We use cookies to personalyze your web-site experience. By continuing we’ll assume you board with our cookie policy .

• Instructions Followed To The Letter
• Deadlines Met At Every Stage
• Unique And Plagiarism Free

Addiction to Online Gaming: A Review of Literature Essay

Introduction.

The rapid development of technologies has led not only to numerous breakthroughs in various spheres of people’s lives but also to significant issues related to the inability of some individuals to limit their time spent on gadget use. Whereas the Internet has presented ample opportunity for communication and research, it has also become the reason why too many users have become dependent on it. The selected topic of research is the addiction to online gaming among adults. This specific kind of addiction does not produce such a devastating effect on one’s health as the excessive consumption of alcohol or drugs. However, online gaming addiction poses other threats, which are no less severe both for the addicts and their close ones.

Researchers have presented evidence on the severity of online gaming addiction (Marino & Spada, 2017). Still, too many people continue to neglect the issue’s potential adverse outcomes. Therefore, more research is needed to investigate the problem from different angles, which will suggest viable solutions to it. The present paper is an overview of scholarly sources on online gaming addiction and the analysis of narrative inquiry as the most suitable qualitative research method to use for the investigation of this problem.

The Problem of Interest

Despite the constant development and enhancement of community resources and entertainment opportunities, the number of individuals addicted to online gaming is growing annually. What previously used to be viewed merely as a leisure activity has now come to be considered as a serious threat due to its potential to provoke addiction in users. Online gaming is related to social and psychological problems by facilitating self-regulation deficiency (Gong et al., 2019). Furthermore, the age of gamers has increased considerably, and the activity is no longer regarded as a teenage male hobby (Pietersen et al., 2018). Whereas, in the past, playing video games online, was considered as a useless pastime, at present, it has become an important part of many people’s lifeworlds. The increasing popularity of online gaming is associated with the idea that video games are “richly expressive and creative,” and they grant people much more immersive experience than other media forms do (Pietersen et al., 2018, p. 123). Therefore, one of the core aims in performing current research is to enhance the understanding of people’s likelihood to become addicted to online gaming.

Another rationale for selecting the problem is the need to analyze the possible ways of mitigating a growing issue of online game addiction among the population. Typically, game addicts are male individuals who report unique experiences related to their gaming activity and a high rate of engagement as the triggers of addiction (Tang et al., 2017). However, it is evident that the problem affects not only those directly involved in it but also anyone they interact with within their personal, professional, social, and family lives. Specifically, as Tang et al. (2017) mention, addiction to online gaming can cause a range of social and family problems that present a significant public health concern.

With the increasing interest of researchers in the question of problematic use of the Internet by gamers, a new clinical definition has been suggested to characterize the issue: Internet gaming disorder (Marino & Spada, 2017). Other terms utilized to denote the problem include ‘online gaming addiction,’ ‘problematic online gaming,’ ‘pathological gaming,’ and ‘video gaming dependence’ (Marino & Spada, 2017). The prevalence of Internet gaming disorder is reported to vary from 1.6 to 8.5% among Western youths. Furthermore, the disorder is frequently accompanied by other psychological problems, such as depression, anxiety, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and social phobia (Marino & Spada, 2017). Thus, it is crucial to analyze the available research in order to synthesize what has already been found and single out questions for further detailed research.

The main focus of the study will be the development of online gaming addiction and individuals’ feelings about it. According to Monacis et al. (2017), excessive use of technology has become an emerging issue of concern in the past few decades. The most common symptoms of online gaming addiction are unpleasant feelings when there is no access to the Internet (emptiness and depression), excessive investment of time spent on playing online games, and the refusal to admit a problem (Monacis et al., 2017). One of the major motives for engaging in online gaming is seeking sensation (Hu et al., 2017).

Other common reasons for developing online gaming addiction are concerned with coping, escape, competition, fantasy, and social motives (Šporčić & Glavak-Tkalić, 2018). Hence, it is crucial to investigate why individuals develop an addiction to online gaming and how they feel about it at the stage when they are only starting to engage in excessive Internet use and at the point when online games begin to take up too much time and initiate psychological problems. Personal stories of online gamers will serve as a solid ground for identifying the principal problems and suggesting solutions to them.

The Qualitative Research Method to Be Used

Taking into consideration the nature of the problem under investigation, the most suitable qualitative research method to employ in the study is narrative inquiry. This method involves the process of collecting data from respondents through storytelling. The study of the narrative becomes the means of understanding the ways people perceive the world and various situations in their lives. The self-narrative construction is manifested both in the content and form of narratives (Androutsopoulou & Stefanoua, 2018). According to Lieblich et al., there are two core dimensions for interpreting and scrutinizing narratives: “holistic versus categorical” and “content versus form” (as cited in Androutsopoulou & Stefanoua, 2018, p. 130).

According to Androutsopoulou and Stefanoua (2018), the most beneficial approach to employing a narrative inquiry analysis is a holistic one. The holistic-content dimension implies that the researcher should use the whole life story of an individual, which allows focusing on emerging topics. Meanwhile, the holistic-content mode presupposes that researchers look inside the structure of a respondent’s life story (Androutsopoulou & Stefanoua, 2018). As a result, the use of narrative inquiry helps to understand people’s attitudes toward the events happening in their lives and the ways they feel about them.

The selected research method enables scholars to focus on respondents’ thoughts about their lives rather than on events happening. By using this holistic approach, an individual is able to construct a coherent story of their life with the past, present, and future (James, 2018; McAlpine, 2016). When one tells a researcher about their experiences, the latter becomes “narratives as part of inquiry” and makes the audience “vicarious” participants of these experiences (Chen, 2019, p. 382). Narrative inquiry is composed of three dimensions: temporality, sociality, and space (Kovinthan, 2016). These presuppose a transitional movement of people and places in the story, the revelation of the person’s emotions and feelings, and the possibility of the physical space of inquiry to change (Kovinthan, 2016). Overall, narrative inquiry allows for receiving valuable and reliable first-hand information about the researched issues and problems.

The Review of Literature

Benefits and limitations of the selected research design.

As a research design, a narrative inquiry has a number of advantages and disadvantages that should be considered before utilizing it. The major benefit is undoubtedly the possibility to receive information from the respondent openly, honestly, and without bias. Narrative inquiry is considered to be the most suitable way of uncovering and understanding people’s complex problems (James, 2018). The next advantage of the selected research design is placing the respondent’s self in the central part of the story (Gordon et al., 2015). As a result, the narrator is able to present and construct events, identities, and realities in close synergy with others (Gordon et al., 2015). With the help of narrative research, individuals find it easier to story and re-story their lives in various problematic contexts (Sheilds et al., 2015). Another strength of the narrative inquiry is the likelihood of improving people’s well-being by allowing them to express their thoughts and apprehensions (Ho et al., 2020). When an individual receives an opportunity to express their problems out loud, the chances of coping with these issues increase.

What is more, narrating personal experience equals making sense of it (Ho et al., 2020). In the case of online gamers, the use of narrative inquiry enables researchers to understand “what it means to be a gamer” (Pietersen et al., 2018, p. 123). With this information available, scholars can understand the mechanisms of addiction better since unique personal data allows for a thorough analysis of how people develop an addiction to online gaming and how they feel about it. The next benefit of the selected research design is that it incorporates not only inward but also outward analysis. According to Law and Chan (2015), narrative inquirers consider both the participants’ and researchers’ identities, feelings, hopes, moral tendencies, the environment, conditions, and people affecting the forces and factors from respondents’ contexts. Kovinthan (2016) reports that narrative inquiry helps researchers to cross the boundary between themselves and participants. Additionally, the selected research design enables scholars to investigate the issues faced by respondents and draw out the implicit beliefs and values of researchers (Kovinthan, 2016).

One more advantage of narrative inquiry is the possibility of this approach to unite not only participants and researchers but also the readers of results obtained. As Martinie et al. (2016) note, the audience is likely to reevaluate their own experiences and views on the problem investigated in a study. According to Clandinin and Murphy, narrative inquiry gives knowledge about the experiences of people “composing lives within complex storied landscapes” (as cited in Martinie et al., 2016, p. 659). Finally, as McAlpine (2016) notes, narrative research is a beneficial research design due to creating the opportunity to value different ways of learning about people’s problems and experiences. Therefore, narrative inquiry offers numerous advantages to researchers and, consequently, to research participants.

Disadvantages

What concerns the research design’s limitations is that it must be acknowledged that personal narratives cannot be void of subjectivity without the opportunity to check the information given by respondents (Bruce et al., 2016). Another problem is that the selected research design is not suitable for investigations involving a large number of participants. As James (2018) remarks, since narrative inquiry requires an in-depth and holistic approach to each participant, this method is not appropriate for the studies covering large samples. A limitation closely related to this one is the lack of the possibility to generalize findings due to the uniqueness of each participant’s story (Sheilds et al., 2015). One more difficulty is the fact that narrative inquiry is interpreted and implemented differently by various scholars (James, 2018). Due to this aspect, some researchers argue for the need to draw a firmer line between what narrative inquiry is and what it is not (James, 2018). A disadvantage is also presented by the potentially lacking understanding and trust between participants and researchers or researchers and ethics review boards (Bruce et al., 2016).

The next limitation is concerned with the fact that identity construction that is described in the narrative constitutes only one of the features presented by identity-in-action (McAlpine, 2016). Also, according to Taylor, the narratives’ innate structure frequently leads to the problem of overlooking the “overarching sense of indeterminacy, partiality, and complexity” (as cited in McAlpine, 2016, p. 46). Hence, researchers should be cautious of the information that is left out from respondents’ stories and mind the inconsistencies in narrations. Along with this difficulty, there is a challenge of the researcher’s wrong interpretation of the data given by respondents. Finally, there is a limitation concerned with narrowing the focus of research and ignoring the broader structural problems (McAlpine, 2016). Thus, despite the variety of benefits presented by narrative inquiry, researchers utilizing this approach should be highly attentive to avoid possible mistakes in the process of collecting and analyzing data.

The Evaluation of the Selected Software Analysis Program

Electronic analysis of research data has been commonly associated with quantitative methods. However, one must admit the presence of a sufficient amount of software for qualitative data analysis. Still, despite their availability, these tools are not favored by qualitative research specialists, and the most probable reason for it is the difficulty mastering the software (Zamawe, 2015). In the present study, the software analysis program to be utilized is NVivo. This program is aimed not so much at analyzing the collected data but at aiding the process of analysis (Zamawe, 2015). NVivo is a popular data management program that has such features as multimedia functions, rich text capabilities, and character-based coding. Furthermore, the program incorporates built-in facilities enabling individuals from different geographical areas to operate the same information files simultaneously via a network.

Another benefit of NVivo is in its high level of compatibility of the program with research designs. Since NVivo is not “methodological-specific,” it can be utilized with a variety of qualitative research designs and data analysis methods, including ethnography, grounded theory, literature reviews, discourse analysis, phenomenology, conversation analysis, and mixed methods (Zamawe, 2015, p. 13). NVivo has been available since the 1980s, but only a small amount of researchers have utilized it. Zamawe (2015) notes that despite some limitations, the program is rather useful, and, hence, underestimated. For instance, an evident advantage of NVivo is “easy, effective and efficient coding,” making the retrieval process easier (Zamawe, 2015, p. 14). The program also enables scholars to gather information across sources to group the material that is related (Dollah et al., 2017). Apart from easy data management, NVivo offers such advantages as simplicity in finding topics, the opportunity to save time, and the simplification of data classification.

At the same time, it is necessary to admit some drawbacks of the system. For instance, researchers admit that NVivo may present difficulty processing audio files (Zamawe, 2015). What is more, the program requires much time to master (Dollah et al., 2017). Also, NVivo may be expensive for researchers, as well as it may present complications when attempting to interpret data (Dollah et al., 2017). Still, taking into consideration all advantages and disadvantages of NVivo and bearing in mind the purpose of the present research, it is relevant to use the selected software for the simplification of data analysis in the process of work on the research problem.

Validity Threats in the Selected Qualitative Design

As with any qualitative research design, narrative inquiry meets threats to validity. There are two major dimensions in which the selected method’s validity may be undermined. Firstly, there may arise the problem of a disparity between individuals’ experiences and the stories they tell about these experiences (Wang & Geale, 2015). Secondly, there may emerge wrong connections between the stories told and the interpretations of these stories. In case any of these two issues appear, the validity of research will inevitably suffer. To avoid these common problems, the researcher has to make sure that participants understand the purpose of the study and are aware of the need to be precise and objective about their narratives. On the other hand, the researcher also should do their best to remain impartial and help respondents to uncover their stories in a logical and untwisted way.

Validity in qualitative research is established through such qualities as confirmability, credibility, trustworthiness, and dependability. Apart from that, rigorous data collection and analysis are required, as is member checking (Byrne, 2015). There may also emerge some validity threats of narrative inquiry as a research design in connection with these issues. Confirmability is related to the establishment of trustworthiness and the level of confidence that the study is based on respondents’ narratives rather than on the researcher’s biased opinions (Abkhezr et al., 2020; Heilmann, 2018). In order to make sure that the study focuses on participants’ narratives solely, the researcher has to reflect on their choice of the topic and the attitudes toward data collection and interpretation.

Another important aspect that can pose a threat to validity is credibility. According to Haydon et al. (2018), researchers have to consider whether narrative inquiry has the potential to answer the research question. One of the ways of overcoming this threat is long-term communication between the researcher and the participant, which allows for the confirmation of data collection, thus leading to a higher level of rigor and credibility (Haydon et al., 2018; Nolan et al., 2017).

To mitigate threats to dependability and trustworthiness, narrative inquirers need to be highly attentive when listening to individuals’ stories. Furthermore, as Nolan et al. (2017) mention, it is of utmost importance to respond to critics’ notes. Without a sober reaction to criticism, a researcher risks making the study biased, which can lead to a lack of trustworthiness and dependability. It is a good idea to let participants check the final interpretation of their narratives to evaluate whether it coincides with the experience they described in their stories (Nolan et al., 2017). Harfitt (2015) also emphasizes the significance of validating the field notes with participants as a crucial prerequisite of maintaining trustworthiness. The process of data analysis is no less essential than that of data collection when it comes to maintaining the study’s validity. As Wang and Geale (2015) remark, it is necessary to perform validation checks throughout collecting and analyzing data. Furthermore, the researcher should maintain a close connection with the participants at all stages of the study to ensure its dependability and trustworthiness.

Potential Ethical Issues

When considering narrative inquiry as a research design, ethical issues are probably the most significant ones to be addressed. The main problem that may arise is that sharing one’s experiences may turn into something more personal than mere information exchange (Caine et al., 2019). As a result, by the end of the study, investigators may develop too friendly relationship with their respondents. Another potential ethical issue is that researchers place the narratives of the participants within a larger narrative, which means that scholars are imposing meaning on respondents’ experiences. Consequently, there may arise the problem of the misinterpretation of data.

The next ambiguous issue is the subjectivity of the study on the part of a researcher (Caine et al., 2019). Because some of the personal narratives are ambiguous, it is impossible to rule out researchers’ personal assessment of the situations, through the prism of which respondents’ narrations may be altered from what they were meant to uncover initially. Narrative inquirers should also bear in mind that their relationships with the participants can affect the final result of the study (Law & Chan, 2015). Therefore, researchers should be cautious of their own interpretations of the respondents’ narratives, as well as they should make sure that their interactions do not influence the final result.

In order to minimize the risk of the mentioned ethical issues in the current research, the following steps will be taken. Firstly, the researchers will make it a rule not to become too close or friendly with the participants in order to remain as objective as possible throughout the whole process of the study. Secondly, the researcher will listen to the narratives attentively and ask clarifying questions if needed, which will enable avoiding misinterpretations. Finally, at all stages of the research project, the researcher will refrain from offering a personal assessment of situations described by participants. By following these steps, it will become possible to avoid the most viable ethical concerns.

Summary of Research

Research on the topic of online gaming addiction available so far is rich in directions of investigation. Scholars have analyzed individuals’ disposition toward engaging in online gaming (Balakrishnan & Griffiths, 2018; Pietersen et al., 2018; Tang et al., 2017), the desire for online group gaming (Gong et al., 2019), and dysfunctional cognitions associated with Internet gaming disorder (Marino & Spada, 2017). These and other topics of research allowed for an in-depth understanding of the research question, but they have not answered all the questions related to online gaming addiction.

