public speaking requires less critical thinking and more memorization

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Don’t Just Memorize Your Next Presentation — Know It Cold

Sabina Nawaz

public speaking requires less critical thinking and more memorization

Learn it upside-down and backwards.

Knowing a script or presentation cold means taking the time to craft the words and sequence of what you plan to say, and then rehearsing them until you could recite them backwards if asked. It’s a more effective approach to public speaking than simple memorization or “winging it” because you plan not just the words but the actions and transitions between points, so it becomes one fluid motion for you, all the while allowing time for adjusting or improvising during the speech itself.

To learn your script cold, first, decide how you will craft your script, whether it’s noting key talking points or writing down every line and detail. Next, create natural sections and learn them individually, including transitions. Then, learn your script over time and rehearse. Finally, have a plan for forgetfulness, which can include acknowledging that you need to reference your notes.

The three judges beamed at me. Buoyed by their support, I anticipated winning this college elocution competition. I nailed the first verse of my chosen poem, but might as well have been under general anesthesia when trying to remember a single word of the second verse. Now the judges’ encouraging smiles only roiled my rising panic. Finally, the timer buzzed, ending my turn on stage and initiating a two-decade fear of memorization.

Sabina Nawaz is a global CEO coach , leadership keynote speaker, and writer working in over 26 countries. She advises C-level executives in Fortune 500 corporations, government agencies, non-profits, and academic organizations. Sabina has spoken at hundreds of seminars, events, and conferences including TEDx and has written for FastCompany.com , Inc.com , and Forbes.com , in addition to HBR.org. Follow her on Twitter .

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Benefits of Public Speaking →

How Public Speaking Improves Critical Thinking Skills

In today’s fast-paced world, effective communication and critical thinking skills are essential for personal and professional success. Public speaking is one avenue that can significantly improve these crucial abilities, allowing individuals to excel in various aspects of their lives.

This blog post will explore the relationship between public speaking and critical thinking, revealing how honing your presentation skills can lead to enhanced reasoning abilities and better decision-making.

Key Takeaways

Public speaking and critical thinking skills are intrinsically linked, as both require the ability to analyze and present information clearly.
Practicing public speaking techniques such as research, active listening , and constructive feedback can enhance analytical abilities, boost cognitive flexibility, promote self-awareness and personal growth while improving problem-solving capabilities
Improved communication skills through public speaking lead to clearer expression of ideas, better collaboration with team members in professional settings resulting in more effective discussions. In a personal context it builds confidence on stage & off increasing interpersonal relationships.

The Relationship Between Public Speaking And Critical Thinking

Public speaking and critical thinking are intricately linked, as both skills require the ability to analyze information and present it in a clear and compelling way. In essence, effective public speakers must possess sharp critical thinking abilities to craft persuasive arguments that resonate with their audience.

As a public speaker, you need solid critical thinking skills for many aspects of your presentation: from researching your subject matter thoroughly to crafting logical arguments backed by evidence.

Additionally, you must be able to anticipate potential counterarguments and have responses at the ready.

On the other hand, when honing your oratory capabilities through frequent practice sessions or watching others present, analyzing their techniques can sharpen your own analytical faculties.

In conclusion, public speaking offers an invaluable opportunity for personal growth; developing proficiency in this domain inherently cultivates sharper critical reasoning capacity—an essential component for success across various spheres of life.

Benefits Of Public Speaking For Developing Critical Thinking Skills

Public speaking helps improve critical thinking skills by enhancing communication abilities, increasing cognitive flexibility, boosting problem-solving capabilities, promoting self-awareness and personal growth.

Improved Communication

Public speaking can greatly improve communication skills, which is an important aspect of critical thinking. When giving a speech, one must consider their audience and tailor their message accordingly.

This involves being able to articulate thoughts clearly and concisely while also being engaging and persuasive.

Improving communication skills through public speaking not only benefits the speaker but also those around them in personal and professional settings. It allows for clearer expression of ideas, better collaboration with team members, and more effective problem-solving in group discussions.

Overall, public speaking provides ample opportunities for individuals to hone their communication skills – a crucial component for successful critical thinking that can be applied across various areas of life from work to personal relationships.

Enhanced Analytical Abilities

Through public speaking, individuals can develop enhanced analytical abilities that are essential for critical thinking. Analytical thinking involves breaking down complex concepts into smaller components and using logic to understand relationships between them.

When developing a speech, speakers must learn how to analyze their audience’s needs and interests in order to deliver content that resonates with them.

For example, when preparing a persuasive speech on environmental conservation, a speaker might use data analysis skills to understand the impact of human activity on ecosystems.

By practicing public speaking techniques such as these, individuals can enhance their analytical abilities in both personal and professional settings – making it easier for them to organize thoughts clearly, evaluate ideas rigorously, make informed decisions confidently – all important aspects of critical thinking.

Boosted Cognitive Flexibility

Public speaking can also boost cognitive flexibility, which refers to the ability to adapt and switch between various modes of thinking. When preparing for a speech, speakers need to consider different perspectives and approaches in order to present their arguments persuasively.

This requires an open-mindedness and willingness to embrace alternative viewpoints.

Through public speaking, individuals learn how to better manage and navigate complex situations by honing their cognitive flexibility skills. For example, when faced with questions from the audience or rebuttals from opponents during debates , speakers must think quickly on their feet while switching between logical reasoning, analytical thinking, creativity and persuasion techniques.

Increased Self-awareness And Personal Growth

Developing critical thinking skills through public speaking can lead to increased self-awareness and personal growth. By being exposed to a variety of perspectives, speakers are able to challenge their own assumptions and beliefs, leading to greater introspection and understanding of oneself.

Through this process, speakers also have the chance to gain a sense of accomplishment as they improve their skills over time. This newfound confidence can extend beyond just public speaking and positively impact other areas of life as well.

Improved Problem-solving

Another important benefit of public speaking for developing critical thinking skills is improved problem-solving. When preparing a speech or presentation, speakers are required to think creatively and critically about how to best communicate their message.

This involves identifying potential problems or challenges that may arise during the delivery and finding effective solutions.

For example, when delivering a persuasive speech on environmental issues, speakers must identify potential counterarguments that their audience may have and anticipate the objections before presenting their case convincingly.

Through regular practice with public speaking activities such as debates or presentations, individuals can hone these problem-solving abilities while also improving communication skills by learning how to articulate ideas clearly effectively.

Techniques To Improve Critical Thinking Through Public Speaking

To improve critical thinking through public speaking, techniques such as conducting thorough research, practicing active listening and constructive feedback, using logic and evidence to support arguments, embracing uncertainty and open-mindedness, and adapting to different audiences can be incredibly helpful.

Conducting Thorough Research

Conducting thorough research is an essential component of developing critical thinking skills through public speaking. Effective research requires analytical thinking and problem-solving skills, as well as the ability to evaluate sources for credibility and relevance.

For example, when preparing a speech on climate change, conducting in-depth research can help identify key issues and data points that support the argument for environmental conservation.

Research also allows for identifying potential counterarguments or opposing viewpoints beforehand so they can be addressed effectively during delivery. Utilizing credible sources such as academic journals or scientific studies helps establish the speaker’s credibility while giving their audience confidence in their message’s reliability.

Practicing Active Listening And Constructive Feedback

Active listening and constructive feedback are crucial skills for any public speaker looking to improve their critical thinking abilities. Active listening involves paying close attention to what the audience is saying, both verbally and non-verbally, in order to gain a better understanding of their perspectives and interests.

Constructive feedback entails providing helpful criticism that can assist public speakers in improving their presentations or speeches. This can involve highlighting areas where improvements could be made while also recognizing strengths.

Constructive feedback encourages growth and development in a safe environment, allowing public speakers to hone their skills over time.

Using Logic And Evidence To Support Arguments

As a public speaker, it is critical to back up your arguments with logical reasoning and evidence. Including these elements in your presentation helps to improve critical thinking skills by reinforcing the value of well-supported positions.

When crafting an argument, prioritize identifying key points that support your claim and use them as evidence throughout your speech.

In addition, using logic to support arguments helps create a sense of credibility and persuasion in speeches. This approach underscores the importance of making compelling cases that resonate with audiences and encourages active engagement throughout presentations.

Embracing Uncertainty And Open-mindedness

Another important technique to improve critical thinking through public speaking is embracing uncertainty and open-mindedness. Critical thinkers are not afraid of uncertainty and recognize that multiple perspectives exist on any given topic.

Embracing uncertainty also means being willing to change one’s views based on new information or evidence. Speakers who engage in debates or discussions with others should actively listen to opposing viewpoints and constructively critique them using logic and evidence.

For example, let’s say a speaker is giving a speech about climate change. Rather than dismissing opposing viewpoints outright, the speaker could consider why someone may have a different opinion and try to understand their perspective.

Adapting To Different Audiences

As a public speaker, it’s essential to understand that every audience is unique. Adapting to different audiences can help you connect with them effectively and make your speech more impactful.

For instance, if you’re giving a presentation to financial experts, using technical language might be appropriate. However, if you’re speaking to a general audience that has no prior knowledge of finances, simplifying complex concepts would be necessary.

By adapting to different audiences through critical thinking skills like research and active listening during presentations will increase chances for success when delivering speeches.

Additional Benefits Of Improving Critical Thinking Skills Through Public Speaking

Improved critical thinking skills through public speaking can lead to better decision making, enhanced creativity, and the development of leadership skills .

Improved Decision Making

Improving critical thinking skills through public speaking can lead to better decision-making abilities. When delivering a speech, it’s essential to analyze different perspectives and evidence to decide on the best approach.

Critical thinking helps in evaluating arguments effectively, separating irrelevant information from pertinent ones.

For instance, before giving an argumentative speech on climate change, it’s crucial for a speaker first to research the topic thoroughly and weigh the pros and cons of different solutions suggested by various scientists.

By analyzing each option critically, drawing logical conclusions based on research findings, they can build a persuasive speech that will influence their audience positively.

Better Problem Solving

Public speaking can improve problem-solving skills, which is a crucial aspect of critical thinking. When delivering a speech, speakers need to anticipate potential problems and find ways to address them effectively.