A connection between individuals’ loyalty toward online gaming and developing online gaming addiction has been found. Research findings reveal that addiction to online mobile games is associated with game loyalty (Balakrishnan & Griffiths, 2018). Furthermore, scholars report a positive relationship between online gaming addiction and the tendency to purchase mobile in-game applications. Finally, researchers have investigated that online gaming loyalty boosts players’ desire to buy online game applications. However, researchers failed to provide a discussion of how these processes evolve.

A study by Gong et al. (2019) has resulted in finding a positive correlation between the desire for playing online games and addiction to this activity. Additionally, the authors have found that the desire for group gaming is connected with people’s social identities, expected enjoyment, and specific attitudes. However, the research lacks generalizability since Gong et al. (2019) have analyzed only one type of social game played online. Meanwhile, each online game has its own unique features aimed at supporting specific social ties, which can have different effects on players’ predisposition toward becoming addicted to playing.

Marino and Spada (2017) have examined the peculiarities of the gaming disorder with the help of a narrative review, which makes this study especially valuable in light of the selected topic and research design. Scholars report that online gaming-associated dysfunctional conditions are numerous, and their quantity increases with the growth of the industry. Marino and Spada (2017) remark that it is crucial to differentiate between dysfunctional cognitions and metacognitions in Internet gaming disorder. Implications for future research based on these findings include the comparison between dysfunctional cognitions and metacognitions with the aim of finding effective evidence-based treatment for online gaming addictive individuals.

Findings of Tang et al.’s (2017) research suggest that males are usually more addicted to online games than women, whereas females are more predisposed to online social networking addiction. Pietersen et al.’s (2018) study has resulted in valuable insights into what it is to be a gamer based on online gaming addicts’ personal narratives. Whereas these studies have addressed some of the aspects of online gaming and the development of addiction to it, more thorough research is needed in various dimensions of the research topic. Specifically, it is important to focus research on understanding the development of online gaming addiction and people’s feelings about it.

Abkhezr, P., McMahon, M., Campbell, M., & Glasheen, K. (2020). Exploring the boundary between narrative research and narrative intervention: Implications of participating in narrative inquiry for young people with refugee backgrounds. Narrative Inquiry, 30 (2), 316-342. Web.

Androutsopoulou, A., & Stefanoua, M. M. (2018). Seeking “home”: Personal narratives and turning points in the lives of adult homeless. The European Journal of Counselling Psychology , 7 (1), 126-147. Web.

Balakrishnan, J., & Griffiths, M. D. (2018). Loyalty towards online games, gaming addiction, and purchase intention toward online mobile in-game features. Computers in Human Behavior , 87 , 238-246. Web.

Bruce, A., Beuthin, R., Sheilds, L., Molzahn, A., & Schick-Makaroff, K. (2016). Narrative research evolving: Evolving through narrative research. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 15 (1), 1-6. Web.

Byrne, G. (2015). Narrative inquiry and the problem of representation: “Giving voice”, making meaning. International Journal of Research & Method in Education, 40 (1), 36-52. Web.

Caine, V., Chung, S., Steeves, P., & Clandinin, D. J. (2019). The necessity of a relational ethics alongside Noddings’ ethics of care in narrative inquiry. Qualitative Research, 20 (3), 265-276. Web.

Chen, J. C. (2019). Restorying a “newbie” teacher’s 3d virtual teaching trajectory, resilience, and professional development through action research: A narrative case study. TESOL Quarterly, 54 (2), 375-403. Web.

Dollah, S., Abduh, A., & Rosmaladewi. (2017). Benefits and drawbacks of NVivo QSR application. Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, 149 , 61-63. Web.

Gong, X., Zhang, K. Z. K., Cheung, C. M., Chen, C., & Lee, M. K. O. (2019). Alone or together? Exploring the role of desire for online group gaming in players’ social game addiction. Information & Management , 56 (6). Web.

Gordon, L. J., Rees, C. E., Ker, J. S., & Cleland, J. (2015). Leadership and followership in the healthcare workplace: Exploring medical trainees’ experiences through narrative inquiry. BMJ Open, 5 , e008898. Web.

Harfitt, G. J. (2015). From attrition to retention: A narrative inquiry of why beginning teachers leave and then rejoin the profession. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 43 (1), 22-35. Web.

Haydon, G., Browne, G., & van der Riet, P. (2018). Narrative inquiry as a research methodology exploring person centred care in nursing. Collegian, 25 (1), 125-129. Web.

Heilmann, S. (2018). A scaffolding approach using interviews and narrative inquiry networks. An Online Journal for Teacher Research, 20 (2). Web.

Ho, I. K., Newton, T. L., & McCabe, A. (2020). The narrative structure of stressful interpersonal events. Narrative Inquiry , 30 (1), 1-17. Web.

Hu, J., Zhen, S., Yu, C., Zhang, Q., & Zhang, W. (2017). Sensation seeking and online gaming addiction in adolescents: A moderated mediation model of positive affective associations and impulsivity. Frontiers in Psychology, 8 . Web.

James, G. (2018). A narrative inquiry perspective into coping mechanisms of international postgraduate students’ transition experiences. American Journal of Qualitative Research , 2 (1), 41-56.

Kovinthan, T. (2016). Learning and teaching with loss: Meeting the needs of refugee children through narrative inquiry. Diaspora, Indigenous, and Minority Education, 19 (3), 141-155. Web.

Law, B. Y.-S., & Chan, E. A. (2015). The experience of learning to speak up: A narrative inquiry on newly graduated registered nurses. Journal of Clinical Nurses, 24 , 1837-1848. Web.

Marino, C., & Spada, M. M. (2017). Dysfunctional cognitions in online gaming and internet gaming disorder: A narrative review and a new classification. Current Addiction Reports , 4 (3), 308-316. Web.

Martinie, S. L., Kim, J.-H., & Abernathy, D. (2016). “Better to be a pessimist”: A narrative inquiry into mathematics teachers’ experience of the transition to the Common Core. The Journal of Educational Research, 109 (6), 658-665. Web.

McAlpine, L. (2016). Why might you use narrative methodology? A story about narrative. Eesti Haridusteaduste Ajakiri, 4 (1), 32-57. Web.

Monacis, L., de Palo, V., Griffiths, M. D., & Sinatra, M. (2017). Exploring individual differences in online addictions: The role of identity and attachment. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 15 , 853-868. Web.

Nolan, S., Hendricks, J., Williamson, M., & Ferguson, S. (2017). Using narrative inquiry to listen to the voices of adolescent mothers in relation to their use of social networking sites (SNS). Journal of Advanced Nursing, 74 (3), 743-751. Web.

Pietersen, A. J., Coetzee, J. K., Byczkowska-Owczarek, D., Elliker, F., & Ackermann, L. (2018). Online gamers, lived experiences, and sense of belonging: Students at the University of the Free State, Bloemfontein. Qualitative Sociology Review , 14 (4), 122-137. Web.

Sheilds, L., Molzahn, A., Bruce, A., Schick Makaroff, K., Stajduhar, K., Beuthin, R., & Shermak, S. (2015). Contrasting stories of life-threatening illness: A narrative inquiry. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 52 (1), 207–215. Web.

Šporčić, B., & Glavak-Tkalić, R. (2018). The relationship between online gaming motivation, self-concept clarity and tendency toward problematic gaming. Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace, 12 (1). Web.

Tang, C. S. K., Koh, Y. W., & Gan, Y. (2017). Addiction to Internet use, online gaming, and online social networking among young adults in China, Singapore, and the United States. Asia Pacific Journal of Public Health , 29 (8), 673-682. Web.

Wang, C. C., & Geale, S. K. (2015). The power of story: Narrative inquiry as a methodology in nursing research. International Journal of Nursing Sciences, 2 (2), 195-198. Web.

Zamawe, F. C. (2015). The implication of using NVivo software in qualitative data analysis: Evidence-based reflections. Malawi Medical Journal, 27 (1), 13-15. Web.

• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2022, September 27). Addiction to Online Gaming: A Review of Literature. https://ivypanda.com/essays/addiction-to-online-gaming-a-review-of-literature/

"Addiction to Online Gaming: A Review of Literature." IvyPanda , 27 Sept. 2022, ivypanda.com/essays/addiction-to-online-gaming-a-review-of-literature/.

IvyPanda . (2022) 'Addiction to Online Gaming: A Review of Literature'. 27 September.

IvyPanda . 2022. "Addiction to Online Gaming: A Review of Literature." September 27, 2022. https://ivypanda.com/essays/addiction-to-online-gaming-a-review-of-literature/.

1. IvyPanda . "Addiction to Online Gaming: A Review of Literature." September 27, 2022. https://ivypanda.com/essays/addiction-to-online-gaming-a-review-of-literature/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Addiction to Online Gaming: A Review of Literature." September 27, 2022. https://ivypanda.com/essays/addiction-to-online-gaming-a-review-of-literature/.

• Coding Using NVivo 9 in Research
• Qualitative Data Analysis Recommendations
• Qualitative Coding with Hands or Software
• Online Gaming Addiction Intervention
• Online Gaming Addiction Analysis
• When Gaming Is Good for You?
• Technology and Parenting: Gaming and Social Media
• Gambling and Gaming Industry
• Online gaming and behavior
• The Gaming Industry in the USA
• Playing Video Games Can Help to Control Dreams
• Does Video Game Violence Lead to Aggression in Children?
• Video Games as a Way to Fix Reality
• The Impact of Video Games on the Human Psyche
• Natural Law and Video Games

Video Game Addiction Essay

• December 25, 2022

Introduction

Video games are long-time phenomenons, and recently, they gradually became people's hobbies and favorite ways to spend time. Even though there is a common prejudice against gaming and gamers formed particularly by older generations, studies show that gaming is usually a harmless recreational activity, depending on how much time a person spends playing (Egli & Meyers, 2013). However, it is not uncommon for this hobby to transform into behavioral addiction, especially in children and adolescents. To detect video game addiction, parents should be vigilant and look into common behavioral patterns that are displayed during gaming addiction.

Body Paragraphs

Video game addiction, also described as Gaming Disorder by World Health Organization, is a behavioral addiction. Although its symptoms can vary by gender and age, some signs can be seen in most people. Although not as dangerous, behavioral addiction shares some standard features with substance abuse in aspects of behavioral patterns and response to treatment (Grant, Potenza, Weinstein, & Gorelick, 2010). For the last two decades, with the advancement in technology, parents have begun to struggle with protecting their children from video game addiction at an accelerating rate. In order to conserve their children, parents should be well informed regarding the symptoms of this disorder. First and foremost, every parent should pay close attention to the dialogues they have with their children, even if it is just idle chat.

The time a person spends talking about gaming in their personal life determines how much it occupies their mind. In addition to this, children who unknowingly suffer from Gaming Disorder usually show signs of social dysfunction, such as often choosing to stay in to play video games instead of socializing with family and friends or not actively engaging in social gatherings. However, this must not be confused with a child’s inherent need to have alone time and unleash their imagination. Parents should distinguish between the inane needs of a child from social dysfunction. If a child continuously denies participating in social activities, they usually like engaging in and choose to play video games; instead, they might be at the beginning of addiction towards video games. Another precise symptom of Gaming Disorder is the sudden mood swings a child displays. When parents deprive a child of the freedom to play video games, the child who has an addiction to video games tends to throw extreme temper tantrums, which can lead to severe emotional conflicts between parents and children.

Furthermore, being confronted about their gaming habits can even push children into lying or manipulating a particular narrative, such as diminishing the time and money they spend on video games (Grant, Potenza, Weinstein, & Gorelick, 2010). In this case, parents should not force their children into admitting their addiction by exposing their behavior. The healthier route to take might be monitoring their behavioral patterns more attentively. One of the most subtle yet dangerous symptoms of gaming addiction is the emotional dependency on video games. Children tend to turn to video games whenever they are going through a mentally rough path, which can lead to adopting video games as their support system instead of talking to parents or peers, which can cause emotional distancing and mental isolation. The helplessness a parent can feel in the face of dealing with their child's gaming addiction is entirely reasonable, and they should take action immediately and seek professional help.

Each child and adolescent has their mindsets, habits, and routines. This difference makes it complicated to set a specific time limit on how a person should play video games daily before it becomes too much. However, Jean Twenge, a psychology professor from San Diego State University, states that the time spent playing video games should not exceed two hours a day (Rossman, 2017). Although no research has determined how much a person thinks about video games in a day, some behavioral patterns indicate how much space video games occupy in a person's mind. For example, suppose an individual is distracted continuously and diverts all subjects to video games, and seems uninterested in any other topic. In that case, that can be a sign that video games are the main focus. There is no particular study that shows how much an average person spends on video games per year. Still, according to the Entertainment Software Association’s 2018 report, 43.4 billion dollars were spent on video games in 2019 (Entertainment Software Association, 2019).

A gamer's personality can change varying by the genre of video games they are playing, such as continually being exposed to violent games can make a person more nervous and create some anger management issues. Of course, there is no such thing as a person who must be violent because they are playing violent games. However, as teenagers and children are more prone to being influenced, the effects of these games can result in different ways. It is shown that most game addicts display signs of emotional distress and mental distance when they are not able to play (Braun, Stopfer, Müller, Beutel, & Egloff, 2016). Psychological isolation is one of the many unhealthy results of addiction to video games. Even in cases of children and adolescents who are generally more social and attentive to family, it is not uncommon to have mental isolation caused by gaming disorder.

Video game's unlimited world that nourishes children's imagination lures them into playing instead of spending time with their family. Most of the children and adolescents have little to no self-control; that is why they are more prone to fall into mental isolation. As a result, spending an excessive amount of time in front of computers causes gamers to skip meals for the sake of continuing the game and even deliberately missing sleep and disrupt their schedule. According to the 2020 report that came out by LimeLight, Germany is in the lead with the most missed meals, while Singapore comes first in missing sleep (Limelight Networks, 2020). There are some significant psychological reasons for why people continue to play video games despite its harmful effects. The most important one among these is the sense of immediate accomplishment. When playing video games, one gets abrupt results and rewards, which gives them the satisfaction of accomplishing something.

The second is elements of escapism that allows gamers to quickly migrate of monotonousness of daily life into creatively put imagination world where they can be as relevant and useful as they like. In addition to these factors, there is a sense of competency. Video games do not have the variable factors that life carries; you can sharpen your talents and be recognized for it, whereas in life, progressing in one's goals takes more than just hard work. The following reason is relatedness, which is an essential psychological need that applies especially to multiple player games. Every individual has the need to feel like they are a valuable part of society, and gamers help and change their community by playing video games, which makes them feel like part of something important. This feeling of satisfaction is the hardest element of gaming to let go of because some people want to project their own dissatisfaction in life by playing video games, which is the most natural thing to do (Bavelier, 2019).

Video Game Addiction Essay: Conclusion

To sum up, video games have become an inevitable part of our lives and even though it has its merits it should be every parent’s duty to preserve their children from falling into video game addiction and ensure that this otherwise nontoxic habit of transitioning into an obsession of gaming, which can affect their child's health, psychology, and social life. In order to do that, parents should be up to date and informed about the dangers and symptoms of this disorder.

Bavelier, D. (2019). Your Brain on Video Games.

Braun, B., Stopfer, M., Müller, W. K., Beutel, E. B., & Egloff, B. (2016). Personality and video gaming: Comparing regular gamers, non-gamers, and gaming addicts and differentiating between game genres. Computer in Human Behaviour, 406-412.

Egli, A., & Meyers, L. S. (2013). The role of video game playing in adolescent life: Is there reason to be concerned? Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 309-312.

Entertainment Software Association. (2019). 2019 Essential Facts About the Computer and Video Game Industry.

Grant, J. E., Potenza, M. N., Weinstein, A., & Gorelick, D. A. (2010). Introduction to Behavioral Addictions. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse, 233-241.

Limelight Networks. (2020). Market Research: The State of Online Gaming-2020.

Recently on Tamara Blog

Essay on Animal Farm by Orwell – Free Essay Samples

“Animal Farm” by George Orwell is a literary masterpiece that tells the story of a group of farm animals who rebel against their human farmer and establish a socialist community based on the principles of equality and mutual respect (Orwell, 1945). However, over time, the pigs who lead the revolution gradually become corrupted by power and begin to oppress and exploit the other animals, ultimately turning the farm into a totalitarian state.

Essay on Cyberbullying – Free Essay Samples

Bullying is an aggressive behavior that is intentional and repeated, aimed at causing harm or discomfort to a person, and often takes place in social environments such as schools, workplaces, and online platforms. Cyberbullying is a relatively new form of bullying that has emerged with the widespread use of technology and the internet. Cyberbullying refers to bullying behaviors that occur online or through electronic means, such as social media, text messages, and emails.

Essay on Nature vs. Nurture – Free Essay Samples

The debate over nature versus nurture has been a longstanding topic of interest among psychologists and other scholars. The two concepts, nature and nurture, are frequently used to explain human development and behavior.

Lord of the Flies Essay – Free Essay Samples

Veterans have played a critical role in the history of the United States, serving their country in times of war and peace. Despite their sacrifices, many veterans face significant challenges, including physical and mental health issues, homelessness, and unemployment.

Why Veterans Are Important – Free Essay Samples

American dream essay – free essay samples.

The American Dream has been a central concept in American culture for decades, representing the idea that anyone, regardless of their background, can achieve success and prosperity through hard work and determination. The concept of the American Dream is rooted in the country’s history and has been promoted in various ways, from the founding fathers’ beliefs to the post-World War II era.

Essay on Online Games Addiction

Students are often asked to write an essay on Online Games Addiction in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Online Games Addiction

Understanding online games addiction.

Online games addiction means playing games on the internet too much. This happens when someone spends more time playing games than doing other important things. This can cause problems like poor grades in school, less time with friends and family, and even health issues.

Reasons for Addiction

There are many reasons why people get addicted to online games. Some people play to escape from real-world problems. Others find the games exciting and challenging. Some people even play to feel a sense of achievement.

Effects of Addiction

Playing games too much can cause many problems. It can lead to poor performance in school or at work. It can also cause health problems like eye strain and lack of sleep. It can even hurt relationships with friends and family.

Overcoming Addiction

Overcoming online games addiction can be tough, but it’s possible. It’s important to set limits on how much time you spend playing games. It can also help to find other hobbies or activities to do instead of playing games. It might also be helpful to talk to a counselor or therapist.

Online games can be fun, but it’s important not to let them take over your life. If you think you might be addicted, it’s important to seek help. Remember, there’s a lot more to life than just playing games!

Also check:

• Speech on Online Games Addiction

250 Words Essay on Online Games Addiction

What is online games addiction.

Online games addiction is when a person cannot stop playing games on the internet. They spend too much time playing these games and ignore other important things in life. This can harm their studies, health, and relationships.

Why Do People Get Addicted?

People get addicted to online games for many reasons. Some find these games fun and exciting. They enjoy the challenges and rewards that these games offer. Others use these games to escape from stress or problems in real life.

Effects of Online Games Addiction

Online games addiction can have many bad effects. It can cause poor grades in school because students spend too much time playing games instead of studying. It can also lead to health problems like eye strain and lack of sleep. Moreover, it can harm relationships with family and friends because the person is always busy with the games.

How to Overcome Online Games Addiction

Overcoming online games addiction is not easy, but it is possible. One way is to set a limit on how much time you can spend on games each day. Another way is to find other fun activities to do, like playing sports or reading books. It can also help to talk to a trusted adult about the problem.

In conclusion, online games addiction is a serious issue. It can harm a person’s studies, health, and relationships. But with the right help and effort, it can be overcome. It is important to balance online gaming with other activities and responsibilities in life.

500 Words Essay on Online Games Addiction

Online games addiction is when a person spends too much time playing games on the internet and finds it hard to stop. This can lead to problems in other parts of life like school, work, or relationships. It’s a bit like when someone can’t stop eating sweets, even though they know it’s bad for them. They might want to stop, but they find it very hard to do so.

There are many reasons why people get addicted to online games. Some people play games to escape from real-life problems or to feel good about themselves. Games can make people feel like they’re winning or achieving something, which can be very satisfying. Other people might get addicted because the games are so much fun and they lose track of time. Sometimes, people get addicted because they’re trying to be the best at the game and can’t stop until they are.

The Impact of Online Games Addiction

Online games addiction can cause many problems. Firstly, it can lead to poor performance in school or work. This is because people who are addicted to games often spend so much time playing that they don’t have time for anything else. They might also lose sleep because they stay up late to play games.

Secondly, addiction can harm relationships. If a person spends too much time playing games, they might not spend enough time with their friends and family. This can make people feel lonely and isolated.

Lastly, spending too much time playing games can also be bad for health. It can lead to problems like poor posture, eye strain, and lack of physical activity.

How to Prevent and Overcome Online Games Addiction

Preventing online games addiction starts with setting limits. It’s fine to play games, but it’s important to have a balance. This means making time for other activities like studying, playing sports, or spending time with friends and family.

If someone is already addicted to online games, it might be hard for them to stop on their own. In this case, it can be helpful to seek help from a professional, like a counselor or a psychologist. They can provide guidance and support to help the person overcome their addiction.

In conclusion, online games addiction is a serious problem that can affect a person’s school, work, relationships, and health. It’s important to balance time spent on gaming with other activities and seek professional help if needed. Remember, games are meant to be fun, not something that takes over your life.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

If you’re looking for more, here are essays on other interesting topics:

• Essay on Online Shopping Boon Or Bane
• Essay on Open Campus Lunch
• Essay on Operation Geronimo

Apart from these, you can look at all the essays by clicking here .

Happy studying!

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• Front Psychol

Video Game Addiction and Emotional States: Possible Confusion Between Pleasure and Happiness?

1 Research Center for Work and Consumer Psychology, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Brussels, Belgium

2 Department of Psychiatry and Neurosciences, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands

Nicolas Debue

Jonathan lete, cécile van de leemput, associated data.

All datasets generated for this study are included in the article/supplementary material.

Internet gaming disorder is characterized by a severely reduced control over gaming, resulting in an increasing gaming time and leading to negative consequences in many aspects of the individual life: personal, family, social, occupational and other relevant areas of functioning (World Health Organization). In the last years, the significant boom in using video games has been raising health issues that remain insufficiently understood. The extent of this phenomenon (the estimated prevalence is between 1.7 and 10% of the general population) has led the mentioned Organization to include gaming disorders in the list of mental health conditions (2018). Several studies show converging findings that highlight the common brain activities between substance use disorders and behavioral addictions (i.e., gaming disorders). Addiction specialists observed that addict subjects tend to confuse pleasure with happiness when linking emotional states to their addictive activities. As far as we know, beyond the mentioned observations, distinguishing the perception of these two emotional states in the frame of an addiction has not been yet the object of formal research. This study aims at examining the possible confusion between pleasure and happiness within the addiction sphere. Video game addiction has been chosen to explore the possible occurrence of this perceptional distortion. A mixed design lab-based study was carried out to compare between video games addicts and non-addicts (between-subjects), and video games-related activities and neutral activities (within-subject). Emotional reactions were gauged by self-reported scales and physiological data acquired through a range of biosensors: Relaxation and Hearth Rate. From a therapeutic standpoint, this research intends to explore alternatives to deal with this sort of disorders. More specifically, at the cognitive level, the idea is elaborating guidelines to develop patients’ insights into these emotional states and thus increasing their ability to handle them. Overall, several indices resulting from this study constitute a bundle of arguments that argue in favor of the confusion between pleasure and happiness made by addict users when associating their affective states to video gaming. Furthermore, this approach illustrates how reappraising emotions may contribute to reducing the perceptional distortion of these emotional states.

Introduction

In the last years, the significant boom in using video games (VG) has been raising health issues that remain insufficiently understood ( Khazaal et al., 2016 ). The World Health Organization [WHO] (2018) has recently included “gaming disorders” in the list of mental health conditions. According to WHO this affliction is a “persistent or recurrent behavior pattern of sufficient severity to result in significant impairment in personal, family, social, educational, occupational or other important areas of functioning.”

The fifth revision of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) considers the ‘Internet Gaming Disorder’ as a potential new diagnosis that requires further research ( Petry et al., 2015 ). The prevalence of problematic gaming is estimated to range from 1.7% to over 10% among general population ( Griffiths et al., 2012 ).

Compared to the core topics of research in neuroscience such as stress, depression, etc., the chronic use of VG is a rather recent field of investigation. Yet, a growing number of studies have been produced in this field in the last two decades ( Andreassen et al., 2016 ). Indeed, several research projects have been exploring VG addiction from a behavioral, emotional, brain circuits and genetic perspectives ( Griffiths et al., 2012 ; Dong et al., 2017 ).

There seems to be converging findings that highlight the common brain activities between VG disorders (belonging to the cluster of behavioral addictions) and substance use disorders (SUD). It has been shown that the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, orbital frontal cortex, para-hippocampal gyrus and thalamus were activated in both disorders ( Han et al., 2011 ). The limbic structures appear to be the key circuits linked with reward and addiction ( Cooper et al., 2017 ). In subjects suffering from these disorders, cues associated with SUD and with behavioral addiction can trigger craving, which is connected with the dopamine reward system ( Ko et al., 2009 ; Han et al., 2011 ). In addition, it has been observed that the level of dopamine released in the ventral striatum when playing a competition like video game is comparable to that provoked by psycho-stimulant drugs ( Koepp et al., 1998 ; Yau et al., 2012 ). Few studies have been carried out on the genetic aspects of this topic. Some of them indicate that there would be genetic background similarities between these two disorders. For example, the homozygous short allelic variant of the 5HTTLPR gene (encoding the serotonin transporter) is more prevalent among the excessive Internet user, which is also linked with increased drug consumption ( Serretti et al., 2006 , as cited in Yau et al., 2012 ; Lee et al., 2008 , as cited in Yau et al., 2012 ).

As described later, studying the confusion between pleasure and happiness in the frame of addiction requires as clear a demarcation as possible between these two emotional states. Although a consensus among scientists on how to define and distinguish pleasure and happiness remains to be reached (see next section Pleasure and Happiness ), in this research we have adopted the following distinctive traits to describe and to work with these two emotional states: pleasure relates to a transient emotional state resulting from the satisfaction of a desire, a craving, and happiness refers to a lasting emotional state of contentment, euthymia ( Pollard, 2003 ; Lustig, 2017 ).

According to Lustig (2017) , addictions together with depression are two rampant afflictions in the last decades and constitute the harmful extremes of pleasure (associated with the dopaminergic system) and happiness (associated with the serotoninergic system) respectively ( Üstün et al., 2004 ; Lepine and Briley, 2011 ; Szalavitz, 2011 ; Whiteford et al., 2013 ; Gowing et al., 2015 ; Keyes et al., 2015 ). Based on his long practice on addiction issues, this author argues that confusing pleasure (in the sense of longing, craving, strongly driven by a short term reward) with happiness is linked with SUD and with behavioral addictions (i.e., gambling, eating disorders, excessive use of technology like for example social media and VG, etc.), which could lead to depression ( Lawrence et al., 2014 ). According to the author, confusing pleasure with happiness is related to the growth rate of this disorder insofar as it would encourage seeking immediate gratifications perceived as sources of happiness, which in turn triggers the reward system with the risk to sink into the vicious circle of addiction ( Pollard, 2003 ). Besides, the significant industrial development, through its commercial campaigns, probably tended to lead individuals to equate consumption with happiness ( Schmidt, 2016 ; Lustig, 2017 ). From a physiological standpoint, the author highlights that an over excited reward system engenders an excess of dopamine (DA) release from the ventral tegmental area, which in return decreases serotonin (5HT) level (associated with depression) ( Pollard, 2003 ; MacNicol, 2016 ).

Moreover, Lustig underlines that DA and 5HT amino acids (needed for the production of DA and 5HT) share the amino acid transporters, which poses a problem in case of DA amino acid over presence: that is to say, the more amino acids for DA, the less amino acids transporters are available for 5HT amino acids. In short, this DA-5HT unbalance illustrates one of the facets of the DA-5HT interaction in which the low 5HT level, associated with depression, prevents the serotoninergic system to exert its inhibitory role to imped the over drive of the dopaminergic system ( Esposito et al., 2008 ).

Chronic stress and anxiety may further aggravate this problem by increasing the cortisol level and thus creating a loop with dopamine activating the sympathetic nerve system and reinforcing the reward seeking behavior while down-regulating 5HT -1a receptor, which decreases the serotonin signaling and increases the depression likelihood ( Lustig, 2017 ). These findings are in line with studies that associate stress, anxiety and depression with Internet gaming disorders ( Wenzel et al., 2009 ; Griffiths et al., 2012 ).

Fundamentally, from a phylogenetic standpoint, it is likely that pleasure has contributed more than happiness ( Pollard, 2003 ; Lustig, 2017 ), which could explain the stronger drive of the short term gratifications over the quest for medium and long term euthymia. In sum, this suggests that identifying the possible confusion between the mentioned emotional states associated with the addictive activities may contribute to deepen the understanding of this sort of disorders and consequently to explore new therapeutic options.

The emotional states (and their consequences) associated with VG as felt and perceived by chronic users led to thorough interrogations of health professionals. Several studies intended to explore this issue by focusing on the individual characteristics of addict players. For instance, the general level of happiness appears to be a firm candidate to predict addiction to VG playing ( Hull et al., 2013 ). In effect, it has been shown that gaming disorders are positively correlated with depression and loneliness and negatively correlated with well-being ( Lemmens et al., 2011 ; Sarda et al., 2016 ). These two studies relied on a eudaimonic notion of well-being (i.e., life satisfaction, a life well lived). Thus, based on the mentioned definitions of pleasure and happiness, on the semantic net (see Annex ) and on the analysis made in the next section (Pleasure and Happiness), in this research well-being is assimilated to happiness due to the considerable common ground shared between these two concepts. In line with these findings, another study highlights the association between high frequency of online gaming with depression and social phobia ( Wei et al., 2012 ). Similar results were found in a study in which, compared with no addict Internet user, Internet addict subjects used to play online games reported significantly more depressive symptoms ( Geisel et al., 2015 ).

From a psychological symptoms standpoint, it has also been observed that when playing VG, addict gamers have a sense of well being or euphoria while playing VG, inability to stop the activity, craving more time at playing VG, feeling empty, depressed, irritable when not playing VG, with all the pernicious consequences these symptoms have on the private, social and professional life ( Griffiths, 2008 ). At glance, the coexistence of well being and craving might come across as paradoxical, although the mentioned work ( Lustig, 2017 ) on this issue provides some elements of answer to this finding.

Using a video game clip as a stimulation trial, it has been studied ( Kim et al., 2018 ) the craving state of chronic users when playing VG through measures resulting from addiction questionnaires and several bio signals such as eye blinking, eye saccadic movements, skin conductance and respiratory rate. The results of this work showed that during the stimulation trial video game there was a decrease of eye blinking rate, eye saccadic movement rate and mean amplitude of the skin conductance response whereas there was a significant increase of the mean respiratory rate.

Another study ( Lu et al., 2010 ; as cited in Kim et al., 2018 ) focused on a group of individuals with high risks of developing Internet gaming disorders (IGD) and their sympathetic nervous system responses. When using Internet in this experiment, increases were observed in blood volume, body temperature and respiratory rate. Heart rate (HR) has also been used as a reliable indicator of craving in subjects with SUD ( Kennedy et al., 2015 ).

Pleasure and Happiness

The psychophysiological and brain mechanisms of pleasure and happiness are quite complex and probably more research is required to better discerning these processes. Some studies have underlined that the hedonic system includes wanting and liking and each of these two emotional states may operate in a conscious and unconscious mode ( Berridge and Kringelbach, 2011 ). Studies indicate that unconscious wanting would function as a conditioned desire involving the nucleus accumbens, ventral tegmental area, hypothalamus and dopamine; on the other hand the unconscious liking would relate to a sensory hedonic dimension associated with the nucleus accumbens, ventral pallidum, periaqueductal gray, amygdala, opioids and cannabinoids ( Kringelbach and Berridge, 2009 ; Berridge and Kringelbach, 2013 ). The same studies show that conscious wanting would relate to cognitive incentives, subjective desires and dopamine whereas conscious liking would be linked with subjective pleasures, opioids and cannabinoids; both would involve the orbitofrontal cortex, anterior cingulate and insular.

It has been shown that the level of activation of some of the mentioned areas would be altered in subjects with Internet gaming disorders: sensing craving for gaming is associated with an increased activation of the left orbitofrontal cortex (correlated with desire for VG play) and with a decreased activation in the anterior cingulate cortex (probably linked with the reduced capacity to inhibit craving for gaming) ( Wang et al., 2017 ).

There might be a relation between the complexity of these brain circuits linked to these emotional states and the polysemy of these two terms, happiness and pleasure , which may contribute to the possible confusion between them. Indeed, the intense interrelation between them finds expression in subtle distinctive features and in some connotations with vague borders, to the extent that these words might be regarded as almost synonyms. The semantic analysis of these two terms produced in this research intends to show their core meanings, their nuances and the possible intersections between them ( Procter, 1985 ). Trying to unravel and to understand these two emotional states is not a recent endeavor. For instance, Greek thinkers approached the notion of happiness as a state constituted by two components: Hedonia (pleasure) and Eudaimonia (a life well lived) ( Kringelbach and Berridge, 2009 ).