This mindset can also extend beyond public speaking and into daily life, helping individuals approach challenges in a more rational and logical way.

In addition, public speaking helps develop creativity by encouraging individuals to explore different perspectives and ideas. Through engaging with diverse audiences during speeches or debates, speakers learn how to think outside of conventional boundaries while maintaining sound reasoning behind their arguments.

Enhancing Creativity

Improving critical thinking skills through public speaking can also enhance one’s creativity. The ability to think critically allows individuals to approach problems and situations with an open mind, considering all possible solutions and perspectives.

For example, a speaker who has honed their critical thinking skills may be able to brainstorm unique analogies or metaphors that effectively convey complex concepts to their audience.

Similarly, they may be able to develop original arguments that offer fresh insights on important issues.

Furthermore, the process of preparing for a speech involves researching various sources of information from different angles. Engaging with diverse viewpoints helps foster creativity by providing new perspectives on familiar topics while introducing unknown factors into the mix.

Boosting Confidence

Public speaking can have a powerful impact on boosting confidence levels. When individuals enter the world of public speaking, they are inherently taking a risk by putting themselves in front of an audience.

However, with practice and exposure to different audiences, individuals can become more comfortable and confident in their abilities to communicate effectively.

In addition, public speaking courses often provide opportunities for constructive feedback from instructors and peers. This feedback allows individuals to identify their strengths and weaknesses, providing them with the knowledge needed to improve both their delivery and content moving forward.

Furthermore, receiving positive feedback from an audience after a successful speech can be incredibly rewarding and contribute significantly to one’s confidence levels.

Developing Leadership Skills

Improving critical thinking through public speaking can also help develop valuable leadership skills. By learning to analyze the audience, adapt to different communication styles and effectively convey ideas, speakers are more likely to gain respect and trust from their listeners.

Public speaking provides a platform for individuals to practice decision-making, problem-solving, and strategic planning in an effective manner.

Moreover, mastering rhetoric techniques such as persuasion and argumentation enhances one’s ability to influence others positively in personal or professional settings. By developing analytical thinking skills and leveraging them with creative presentation techniques, expert speakers know exactly how they can motivate people towards action or change behavior patterns with great ease.

Conclusion: Public Speaking Improves Critical Thinking Skills

In conclusion, public speaking is a valuable tool for improving critical thinking skills. By enhancing communication abilities and analytical thinking, individuals can become more persuasive and effective speakers.

Through techniques such as thorough research, active listening, and constructive feedback, public speakers can develop the logic and evidence needed to support their arguments effectively.

With increased self-awareness and personal growth also comes improved problem-solving capabilities that are essential in both professional and personal contexts.

1. How does public speaking improve critical thinking skills?

Public speaking requires individuals to analyze and organize their thoughts in a clear and concise manner , which can improve their ability to think critically about complex topics and arguments.

2. Can public speaking help me develop better problem-solving skills?

Yes, by practicing public speaking, you are forced to consider multiple perspectives on an issue or topic, which can help you develop stronger problem-solving skills that enable you to identify potential solutions more quickly.

3. What are some techniques I can use during public speaking to challenge my critical thinking abilities?

Using analogies and metaphors, posing hypothetical scenarios, incorporating statistics and data into your presentation, asking thought-provoking questions or even employing rhetorical devices like repetition or contrast can stimulate deeper analysis of a topic or argument.

4. How do the benefits of improved critical thinking acquired through public speaking carry over into other areas of life?

Improved critical thinking skills make it easier for individuals to evaluate information more effectively across all aspects of life from making important decisions at work/school or analyzing current events happening within global political/economic landscape in order understand different viewpoints & draw one’s own conclusions based upon evidence available.

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

Chapter 3: Speaking Confidently

Battling nerves and the unexpected.

Ron Bulovs – Speech! – CC BY 2.0.

One of your biggest concerns about public speaking might be how to deal with nervousness or unexpected events. If that’s the case, you’re not alone—fear of speaking in public consistently ranks at the top of lists of people’s common fears. Some people are not joking when they say they would rather die than stand up and speak in front of a live audience. The fear of public speaking ranks right up there with the fear of flying, death, and spiders (Wallechinsky, Wallace, & Wallace, 1977). Even if you are one of the fortunate few who don’t typically get nervous when speaking in public, it’s important to recognize things that can go wrong and be mentally prepared for them. On occasion, everyone misplaces speaking notes, has technical difficulties with a presentation aid, or gets distracted by an audience member. Speaking confidently involves knowing how to deal with these and other unexpected events while speaking.

In this chapter, we will help you gain knowledge about speaking confidently by exploring what communication apprehension is, examining the different types and causes of communication apprehension, suggesting strategies you can use to manage your fears of public speaking, and providing tactics you can use to deal with a variety of unexpected events you might encounter while speaking.

Wallechinsky, D., Wallace, I., & Wallace, A. (1977). The people’s almanac presents the book of lists . New York, NY: Morrow. See also Boyd, J. H., Rae, D. S., Thompson, J. W., Burns, B. J., Bourdon, K., Locke, B. Z., & Regier, D. A. (1990). Phobia: Prevalence and risk factors . Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology , 25 (6), 314–323.

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44 Critical Thinking Skills

Learning objectives.

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Describe the role that logic plays in critical thinking
Explain how critical thinking skills can be used to problem-solve
Describe how critical thinking skills can be used to evaluate information
Identify strategies for developing yourself as a critical thinker

Thinking comes naturally. You don’t have to make it happen—it just does. But you can make it happen in different ways. For example, you can think positively or negatively. You can think with “heart” and you can think with rational judgment. You can also think strategically and analytically, and mathematically and scientifically. These are a few of the multiple ways in which the mind can process thought.

What are some forms of thinking you use? When do you use them, and why?

As a college student, you are tasked with engaging and expanding your thinking skills. One of the most important of these skills is critical thinking. Critical thinking is important because it relates to nearly all tasks, situations, topics, careers, environments, challenges, and opportunities. It’s a “domain-general” thinking skill—not a thinking skill that’s reserved for a one subject alone or restricted to a particular subject area.

Great leaders have highly attuned critical thinking skills, and you can, too. In fact, you probably have a lot of these skills already. Of all your thinking skills, critical thinking may have the greatest value.

What Is Critical Thinking?

Critical thinking is clear, reasonable, reflective thinking focused on deciding what to believe or do. It means asking probing questions like, “How do we know?” or “Is this true in every case or just in this instance?” It involves being skeptical and challenging assumptions, rather than simply memorizing facts or blindly accepting what you hear or read.

Imagine, for example, that you’re reading a history textbook. You wonder who wrote it and why, because you detect certain biases in the writing. You find that the author has a limited scope of research focused only on a particular group within a population. In this case, your critical thinking reveals that there are “other sides to the story.”

Who are critical thinkers, and what characteristics do they have in common?

Critical thinkers are usually curious and reflective people. They like to explore and probe new areas and seek knowledge, clarification, and new solutions. They ask pertinent questions, evaluate statements and arguments, and distinguish between facts and opinion. They are also willing to examine their own beliefs, possessing a manner of humility that allows them to admit a lack of knowledge or understanding when needed. They are open to changing their mind. Perhaps most of all, they actively enjoy learning, and seeking new knowledge is a lifelong pursuit.

This may well be you!

No matter where you are on the road to being a critical thinker, you can always more fully develop and finely tune your skills. Doing so will help you develop more balanced arguments, express yourself clearly, read critically, and glean important information efficiently. Critical thinking skills will help you in any profession or any circumstance of life, from science to art to business to teaching. With critical thinking, you become a clearer thinker and problem solver.

Critical Thinking and Logic

Critical thinking is fundamentally a process of questioning information and data. You may question the information you read in a textbook, or you may question what a politician or a professor or a classmate says. You can also question a commonly-held belief or a new idea. With critical thinking, anything and everything is subject to question and examination for the purpose of logically constructing reasoned perspectives.

What Is Logic, and Why Is It Important in Critical Thinking?

The word logic comes from the Ancient Greek logike , referring to the science or art of reasoning. Using logic, a person evaluates arguments and reasoning and strives to distinguish between good and bad reasoning, or between truth and falsehood. Using logic, you can evaluate ideas or claims people make, make good decisions, and form sound beliefs about the world. [1]

Questions of Logic in Critical Thinking

Let’s use a simple example of applying logic to a critical-thinking situation. In this hypothetical scenario, a man has a PhD in political science, and he works as a professor at a local college. His wife works at the college, too. They have three young children in the local school system, and their family is well known in the community. The man is now running for political office. Are his credentials and experience sufficient for entering public office? Will he be effective in the political office? Some voters might believe that his personal life and current job, on the surface, suggest he will do well in the position, and they will vote for him. In truth, the characteristics described don’t guarantee that the man will do a good job. The information is somewhat irrelevant. What else might you want to know? How about whether the man had already held a political office and done a good job? In this case, we want to ask, How much information is adequate in order to make a decision based on logic instead of assumptions?

The following questions, presented in Figure 1, below, are ones you may apply to formulating a logical, reasoned perspective in the above scenario or any other situation:

What’s happening? Gather the basic information and begin to think of questions.
Why is it important? Ask yourself why it’s significant and whether or not you agree.
What don’t I see? Is there anything important missing?
How do I know? Ask yourself where the information came from and how it was constructed.
Who is saying it? What’s the position of the speaker and what is influencing them?

Infographic titled "Questions a Critical Thinker Asks." From the top, text reads: What's Happening? Gather the basic information and begin to think of questions (image of two stick figures talking to each other). Why is it Important? Ask yourself why it's significant and whether or not you agree. (Image of bearded stick figure sitting on a rock.) What Don't I See? Is there anything important missing? (Image of stick figure wearing a blindfold, whistling, walking away from a sign labeled Answers.) How Do I Know? Ask yourself where the information came from and how it was constructed. (Image of stick figure in a lab coat, glasses, holding a beaker.) Who is Saying It? What's the position of the speaker and what is influencing them? (Image of stick figure reading a newspaper.) What Else? What If? What other ideas exist and are there other possibilities? (Stick figure version of Albert Einstein with a thought bubble saying "If only time were relative...".