Due to its nature, defining and studying happiness is a quite uneasy task. Although progress has been made on this rather recent area of study, there is still a lack of consensus when it comes to defining this concept. Some authors distinguish fluctuating happiness (self centered) from durable, authentic happiness (self-transcendent) ( Dambrun et al., 2012 ). Another study uses the value-arousal model on emotions to define it, according to which happiness results from a positive valence, high arousal and engaged and satisfied in life ( Cipresso et al., 2014 ). Lustig (2017) emphasizes the time perspective as one of the distinguishing traits between these two emotional states by opposing the short-term logic of pleasure to the longer-term characteristics of happiness .

These last two studies are quite illustrative of the differences with regard to defining happiness , in particular when it comes to including or not pleasure in it. Whilst there seems to be a consensus on “life satisfaction,” “connecting with others” and “contentment” as the main traits of happiness , it is less clear whether pleasure is part of it. Usually, in the literature there are two understandings to articulate these emotional states: either both ( happiness and pleasure) are seen as inseparable concepts or happiness is regarded as a state free from distress (‘liking’ without ‘wanting’) ( Kringelbach and Berridge, 2010 ; Berridge and Kringelbach, 2011 ; Loonen and Ivanova, 2016 ; Lustig, 2017 ). Whether or not pleasure is included in the definition of happiness , to the best of our knowledge there is no study that includes craving (intense desire, longing) as a trait of happiness .

Thus, based on the mentioned definitions and on the association between craving and arousal ( Kennedy et al., 2015 ), craving for playing VG may subscribe itself within the realm of pleasure , but stands outside of the happiness’ sphere.

Within the frame of this research, Pleasure refers to the hedonic reward processes driven by a desire to obtain a gratification that can lead to craving in certain circumstances ( Berridge and Kringelbach, 2011 ). Pleasure has been associated with the dopaminergic circuit which can, in certain circumstances, function in an addictive mode and can affect also habits, conditioning, motivation and executives functions such as decision making, inhibitory control, etc. ( Volkow et al., 2011 ).

Happiness is understood as contentment and euthymic state, in line with a happy emotional state defined by a positive valence and low arousal ( Jatupaiboon et al., 2013 ). Physiologically, this state implies a reposed mind; akin to the relaxation state measured through the brain electrical activity ( Teplan and Krakovskà, 2009 ). In the literature this mood is related to the serotoninergic circuit ( Lustig, 2017 ).

To the best of our knowledge, there is no existing questionnaire focusing on the association between VG and pleasure/happiness. Thus, our study required a preliminary phase to design such self-report tool whose aim is to explore the perceived emotional states (pleasure/happiness) associated with VG play.

As far as we know, distinguishing the perception of these two emotional states in the frame of an addiction has not been yet the object of formal research, hence the reduced literature on this specific issue, in particular the experimental one.

Consequently this research may be seen as a preliminary study, which aims at examining the possible confusion between pleasure and happiness within the addiction sphere. VG addiction has been chosen to explore the possible occurrence of this perceptional distortion. Emotional reactions of VG addicts and VG non-addicts were gauged via self-report scales and physiological data (Heart rate and Relaxation state) acquired by a range of biosensors.

Resulting from the mentioned background, it is hypothesized that addict VG users:

Are likely to confuse the notions of pleasure with that of happiness when associating their emotional states to VG play.

The results of this study are expected to show that addict VG users associate happiness with VG activities while feeling craving for playing accompanied by an increased HR and a low relaxation level. Given the shortage of previous researches on the specific issue related to the confusion between pleasure and happiness in VG addiction, the outcome of this study is approached in an exploratory manner.

From a therapy standpoint, this project intends to explore alternatives to deal with this kind of scenarios. More specifically, at the cognitive level, the idea is finding means to develop patients’ insights into these emotional states and thus increasing their ability to handle them.

Materials and Methods

Preliminary phase: design of the “pleasure and/or happiness and vg” questionnaire, participants.

In total 105 VG players participated in this survey, out of which 61 filled all the questionnaires required for the design of the “Pleasure and/or Happiness and VG” questionnaire. The mean age of these 61 participants was 24.28 and the standard deviation 5.48. There were 33 males (54.1%) and 28 females (45.9%). The mean of playtime during working days was 4.49 h and the standard deviation 6.82, and during holidays and weekends 4.68 h and the standard deviation 3.13.

An online survey was run via video game forum and Reddit site (network of communities with common interests). The purpose of this survey was to evaluate the internal coherence of our self-report tool (Pleasure and/or Happiness and VG) relative to two validated questionnaires (on Hedonic tone and Happiness). Thus the survey consisted in filling the three questionnaires. Participants completed anonymously and voluntarily the questionnaires through their online gamers groups.

Two validated and known questionnaires were used to construct the ‘ Pleasure and/or Happiness and VG’ questionnaire through which the emotional states associated with VG activities were evaluated: the Snaith-Hamilton Pleasure Scale (SHAPS) ( Snaith et al., 1995 ), an assessment tool of hedonic tone, and the Oxford Happiness Questionnaire (OHQ) ( Hills and Argyle, 2002 ). The French version of these two questionnaires was used ( Loas et al., 1997 ; Bruchon-Schweitzer and Boujut, 2014 ).

The abbreviated SHAPS is composed of 14 items to assess the hedonic tone and the absence of it. The answer scale for each item offers four possible options ranging from ‘Definitely agree’ to ‘Strongly disagree.’ The OHQ is extensively used to evaluate the individual level of happiness. For each of its 29 items, the answer scale has 6 options going from ‘Strongly disagree’ to ‘Strongly agree.’

Several items of the SHAPS and the OHQ are quite adapted to the VG paradigm and lend themselves to be contextualized. For example, the first item of the SHAPS questionnaire is formulated as: “I would enjoy my favorite television or radio program.” In this case “television or radio program” is replaced by “video game.” An example of OHQ concerns the item “I am very happy,” which became “I am very happy when playing VG.” So, these kinds of items constitute the questionnaire whose aim is identifying the emotional states that users associate with VG. Initially, eight items were adapted to VG from these two questionnaires: four items from SHAPS and four items from OHQ. The answer scale provides with six possible options ranging from ‘fully disagree’ to ‘fully agree.’

Statistical Analysis

In order to ensure the usefulness of the designed self-report tool, an Alpha Cronbach test was run on the results of this survey to measure the internal coherence between the ‘VG and Pleasure/Happiness’ and the two other questionnaires (SHAPS and OHQ). Moreover, it has been examined whether there is a correlation between VG play frequency and the two areas explored in this survey: the general happiness level (OHQ) and the emotional states associated with VG (‘Pleasure and/or Happiness and VG’).

The Experiment

The study was announced through the Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB) scientific social media as well as via leaflets available in public cyber games centers in Brussels. Gamers interested to participate in this study had to answer an on-line survey ( N = 163), in which the following data was gathered: age, play frequency, name of VG played and a validated test to assess the gaming addiction level (Gaming Addiction Scale, Lemmens et al., 2009 ). The French version of this scale was used ( Gaetan et al., 2014 ). Being used to play to at least one of these five popular VG (Fornite, Overwatch, League of Legends, Counter-Strike or Rocket League) and an age ranging from 18 to 70 years old were the inclusion criteria. Competing against another team and playing in groups are the common characteristics of these VG. The exclusion criteria were having vision impairments and neurological problems.

Two groups of gamers were invited to participate in this study: addict users (AU) and non-addict users (NAU). None of the invitees met the exclusion criteria. The selection and recruitment were based on the score obtained in the test on gaming addiction, resulting in: AU ( N = 12) and NAU ( N = 17) (7 females and 22 males, ranging from 19 to 29 years old). They were all French speakers Belgian residents. The mean age was 23 and the standard deviation of 3. The difference between sexes in terms of VG addiction is not statistically significant (3/7 AU females and 9/22 AU males, U 45.5, p = 0.130).

This experiment took place within the frame in the usability laboratory of the Research Centre of Work and Consumer Psychology, Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB).

Before the experiment all the procedures were explained to participants and their consent was asked on formal basis. They were informed that:

• – This experiment aims at better understanding the video game phenomenon (without mentioning the issue relative to the emotional states and VG).
• – They have to fill several questionnaires (in French).
• – Some non-invasive artifacts are set to gather measurements on physiological signals while they watch video clips.
• – The Ethical Committee of ULB approved this study in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.

The participants were welcome into the testing room of the laboratory by the examiner. They were seated and given an informed consent form. Once the form was read and signed, the study procedure was explained. Then, the Electroencephalogram (EEG) headset was placed onto the participant’s head and an impedance check was run.

Before the beginning of the experiment, each participant chose his/her favorite VG he/she uses to play among the five initially proposed. During the experiment, the examiner observed the participant through a one-way-glass, avoiding interference.

Finally, participants were thanked for their participation, compensated and given information on obtaining the results of the study. The whole experimental run took around 1 h.

Prior to starting the operational phases of the experiment, all devices are set to initiate the baseline recording of all the physiological signals.

Six phases compose this experiment ( Figure 1 ). In each phase of the experiment the emotional states associated with VG were examined either through self-report questionnaires or via physiological measures. The physiological measures were recorded during the visioning of two sorts of video clips: VG clips whose aim was to induce craving and neutral video clips (documentaries on nature) intending to reduce craving.

Synthetic view of the experimental phases.

The six experimental phases:

• (1) “Pleasure and/or Happiness and VG” (six items): Participants were invited to fill the self-report questionnaire designed in the preliminary phase.
• (2) Watching a neutral clip during 2 min while recording physiological signals related the mentioned two emotional states. This phase intends to decrease craving in participants.
• (3) Craving score: Participants were asked to express their craving state to play their favorite VG via a one item self-report questionnaire.
• (4) Watching a VG clip during 2 min while recording the same physiological signals as in phase two related to the mentioned emotional states. The objective of this phase is to increase craving in participants.
• (5) Craving score: the same procedure and self-report tool as in phase 3 were applied.
• (6.1) “Pleasure and/or Happiness and VG” (Three bipolar items).
• (6.2) “Key words and VG”: participants were invited to associate a list of words to VG activities.
• (6.3) “Pleasure and VG or Happiness and VG” (one bipolar item): participants were asked to associate one of the two emotional states to VG play.

The cycle from the 2nd phase to the 5th phase was repeated five times for each participant. In each of these five cycles, different episodes of video clips (the chosen VG and the neutral clip) were shown randomly so as to avoid the habituation phenomenon and minimize the influence that the order of the sequence of episodes could have on participants’ responses.

• – Experimental groups: AU and NAU

The Gaming Addiction Scale (GAS) ( Lemmens et al., 2009 ; Gaetan et al., 2014 ) was used to constitute these groups. As a tool to measure game addiction, GAS possesses significant assets. Lemmens et al. (2009) showed the validity of this scale from a cross population point of view and its one-dimensional characteristic resulting from the factorial analysis. In addition, in the same study it has been shown the concurrent validity of GAS insofar as this scale is associated with play frequency as well as with psychological features related with game addiction, namely decreased level of social competence and of well being, and high level of aggression and of loneliness. Moreover, high scores in GAS are also linked with attentional deficiencies in response inhibition when perceiving game cues ( van Holst et al., 2012 ; in Khazaal et al., 2016 ), which converges with results produced by other researches associating impulsivity and cue reactivity with other addictive behaviors ( Billieux et al., 2011 ; Khazaal et al., 2012 ; Torres et al., 2013 ). Relative to other game addiction measurements, GAS has the most complete covering of the Internet gaming disorder criteria of the DSM-5 ( Petry et al., 2014 ). Although it was initially designed for adolescents, there are substantial evidences to state that GAS is applicable for young adults too ( Khazaal et al., 2016 ).

Each of the seven items of this scale starts with the question “How often in the last 6 months…?” to explore the impact of video gaming on different aspects of the subject’s life. The possible answers are: never, rarely, sometimes, often and very often. The first two answers score 0, the last three answers score 1. If the total sum of these scores is 4 or higher, the subject is considered an AU according to this scale.

• – The experiment

In the first phase, participants were asked to fill the “ Pleasure and/or Happiness and VG” questionnaire composed by six items: three items that tie Pleasure (P) and VG, three items that tie Happiness (H) and VG (six-items in total).

The answer scale for each item was composed of six options ranging from ‘Fully disagree’ to ‘fully agree.’ Each of these six items is answered separately, thus the overall possible results of this questionnaire can be: (1) P and VG > H and VG or (2) H and VG < P and VG or, (3) P and VG = H and VG.

In the second phase (Neutral video clip), two physiological signals related to Pleasure and Happiness were recorded. Based on the correlates found between HR and craving, this physiological signal is used as an indicator of arousal ( Kennedy et al., 2015 ).

Despite the difficulty in defining and in measuring happiness , the brain electrical activity is recorded (Electroencephalogram, EEG) mainly to detect the relaxation state. This state appears close to the notion of happiness; in the literature it is accepted that the increase of alpha waves is correlated with mental and physical rest ( Teplan and Krakovskà, 2009 ).

In the third phase, participants were asked to express their craving state to play his/her favorite VG. The statement employed in this self-report tool was: “State your present craving for gaming.” Participants have to choose the answer that best fitted their self-assessment among six possible answers offered by the scale ranging from “I do not feel any craving for gaming” to “I feel a very strong craving for gaming.”

In the fourth phase (VG clip), the same physiological signals as in the second phase were measured.

In the fifth phase, the same procedure to assess craving for gaming as in the third phase was employed.

In the sixth phase, three other self-report questionnaires were submitted to participants and used to evaluate the association between the mentioned emotional states and VG:

• – “Pleasure and/or Happiness and VG” (three bipolar items). The same six items of the “Pleasure and/or Happiness and VG” questionnaire used in phase 1 were presented in a bipolar structure: three items opposing “Pleasure and VG” vs. “Happiness and VG.” For example, if in the six items questionnaire the items “I would enjoy my favorite VG” (Pleasure/VG) and “I am happy when playing VG” (Happiness/VG) are presented separately, in this questionnaire they are part of the same item: “I would enjoy my favorite VG” vs. “I am happy when playing VG.” By doing so, participants are encouraged to choose which of their emotional states (Pleasure, Happiness) is associated with VG playing. That said, the scale has an uneven number of options (five) between the two extremes, the central option representing the equal association of Pleasure and Happiness with VG play. Thus, the overall possible results are identical as in phase 1.
• – “Key words and VG”. Participants were asked to choose three words (out of ten) that they associate most with their VG activities. These 10 key words come from the semantic mapping elaborated in this research of the terms used in the formal statements defining pleasure and happiness in this study. For example, some words from the happiness sphere are contentment and well being , whereas desire and joy relate to pleasure . Besides, they are in line with both definitions Lustig’s (2017) . Only the ten words (French version) were shown to participants. Although the possible results are similar to those of six-item “Pleasure and/or Happiness and VG” questionnaire and three-bipolar item “Pleasure and/or Happiness and VG” questionnaire, this time the same association (emotional states and VG) is tackled via key words directly linked to the two studied emotional states ( Pleasure, Happiness ) but without mentioning them. This self-report format intends to gain accuracy in the identification of gamers’ emotional states associated with VG.
• – “Pleasure and VG or Happiness and VG”. The written definitions of both pleasure and happiness , based on work Lustig’s (2017) , were shown to participants. Then they were asked to read carefully these definitions and to take them into account when answering one bi-polar item that opposes “Pleasure and VG” vs. “Happiness and VG.” Unlike in the three-bipolar items questionnaire, the answer scale between these this bipolar item has an even number of options (six). This time is an “either/or” choice they are faced with, therefore the possible results are: P and VG < H and VG or P and VG > H and VG. Basically this questionnaire intends to strengthen consistency in participants’ insights into this issue by inviting them to confront their perception of their emotional states associated with VG play with the mentioned formal definitions, comparable to an emotions reappraisal process ( Seay and Kraut, 2007 ).

In short, four self-report questionnaires (see Annex ) aim at exploring this dependent variable (association between these two emotional states and VG play) by looking at the consistency of participants’ answers to the different formats of questions. The questions’ formats are:

• – Pleasure and/or happiness can be associated with VG (six independent items);
• – Pleasure and/or happiness can be associated to VG (three bipolar items);
• – Pleasure and/or happiness can be associated to VG through key words defining the two emotional states (without mentioning the words pleasure and happiness );
• – Pleasure or happiness can be associated to VG (written explicit definitions of pleasure and happiness are given to participants).