Problem-Solving

For most people, a typical day is filled with critical thinking and problem-solving challenges. In fact, critical thinking and problem-solving go hand-in-hand. They both refer to using knowledge, facts, and data to solve problems effectively. But with problem-solving, you are specifically identifying, selecting, and defending your solution. Below are some examples of using critical thinking to problem-solve:

Your roommate was upset and said some unkind words to you, which put a crimp in the relationship. You try to see through the angry behaviors to determine how you might best support the roommate and help bring the relationship back to a comfortable spot.
Your campus club has been languishing on account of a lack of participation and funds. The new club president, though, is a marketing major and has identified some strategies to interest students in joining and supporting the club. Implementation is forthcoming.
Your final art class project challenges you to conceptualize form in new ways. On the last day of class when students present their projects, you describe the techniques you used to fulfill the assignment. You explain why and how you selected that approach.
Your math teacher sees that the class is not quite grasping a concept. She uses clever questioning to dispel anxiety and guide you to new understanding of the concept.
You have a job interview for a position that you feel you are only partially qualified for, although you really want the job and you are excited about the prospects. You analyze how you will explain your skills and experiences in a way to show that you are a good match for the prospective employer.
You are doing well in college, and most of your college and living expenses are covered. But there are some gaps between what you want and what you feel you can afford. You analyze your income, savings, and budget to better calculate what you will need to stay in college and maintain your desired level of spending.

Evaluating Information

Evaluating information can be one of the most complex tasks you will be faced with in college. But if you utilize the following four strategies, you will be well on your way to success:

Read for understanding by using text coding
Examine arguments
Clarify thinking
Cultivate “habits of mind”

Examine Arguments

When you examine arguments or claims that an author, speaker, or other source is making, your goal is to identify and examine the hard facts. You can use the spectrum of authority strategy for this purpose. The spectrum of authority strategy assists you in identifying the “hot” end of an argument—feelings, beliefs, cultural influences, and societal influences—and the “cold” end of an argument—scientific influences.

Clarify Thinking

When you use critical thinking to evaluate information, you need to clarify your thinking to yourself and likely to others. Doing this well is mainly a process of asking and answering probing questions, such as the logic questions discussed earlier. Design your questions to fit your needs, but be sure to cover adequate ground. What is the purpose? What question are we trying to answer? What point of view is being expressed? What assumptions are we or others making? What are the facts and data we know, and how do we know them? What are the concepts we’re working with? What are the conclusions, and do they make sense? What are the implications?

Cultivate “Habits of Mind”

“Habits of mind” are the personal commitments, values, and standards you have about the principle of good thinking. Consider your intellectual commitments, values, and standards. Do you approach problems with an open mind, a respect for truth, and an inquiring attitude? Some good habits to have when thinking critically are being receptive to having your opinions changed, having respect for others, being independent and not accepting something is true until you’ve had the time to examine the available evidence, being fair-minded, having respect for a reason, having an inquiring mind, not making assumptions, and always, especially, questioning your own conclusions—in other words, developing an intellectual work ethic. Try to work these qualities into your daily life.

Developing Yourself as a Critical Thinker

Photo of a group of students standing around a poster on the wall, where they're adding post-it notes with handwriting on them

Critical thinking is a desire to seek, patience to doubt, fondness to meditate, slowness to assert, readiness to consider, carefulness to dispose and set in order; and hatred for every kind of imposture. —Francis Bacon, philosopher

Critical thinking is a fundamental skill for college students, but it should also be a lifelong pursuit. Below are additional strategies to develop yourself as a critical thinker in college and in everyday life:

Reflect and practice : Always reflect on what you’ve learned. Is it true all the time? How did you arrive at your conclusions?
Use wasted time : It’s certainly important to make time for relaxing, but if you find you are indulging in too much of a good thing, think about using your time more constructively. Determine when you do your best thinking and try to learn something new during that part of the day.
Redefine the way you see things : It can be very uninteresting to always think the same way. Challenge yourself to see familiar things in new ways. Put yourself in someone else’s shoes and consider things from a different angle or perspective. If you’re trying to solve a problem, list all your concerns: what you need in order to solve it, who can help, what some possible barriers might be, etc. It’s often possible to reframe a problem as an opportunity. Try to find a solution where there seems to be none.
Analyze the influences on your thinking and in your life : Why do you think or feel the way you do? Analyze your influences. Think about who in your life influences you. Do you feel or react a certain way because of social convention, or because you believe it is what is expected of you? Try to break out of any molds that may be constricting you.
Express yourself : Critical thinking also involves being able to express yourself clearly. Most important in expressing yourself clearly is stating one point at a time. You might be inclined to argue every thought, but you might have greater impact if you focus just on your main arguments. This will help others to follow your thinking clearly. For more abstract ideas, assume that your audience may not understand. Provide examples, analogies, or metaphors where you can.
Enhance your wellness : It’s easier to think critically when you take care of your mental and physical health. Try taking 10-minute activity breaks to reach 30 to 60 minutes of physical activity each day . Try taking a break between classes and walk to the coffee shop that’s farthest away. Scheduling physical activity into your day can help lower stress and increase mental alertness. Also, do your most difficult work when you have the most energy . Think about the time of day you are most effective and have the most energy. Plan to do your most difficult work during these times. And be sure to reach out for help . If you feel you need assistance with your mental or physical health, talk to a counselor or visit a doctor.

Key Takeaways

Critical thinking is a skill that will help speakers further develop their arguments and position their speech in a strong manner.

Critical thinking utilizes thought, plan, and action. Be sure to consider the research at-hand and develop an argument that is logical and connects to the audience.
It is important to conduct an audience analysis to understand the ways in which your research and argument will resonate with the group you are delivering your information to; you can strengthen your argument by accurately positioning your argument and yourself in within a diverse audience.
“Student Success-Thinking Critically In Class and Online.” Critical Thinking Gateway. St Petersburg College, n.d. Web. 16 Feb 2016. ↵

Public Speaking Copyright © by Dr. Layne Goodman; Amber Green, M.A.; and Various is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Critical Thinking and Reasoning

Critical thinking.

We are approaching a new age of synthesis. Knowledge cannot be merely a degree or a skill…it demands a broader vision, capabilities in critical thinking and logical deduction, without which we cannot have constructive progress. – Li Ka Shing

Critical thinking has been defined in numerous ways. At its most basic, we can think of critical thinking as active thinking in which we evaluate and analyze information in order to determine the best course of action. We will look at more expansive definitions of critical thinking and its components in the following pages.

Before we get there, though, let’s consider a hypothetical example of critical thinking in action.

Shonda was researching information for her upcoming persuasive speech. Her goal with the speech was to persuade her classmates to drink a glass of red wine every day. Her argument revolved around the health benefits one can derive from the antioxidants found in red wine. Shonda found an article reporting the results of a study conducted by a Dr. Gray. According to Dr. Gray’s study, drinking four or more glasses of wine a day will help reduce the chances of heart attack, increase levels of good cholesterol, and help in reducing unwanted fat. Without conducting further research, Shonda changed her speech to persuade her classmates to drink four or more glasses of red wine per day. She used Dr. Gray’s study as her primary support. Shonda presented her speech in class to waves of applause and support from her classmates. She was shocked when, a few weeks later, she received a grade of “D”. Shonda’s teacher had also found Dr. Gray’s study and learned it was sponsored by a multi-national distributor of wine. In fact, the study in question was published in a trade journal targeted to wine and alcohol retailers. If Shonda had taken a few extra minutes to critically examine the study, she may have been able to avoid the dreaded “D.”

Shonda’s story is just one of many ways that critical thinking impacts our lives. Throughout this chapter we will consider the importance of critical thinking in all areas of communication, especially public speaking. We will first take a more in-depth look at what critical thinking is—and isn’t.

Before we get too far into the specifics of what critical thinking is and how we can do it, it’s important to clear up a common misconception. Even though the phrase critical thinking uses the word “critical,” it is not a negative thing. Being critical is not the same thing as criticizing. When we criticize something, we point out the flaws and errors in it, exercising a negative value judgment on it. Our goal with criticizing is less about understanding than about negatively evaluating. It’s important to remember that critical thinking is not just criticizing. While the process may involve examining flaws and errors, it is much more.

Critical Thinking Defined

“John Dewey” by Eva Watson-Schütze. Public domain.

Just what is critical thinking then? To help us understand, let’s consider a common definition of critical thinking. The philosopher John Dewey, often considered the father of modern day critical thinking, defines critical thinking as:

“Active, persistent, careful consideration of a belief or supposed form of knowledge in light of the grounds that support it and the further conclusions to which it tends.” [1]

The first key component of Dewey’s definition is that critical thinking is active. Critical thinking must be done by choice. As we continue to delve deeper into the various facets of critical thinking, we will learn how to engage as critical thinkers.

Probably one of the most concise and easiest to understand definitions is that offered by Barry Beyer: “Critical thinking… means making reasoned judgments.” [2] In other words, we don’t just jump to a conclusion or a judgment. We rationalize and justify our conclusions. A second primary component of critical thinking, then, involves questioning. As critical thinkers, we need to question everything that confronts us. Equally important, we need to question ourselves and ask how our own biases or assumptions influence how we judge something.

In the following sections we will explore how to do critical thinking more in depth. As you read through this material, reflect back on Dewey’s and Beyer’s definitions of critical thinking.

Dewey, J. (1933). Experience and education . New York: Macmillan, 1933. ↵
Beyer, B. K. (1995) Critical thinking. Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation. ↵
Chapter 6 Critical Thinking. Authored by : Terri Russ, J.D., Ph.D.. Provided by : Saint Mary's College, Notre Dame, IN. Located at : http://publicspeakingproject.org/psvirtualtext.html . Project : The Public Speaking Project. License : CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
John Dewey in 1902. Authored by : Eva Watson-Schutze. Located at : http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:John_Dewey_in_1902.jpg . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright

1 Thinking about Public Speaking

What is Public Speaking?

In this chapter . . .

What’s your mental picture when you think about public speaking ? The President of the United States delivering an inaugural address? A sales representative seeking to persuade clients in a board room? Your minister, priest, or rabbi presenting a sermon at a worship service? Your professor lecturing? A dramatic courtroom scene? Politicians debating before an election? A comedian doing stand-up at a night club?

All of these and more are instances of public speaking. Public speaking takes many forms every day in our country and across the world.

Public Speaking vs. Everyday Conversation

What do we mean by “public speaking?” The most obvious answer is “talking in front of a group of people.” Public speaking is more formal than that. Public speaking is an organized, face-to-face, prepared, intentional (purposeful) attempt to inform, entertain, or persuade a group of people (usually five or more) through words, physical delivery, and (at times) visual or audio aids. In almost all cases, the speaker is the focus of attention for a specific amount of time. There still may be some back-and-forth interaction, such as questions and answers with the audience, but the speaker usually holds the responsibility to direct that interaction.

Although we communicate all the time, public speaking is bigger than everyday conversation. Public speaking is purposeful (to entertain, inform, or persuade your audience). Speeches are highly organized with certain formal elements (introduction and clear main points, for example). They are usually dependent on resources outside of your personal experience (research to support your ideas).

Unlike conversation, speech delivery is “enlarged” or “projected” as well—louder, more fluid, and more energetic, depending on the size and type of room in which you’re speaking—and you’ll be more conscious of the correctness and formality of your language. You might say, “That sucks” in a conversation but are less likely to do so in front of a large audience in certain situations. If you can keep in mind the basic principle that public speaking is formalized communication with an audience designed to achieve mutual understanding for mutual benefit (like a conversation), you’ll be able to relate to your audience on a human and personal level.

There is a cultural practice that achieves this same goal of communication: performance.

What is Performance?

There are multiple meanings of the word performance . The most common use of the word refers to a cultural event that is prepared for an audience. These are live events like theatre, dance, a circus, or a concert. We say, “I’m going to a theatre performance” or a “performance of a concert.” Related to this, performance also means the effort of the artist at these events. For example, we say the “actor performs,” or the “musician performs.”

Another common meaning of performance is achievement, as in how well one performs their job. We use phrases like “the student’s performance” or “that athlete performs well in competition.” This is performance as achievement or ability.

There’s yet another meaning that is interesting because it has a negative connotation: performance as something fake or presentational. In this sense, performing means a person isn’t authentic, not real, just playing a game, just acting.

Finally—and this is the definition that most applies to public speaking—we use performance to speak of how we present ourselves in the fulfillment of a designated social role. Shakespeare said, “All the world’s a stage and all the men and women merely players” ( As You Like It ). The idea is that on the stage of life, we are all actors. We should ask, therefore, what role are we playing? The answer is: many, many roles. Over the course of a few days or even just a single day, you play several roles. Starting in the morning, you’re showing yourself as a hard-working student in the classroom; over lunch you behave as a friend; you go to work and fulfill your role as a good employee; your parent call and you play the obedient child as you ask for gas money. As we circulate through these different social situations, we perform distinct roles. Taking it further, you can see that we perform not only social roles, but our very identity. Gender identity is one such performance.

Performance in Everyday Life

How did this broad concept of performance come about? In 1956, the Canadian sociologist Erving Goffman published a book called The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. The idea of how we present ourselves—perform ourselves—caught on for sociologists, psychologists, cultural anthropologists, and others who study theatre. Lived experience confirmed what felt like common sense: identity is flexible. How we think of ourselves changes with the situations we move through with other human beings.

There is an extension of this idea that is even more interesting. Namely, how we perform these roles isn’t original. Our performed behaviors are part of previously performed behaviors. Think about the way people behave at sporting events. There are special cheers and gestures, face painting, and chants. You couldn’t know how to perform at a sporting event unless these behaviors had been already performed, right? Put another way: each time a crowd gathers to enjoy the game, they are reenacting previously performed behaviors. Another example of this is a marriage ceremony. Marriage ceremonies rely on previously scripted behaviors. If you had a ceremony that was completely original, it wouldn’t be recognized by attendees as a marriage ceremony at all unless it contained some conventional elements.

If our stream of everyday performances is based on already-existing performances, how did we learn them? Did we study them? Obviously not. We learned them like we learned language: naturally and by example.

Public Speaker is a Social Role

This textbook is called Public Speaking as Performance to highlight the central idea that speaking in public is a social role that we perform upon invitation and under specific circumstances. Like all roles, this performance takes its instructions from previously performed examples.

Public speaking has reliable, repeatable behaviors. You know most of them already. How do speakers walk to the front of a room? How do they stand at a podium? What kinds of hand gestures do speakers typically use? These are common to the practice of public speaking. You’ve witnessed them throughout your life and already have the building blocks for that special type of role-playing we call public speaking.

The Communication Process

Human beings communicate with each other all the time and continually, but we don’t give much thought to exactly how it’s that we successfully get our messages across. How do we understand each other? Are we saying what we mean? How does one person speak to many? How does a speaker know they are being understood?

There are several fields of university research that study how communication works. Linguistics, for example, looks at how human languages function. Communication Studies examines a range of communication styles from small group interpersonal interactions to the communicative force of mass media. Departments of Philosophy, Classics, and Psychology each have their way of talking about the communication process. Artists in both the visual and performing arts also think about how they communicate with their audiences.

The Communication Studies Model

According to research in the field of Communication Studies, human communication aims to share meaning between two or more people. The process is composed of certain required elements:

Senders and receivers (people)
Outcome/result

In public speaking, it’s common to call one person (the speaker) the “ sender ” and the audience the “ receiver. ” In the real world, it’s not always as simple as that. Sometimes the speaker initiates the message, but other times the speaker is responding to the audience’s initiation. It’s enough to say that the sender and receiver exchange roles sometimes and both are as necessary as the other to the communication process.

Human communication takes place within a context , meaning the circumstances in which a speech happens. Context can have many levels, with several going on at the same time in any communication act.

Historical, or what has gone on between the sender(s) and receiver(s) before the speech. The historical elements can be positive or negative, recent, or further back in time.
Cultural, which sometimes refers to the country where someone was born and raised but can also include ethnic, racial, religious, and regional cultures or co-cultures.
Social, or what kind of relationship the sender(s) and receiver(s) are involved in, such as teacher-student, co-workers, employer-employee, or members of the same civic organization, faith, profession, or community.
Physical, which involves where the communication is taking place and the attributes of that location. The physical context can have cultural meaning (a famous shrine or monument) that influences the form and purpose of the communication, or attributes that influence audience attention (temperature, seating arrangements, or external noise).

Each one of these aspects of context bears upon how we behave as a communicator and specifically a public speaker.

Third, human communication of any kind involves a message . That message may be informal and spontaneous, such as small talk with a seatmate on a plane, conversing for no other reason than to have someone to talk to and be pleasant. On the other hand, it might be very formal, intentional, and planned, such as a commencement address.

Fourth, public speaking, like all communication, requires a channel . Channel is how the message gets from sender to receiver. In interpersonal human communication, we see each other and hear each other, in the same place and time. In mediated or mass communication, some sort of machine or technology (tool) comes between the people—phone, radio, television, printing press and paper, or computer.

The fifth element of human communication is feedback , which in public speaking is usually nonverbal, such as head movement, facial expressions, laughter, eye contact, posture, and other behaviors that we use to judge audience involvement, understanding, and approval. These types of feedback can be positive (nodding, sitting up, leaning forward, smiling) or less than positive (tapping fingers, fidgeting, lack of eye contact, checking devices).

The sixth element of human communication is noise , which might be considered any disruption that interrupts or interferes in the communication. Some amount of noise is almost always present due to the complexity of human behavior and context. Some categories of noise include:

something in the room or physical environment keeps them from attending to or understanding a message.
the receiver(s)’ health affects their understanding of the message, or the sender’s physical state affects her ability to be clear and have good delivery.
the receiver(s) or sender(s) have stress, anxiety, past experiences, personal concerns, or some other psychological issue that prevents the audience from receiving an intended message.

This brief list of three types of noise isn’t exhaustive, but it’s enough to point out that many things can “go wrong” in a public speaking situation. However, the reason for studying public speaking is to become aware of the potential for these limitations or noise factors, to determine if they could happen during your speech, and take care of them.

The final element of the communication process is outcome or result, which means a change in either the audience or the context. For example, if you ask an audience to consider becoming bone marrow donors, there are certain outcomes. They will either have more information about the subject and feel more informed; they will disagree with you; they will take in the information but not follow through with any action; or they will decide it’s a good idea to become a donor and go through the steps to do so.

Let’s apply this model of communication to the situation of public speaking. It looks like this:

The speaker is a sender within a specific speaking context , who originates and creates a structured message and sends it through the visual or oral channel using symbols and nonverbal means to the receivers who are the members of the audience. They provide (mostly nonverbal) feedback . The speaker and audience may or may not be aware of the types of interference or noise that exist, and the speaker may try to deal with them. As an outcome of public speaking, the audience’s minds, emotions, and/or actions are affected, and possibly the speaker’s as well.

Now that you understand one model of the process of human communication, let’s consider another model. This model comes from the kind of communication that we see in performances such as theatre.

The Theatrical Model of Communication

First, let’s remember the seven elements of communication you have already learned: senders and receivers, context, message, channel, noise, feedback, and outcome. It’s all rather technical, isn’t it? Senders and receivers sound like a cell tower. Message might make you think of sending a text. Channel is a word we use to talk about TV or radio—like a streaming channel. Noise and feedback are associated with sounds that machines make like a bad amplifier or a broken microphone.

Obviously, we’re not communication machines. Is there another model for the process of communication? Theatre performance is an alternative. The elements of theatrical communication are actors and audience, circumstances, story, stage, audience reaction, obstacles, and effect.