This approach aims at exploring the coherence between the self-reported answers and the physiological signals, as a means to objectivize the perceived emotional states associated with VG play by the two mentioned groups of participants (addict gamers and non-addict gamers).

The previously mentioned theoretical framework indicates that the notion of craving relates to an arousal state that could lead to an addictive pattern and consequently stands out of the realm of happiness.

Expected Results

Based on the analysis made on this issue previously as well as on the hypothesis of this study, the expected results could be synthesized as shown in Table 1 .

Summary of the expected results.

• – Self-Report Questionnaires

For the self-report questionnaires, it is expected that, compared to NAU, the AU group:

• – In “Pleasure and/or happiness associated with VG” (six independent items) associates more happiness than pleasure with VG play.
• – Reports more craving for playing after watching VG clip.
• – In “ Pleasure and/or happiness associated to VG” (three bipolar items) associates more happiness than pleasure with VG play.
• – Associates VG play with key words more related to happiness category than to those of pleasure .
• – In “ Pleasure or happiness associated to VG” associates VG play with pleasure (like NAU).
• – Physiological Signals

It is expected to observe an interaction between the groups (AU, NAU) and the conditions (VG clip, Neutral clip). Namely, it is assumed that visioning the VG clips has an effect on AU increasing HR while decreasing Relaxation.

After verifying the normality of distributions (Kolmogorov–Smirnov), the means comparison between the two groups (NAU, AU) was calculated for self-report questionnaires measuring the association between VG and Pleasure/Happiness (Mann–Whitney U ) for the six-items “Pleasure and/or Happiness and VG,” the three-bipolar items “Pleasure and/or Happiness and VG” and the one-bipolar item “Pleasure and VG or Happiness and VG.” The Chi square was used for “Key words and VG.” In order to determine whether there are differences between independent groups over time and to identify possible interactions between the two independent variables on the dependent variables, a two-way mixed ANOVA (within and between subjects) was used for the craving scores and the physiological signals recorded ( Table 2 ).

Synthetic view of independent and dependent variables.

The experiment was run on a desktop computer with an Intel Core i7 quad processor and 8 GB RAM, running Windows 10. Stimuli were displayed on a 22-inch monitor and resolution was set to 1680 × 1050. Participants used standard mouse and keyboard as input devices. EEG measurement includes detecting the fluctuation of voltage potential generated by large group of neurons in the brain. The EEG signal was obtained through the use of EPOC headset. This device allows to remotely getting data of brain activity using a wireless set of fourteen electrodes (AF3, AF4, F3, F4, F7, F8, FC5, FC6, T7, T8, P7, P8, O1, O2) sampled at 128 hertz.

The relaxation state was measured by one of the composite metrics of the Emotiv software. HR was measured by using Schimer 3 (Photoplethysmography). The I. Motions software version 7.1 (Imotions Inc. 2018) was used to recording the mentioned data and presenting stimuli to participants. The statistical analysis was conducted with IBM SPSS statistics v.25.

Design of the “Pleasure and/or Happiness and VG” Questionnaire

The Cronbach’s alpha (0.859) showed a high internal coherence between the SHAPS and three items (out of four) of the “Pleasure and VG” within the “Pleasure and/or Happiness and VG” questionnaire. The fourth item has been disregarded; its presence would have dropped the Cronbach’s alpha to 0.685. The internal coherence obtained between the OHQ and the “Happiness and VG” items within the “Pleasure and/or Happiness and VG” questionnaire was quite high for the four items concerned (alpha 0.901). However, the internal coherence between these four items was too weak due to one item (alpha 0.407). The exclusion of this item raised the alpha significantly (0.836). Consequently, only the consistent items have been kept (six out of the initial eight items: three on “Pleasure and VG,” and three on “Happiness and VG,” see Annex ).

Moreover, it has been examined whether there is an association between VG play frequency and the two areas explored in this survey: the general happiness level (OHQ) and the emotional states associated with VG via the “Pleasure and/or Happiness and VG” questionnaire. The constitution of the group of frequent gamers and that of non-frequent gamers was determined by calculated median (18 h per week). In line with several studies linking problematic gaming and well-being and life satisfaction, a moderate negative correlation ( R = −0.249; p = 0.056) was found between VG high play frequency and the OHQ scores ( Griffiths, 2008 ; Lemmens et al., 2011 ). In addition, there is a marginal significant difference [ T (58) = 1.923; p = 0.059] between frequent VG users and non-frequent VG users relative to the OHQ scores.

The “Pleasure and/or Happiness and VG” Six-Items Questionnaire

The Kolmogorov–Smirnov outcome indicates the need for using a non-parametric test to compare the two groups. The Mann–Whitney test shows that there was no significant difference observed between the AU and NAU relative to association between VG play and pleasure (item 1. U = 78, p = 0.30; item 3. U = 75, p = 0.24 and item 5 U = 86, p = 0.49) ( Table 3 ).

Descriptive statistics of “Pleasure and/or Happiness associated with VG” (6-items): [Pleasure (P), Happiness (H) associated with VG].

In contrast, there is a significant statistical difference in the three items where AU associate VG play with happiness (item 2. U = 40, p = 0.005; item 4. U = 54, p = 0.034 and item 6. U = 34, p = 0.002) more than NAU.

Craving Scores

Results in craving ( Table 4 and Figure 2 ) show a statistically significant interaction F (1,25) = 4.78 ( p = 0.038). Indeed, relative to the neutral clip, the VG clip condition has significantly amplified the reported craving difference between the two groups (AU craving score > NAU craving scores).

Descriptive statistics for self-report Craving.

Self-report craving (groups: AU, NAU; conditions: Neutral clips, VG clips).

Physiological Signals Measurements

The AU’s relaxation is significantly lower [ F (1,24) = 8.616; p = 0.007] than NAU’s in both conditions (Between-Subjects Effects). The relaxation level decreases in both groups during the VG clip. On the other hand, conditions do not influence the relaxation difference between the two groups [ F (1,24) = 0.001; p = 0.98] ( Table 5 and Figure 3 ). Furthermore, there is a significant statistical gender difference in both conditions (Neutral clip: Male 17.36, Female 7.57. U = 25, p = 0.008 – VG clip: Male 17.09, Female 8.43. U = 31, p = 0.019).

Descriptive statistics: Relaxation index (EEG EPOC, Emotiv software).

Relaxation [groups: AU, NAU; Conditions: (1) Neutral clips, (2) VG clips].

Concerning the other physiological variable (HR) ( Table 6 and Figure 4 ), there is an effect of VG clips on both groups [ F (1,15) = 20.802; p < 0.001]. Nevertheless, there was no statistically significant interaction [ F (1,15) = 0.028; p = 0.86], nor an effect of addiction on VG clip condition [ F (1,15) = 0.083; p = 0.777]. It is important noting that due to corrupted data the number of valid subjects taken into account was 17 (8 AU and 9 NAU).

Descriptive statistics: Heart Rate (HR).

Heart Rate [groups: AU, NAU; Conditions: Neutral clips (1), VG clips (2)].

The “Pleasure and/or Happiness and VG” Three-Bipolar Items Questionnaire

The descriptive statistics of this three-bipolar items questionnaire ( Table 7 ), indicate that the AU group linked VG activities more with happiness than the NAU group. The Mann–Whitney test shows a significant difference between these two associations ( U = 47; p = 0.013).

Descriptive Statistics: Pleasure/VG vs. Happiness/VG (3 bipolar items).

Key Words and VG

Results state the absence of significant difference between AU and NAU in associating the key words from the Pleasure cluster with VG play, and words from the Happiness cluster with VG (Chi square, p = 0.942) ( Table 8 ). When taking words separately, the biggest gap between the two groups relates to the word well-being (belonging to the happiness cluster) associated to VG play (AU: 25%, NAU: 0%).

Descriptive statistics: number of words per category (Pleasure, Happiness) associated to VG play chosen by NAU and AU.

“Pleasure and VG or Happiness and VG” (One Bipolar Item Questionnaire With Written Definitions)

The outcome of this questionnaire indicates that there is no significant difference between AU and NAU ( U = 102, p = 1). Both groups have clearly associated VG play with pleasure ( Table 9 ).

Descriptive statistics: Happiness/VG or Pleasure/VG (1 bipolar item, with Definitions of Pleasure and Happiness shown to subjects).

The following scheme summarizes the outcomes of the self-report tools used to evaluate the association between the emotional states (Pleasure and Happiness) with VG play ( Table 10 ).

Synthetic view of self-report results (Emotional states associated with VG play).

The following table indicates the mean, standard deviation and Skewness and Kurtosis values of the self-report craving, the HR and the relaxation level for both groups in the two conditions ( Table 11 ).

Descriptive statistics for self-report Craving, Relaxation, Heart Rate.

Overall, the results of this study show that AU associate happiness to VG while reporting craving for VG play and having a low relaxation level. These outcomes observed in this experiment constitute a bundle of arguments that argue in favor of the hypothesis of this study ( Lustig, 2017 ). Indeed, in AU, the high self-report craving score and low Relaxation level during VG clips visioning do contrast with their association of VG more with happiness than with pleasure in the mentioned “Pleasure and/or Happiness and VG” questionnaires (six-items and three-bipolar-items) relative to NAU. Consistent with previous findings in this area, these four measurements highlight the coexistence of the perception of happiness linked with VG play combined with elements related to pleasure such as craving ( strong desire, wanting ) ( Pollard, 2003 ; Griffiths, 2008 ; Waterman et al., 2008 ). Since craving and low Relaxation are rather incompatible with the mentioned notion of happiness ( Pollard, 2003 ; Waterman et al., 2008 ; Lustig, 2017 ), these indices may raise the question as to how accurate are AU’s insights into their emotional states associated to VG play and may support the idea that AU’s perception of their emotional states is somewhat distorted. In the literature, VG addiction would be linked with impairment in the self-regulation process, this finding may be linked with the difficulties AU have to observe and evaluate their own behavior ( Seay and Kraut, 2007 ). Besides, the mentioned results suggest that VG clip effect on self-report craving would depend on the addiction level.

Considering that sensing happiness and craving are probably experienced as positive emotions by AU, and that usually negative and positive emotional events are reported to last longer and shorter respectively ( Gil and Droit-Volet, 2012 ; Tian et al., 2018 ), the arousal triggered by motivating stimuli, may modify the time perception and could mediate the effect of emotions on behavior ( Gil and Droit-Volet, 2012 ). In other words, the level of excitement produced by VG play could make AU underestimate the time spent at this activity, which may be perceived as an alleviating evasion free from stressors and possibly assimilated with the notion of happiness . This hypothetic mechanism would match one of the possible motives for online gaming ( Demetrovics et al., 2011 ). In this sort of precognitive process, several studies mentioned the involvement of the amygdala in interaction with the thalamus together with the dopaminergic system and a poor inhibitory control ( Gil and Droit-Volet, 2012 ; Petry et al., 2015 ).

It is noteworthy underlining that the bipolar structure of the three-items questionnaire increases the relevance of this outcome. In effect, although participants were incited to choose between the two emotional states opposing each other (VG and pleasure vs. VG and happiness), like in the six-items questionnaire, AU again did choose happiness as the main emotional state linked with VG play. This outcome would further state the difference between these two groups when it comes to associating the two emotional states to VG play. Besides, this would reveal to an important extent that the possibility whereby pleasure and happiness were regarded as synonyms could be overcome. In other words, this outcome shows that the similarity of meanings of these two concepts did not prevent these groups to make a clear choice. Finally, the similar scores obtained in the two questionnaires (six-items and three-bipolar items “Pleasure and/or Happiness and VG”), in spite of the different disposition of the same items in these two instances, strengthen the value of the designed scale (“Pleasure and/or Happiness and VG play”).

The absence of interaction between the two independent variables on HR may be explained by the fact that a higher arousal would take place in AU when playing VG rather than when watching at VG clips. Moreover, the reduced number of valid subjects when measuring this physiological parameter (due to technical recording problems) could have contributed to this outcome too. The fact that the independent variables did not produce the expected different HR effects on AU and NAU could also be linked with one of the limitations of this study: the difficulty in integrating in this research the interaction between HR and depression (as mentioned, VG addiction is positively correlated with depression) ( Griffiths et al., 2012 ) that may lead to HR index modifications ( Cipresso et al., 2014 ). In sum, this issue illustrates that the difficulty to circumscribe the notion of happiness is also reflected in the complexity to establish physiological correlates so as to objectify this emotional state ( Cipresso et al., 2014 ).

Associating the clusters of key words with VG did not produce the expected results. Since AU linked VG with both pleasure and happiness , may be these words played a clarification role and facilitated Au’s insights into their emotional states when playing VG. It could also suggest the inadequacy of this self-report tool. However, it is probably worthwhile mentioning an index related our hypothesis: when taking words separately, the word “well-being” associated with VG play was chosen by 25% of AU and by 0% of NAU.

The outcome of the binary question in the “Pleasure and VG or Happiness and VG” one-item questionnaire with the definitions of pleasure and happiness ( Pollard, 2003 ; Deci and Ryan, 2008 ; Waterman et al., 2008 ; Kashdan et al., 2008 ; Lustig, 2017 ) shows that AU ceased associating happiness to VG play and instead, like NAU, clearly linked pleasure to their cyber activity. Caution is required in the analysis of these results because the validity of this questionnaire remains to be demonstrated. Having instructed participants to answer the bipolar question by taking into account the written definitions of the two measured emotional states, did modify the result of AU group relative to both questionnaires (“Pleasure and/or Happiness and VG” six-items and three bipolar items). Within the framework of this careful approach, it could be hypothesized that explicit definitions of the two emotional states induced AU to adopting an introspection mode through a more pronounced involvement of cortical brain structures, akin to a therapeutic process in which the appropriate verbalization of pleasure and happiness facilitates the clarification of one own feeling as a prerequisite to elaborate more adaptive behavior in spite of the constraining psychological characteristics usually associated with VG addicts ( Kim et al., 2007 ; Kashdan et al., 2008 ; Wenzel et al., 2009 ).

This may be regarded as an example of emotions reappraisal which would increase accuracy of insights into one-self, reduce distorted perception of emotions and assess the adequacy of the behavioral response to a given stimulus ( Compare et al., 2014 ). In other words, it could be posited that the mentioned explicit definitions have somewhat constrained AU to use a cognitive approach to examine their emotional states related to VG play rather than merely relying on the sensory information as it tends to occur when sensing craving for video gaming ( Wang et al., 2017 ).

Moreover, the result of this one-item binary questionnaire would further support the hypothesis. In effect, the studied interrelation between hedonia and eudaimonia suggests that a highly rated hedonic activity (VG play in this case) is usually related with low rating in eudaimonia ( Waterman et al., 2008 ). This interpretation would fit with the resounding association between depression and gaming disorders ( Lemmens et al., 2011 ; Hull et al., 2013 ; Sarda et al., 2016 ; Bonnaire and Baptista, 2019 ) together with the confusion between pleasure and happiness occurring in addictive activities (AU associated VG with happiness in the first two self-report questionnaires and ended linking pleasure with VG in the last one-item questionnaire) ( Pollard, 2003 ; Lustig, 2017 ).

Overall, the more explicit the definition of pleasure and happiness and the narrower the choice offered by the self-report questionnaires, the less confusion of emotional states associated with VG occurred in AU group members whereas NAU invariably associated pleasure to VG as illustrated in Figure 5 .

Shift of AU perception of their emotional states associated with VG according to the self-report tools.

Based on these results, it could be postulated that the tendency of AU to perceive happiness when feeling craving and pleasure linked to VG play, might be moderated by a clarifying cognitive process on the meaning of these studied emotional sates, which would interfere with the behavioral habits linked to the urge of gaming ( Ko et al., 2009 ).

The findings resulting from “Pleasure and/or Happiness and VG” six-items questionnaire could be regarded as an illustration of the confusion that AU might have when linking the studied emotional states with VG play. Unlike NAU, the significantly higher association between VG play and happiness expressed by AU matches the perceived level of well being reported by individuals with Internet gaming disorders ( Griffiths, 2008 ). On the other hand, apart from well-being , the same author cites euphoria as the other main emotional state that addict gamers may report when playing VG. Whilst happiness and well-being rely on each other to define themselves, euphoria would convey the notion of intense excitement, which would rather stand in the pleasure sphere. Moreover, in medical terms, euphoria refers to a feeling of great elation, not necessarily founded (especially when resulting from substances consumption). Since AU also associated VG with pleasure although they did it to a lesser extent than with happiness, it could hypothesized that the feeling of intense excitement derives, at least partially, from satisfying the craving for VG play, which in turn could engender relieve experienced as a sense of well-being ( Loonen and Ivanova, 2016 ).

The impact of VG clips on AU craving and relaxation scores underlines relevant aspects of this study, which support the hypothesis of this research. First of all, it highlights the incongruent perception of AU’s emotional states whereby both craving and happiness coexist as emotional states associated with VG play. Thus, this finding constitutes a relevant component of the confusion that consists in placing a short-term pleasure (VG play) within the sphere of happiness. Besides, the low relaxation state of AU would correspond with their self-reported craving and, therefore, further highlights the contrast between the perceived happiness associated with VG play and the indicators measured during the VG clip visioning (high craving level and low relaxation state level). Finally, it is noteworthy mentioning that relaxation was the only measure in this study where gender differences were observed. The lower relaxation level in female gamers in both conditions might be related to the gender expectation about playing VG in society at large and in the gamers’ community in particular ( Shen et al., 2016 ). Indeed, since female gamers are a minority in these sorts of VG ( Shen et al., 2016 ) (in line with our sample: 7 females, 22 males), it could be posited that they feel under scrutiny in an activity regarded as male oriented.

Putative Reasons of Distorted Perceptions of Emotional States Associated With VG Addiction

The social dimension of popular VG has been identified as one of the factors that may explain the addiction pattern ( Hull et al., 2013 ). In this kind of competitive games, improving the required abilities and obtaining better results would be part of the key motives for VG play ( Demetrovics et al., 2011 ), that usually generates the appreciation and the acceptance of the other group players. Getting this sort of feedback from others can be motivating indeed, especially when taking into account the correlation between IGD and social isolation, low self-esteem, traumatic experiences, depression and low life satisfaction ( Petry et al., 2015 ; Schimmenti et al., 2017 ; Bonnaire and Baptista, 2019 ). In turn, these psychosocial characteristics are probably related also with the high impulsivity level in VG addicts ( Billieux et al., 2011 ), which has been found to be associated with difficulties in interpersonal relationships ( Ryu et al., 2018 ). Thus, it would seem that VG activities are, at least partially, sating the mentioned social and psychological deficiencies. This suggests that AU’s emotional states related to VG play may be quite contrasting, in which components of happiness (i.e., interacting with others, fellowship and belonging to a group) are intertwined with those of short-term pleasure (i.e., craving for getting quick results, praise from others, etc.) ( Loonen and Ivanova, 2016 ). Now, craving for undertaking these cyber activities to respond to the mentioned social isolation issues places this emotional state much closer to the ‘pleasure governed by desire’ than to ‘atmosphere of good fellowship’ (Happiness) ( Lawrence et al., 2014 ; Lustig, 2017 ).

The flow, defined as the emotional state embracing perception distortion and enjoyment produced by VG activities, is another element that can create confusion in gamers’ insights into their emotional states ( Chou and Ting, 2003 ; Hull et al., 2013 ). As described in the mentioned study, experiencing flow implies not only losing the notion of time but also merging oneself with the VG actions. In these conditions, the gamer’s senses and attention are in the here and now , with little or no awareness about sources of stress relative to past, present or future events. In this line, the motivation to experience immersion has been associated with problematic gaming ( Billieux et al., 2011 ). Considering the fact that loneliness and depression have been identified as predictors of VG addiction and of Internet Gaming Disorders ( Hull et al., 2013 ; Sarda et al., 2016 ), it is understandable why in gamers’ mind experiencing flow could equate this feeling with a relieving emotional state ( Loonen and Ivanova, 2016 ). This sense of alleviation could match the notion of happiness as free from distress ( Kringelbach and Berridge, 2010 ; Loonen and Ivanova, 2016 ) if it resulted from the quality of real life being lived. Instead, in AU, this relieving and enjoyable emotional state would be engendered by a virtual activity (VG), possibly used as a means to escape from stress and to forget tensions ( Demetrovics et al., 2011 ; Bonnaire and Baptista, 2019 ). In the literature, the escaping strategy is a way to find relieve from stressors through the engagement in a pleasant activity, which may end up representing a space of happiness ( Seay and Kraut, 2007 ).

In sum, the incongruence lies in the coexistence of regarding VG as a space of happiness while using VG to get quick pleasures and relief. Individuals suffering from this disorder tend to pursuit short-term pleasures rather than long-term gains ( Dong and Potenza, 2015 ). Being driven by short-term gratifications rather belongs to the reward-seeking realm ( Waterman et al., 2008 ; Lustig, 2017 ). Thus, this pleasant emotional state could be associated with the arousal linked to a reward seeking behavior through which quick and positive results are obtained, which in turn reinforce the mentioned behavior. Probably, this intense arousal situates itself within the sphere of pleasure as a dysfunction in the rewarding system ( Pollard, 2003 ; Berridge and Kringelbach, 2013 ; Lustig, 2017 ) and not in that of happiness in spite of the relieving benefits it provides.

Another possible reading on why the emotional states generated by these cyber activities are linked with happiness may be related to the way in interpreting the experienced sensations. This representation is probably shaped by the individual background, experiences, culture, etc. From a brain mechanism stand point, conscious liking does not limit it self to a sensory outcome, it is also translated into a subjective liking through the recruitment of cognitive processes ( Berridge and Kringelbach, 2013 ). Indeed, these authors state that conscious pleasure rating is sometimes detached from affective reactions as people can elaborate reasons to themselves for how they should feel. Therefore, associating VG with happiness may be the result of a rationalization process to reduce the cognitive dissonance. In other words, the unwished consequences of the VG addiction pattern (increased stress, problems at working, studying, socializing, etc.) ( Griffiths et al., 2012 ) probably produce an increasing amount of pressure (due to the difficulty to reduce gaming time, guilt, etc.) that can become overwhelming if it lasts too long. Consequently, if the affected individuals are unable to master the yearning for VG, perceiving VG activities as a source of well being may reduce the mentioned pressures insofar as the notion of happiness usually suggests a socially acceptable mood, a legitimate aim and a safe emotional state. In this perspective, equating happiness with satisfying craving and with short-term pleasure might contribute to feed the addictive pattern ( Lustig, 2017 ).

In a broader perspective, the rationalization process described in the previous paragraph may be also related with coping strategies to deal with adversity. For instance, it has been observed that problematic gamers may use VG play as a means to cope with stressors and to enhance mood ( Demetrovics et al., 2011 ). An association has been found between stressful life events and addiction to Internet activities ( Schimmenti et al., 2017 ), with the mediating role of psychological needs satisfaction and the moderating role of coping styles ( Dongping et al., 2016 ). Several theories and studies support this approach that strives for a more holistic understanding of this issue. The self-determination theory postulates that humans share three universal psychological needs ( Deci and Ryan, 2000 ; in Dongping et al., 2016 ): autonomy (i.e., feeling of being self-determining in one’s behavior), relatedness (i.e., the feeling of connectedness to others) and competence (i.e., the feeling of dealing with issues in a competent manner). Besides, individuals can adopt different strategies to cope with adversity ( Lazarus and Folkman, 1984 ; in Dongping et al., 2016 ). According to Zheng et al. (2012 ; in Dongping et al., 2016 ), the positive coping approach is the set of strategies aiming at problem solving, support seeking and cognitive restructuring to address the stressors. On the other hand, according to the same authors, the negative coping consists in strategies such as blaming, social withdrawing, denial and disengagement so as to avoid the stressful situations. Now, a parallel can be established between these two coping styles and the brain activities involved in the goal-directed learning and the habit learning.

The goal-directed learning would correspond to the positive coping style insofar as it focuses on the relationship between an action and the motivational value of the outcome, and is associated with the activation of the prefrontal cortex, the dorsomedial striatum and the dorsomedial thalamus ( Ballaine and Dickinson, 1998 ; in Schwabe et al., 2012 ). On the other hand, habit learning, would be linked with the avoidant coping style. This learning process encodes the relationship between a response and preceding stimuli without taking into account the outcome caused by the response and is related to the activation of the dorsolateral striatum ( Yin et al., 2004 ; Tricomi et al., 2009 ; in Schwabe et al., 2012 ). According to Schwabe et al. (2012) , stressful situations may modulate the processes involved in instrumental learning in a way that may produce the shift from goal-directed learning to habitual learning.

In line with these findings, it has been observed that, like cocaine cues, psychological stress induction can generate the same craving response in a cocaine abusers population ( Bradley et al., 1989 ; Wallace, 1989 ; in Sinha et al., 2000 ). The relevance of these observations lies in the fact that both SUD and behavioral addictions (including gaming disorders, Han et al., 2011 ) recruit to an important extent common brain regions and produce similar physiological patterns, as quoted in the introduction of this document.

Considering the association between unhappiness and VG disorders mentioned earlier, it could be posited that the gamers concerned could not overcome the causes of their unhappiness. Indeed, studies suggest that subjects with Internet gaming disorders embark in VG play more to deal with negative affect than to achieve a good performance in the game ( Schimmenti and Caretti, 2010 ; Billieux et al., 2013 ; both in Bonnaire and Baptista, 2019 ). In this scenario, based on the mentioned studies, a low level of happiness would imply that psychological needs are somewhat unmet and associated with the avoidant coping style together with the habit learning. Furthermore, this pattern is supported by compensatory Internet use theory, which postulates that adversity can operate as a stimulus to seek psychological comfort (i.e., satisfying the psychological needs via the cyberspace) ( Kardefelt-Winther, 2014 ; in Dongping et al., 2016 ).

In other words, the psychological comfort engendered by the VG activities in this population of gamers, combined with the characteristics of the avoidant coping style (denial, social withdrawal, avoiding stressful situation, etc.) and with the traits of the habitual learning (actions’ outcomes are disregarded, with little or no awareness of actions’ consequences), might explain, at least partially, the biased perception of the emotional states in AU ( happiness associated to VG) and of their causes of craving for VG. This assumption suggests that online gaming might not be the cause of VG addiction, but rather that VG excessive use could be a compensatory strategy to deal with pre-existing psychological characteristics and deleterious social context ( Kowert et al., 2015 ). For instance, some studies suggest that traumatic experiences, poor emotions regulation, elements of impulsivity and the motivation to experience immersion in a virtual world would increase the likelihood of IGD and Internet addiction ( Billieux et al., 2011 ; Schimmenti et al., 2017 ).

In sum, it would seem as if for AU the mentioned behavioral pattern is a manner to mitigate the difficulties to deal with stressors. This interpretation would be in line with the motives for play in problematic gaming ( Demetrovics et al., 2011 ). Through a massive survey these authors observed seven dimensions that would cover the entire spectrum of motives for VG play in all sort of on line games: escape (from reality), cope (with stressors, playing as a way to improve mood), fantasy (trying new identities/things in a virtual world), skills development (improving concentration, coordination, new skills) recreation (relaxing aspects of gaming), competing (sense of achievement), and social (knowing/being/playing with others). This study suggests that there would be positive and beneficial motives for playing (entertaining gaming) as well as harmful ones (problematic gaming). The correlations between these factors appear to shed light on the positive and negative aspects of gaming. Whilst the weakest correlation is between escape and recreation (also low correlation was found between escape and both, skills development and competition), the strongest correlations were observed between escape and cope and fantasy. These results would indicate that escape and coping are motives associated with problematic gaming, however, the authors argue that escapism would facilitate the coping efforts to deal with stressors and negative moods. Moreover, it is noteworthy underlining that escapism had the lowest mean score in this study among the seven dimensions, which would match with the prevalence level of problematic gaming mentioned previously ( Griffiths et al., 2012 ).

Probably, regarding AU, the accuracy in perceiving emotional states, the ability to deal with stressors and the quality of insights into oneself are dimensions that deserve much attention in the therapeutic processes.

Therapeutic Implications

A cognitive-behavioral approach may contribute to the recovery process by enabling problematic gamers to explore the motives that lead them to abuse of VG play ( Orzack et al., 2006 ; in Griffiths, 2008 ). Developing strategies to tackle stressors appears to be a therapeutic priority for treating this disorder. Consequently, this axis of work includes the understanding of the environmental demands that are perceived as exceeding the individual abilities to handle them. In this line, ensuring the accuracy of the individual’s insights into the emotional states linked to the sources of stress as well as to the game habit could increase the awareness of the underlying issues to be addressed. In particular, deciphering the conditioned desires (unconscious wanting) and the hedonic dimension (unconscious liking) ( Kringelbach and Berridge, 2009 ; Berridge and Kringelbach, 2013 ) linked to VG play may produce added value information for understanding and overcoming the problematic gaming pattern. Within this frame, it could be hypothesized that distinguishing between happiness and feeling alleviated could be beneficial to the therapeutic process, although it remains to be demonstrated.

Overall, this sort of therapeutic approach may contribute to reduce the alexithymia, usually associated with this kind of disorders ( Kandri et al., 2014 ).

In problematic internet/gaming several studies have explored and highlighted to role of alexithymia and its links with other therapeutic issues. For instance, it has been shown that alexithymic individuals are more associated with Internet addiction than non-alexthymic ones ( Baysan-Arslan et al., 2016 ). In this research, the authors consider that the difficulty in identifying and differentiating emotions that characterizes alexithymia may lead individuals with this affliction to regulate their emotional states via their addictive activities.

Another study showed that IGD would be related with alexithymia, anxiety and depression ( Bonnaire and Baptista, 2019 ).

Schimmenti et al. (2017) observed that traumatic experiences (mainly in males) and traits of alexithymia (mainly in females) were associated with Internet addiction symptoms, which may enable a tailored prevention and treatment approach. Besides, Internet addiction (including online role-playing) would be correlated with alexithymia, dissociation (protecting one-self in a more pleasant created reality as a means to deal with traumatic experiences) and insecure attachment ( Craparo, 2011 ).

However, the causal link in the association between alexithymia and Internet addiction would still need to be verified, as indicated by Mahapatra and Sharma (2018) . Moreover, discerning the nature of alexithymia remains an uneasy task: this emotional identification and differentiation disorder might be regarded as a stable personality trait that could increase risks of mental disorder development, and also may be seen as a defense mechanism to cope with psychological stressors ( Mikolajczak and Luminet, 2006 ; in Mahapatra and Sharma, 2018 ).

Apart from alexithymia and traumatic memories, high urgency (a dimension of impulsivity defined by the proneness to have strong reactions usually tied with negative affect) and being motivated to experience immersion in a virtual world would be psychological predictors of problematic multiplayer online games ( Billieux et al., 2011 ). These findings led the authors to posit that individuals with the two mentioned traits are more likely to use the immersion in the virtual world as a means to avoiding facing real life adverse issues. According to the authors, this behavior will lead to a deleterious outcome (culpability and embarrassment as a result of feeling unable to deal with problems), which in turn is experienced as a pernicious condition likely to activate behaviors related to high urgency and immersion.

Like the previously mentioned clinical issues, this vicious loop reinforcing escapism also appears to be a therapeutic target.

Considering the possible association between alexithymia and problematic gaming as a manner to regulate emotions ( Baysan-Arslan et al., 2016 ; Bonnaire and Baptista, 2019 ), the Emotion Regulation Therapy (ERT) might strengthen the therapeutic process. The aim being that the observed difficulties in Internet (including VG) addicts to identifying emotions and regulating affects ( Caretti et al., 2010 ; in Craparo, 2011 ) could be, at least partially, overcome through the ERT process. In effect, Compare et al. (2014) , show that ERT operates as a means to reappraise emotions that trigger actions leading to negative consequences. Reappraising emotions is associated with the involvement of the medial prefrontal cortex, which attenuates the amygdala activation and, thus, reduces the intensity of negative affect; these two areas being coordinated by the orbitofrontal cortex ( Compare et al., 2014 ). Since AU would be prone to associate happiness with VG play, ERT might facilitate the perceptional change enabling to link VG play with pleasure [ Caretti and Craparo, 2009 ; in Craparo (2011) consider Internet addiction (including VG) “as a syndromic condition characterized by a recurrent and reiterated search for pleasure derived from dependence behavior, associated with abuse, craving , clinically significant stress, and compulsive dependence actions despite the possible negative consequences”]. Within this approach, it may be postulated that enabling problematic gamers to familiarize with and to see the self-transcendent notion of happiness could favor the distinction between pleasure and happiness and would render them less vulnerable from impulses and from environmental circumstances ( Dambrun et al., 2012 ). The idea is to facilitate the shift from wanting more than liking (or even without liking) toward liking with little or without wanting ( Berridge and Kringelbach, 2011 ). Furthermore, regarding motives for playing, it could be posited that helping problematic gamers to identify and distinguish the emotions tied to escaping/coping from those related to recreational gaming ( Demetrovics et al., 2011 ), would be a necessary condition to orient effectively the ERT toward the escaping issues and targeted emotional states requiring therapeutic input. In this line, based on the previously mentioned studies in this section, it might be useful exploring the possible link that the excessive time spent in cyber activity could have with past traumatic experiences, insecure attachment, impulsivity, anxiety and depression.