Theatrical Model vs. Communication Model

Instead of a metaphor in which speakers and listeners are like a cell tower sending and receiving messages, imagine instead that communication involves actors who tell stories and an audience who listens, hopefully in rapt attention. Even though actors may have something called stage fright, they work through it because they owe it to their audiences to tell the story. As for the audience, these are people who have come willingly to listen. The occasion matters to them. Probably they paid for a ticket. Maybe they dressed up for the occasion. It doesn’t matter how they came together, but it’s that special meeting, essential to the nature of being human, between those who have a story to tell and those who have come to listen.

Now, let’s look at the element of context. Context is akin to something that actors and directors call given circumstances . The given circumstances are everything that we know about the situation in which a story and the storytelling takes place. Every play has a unique set of given circumstances. When creating a theatre production, the entire team analyzes a script to understand all the elements of the world of the play.

Instead of message, think more broadly about the word meaning . When we ask, “what does that word mean?”, we are using one sense of that word. But when we say, “You mean so much to me,” then we are using the word in the sense of important or significant. Why would actors be speaking if they didn’t have something meaningful to say? Why would a playwright write a play if there wasn’t meaning in it? How could a theatre group expect audiences to buy tickets if not with the promise of meaning? Much more than a message, meaning reminds us that speaking and listening matter.

The stage could be thought of as a channel. When we talk about a stage, we usually mean a separate space, one that is different from the space of the audience. Sometimes it’s higher than the audience to make it easier to see, but that isn’t a requirement. Actors use the term taking stage to describe when a person has separated themselves from the group, implying, “Hey, look at me for a few minutes. I have something to say!” Taking stage is a very human and powerful thing to do.

In theatre, actors want to be understood. Actors pay close attention to audience reaction . Often, actors can’t see the audience because of the lights, so they must pay close attention to feedback like laughter and applause, but also to more subtle audience signals like coughing and moving. This feedback might change the energy of the actors, or cause them to speak louder, or to take more pauses for laughter. Actors and public speakers alike are in a dialogue with the audience.

What about those distractions called “noise”? In the theatre, we speak instead about obstacles . Obstacles refer to anything that stands in the way of a person fully communicating with another. Instead of seeing noise as something negative, actors understand that obstacles are the beating heart of drama. Drama wouldn’t exist without people struggling to communicate with each other!

Finally, there is effect . The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle believed that the effect of theatre was to allow an audience to experience strong emotions, so that they would be cleansed of these emotions when they emerged again into real life. In public speaking there are different goals, depending on the purpose of the speech. However, they are all connected to these questions: What is the effect we hope to have on our audience?

Both the theatrical model of communication and the communication studies model of communication have their advantages. In the theatrical model, we have people who want to speak and people who want to listen. We have circumstances that tell us who, what, where, why, and why we’re speaking. Theatre tells a story that is meaningful. In the theatre, actors take stage, even when they are frightened, as a way of saying “Look at me. I have something to say.” They establish a dialogue with the audience by listening to their reaction. Obstacles are inherent to the process of human interaction, but in the end, we hope we have an effect.

To conclude, you may find it productive to consider these lessons taken from what performers know about communication:

It all begins with the desire to speak and be heard.
The audience has made an effort to be there. Respect that effort.
Stories worth telling are stories that are meaningful.
Consider all the given circumstances.
Don’t be afraid to take the stage. It’s the only way to tell the story.
Communication isn’t guaranteed. There will be obstacles.
Performers are in dialogue with an audience. Communication is a two-way street.
Whether big or small, you can have your performance make a difference.

Why Practice Public Speaking?

Do you see yourself as a public speaker? And when you do, do you see yourself as confident, prepared, and effective? Or do you see a person who is nervous, unsure of what to say, and feeling as if they are failing to get their message across? You find yourself in this public speaking course and probably have mixed emotions. Public speaking instruction may have been part of your high school experience. Maybe you competed in debates or individual speaking events, or you have acted in plays. These activities can help you in this course, especially in terms of confidence and delivery. On the other hand, it might be that the only public speaking experience you have had felt like a failure and therefore left you embarrassed and wanting to forget it and stay far away from public speaking. This class isn’t something you have been looking forward to, and you may have put it off. Maybe your attitude is, “Let’s just get it over with.” These are understandable emotions because, as you have probably heard or read, polls indicate public speaking is one of the things people fear the most.

Benefits of Practicing Public Speaking

First, public speaking is one of the major communication skills desired by employers. Employers are frequently polled regarding the skills they most want employees to possess, and communication is almost always in the top three (Adams, 2014). Of course, “communication skills” is a broad term and involves several abilities such as team leadership, clear writing in business formats, conflict resolution, interviewing, and listening. However, public speaking is one of those sought-after skills, even in fields where the entry-level workers may not do much formal public speaking. Nurses give training presentations to parents of newborn babies; accountants advocate for new software in their organizations; managers lead team meetings.

If you’re taking this class at the beginning of your college career, you’ll benefit in your future classes from the research, organizational, and presentational skills learned here. First-year college students enter with many expectations of college life and learning that they need to “un-learn,” and one of those is the expectation that they will not have to give oral presentations in classes. However, that is wishful thinking. Different kinds of presentations will be common in your upcoming classes.

Another reason for taking a public speaking course is the harder-to-measure but valuable personal benefits. As an article on the USA Today College website states, a public speaking course can help you be a better, more informed, and critical listener; it can “encourage you to voice your ideas and take advantage of the influence you have;” and it gives you an opportunity to face a major fear you might have in a controlled environment (Massengale, 2014). Finally, the course can attune you to the power of public speaking to change the world. Presentations that lead to changes in laws, policies, leadership, and culture happen every day, all over the world.

To improve your public speaking, it’s useful to be conscious of what you notice about other public speakers. What particular traits make them effective? How can you emulate this? Even with less effective speakers, you can take note of pitfalls you want to avoid in your own speeches. Being able to critique other speeches makes it easier to critique your own performance. As you begin this journey of improving your public speaking, commit to being more aware of how people communicate and what you can learn from it. Below are some reflections that will help you get started.

Something to Think About

Who are some public speakers you admire? Why? (Don’t name deceased historical figures whom you have not heard personally or face-to-face.)
What behavior done by public speakers “drives you nuts,” that is, creates “noise” for you in listening to them?
When this class is over, what specific skills do you want to develop as a communicator?

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71 Critical Thinking

We are approaching a new age of synthesis. Knowledge cannot be merely a degree or a skill…it demands a broader vision, capabilities in critical thinking and logical deduction, without which we cannot have constructive progress. – Li Ka Shing

Before we get there, though, let’s consider a hypothetical example of critical thinking in action.

Critical Thinking Defined

“Active, persistent, careful consideration of a belief or supposed form of knowledge in light of the grounds that support it and the further conclusions to which it tends.” [1]

In the following sections we will explore how to do critical thinking more in depth. As you read through this material, reflect back on Dewey’s and Beyer’s definitions of critical thinking.

Dewey, J. (1933). Experience and education . New York: Macmillan, 1933. ↵
Beyer, B. K. (1995) Critical thinking. Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation. ↵

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46 Getting Started in Public Speaking

Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, the student will be able to:

Define public speaking, channel, feedback, noise, encode, decode, symbol, denotative, and connotative;
Explain what distinguishes public speaking from other modes of communication;
List the elements of the communication process;
Explain the origins of anxiety in public speaking;
Apply some strategies for dealing with personal anxiety about public speaking;
Discuss why public speaking is part of the curriculum at this college and important in personal and professional life.

Getting Started in Public Speaking

To finish this first chapter, let’s close with some foundational principles about public speaking, which apply no matter the context, audience, topic, or purpose.

Timing is everything

We often hear this about acting or humor. In this case, it has to do with keeping within the time limits. As mentioned before, you can only know that you are within time limits by practicing and timing yourself; being within time limits also shows preparation and forethought. More importantly, being on time (or early) for the presentation and within time limits shows respect for your audience.

Public speaking requires muscle memory

If you have ever learned a new sport, especially in your teen or adult years, you know that you must consciously put your body through some training to get it used to the physical activity of the sport. An example is golf. A golf swing, unlike swinging a baseball bat, is not a natural movement and requires a great deal of practice, over and over, to get right. Pick up any golf magazine and there will be at least one article on “perfecting the swing.” In fact, when done incorrectly, the swing can cause severe back and knee problems over time.

Public speaking is a physical activity as well. You are standing and sometimes moving around; your voice, eye contact, face, and hands are involved. You will expend physical energy, and after the speech you may be tired. Even more, your audience’s understanding and acceptance of your message may depend somewhat on how energetic, controlled, and fluid your physical delivery. Your credibility as a speaker hinges to some extent on these matters. Consequently, learning public speaking means you must train your body to be comfortable and move in predictable and effective ways.

Public speaking involves a content and relationship dimension

You may have heard the old saying, “People don’t care how much you know until they know how much you care.” According to Watzlawick, Beavin, and Jackson (1967), all human communication has two elements going on at the same time: content and relationship. There are statements about ideas, facts, and information, and there are messages communicated about the relationship between the communication partners, past and present. These relationship message have to do with trust, respect, and credibility, and are conveyed through evidence, appeals, wording (and what the speaker does not say) as well as nonverbal communication.

That said, public speaking is not a good way to provide a lot of facts and data to your audience. In fact, there are limits to how much information you can pile on your audience before listening is too difficult for them. However, public speaking is a good way to make the information meaningful for your audience. You can use a search engine with the term “Death by PowerPoint” and find lots of humorous, and too true, cartoons of audiences overwhelmed by charts, graphs, and slides full of text. In the case, less is more. This “less as more” principle will be re-emphasized throughout this textbook.

Emulation is the sincerest form of flattery

Learn from those who do public speaking well, but find what works best for you. Emulation is not imitation or copying someone; it is following a general model. Notice what other speakers do well in a speech and try to incorporate those strategies. An example is humor. Some of us excel at using humor, or some types of it. Some of us do not, or do not believe we do, no matter how hard we try. In that case, you may have to find other strengths to becoming an effective speaker.