In conclusion, this study suggests that the mentioned confusion of emotional states (pleasure and happiness) associated with addiction ( Lustig, 2017 ), could take place in subjects with VG addiction, and potentially in the entire spectrum of addictions. Moreover, from a cognitive therapeutic perspective, it shows the potential benefits of reappraising emotions as a means to contribute to the emotional distortion reduction.

Limitations

The small sample of this study demands cautiousness when making generalizations from its results. Besides, watching VG clips rather than actually playing VG might be less stimulating for chronic gamers and could have influenced the physiological values recorded during the clip visioning phases. That said, many gamers do attend to public competitions to watch other gamers playing VG. Although, to the best of our knowledge, there is no information available to affirm that there are VG addicts in these audiences.

We also faced the usual paradox when assessing craving via self-report tools. Indeed, participants were asked to judge their craving intensity for VG play whereas sensing craving often may imply a compromised self-awareness level and thus a self-assessment whose value needs to be interpreted carefully.

Although the GAS is a validated tool, which has shown its usefulness in screening addict gamers, having complemented this measurement with thorough diagnostic-driven interviews run by specialists when choosing participants to form the AU and the NAU groups would have strengthened the selection process.

The participants’ selection was centered on the gamer status (gaming addiction/non-addiction and names of games usually played) rather than on the cultural and/or educational background of the persons. Future researches could complete this approach by assessing the possible cultural and educational bias in perceiving the studied emotional states.

Moreover, including more physiological parameters related to pleasure and happiness could further complete the self-reported information and may enable reaching more robust results.

Prospective Research

Further research is required to better understand the relationship between the studied emotional states and this addiction. For instance, since VG addiction decreases with age ( Wittek et al., 2016 ) a longitudinal study could reveal the factors (psychophysiological, environmental, etc.) that operate that change. Moreover, VG addiction is only one area of the spectrum of addictions. Undertaking similar researches on other addictions and with larger samples could also contribute to deepening the comprehension of this issue. Finally, keep enhancing the scales that measure pleasure and happiness may provide with more accurate information about the range of nuances intrinsic to these two emotional states.

Data Availability Statement

Ethics statement.

The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by the Université Libre de Bruxelles Ethical Committee. The patients/participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

Author Contributions

LG developed the proposal and the conception of the original project research, searched and articulated the theoretical background, participated in the study and protocol design, elaborated the results interpretation, assembled all the chapters of the study, and in charge of the manuscript writing. ND was involved in the scientific and publication management, participated – as the Research Center Manager – in the study and protocol design, and in charge of the configuration and writing of the physiological measures. JL, as a member of the Research Center, was involved in the study and protocol design, also involved in the configuration of physiological measures, managed the experimental phases in the laboratory, and elaborated the data analysis. CL, as a full Professor at the Faculty of Psychology and Director of the Research Center for Work and Consumer Psychology, assured the scientific and publication management, participated in the study and protocol design, in charge of making the critical reviews of the manuscript along the process, and involved in the manuscript writing.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Acknowledgments

We would like to express our gratitude to Maastricht University (Department of Psychiatry and Neuropsychology) as well as Université Libre de Bruxelles (Faculty of Psychological Sciences and of Education – Research Center for Work and Consumer Psychology). This work was performed as a partial fulfillment toward the International Master in Affective Neuroscience of Maastricht University and the University of Florence.

Abbreviations

Self-report questionnaires.

– Six items Questionnaire: Pleasure and/or Happiness associated with VG play (Items 7 and 8 were suppressed after the preliminary phase)

• (1) I enjoy playing video games.
• (2) I am happy when I play video games.
• (3) I would find pleasure in my video game activities.
• (4) I find video games amusing.
• (5) I enjoy playing my favorite video game.
• (6) I often experience joy and exaltation when playing video games.
• (7) I would feel pleasure when I receive praise from other people on my capacity to play video games.
• (8) I don’t have fun when playing video games with other people.

fully disagree disagree slightly disagree slightly agree agree fully agree

<———I——————I——————I————————I——————I—————I———>

– Questionnaire on Craving for playing VG

– After having watched this clip I feel craving for playing video games.

– Three bipolar items Questionnaire: Pleasure and/or Happiness associated with VG play

Bipolar items.

(1) I enjoy playing video games I am happy when I play video games

I——————I——————I——————I—————I

(2) I would find pleasure in I find video games amusing my video game activities

(3) I enjoy playing my favorite I often experience joy and exaltation video game when playing video games

– Ten key words [resulting from the semantic mapping of pleasure (P) and happiness (H)]: 3/10 words to be associated with VG play

• – Joy
• – Craving
• – Well-being
• – Impulsivity
• – Fellowship
• – Desire
• – Fun
• – Contentment
• – Gratification
• – Serenity

Pleasure cluster: joy, craving, impulsivity, desire, fun, gratification.

Happiness cluster: well-being, fellowship, contentment, serenity.

– One bipolar item Questionnaire: Pleasure or Happiness associated with VG play (with explicit definitions)

Happiness : emotional state of lasting contentment.

Pleasure : transient emotional state when satisfying a desire, a craving.

A bipolar item

• Andreassen C. S., Billieux J., Griffiths M. D., Kuss D. J., Demetrovics Z., Mazzoni E., et al. (2016). The relationship between addictive use of social media and video games and symptoms of psychiatric disorders: a large-scale cross-sectional study. Psychol. Behav. 30 252–262. 10.1037/adb0000160 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ballaine B. W., Dickinson A. (1998). Goal-directed instrumental action: contingency and incentive learning and their cortical substrates. Neuropharmacology 37 407–419. 10.1016/s0028-3908(98)00033-1 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Baysan-Arslan S., Cebeci S., Kaya M., Canbal M. (2016). Relationship between Internet addiction and alexithymia among university students. Clin. Invest. Med. 39 S111–S115. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Berridge K., Kringelbach M. (2011). Building a neuroscience of pleasure and well being. Psychol. Well Being 1 1–3. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Berridge K. C., Kringelbach M. L. (2013). Neuroscience of affect: brain mechanisms of pleasure and displeasure. Current Opin. Neurobiol. 23 294–303. 10.1016/j.conb.2013.01.017 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Billieux J., Chanal J., Khazaal Y., Rochat L., Gay P., Zullino D., et al. (2011). Psychological predictors of problematic involvement in massively multiplayer online role-playing games: illustration in a sample of male cybercafé players. Psychopathology 44 165–171. 10.1159/000322525 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Billieux J., Van der Linden M., Achab S., Khazaal Y., Paraskevopoulos L., Zullino D., et al. (2013). Why do you play Warcraft? An in-depth exploration of self-reported motivation to play online and in the game behaviors in the virtual world of Azeroth. Compt. Hum. Behav. 29 103–109. 10.1016/j.chb.2012.07.021 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bonnaire C., Baptista D. (2019). Internet gaming disorder in male and female young adults: the role of alexithymia, depression, anxiety and gaming type. Psychiatry Res. 272 521–530. 10.1016/j.psychres.2018.12.158 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bradley B. P., Phillips G., Green L., Gossop M. (1989). Circumstances surrounding the initial lapse to opiate use following detoxification. Br. J. Psychiatry 154 354–359. 10.1192/bjp.154.3.354 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bruchon-Schweitzer M., Boujut E. (2014). Psychologie de la Santé: Concepts, Methods et Modèles. Paris: Dunod, 10.3917/dunod.bruch.2014.01 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Caretti V., Craparo G. (2009). “ Psychological issues of technological addiction. New diagnostic criteria for addiction ,” in Annual Review of Cybertherapy and Telemedicine 2009. Advanced Technologies in the Behavioural, Social and Neurosciences , eds Wiederhold B. K., Riva G. (Amsterdam: IOS Press; ), 227–280. [ Google Scholar ]
• Caretti V., Craparo G., Schimmenti A. (2010). “ Alcune evidenze empireche sul construtto di trance dissi-ociativa da videoterminale ,” in Addiction , eds Caretti V., La Barbera D. (Milano: Rafaelo Cortina; ), 167–182. [ Google Scholar ]
• Chou T., Ting C. H. (2003). The role of flow experience in cyber-game addiction. Cyber Psychol. Behav. 6 663–675. 10.1089/109493103322725469 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Cipresso P., Serino S., Riva G. (2014). The pursuit of happiness measurement: a psychometric model based on psychological correlates. Sci. World J. 2014 : 139128 . [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Compare A., Zarbo C., Shonin E., van Gordon W., Marconi C. (2014). Emotional regulation and depression: a potential mediator between heart and mind. Cardiovasc. Psychiatry Neurol. 2014 : 324374 . 10.1155/2014/324374 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Cooper S., Robinson A. J., Mazei-Robinson M. (2017). Reward circuitry in addiction. Neurotherapeutics 14 687–697. 10.1007/s13311-017-0525-z [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Craparo G. (2011). Internet addiction, dissociation and alexithymia. Proc. Soc. Behav. Sci. 30 1051–1056. 10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.10.205 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Dambrun M., Ricard M., Després G., Drelon E., Gibelin E., Gibelin M., et al. (2012). Measuring happiness: from fluctuating happiness to authentic, durable happiness. Front. Psychol. 3 : 16 . 10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00016 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Deci E. L., Ryan R. M. (2000). The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: human needs and the self-determination of behaviour. Psychol. Inq. 11 227–668. [ Google Scholar ]
• Deci E. L., Ryan R. M. (2008). Hedonia, eudamonia, and well-being: an introduction. J. Happiness Stud. 9 1–11. 10.1007/s10902-006-9018-1 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Demetrovics Z., Urbán R., Nagygyörgy K., Farkas J., Zilahy D., Mervó B., et al. (2011). Why do you play? The development of the motives for online gaming questionnaire (MOGQ). Behav. Res. Methods 43 814–825. 10.3758/s13428-011-0091-y [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Dong G., Li H., Potenza M. (2017). Cognitive control and reward/loss processing in Internet gaming disorders: results from a comparison with recreational Internet game users. Eur. Psychiatry 44 : 3038 . [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Dong G., Potenza M. (2015). A cognitive-behavioural model of Internet gaming disorders: theoretical underpinnings and clinical implications. J. Psychiatry Res. 58 7–11. 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2014.07.005 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Dongping L., Wenhau Z., Xian L., Yueyue Z., Liyan Z., Yanhui W. (2016). Stressful life events and adolescent Internet addiction: the mediating role of psychological needs satisfaction and the moderating role of coping style. Comp. Hum. Behav. 63 408–415. 10.1016/j.chb.2016.05.070 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Esposito E., Di Matteo V., Di Giovanni G. (2008). Serotonin-dopamine interaction: an overview. Prog. Brain Res. 172 3–6. 10.1016/S0079-6123(08)00901-1 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Gaetan S., Bonnet A., Brejard V., Cury F. (2014). French validation of the 7-item Game Addiction Scale for adolescents. Rev. Eur. Psychol. Appl. 64 161–168. 10.1016/j.erap.2014.04.004 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Geisel O., Panneck P., Stickel A., Schneider M., Müller C. A. (2015). Characteristics of social network gamers: results of an online survey. Front. Psychiatry 6 : 69 . 10.3389/fpsyt.2015.00069 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Gil S., Droit-Volet S. (2012). Emotion time distortions: the fundamental role of arousal. Cogn. Emot. 26 847–862. 10.1080/02699931.2011.625401 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Gowing L., Ali R. L., Allsop S., Marsden J., Turf E. E., West R., et al. (2015). Global statistics on addictive behaviours: 2014 status report. Society for the study of addiction. Addiction 110 904–919. 10.1111/add.12899 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Griffiths M. (2008). Diagnosis and management of video game addiction. New Direct. Addict. Treat. Prevent. 12 27–41. [ Google Scholar ]
• Griffiths M., Kuss D., King D. (2012). Video game addiction: past. Present and future. Curr. Psychiatry Rev. 8 308–318. 10.2174/157340012803520414 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Han D. H., Bolo N., Daniels M. A., Arenella L., Lyoo I. K., Renshaw P. F. (2011). Brain activity and desire for Internet video game play. Comprehen. Psychiatry 52 88–95. 10.1016/j.comppsych.2010.04.004 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Hills P., Argyle M. (2002). The oxford happiness questionnaire: a compact scale for the measurement of psychological well-being. Pers. Individ. Differ. 33 1073–1082. 10.1016/s0191-8869(01)00213-6 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Hull D., William G. A., Griffiths M. D. (2013). Video game characteristics, happiness and flow as predictors of addiction among video game players: a pilot study. J. Behav. Addict. 2 145–152. 10.1556/JBA.2.2013.005 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Jatupaiboon N., Pan-ngum S., Israsena P. (2013). Real-time EEG-based happiness detection system. Sci. World J. 2013 : 618649 . 10.1155/2013/618649 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kandri T. A., Bonotis K. S., Floros G. D., Zafiropoulou M. M. (2014). Alexithymia components in excessive internet users: a multi-factorial analysis. Psychiatry Res. 220 348–355. 10.1016/j.psychres.2014.07.066 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kardefelt-Winther D. (2014). A conceptual and methodological critique of Internet addiction research: towards a model of compensatory Internet use. Comput. Hum. Behav. 31 351–354. 10.1016/j.chb.2013.10.059 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kashdan T., Bsiwas-Diener R., King L. (2008). “Reconsidering Happiness: the cost of distinguishing between hedonics and eudemonia”. .J. Posit. Psychol. 3 219–233. 10.1080/17439760802303044 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kennedy A., Epstein D. H., Jobes M. L., Agage D., Tyburski M., Phillips K. A., et al. (2015). Continuous in-the-field measurement of heart rate: correlates of drug use, craving, stress and mood in polydrug users. Drug Alcohol Depend. 151 159–166. 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.03.024 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Keyes K. M., Jager J., Hamilton A., O’Malley P. M., Miech R., Schulenberg J. (2015). National multi-cohort time trends in adolescent risk preference and relation with substance use and problem behavior from 1976 to 2011. Drug Alcohol Depend. 155 267–274. 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.06.031 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Khazaal Y., Chatton A., Rothen S., Achab S., Thorens G., Zullino D., et al. (2016). Psychometric properties of the 7-item game addiction scale among French and German adults. BMC Psychiatry 16 : 132 . [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Khazaal Y., Zullino D., Billieux J. (2012). The Geneva smoking pictures: development and preliminary validation. Eur. Addict. Res. 18 103–109. 10.1159/000335083 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kim E. J., Namkoong K., Ku T., Kim S. J. (2007). The relationship between online game addiction and aggression, self, control and narcissistic personality traits. Eur. Psychiatry 23 212–218. 10.1016/j.eurpsy.2007.10.010 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kim H., Ha J., Chang W. D., Park W., Kim L., Im C. H. (2018). Detection of craving for gaming in adolescents with internet gaming disorders using multimodal bio signals. Sensors 18 : 102 . 10.3390/s18010102 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ko C.-H., Gin-Chung L., Sigmund H., Ju-Yu Y., Ming-Jen Y., Wei-Chen L., et al. (2009). Brain activities associated with gaming urge of online gaming addiction. J. Psychiatry Res. 43 739–747. 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2008.09.012 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Koepp M. J., Gunn R. N., Lawrence A. D., Cunningham V. J., Dagher A., Jones T., et al. (1998). Evidence for striatal dopamine release during a video game. Nature 393 266–268. 10.1038/30498 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kowert R., Vogelgesang J., Festl R., Quandt T. (2015). Psychological causes and consequences of online video game play. Comput. Hum. Behav. 45 51–58. 10.1016/j.chb.2014.11.074 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kringelbach M., Berridge K. (2009). Towards a functional neuro-anatomy of pleasure and happiness. Trends Cogn. Sci. 13 479–487. 10.1016/j.tics.2009.08.006 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kringelbach M., Berridge M. (2010). The neuroscience of happiness and pleasure. Soc. Res. 77 659–678. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lawrence L. M., Ciorciari J., Kyrios M. (2014). “Relationships that compulsive buying has with addiction, obsessive-compulsiveness, hoarding and depression”. Compr. Psychiatry 55 1137–1145. 10.1016/j.comppsych.2014.03.005 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lazarus R. S., Folkman S. (1984). Stress, Appraisal and Coping. New York, NY: Springer. [ Google Scholar ]
• Lee Y., Han D., Yang K. C., Daniels M. A., Na C., Kee B. S., et al. (2008). Depression like characteristics of 5HTTLPR polymorphism and temperament in excessive Internet users. J. Affect. Disord. 2 165–169. 10.1016/j.jad.2007.10.020 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lemmens J., Valkenburg P., Peter J. (2011). Psychological causes and consequences of pathological gaming. Comput. Hum. Behav. 27 144–152. 10.1016/j.chb.2010.07.015 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lemmens J. S., Valkenburg P. M., Peter J. (2009). Development and validation of game addiction scale for adolescents. Media Psychol. 12 77–95. 10.1080/15213260802669458 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lepine J.-P., Briley M. (2011). The increasing burden of depression. Neuropsychiatr. Dis. Treat. 7 ( Suppl. 1 ), 3–7. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Loas G., Dubal S., Perot P., Tirel F., Nowaczkowski P., Pierson A. (1997). Etude de validation de la version française de l’échelle de plaisir de Snaith et Hamilton. L’Encephale 23 454–458. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Loonen A., Ivanova S. (2016). Circuits regulating pleasure and happiness – mechanisms of depression. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 10 : 571 . [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lu D., Wang J. W., Huang A. C. (2010). Differentiation of internet addiction risk level based on autonomic nervous responses: the internet-addiction hypothesis of autonomic activity. Cyberpsychol. Behav. Soc. Netw. 13 371–378. 10.1089/cyber.2009.0254 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lustig R. (2017). The Hacking of the American Mind. New York, NY: Avery. [ Google Scholar ]
• MacNicol B. (2016). The biology of addiction. Can. J. Anesthesia 64 141–148. 10.1097/YPG.0000000000000095 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Mahapatra A., Sharma P. (2018). Association of internet addiction and alexithymia – A scoping review. Addict. Behav. 81 175–182. 10.1016/j.addbeh.2018.02.004 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Mikolajczak M., Luminet O. (2006). Is alexithymia affected by situational stress or is it a stable trat related to emotion regulation? Pers. Individ. Differ. 40 1399–1408. 10.1016/j.paid.2005.10.020 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Orzack M. H., Vouse A. C., Wolf D., Hennen J. (2006). An on-going study of group treatment for men involved in problematic Internet enabled sexual behaviour. CyberPsychol. Behav. 9 348–360. 10.1089/cpb.2006.9.348 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Petry N. M., Rehbein F., Gentile D. A., Lemmens J. S., Rumpf H. J., Mößle T., et al. (2014). An international consensus for assessing Internet gaming disorder using new DSM-5 approach. Addiction 109 1399–1406. 10.1111/add.12457 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Petry N. M., Rehbein F., Ko C. H., O’Brien C. H. (2015). Internet gaming disorders in the DSM-5. Curr. Psychiatry Rep. 17 : 19 . [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Pollard I. (2003). From Happiness to Depression”. Today’s Life Science. Available at: www.biotechnews.com.au (accessed August, 2019). [ Google Scholar ]
• Procter P. (1985). Longman Concise English Dictionary. England: Longman Group Limited. [ Google Scholar ]
• Ryu H., Lee J., Choi A., Park S., Kim D., Choi J. (2018). The relationship between impulsivity and internet gaming disorders in young adults: mediating effects of interpersonal relationships and depression. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 15 : 458 . 10.3390/ijerph15030458 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Sarda E., Bègue L., Bry C., Gentile D. (2016). Internet gaming disorders and well-being: a scale validation. Cyberpsychol. Behav. Soc. Netw. 19 674–679. 10.1089/cyber.2016.0286 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Schimmenti A., Caretti V. (2010). Psychic retreats or psychic pits? Unbearable states of mind ad technological addiction. Psychoanalogy 27 115–132. 10.1037/a0019414 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Schimmenti A., Passanisi A., Caretti V., La Marca L., Granieri A., Iacolino C., et al. (2017). Traumatic experiences, alexithymia and Internet addiction symptoms among late adolescents: a moderated mediation analysis. Addict. Behav. 64 314–320. 10.1016/j.addbeh.2015.11.002 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Schmidt L. A. (2016). “ What are addictive substances and behaviours and how far do they extend? ,” in Impact of Addictive Substances and Behaviours on Individual and Societal Well-Being , eds Anderson P., Rehm J., Room R. (London: Oxford Unversity Press; ). [ Google Scholar ]
• Schwabe L., Tegenhoff M., Höffken O., Wolf O. (2012). Simultaneous glucocorticoid and noradrenergic activity disrupts the neural basis of goal-directed action in the human brain. J. Neurosci. 32 10146–10155. 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1304-12.2012 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Seay A. F., Kraut R. E. (2007). “ Project massive: self-regulation and problematic use of on-line gambling ,” in Proceedings of the ACM CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems , San Jose, CA. [ Google Scholar ]
• Serretti A., Calati R., Mandelli L., Ronchi D. D. (2006). Serotonin transporter gene variant and behaviour: a comprehensive review. Curr. Drug Targets 7 1659–1669. 10.2174/138945006779025419 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Shen C., Ratan C., Dora Y., Leavitt A. (2016). Do men advance faster than women? Debunking the gender performance gap in two massively multiplayer online games. J. Comput. Med Commun. 21 312–329. 10.1111/jcc4.12159 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Sinha R., Fuse T., Aubin L. R., O’Malley S. S. (2000). Psychological stress drug-related cues and cocaine craving. Psychopharmacology 152 140–148. 10.1007/s002130000499 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Snaith R. P., Hamilton M., Morley S., Humayan A. (1995). A scale for the assessment of the hedonic tone: the Snaith-Hamilton Pleasure Scale. Br. J. Psychiatry 167 99–103. 10.1192/bjp.167.1.99 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Szalavitz M. (2011). What does a 400% increase in antidepressant use really mean?. Patna: Time. [ Google Scholar ]
• Teplan M., Krakovskà A. (2009). “ EEG features of psycho-physiological relaxation ,” in Proceedings of the 2nd International Symposium on Applied Sciences in Biomedical and Communication Technologies ISABEL 2009 , (Bratislava: Institute of Measurement Science SAS; ). [ Google Scholar ]
• Tian Y., Liu P., Huang X. (2018). The role of emotion regulation in reducing emotional distortions of duration perception. Front. Psychol. 9 : 347 . 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00347 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Torres A., Catena A., Megias A., Maldonado A., Candido A., Verdejo-Garcia A., et al. (2013). Emotional and non-emotional pathways to impulsive behavior and addiction. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 7 : 43 . 10.3389/fnhum.2013.00043 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Tricomi E., Ballaine B. W., O’Doherty J. P. (2009). A specific role for posterior dorsolateral striatum in human habit learning. Eur. J. Neurosci. 29 2225–2232. 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2009.06796.x [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Üstün T. B., Ayuso-Mateos J. L., Chatterji S., Mathers C., Murray C. J. (2004). Global burden of depressive disorders in the year 2000. Br. J. Psychiatry 184 386–392. 10.1192/bjp.184.5.386 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• van Holst R. J., Lemmens J. S., Valkenburg P. M., Peter J., Veltman D. J., Goudriaan A. E. (2012). Attentional bias and disinhibition toward gaming cues are related to problem gaming in male adolescents. J. Adolescent. Health 50 541–546. 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2011.07.006 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Volkow N., Wang G., Fowler J., Tomasi D., Telang F. (2011). Addiction: beyond dopamine reward circuitry. PNAS 108 15037–15042. 10.1073/pnas.1010654108 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Wallace B. C. (1989). Psychological and environmental determinants of relapse in crack cocaine smokers. J. Subst. Abuse Treat. 6 95–106. 10.1016/0740-5472(89)90036-6 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Wang L., Wu L., Wang Y., Li H., Liu X., Du X., et al. (2017). Altered brain activities associated with craving and cue reactivity in people with Internet gaming disorders: evidence from the comparison with recreational Internet game users. Front. Psychol. 8 : 1150 . 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01150 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Waterman A., Schwartz S., Conti R. (2008). The implication of the two conceptions of happiness (Hedonic. (enjoyment)and Eudamonia) for the understanding of intrinsic motivation. J. Happiness Stud. 9 41–79. 10.1007/s10902-006-9020-7 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Wei H.-T., Chen M. H., Huang P. C., Bai Y. M. (2012). The association between online gaming, social phobia and depression: an internet survey. BMC Psychiatry 12 : 92 . 10.1186/1471-244X-12-92 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Wenzel H. G., Bakken I. J., Johansson A., Götestam K. G., Øren A. (2009). Excessive computer game playing among Norwegian adults: self-reported consequences of playing and association with mental health problems. Psychol. Rep. 105 1237–1247. 10.2466/pr0.105.f.1237-1247 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Whiteford H., Degenhardt L., Rehm J., Baxter A. J., Ferrari A. J., Erskine H. E., et al. (2013). “Global burden of attributable to mental and substance use disorders: findings from the global burden of disease study 2010”. Lancet 382 1575–1586. 10.1016/S0140-6736(13)61611-6 [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Wittek C. T., Reiten Finseras T., Pallesen S., Mentzoni A., Hanss D., Griffiths M., et al. (2016). Prevalence and predictors of video game addiction: a study based on a national and representative sample gamers. Int. J. Mental Health Addict. 14 672–686. 10.1007/s11469-015-9592-8 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• World Health Organization [WHO] (2018). Available at: https://www.who.int/features/qa/gaming-disorder/en/ (accessed December, 2018). [ Google Scholar ]
• Yau Y., Crowley M., Mayes L., Potenza M. (2012). Are Internet use and video game play addictive behaviours? Biological, clinical and public health implications for youths and adults. Minerva Psichiatrica 53 153–170. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Yin H. H., Knowlton B. J., Ballaine B. W. (2004). Lesions of dorsolateral striatum preserve outcome expectancy but disrupt habit formation in instrumental learning. Eur. J. Neurosci. 19 181–189. 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2004.03095.x [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Zheng Y., Fan F., Liu X., Mo L. (2012). Life events, coping and posttraumatic stress symptoms among Chinese adolescents exposed to 2008 Wenchuan Earthquake. China. PLoS One 7 : e29404 . 10.1371/journal.pone.0029404 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]