Know your strengths and weaknesses

Reliable personality inventories, such as the Myers Briggs or the Gallup StrengthsQuest tests, can be helpful in knowing your strengths and weaknesses. One such area is whether you are an extravert or introvert. Introverts (about 40% of the population) get their psychological energy from being alone while extraverts tend to get it from being around others. This is a very basic distinction and there is more to the two categories, but you can see how an extravert may have an advantage with public speaking. However, the extravert may be tempted not to prepare and practice as much because he or she has so much fun in front of an audience, while the introvert may overprepare but still feel uncomfortable. Your public speaking abilities will benefit from increased self-awareness about such characteristics and your strengths. (For an online self-inventory about introversion and extraversion, go to http://www.quietrev.com/the-introvert-test/)

Remember the Power of Story

Stories and storytelling, in the form of anecdotes and narrative illustrations, are your most powerful tool as a public speaker. For better or worse, audiences are likely to remember anecdotes and narratives long after a speech’s statistics are forgotten.Your instructor may assign you to do a personal narrative speech, or require you to write an introduction or conclusion for one of your speeches that includes a story. This does not mean that other types of proof are unimportant and that you just want to tell stories in your speech, but human beings love stories and often will walk away from a speech moved by or remembering a powerful story or example more than anything.

This chapter has been designed to be informative but also serve as a bit of a pep talk. Many students face this course with trepidation, for various reasons. However, as studies have shown over the years, a certain amount of tension when preparing to speak in public can be good for motivation. A strong course in public speaking should be grounded in the communication research, the wisdom of those who have taught it over the last 2,000 years, and reflecting on your own experience.

John Dewey (1916), the twentieth century education scholar, is noted for saying, “Education does not come just from experience, but from reflecting on the experience.” As you finish this chapter and look toward your first presentation in class, be sure to give yourself time after the experience to reflect, whether by talking to another person, journaling, or sitting quietly and thinking, about how the experience can benefit the next speech encounter. Doing so will get you on the road to becoming more confident in this endeavor of public speaking.

Something to Think About

Investigate some other communication models on the Internet. What do they have in common? How are they different? Which ones seem to explain communication best to you?

Exploring Communication in the Real World Copyright © 2020 by Chris Miller is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Learning Objectives

Describe the stages of the listening process.
Discuss the four main types of listening.
Compare and contrast the four main listening styles.

Listening is the learned process of receiving, interpreting, recalling, evaluating, and responding to verbal and nonverbal messages. We begin to engage with the listening process long before we engage in any recognizable verbal or nonverbal communication. It is only after listening for months as infants that we begin to consciously practice our own forms of expression. In this section we will learn more about each stage of the listening process, the main types of listening, and the main listening styles.

The Listening Process

Listening is a process and as such doesn’t have a defined start and finish. Like the communication process, listening has cognitive, behavioral, and relational elements and doesn’t unfold in a linear, step-by-step fashion. Models of processes are informative in that they help us visualize specific components, but keep in mind that they do not capture the speed, overlapping nature, or overall complexity of the actual process in action. The stages of the listening process are receiving, interpreting, recalling, evaluating, and responding .

Before we can engage other steps in the listening process, we must take in stimuli through our senses. In any given communication encounter, it is likely that we will return to the receiving stage many times as we process incoming feedback and new messages. This part of the listening process is more physiological than other parts, which include cognitive and relational elements. We primarily take in information needed for listening through auditory and visual channels. Although we don’t often think about visual cues as a part of listening, they influence how we interpret messages. For example, seeing a person’s face when we hear their voice allows us to take in nonverbal cues from facial expressions and eye contact. The fact that these visual cues are missing in e-mail, text, and phone interactions presents some difficulties for reading contextual clues into meaning received through only auditory channels.

The first stage of the listening process is receiving stimuli through auditory and visual channels.

Britt Reints – LISTEN – CC BY 2.0.

Personal filters also play a role in listening. Some stimuli never make it in, some are filtered into subconsciousness, and others are filtered into various levels of consciousness based on their salience. Salience is the degree to which something attracts our attention in a particular context and we tend to find salient things that are visually or audibly stimulating and things that meet our needs or interests. Think about how it’s much easier to listen to a lecture on a subject that you find very interesting.

It is important to consider noise as a factor that influences how we receive messages. Some noise interferes primarily with hearing, which is the physical process of receiving stimuli through internal and external components of the ears and eyes, and some interferes with listening, which is the cognitive process of processing the stimuli taken in during hearing. While hearing leads to listening, they are not the same thing. Environmental noise such as other people talking, the sounds of traffic, and music interfere with the physiological aspects of hearing. Psychological noise like stress and anger interfere primarily with the cognitive processes of listening. We can enhance our ability to receive, and in turn listen, by trying to minimize noise.

Interpreting

During the interpreting stage of listening, we combine the visual and auditory information we receive and try to make meaning out of that information using schemata. The interpreting stage engages cognitive and relational processing as we take in informational, contextual, and relational cues and try to connect them in meaningful ways to previous experiences. It is through the interpreting stage that we may begin to understand the stimuli we have received. When we understand something, we are able to attach meaning by connecting information to previous experiences. Through the process of comparing new information with old information, we may also update or revise particular schemata if we find the new information relevant and credible. If we have difficulty interpreting information, meaning we don’t have previous experience or information in our existing schemata to make sense of it, then it is difficult to transfer the information into our long-term memory for later recall. In situations where understanding the information we receive isn’t important or isn’t a goal, this stage may be fairly short or even skipped. After all, we can move something to our long-term memory by repetition and then later recall it without ever having understood it. I remember earning perfect scores on exams in my anatomy class in college because I was able to memorize and recall, for example, all the organs in the digestive system. In fact, I might still be able to do that now over a decade later. But neither then nor now could I tell you the significance or function of most of those organs, meaning I didn’t really get to a level of understanding but simply stored the information for later recall.

Our ability to recall information is dependent on some of the physiological limits of how memory works. Overall, our memories are known to be fallible. We forget about half of what we hear immediately after hearing it, recall 35 percent after eight hours, and recall 20 percent after a day (Hargie, 2011). Our memory consists of multiple “storage units,” including sensory storage, short-term memory, working memory, and long-term memory (Hargie, 2011).

Our sensory storage is very large in terms of capacity but limited in terms of length of storage. We can hold large amounts of unsorted visual information but only for about a tenth of a second. By comparison, we can hold large amounts of unsorted auditory information for longer—up to four seconds. This initial memory storage unit doesn’t provide much use for our study of communication, as these large but quickly expiring chunks of sensory data are primarily used in reactionary and instinctual ways.

As stimuli are organized and interpreted, they make their way to short-term memory where they either expire and are forgotten or are transferred to long-term memory. Short-term memory is a mental storage capability that can retain stimuli for twenty seconds to one minute. Long-term memory is a mental storage capability to which stimuli in short-term memory can be transferred if they are connected to existing schema and in which information can be stored indefinitely (Hargie, 2011). Working memory is a temporarily accessed memory storage space that is activated during times of high cognitive demand. When using working memory, we can temporarily store information and process and use it at the same time. This is different from our typical memory function in that information usually has to make it to long-term memory before we can call it back up to apply to a current situation. People with good working memories are able to keep recent information in mind and process it and apply it to other incoming information. This can be very useful during high-stress situations. A person in control of a command center like the White House Situation Room should have a good working memory in order to take in, organize, evaluate, and then immediately use new information instead of having to wait for that information to make it to long-term memory and then be retrieved and used.

Although recall is an important part of the listening process, there isn’t a direct correlation between being good at recalling information and being a good listener. Some people have excellent memories and recall abilities and can tell you a very accurate story from many years earlier during a situation in which they should actually be listening and not showing off their recall abilities. Recall is an important part of the listening process because it is most often used to assess listening abilities and effectiveness. Many quizzes and tests in school are based on recall and are often used to assess how well students comprehended information presented in class, which is seen as an indication of how well they listened. When recall is our only goal, we excel at it. Experiments have found that people can memorize and later recall a set of faces and names with near 100 percent recall when sitting in a quiet lab and asked to do so. But throw in external noise, more visual stimuli, and multiple contextual influences, and we can’t remember the name of the person we were just introduced to one minute earlier. Even in interpersonal encounters, we rely on recall to test whether or not someone was listening. Imagine that Azam is talking to his friend Belle, who is sitting across from him in a restaurant booth. Azam, annoyed that Belle keeps checking her phone, stops and asks, “Are you listening?” Belle inevitably replies, “Yes,” since we rarely fess up to our poor listening habits, and Azam replies, “Well, what did I just say?”

When we evaluate something, we make judgments about its credibility, completeness, and worth. In terms of credibility, we try to determine the degree to which we believe a speaker’s statements are correct and/or true. In terms of completeness, we try to “read between the lines” and evaluate the message in relation to what we know about the topic or situation being discussed. We evaluate the worth of a message by making a value judgment about whether we think the message or idea is good/bad, right/wrong, or desirable/undesirable. All these aspects of evaluating require critical thinking skills, which we aren’t born with but must develop over time through our own personal and intellectual development.

Studying communication is a great way to build your critical thinking skills, because you learn much more about the taken-for-granted aspects of how communication works, which gives you tools to analyze and critique messages, senders, and contexts. Critical thinking and listening skills also help you take a more proactive role in the communication process rather than being a passive receiver of messages that may not be credible, complete, or worthwhile. One danger within the evaluation stage of listening is to focus your evaluative lenses more on the speaker than the message. This can quickly become a barrier to effective listening if we begin to prejudge a speaker based on his or her identity or characteristics rather than on the content of his or her message. We will learn more about how to avoid slipping into a person-centered rather than message-centered evaluative stance later in the chapter.

Responding entails sending verbal and nonverbal messages that indicate attentiveness and understanding or a lack thereof. From our earlier discussion of the communication model, you may be able to connect this part of the listening process to feedback. Later, we will learn more specifics about how to encode and decode the verbal and nonverbal cues sent during the responding stage, but we all know from experience some signs that indicate whether a person is paying attention and understanding a message or not.