Advertisement

Supported by

Taylor Swift’s ‘Poets’ Arrives With a Promotional Blitz (and a Second LP)

The pop superstar’s latest album was preceded by a satellite radio channel, a word game, a return to TikTok and an actual library. For her fans, more is always welcome.

• Share full article

By Ben Sisario

Taylor Swift was already the most ubiquitous pop star in the galaxy, her presence dominating the music charts, the concert calendar, the Super Bowl, the Grammys.

Then it came time for her to promote a new album.

In the days leading up to the release of “The Tortured Poets Department” on Friday, Swift became all but inescapable, online and seemingly everywhere else. Her lyrics were the basis for an Apple Music word game . A Spotify-sponsored, Swift-branded “ library installation ,” in muted pink and gray, popped up in a shopping complex in Los Angeles. In Chicago, a QR code painted on a brick wall directed fans to another Easter egg on YouTube. Videos on Swift’s social media accounts, showing antique typewriters and globes with pins, were dissected for clues about her music. SiriusXM added a Swift radio station; of course it’s called Channel 13 (Taylor’s Version).

About the only thing Swift didn’t do was an interview with a journalist.

At this stage in Swift’s career, an album release is more than just a moment to sell music; it’s all but a given that “The Tortured Poets Department” will open with gigantic sales numbers, many of them for “ghost white,” “phantom clear” and other collector-ready vinyl variants . More than that, the album’s arrival is a test of the celebrity-industrial complex overall, with tech platforms and media outlets racing to capture whatever piece of the fan frenzy they can get.

Threads, the newish social media platform from Meta, primed Swifties for their idol’s arrival there, and offered fans who shared Swift’s first Threads post a custom badge. Swift stunned the music industry last week by breaking ranks with her record label, Universal, and returning her music to TikTok, which Universal and other industry groups have said pays far too little in royalties. Overnight, TikTok unveiled “The Ultimate Taylor Swift In-App Experience,” offering fans digital goodies like a “Tortured Poets-inspired animation” on their feed.

Before the album’s release on Friday, Swift revealed that a music video — for “Fortnight,” the first single, featuring Post Malone — would arrive on Friday at 8 p.m. Eastern time. At 2 a.m., she had another surprise: 15 more songs. “I’d written so much tortured poetry in the past 2 years and wanted to share it all with you,” she wrote in a social media post , bringing “The Anthology” edition of the album to 31 tracks.

“The Tortured Poets Department,” which Swift, 34, announced in a Grammy acceptance speech in February — she had the Instagram post ready to go — lands as Swift’s profile continues to rise to ever-higher levels of cultural saturation.

Her Eras Tour , begun last year, has been a global phenomenon, crashing Ticketmaster and lifting local economies ; by some estimates, it might bring in as much as $2 billion in ticket sales — by far a new record — before it ends later this year. Swift’s romance with the Kansas City Chiefs tight end Travis Kelce has been breathlessly tracked from its first flirtations last summer to their smooch on the Super Bowl field in February. The mere thought that Swift might endorse a presidential candidate this year sent conspiracy-minded politicos reeling .

“The Tortured Poets Department” — don’t even ask about the missing apostrophe — arrived accompanied by a poem written by Stevie Nicks that begins, “He was in love with her/Or at least she thought so.” That establishes what many fans correctly anticipated as the album’s theme of heartbreak and relationship rot, Swift’s signature topic. “I love you/It’s ruining my life,” she sings on “Fortnight.”

Fans were especially primed for the fifth track, “So Long, London,” given that (1) Swift has said she often sequences her most vulnerable and emotionally intense songs fifth on an LP, and (2) the title suggested it may be about Joe Alwyn, the English actor who was Swift’s boyfriend for about six years, reportedly until early 2023 . Indeed, “So Long” is an epic breakup tune, with lines like “You left me at the house by the heath” and “I’m pissed off you let me give you all that youth for free.” Tracks from the album leaked on Wednesday, and fans have also interpreted some songs as being about Matty Healy , the frontman of the band the 1975, whom Swift was briefly linked to last year.

The album’s title song starts with a classic Swift detail of a memento from a lost love: “You left your typewriter at my apartment/Straight from the tortured poets department.” It also name-drops Dylan Thomas, Patti Smith and, somewhat surprisingly given that company, Charlie Puth, the singer-songwriter who crooned the hook on Wiz Khalifa’s “See You Again,” a No. 1 hit in 2015. (Swift has praised Wiz Khalifa and that song in the past.)

Other big moments include “Florida!!!,” featuring Florence Welch of Florence + the Machine, in which Swift declares — after seven big percussive bangs — that the state “is one hell of a drug.” Jack Antonoff and Aaron Dessner, the producers and songwriters who have been Swift’s primary collaborators in recent years, both worked on “Tortured Poets,” bringing their signature mix of moody, pulsating electronic tracks and delicate acoustic moments, like a bare piano on “Loml” (as in “love of my life”).

As the ninth LP Swift has released in five years, “Tortured Poets” is the latest entry in a remarkable creative streak. That includes five new studio albums and four rerecordings of her old music — each of which sailed to No. 1. When Swift played SoFi Stadium near Los Angeles in August, she spoke from the stage about her recording spurt, saying that the forced break from touring during the Covid-19 pandemic had spurred her to connect with fans by releasing more music.

“And so I decided, in order to keep that connection going,” she said , “if I couldn’t play live shows with you, I was going to make and release as many albums as humanly possible.”

That was two albums ago.

Ben Sisario covers the music industry. He has been writing for The Times since 1998. More about Ben Sisario

Inside the World of Taylor Swift

A Triumph at the Grammys: Taylor Swift made history  by winning her fourth album of the year at the 2024 edition of the awards, an event that saw women take many of the top awards .

‘The T ortured Poets Department’: Poets reacted to Swift’s new album name , weighing in on the pertinent question: What do the tortured poets think ?  

In the Public Eye: The budding romance between Swift and the football player Travis Kelce created a monocultural vortex that reached its apex  at the Super Bowl in Las Vegas. Ahead of kickoff, we revisited some key moments in their relationship .

Politics (Taylor’s Version): After months of anticipation, Swift made her first foray into the 2024 election for Super Tuesday with a bipartisan message on Instagram . The singer, who some believe has enough influence  to affect the result of the election , has yet to endorse a presidential candidate.

Conspiracy Theories: In recent months, conspiracy theories about Swift and her relationship with Kelce have proliferated , largely driven by supporters of former President Donald Trump . The pop star's fans are shaking them off .