We send verbal and nonverbal feedback while another person is talking and after they are done. Back-channel cues are the verbal and nonverbal signals we send while someone is talking and can consist of verbal cues like “uh-huh,” “oh,” and “right,” and/or nonverbal cues like direct eye contact, head nods, and leaning forward. Back-channel cues are generally a form of positive feedback that indicates others are actively listening. People also send cues intentionally and unintentionally that indicate they aren’t listening. If another person is looking away, fidgeting, texting, or turned away, we will likely interpret those responses negatively.

Listeners respond to speakers nonverbally during a message using back-channel cues and verbally after a message using paraphrasing and clarifying questions.

Duane Storey – Listening – CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.

Paraphrasing is a responding behavior that can also show that you understand what was communicated. When you paraphrase information, you rephrase the message into your own words. For example, you might say the following to start off a paraphrased response: “What I heard you say was…” or “It seems like you’re saying…” You can also ask clarifying questions to get more information. It is often a good idea to pair a paraphrase with a question to keep a conversation flowing. For example, you might pose the following paraphrase and question pair: “It seems like you believe you were treated unfairly. Is that right?” Or you might ask a standalone question like “What did your boss do that made you think he was ‘playing favorites?’” Make sure to paraphrase and/or ask questions once a person’s turn is over, because interrupting can also be interpreted as a sign of not listening. Paraphrasing is also a good tool to use in computer-mediated communication, especially since miscommunication can occur due to a lack of nonverbal and other contextual cues.

Listening Types

Listening serves many purposes, and different situations require different types of listening. The type of listening we engage in affects our communication and how others respond to us. For example, when we listen to empathize with others, our communication will likely be supportive and open, which will then lead the other person to feel “heard” and supported and hopefully view the interaction positively (Bodie & Villaume, 2003). The main types of listening we will discuss are discriminative, informational, critical, and empathetic (Watson, Barker, & Weaver III, 1995).

Discriminative Listening

Discriminative listening is a focused and usually instrumental type of listening that is primarily physiological and occurs mostly at the receiving stage of the listening process. Here we engage in listening to scan and monitor our surroundings in order to isolate particular auditory or visual stimuli. For example, we may focus our listening on a dark part of the yard while walking the dog at night to determine if the noise we just heard presents us with any danger. Or we may look for a particular nonverbal cue to let us know our conversational partner received our message (Hargie, 2011). In the absence of a hearing impairment, we have an innate and physiological ability to engage in discriminative listening. Although this is the most basic form of listening, it provides the foundation on which more intentional listening skills are built. This type of listening can be refined and honed. Think of how musicians, singers, and mechanics exercise specialized discriminative listening to isolate specific aural stimuli and how actors, detectives, and sculptors discriminate visual cues that allow them to analyze, make meaning from, or recreate nuanced behavior (Wolvin & Coakley, 1993).

Informational Listening

Informational listening entails listening with the goal of comprehending and retaining information. This type of listening is not evaluative and is common in teaching and learning contexts ranging from a student listening to an informative speech to an out-of-towner listening to directions to the nearest gas station. We also use informational listening when we listen to news reports, voice mail, and briefings at work. Since retention and recall are important components of informational listening, good concentration and memory skills are key. These also happen to be skills that many college students struggle with, at least in the first years of college, but will be expected to have mastered once they get into professional contexts. In many professional contexts, informational listening is important, especially when receiving instructions. I caution my students that they will be expected to process verbal instructions more frequently in their profession than they are in college. Most college professors provide detailed instructions and handouts with assignments so students can review them as needed, but many supervisors and managers will expect you to take the initiative to remember or record vital information. Additionally, many bosses are not as open to questions or requests to repeat themselves as professors are.

Critical Listening

Critical listening entails listening with the goal of analyzing or evaluating a message based on information presented verbally and information that can be inferred from context. A critical listener evaluates a message and accepts it, rejects it, or decides to withhold judgment and seek more information. As constant consumers of messages, we need to be able to assess the credibility of speakers and their messages and identify various persuasive appeals and faulty logic (known as fallacies), which you can learn more about in Chapter 4 “Informative and Persuasive Speaking” . Critical listening is important during persuasive exchanges, but I recommend always employing some degree of critical listening, because you may find yourself in a persuasive interaction that you thought was informative. Critical-listening skills are useful when listening to a persuasive speech in this class and when processing any of the persuasive media messages we receive daily. You can see judges employ critical listening, with varying degrees of competence, on talent competition shows like Rupaul’s Drag Race , America’s Got Talent , and The Voice . While the exchanges between judge and contestant on these shows is expected to be subjective and critical, critical listening is also important when listening to speakers that have stated or implied objectivity, such as parents, teachers, political leaders, doctors, and religious leaders. We will learn more about how to improve your critical thinking skills later in this chapter.

Empathetic Listening

We support others through empathetic listening by trying to “feel with” them.

Stewart Black – Comfort – CC BY 2.0.

Empathetic listening is the most challenging form of listening and occurs when we try to understand or experience what a speaker is thinking or feeling. Empathetic listening is distinct from sympathetic listening. While the word empathy means to “feel into” or “feel with” another person, sympathy means to “feel for” someone. Sympathy is generally more self-oriented and distant than empathy (Bruneau, 1993). Empathetic listening is other oriented and should be genuine. Because of our own centrality in our perceptual world, empathetic listening can be difficult. It’s often much easier for us to tell our own story or to give advice than it is to really listen to and empathize with someone else. We should keep in mind that sometimes others just need to be heard and our feedback isn’t actually desired.

Empathetic listening is key for dialogue and helps maintain interpersonal relationships. In order to reach dialogue, people must have a degree of open-mindedness and a commitment to civility that allows them to be empathetic while still allowing them to believe in and advocate for their own position. An excellent example of critical and empathetic listening in action is the international Truth and Reconciliation movement. The most well-known example of a Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) occurred in South Africa as a way to address the various conflicts that occurred during apartheid (Department of Justice and Constitutional Development, 2012). The first TRC in the United States occurred in Greensboro, North Carolina, as a means of processing the events and aftermath of November 3, 1979, when members of the Ku Klux Klan shot and killed five members of the Communist Worker’s Party during a daytime confrontation witnessed by news crews and many bystanders. The goal of such commissions is to allow people to tell their stories, share their perspectives in an open environment, and be listened to. The Greensboro TRC states its purpose as such: [1]

Listening Styles

Just as there are different types of listening, there are also different styles of listening. People may be categorized as one or more of the following listeners: people-oriented, action-oriented, content-oriented, and time-oriented listeners. Research finds that 40 percent of people have more than one preferred listening style, and that they choose a style based on the listening situation (Bodie & Villaume, 2003). Other research finds that people often still revert back to a single preferred style in times of emotional or cognitive stress, even if they know a different style of listening would be better (Worthington, 2003). Following a brief overview of each listening style, we will explore some of their applications, strengths, and weaknesses.

People-oriented listeners are concerned about the needs and feelings of others and may get distracted from a specific task or the content of a message in order to address feelings.
Action-oriented listeners prefer well-organized, precise, and accurate information. They can become frustrated with they perceive communication to be unorganized or inconsistent, or a speaker to be “long-winded.”
Content-oriented listeners are analytic and enjoy processing complex messages. They like in-depth information and like to learn about multiple sides of a topic or hear multiple perspectives on an issue. Their thoroughness can be difficult to manage if there are time constraints.
Time-oriented listeners are concerned with completing tasks and achieving goals. They do not like information perceived as irrelevant and like to stick to a timeline. They may cut people off and make quick decisions (taking short cuts or cutting corners) when they think they have enough information.

People-Oriented Listeners

People-oriented listeners are concerned about the emotional states of others and listen with the purpose of offering support in interpersonal relationships. People-oriented listeners can be characterized as “supporters” who are caring and understanding. These listeners are sought out because they are known as people who will “lend an ear.” They may or may not be valued for the advice they give, but all people often want is a good listener. This type of listening may be especially valuable in interpersonal communication involving emotional exchanges, as a person-oriented listener can create a space where people can make themselves vulnerable without fear of being cut off or judged. People-oriented listeners are likely skilled empathetic listeners and may find success in supportive fields like counseling, social work, or nursing. Interestingly, such fields are typically feminized, in that people often associate the characteristics of people-oriented listeners with roles filled by women. We will learn more about how gender and listening intersect in Section 5 “Listening and Gender” .

Action-Oriented Listeners

Action-oriented listeners focus on what action needs to take place in regards to a received message and try to formulate an organized way to initiate that action. These listeners are frustrated by disorganization, because it detracts from the possibility of actually doing something. Action-oriented listeners can be thought of as “builders”—like an engineer, a construction site foreperson, or a skilled project manager. This style of listening can be very effective when a task needs to be completed under time, budgetary, or other logistical constraints. One research study found that people prefer an action-oriented style of listening in instructional contexts (Imhof, 2004). In other situations, such as interpersonal communication, action-oriented listeners may not actually be very interested in listening, instead taking a “What do you want me to do?” approach. A friend and colleague of mine who exhibits some qualities of an action-oriented listener once told me about an encounter she had with a close friend who had a stillborn baby. My friend said she immediately went into “action mode.” Although it was difficult for her to connect with her friend at an emotional/empathetic level, she was able to use her action-oriented approach to help out in other ways as she helped make funeral arrangements, coordinated with other family and friends, and handled the details that accompanied this tragic emotional experience. As you can see from this example, the action-oriented listening style often contrasts with the people-oriented listening style.

Content-Oriented Listeners

Content-oriented listeners like to listen to complex information and evaluate the content of a message, often from multiple perspectives, before drawing conclusions. These listeners can be thought of as “learners,” and they also ask questions to solicit more information to fill out their understanding of an issue. Content-oriented listeners often enjoy high perceived credibility because of their thorough, balanced, and objective approach to engaging with information. Content-oriented listeners are likely skilled informational and critical listeners and may find success in academic careers in the humanities, social sciences, or sciences. Ideally, judges and politicians would also possess these characteristics.

Time-Oriented Listeners

Time-oriented listeners are more concerned about time limits and timelines than they are with the content or senders of a message. These listeners can be thought of as “executives,” and they tend to actually verbalize the time constraints under which they are operating.

Time-oriented listeners listen on a schedule, often giving people limits on their availability by saying, for example, “I only have about five minutes.”

JD Lasica – Business call – CC BY-NC 2.0.

For example, a time-oriented supervisor may say the following to an employee who has just entered his office and asked to talk: “Sure, I can talk, but I only have about five minutes.” These listeners may also exhibit nonverbal cues that indicate time and/or attention shortages, such as looking at a clock, avoiding eye contact, or nonverbally trying to close down an interaction. Time-oriented listeners are also more likely to interrupt others, which may make them seem insensitive to emotional/personal needs. People often get action-oriented and time-oriented listeners confused. Action-oriented listeners would be happy to get to a conclusion or decision quickly if they perceive that they are acting on well-organized and accurate information. They would, however, not mind taking longer to reach a conclusion when dealing with a complex topic, and they would delay making a decision if the information presented to them didn’t meet their standards of organization. Unlike time-oriented listeners, action-oriented listeners are not as likely to cut people off (especially if people are presenting relevant information) and are not as likely to take short cuts.

Key Takeaways

Getting integrated: Listening is a learned process and skill that we can improve on with concerted effort. Improving our listening skills can benefit us in academic, professional, personal, and civic contexts.
Listening is the process of receiving, interpreting, recalling, evaluating, and responding to verbal and nonverbal messages. In the receiving stage, we select and attend to various stimuli based on salience. We then interpret auditory and visual stimuli in order to make meaning out of them based on our existing schemata. Short-term and long-term memory store stimuli until they are discarded or processed for later recall. We then evaluate the credibility, completeness, and worth of a message before responding with verbal and nonverbal signals.
Discriminative listening is the most basic form of listening, and we use it to distinguish between and focus on specific sounds. We use informational listening to try to comprehend and retain information. Through critical listening, we analyze and evaluate messages at various levels. We use empathetic listening to try to understand or experience what a speaker is feeling.
People-oriented listeners are concerned with others’ needs and feelings, which may distract from a task or the content of a message. Action-oriented listeners prefer listening to well-organized and precise information and are more concerned about solving an issue than they are about supporting the speaker. Content-oriented listeners enjoy processing complicated information and are typically viewed as credible because they view an issue from multiple perspectives before making a decision. Although content-oriented listeners may not be very effective in situations with time constraints, time-oriented listeners are fixated on time limits and listen in limited segments regardless of the complexity of the information or the emotions involved, which can make them appear cold and distant to some.
The recalling stage of the listening process is a place where many people experience difficulties. What techniques do you use or could you use to improve your recall of certain information such as people’s names, key concepts from your classes, or instructions or directions given verbally?
Getting integrated: Identify how critical listening might be useful for you in each of the following contexts: academic, professional, personal, and civic.
Listening scholars have noted that empathetic listening is the most difficult type of listening. Do you agree? Why or why not?
Which style of listening best describes you and why? Which style do you have the most difficulty with or like the least and why?

Bodie, G. D. and William A. Villaume, “Aspects of Receiving Information: The Relationships between Listening Preferences, Communication Apprehension, Receiver Apprehension, and Communicator Style,” International Journal of Listening 17, no. 1 (2003): 48.

Bruneau, T., “Empathy and Listening,” in Perspectives on Listening , eds. Andrew D. Wolvin and Carolyn Gwynn Coakley (Norwood, NJ: Alex Publishing Corporation, 1993), 188.

Department of Justice and Constitutional Development, Truth and Reconciliation Commission website, accessed July 13, 2012, http://www.justice.gov.za/trc .

DiSalvo, V. S. “A Summary of Current Research Identifying Communication Skills in Various Organizational Contexts,” Communication Education 29 (1980), 283–90.

Hargie, O., Skilled Interpersonal Interaction: Research, Theory, and Practice (London: Routledge, 2011), 189–99.

Imhof, M., “Who Are We as We Listen? Individual Listening Profiles in Varying Contexts,” International Journal of Listening 18, no. 1 (2004): 39.

Milardo, R. M. and Heather Helms-Erikson, “Network Overlap and Third-Party Influence in Close Relationships,” in Close Relationships: A Sourcebook , eds. Clyde Hendrick and Susan S. Hendrick (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2000), 37.

National Association of Colleges and Employers, Job Outlook 2011 (2010): 25.

Watson, K. W., Larry L. Barker, and James B. Weaver III, “The Listening Styles Profile (LS-16): Development and Validation of an Instrument to Assess Four Listening Styles,” International Journal of Listening 9 (1995): 1–13.

Wolvin, A. D. and Carolyn Gwynn Coakley, “A Listening Taxonomy,” in Perspectives on Listening , eds. Andrew D. Wolvin and Carolyn Gwynn Coakley (Norwood, NJ: Alex Publishing Corporation, 1993), 18–19.

Worthington, D. L., “Exploring the Relationship between Listening Style Preference and Personality,” International Journal of Listening 17, no. 1 (2003): 82.

Zabava, W. S. and Andrew D. Wolvin, “The Differential Impact of a Basic Communication Course on Perceived Communication Competencies in Class, Work, and Social Contexts,” Communication Education 42 (1993): 215–17.

“About,” Greensboro Truth and Reconciliation Commission website, accessed July 13, 2012, http://www.greensborotrc.org/truth_reconciliation.php . ↵

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v.8(7); 2022 Jul

The effect of online learning in modern history education

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Interactive digital technologies have become relevant in modern education. The use of these technologies in the classroom contributes to the development of professional competencies and skills. The purpose of the study is to analyze the effectiveness of interactive learning environments and online platforms in learning history. The features of modern online learning platforms and the possibilities of their use in the study of history have been analyzed. The research was carried out at the Department of National History of Moscow City University (Moscow, the Russian Federation). The experiment involved 623 history students of different years of study of the following training profiles: "History" (124 students of 1–4 years of study) and "Pedagogical education" ("History and a foreign language", "History and social studies" – 399 students of 1–5 years of study). Also, the survey was addressed to 29 faculty members from the university under consideration. The results of the first survey show that the majority of students (62%) noted the use of traditional methods and 38% of respondents indicated the use of the modern ones. The majority of students (52%) also answered that digital tools are rarely used in the study of history while 71% of respondents reported that digital technology affects their motivation to learn. Therefore, the majority of students rated their level of motivation as average (43%) or low (47%). The most frequent professional competencies and skills are “technical competence (modern technologies)” (62%), “creativity” (65%), “critical thinking” (60%), “strategic thinking” (55%), and “practical skills” (78%). Based on the results obtained in the first survey, a program was developed to increase the motivation of students to study history and archeology, as well as to familiarize themselves with modern educational technologies that can be used in the learning process. The second survey showed an increase in the indicators of students' motivation to learn, which indicates the effectiveness of the developed program for the study of history. The majority of students (85%) answered that digital tools affect their motivation to learn. Thus, they rated it as medium (50%), high (20%) and low (30%). Accordingly, the indicators of professional competencies and skills increased by 10%: “technical competence (modern technologies)” (72%), “creativity” (75%), “critical thinking” (71%), “strategic thinking” (65%), and “practical skills” (88%). No less significant were the shifts in students’ creative thinking development indicators – they changed from 18% (before the experiment) to 58% (after the experiment). The practical significance and prospects for further research are explained by the possibility of using the developed program for the study of history in other universities located in different countries. Also, the methodological basis of the proposed program can be used to study not only history but also other subjects as digital technologies are relevant in the modern education system.

Digital technologies; Education system; History; Interactive learning environments; Online platforms.

1. Introduction

Modern education is shifting to the use of innovative technologies under the influence of the rapid development of science and technology. The pandemic has made significant adjustments to the educational process ( Raju et al., 2021 ; Zhou et al., 2020 ). Distance learning requires educators to develop new methodological approaches, including interactive learning environments, online platforms, mobile apps, etc. ( Cicha et al., 2021 ; Kamal et al., 2021 ).

In modern history education, digital tools are actively used to conduct a variety of studies ( Edelstein et al., 2017 ). Digital technology provides historians with quick access to the sources they need as the archives are digitized and presented on the websites of libraries or online learning platforms ( Chouchene, 2019 ). Based on digital information technologies, new methods are being developed for the analysis of historical data (digitization of materials, 3D visualization) and the study of history ( Li and Jing, 2020 ). A similar study on the role of digital documents was carried out in Poland ( Hiarnovich, 2020 ). At the same time, it should be noted that many historical works have not been digitized, which makes it difficult for historians to work in the context of the pandemic as there is no access to libraries. Thus, the problem of digital archives remains relevant.

Digital archives with photographs and documents make it possible to use them as visualizations in history classes thus attracting the attention of students and increasing their motivation to learn ( Zaagsma and Wieneke, 2018 ). The impact of visualization and interactive technologies on the motivation of students to study history is analyzed while academic performance and perception of distance learning are also increased ( Nam, 2017 ).

In the course of the pandemic, online learning was introduced through virtual classrooms, mobile applications, online learning platforms or special software. In the context of online learning, the possibility of using artificial intelligence and virtual classrooms is being considered; these can replace teachers and regular classrooms in higher education ( Ikedinachi et al., 2019 ).

History teaching has been transformed by the digitalization and informatization of society ( Crymble, 2021 ). The effectiveness of the study of any subject, in particular history, depends on the methods used by teachers. Accordingly, traditional methods that were used in teaching history before (reading paragraphs, taking notes, memorizing dates, using printed maps or atlases) have become obsolete and ineffective today. The use of old methodological approaches indicates that teachers are not ready to actively use modern interactive technologies ( Pongsakdi et al., 2021 ). Due to the fact that one of the current methods is practice-based learning, it is effective to use modern interactive technologies to study history ( Epstein and Salinas, 2018 ).

1.1. Literature review

Today teaching various subjects, in particular history, in the context of higher education is accompanied by the application of interactive digital tools in order to visualize theoretical material ( Yildirim et al., 2018 ). For example, researchers from the Netherlands have proposed the use of a macroscopic scale to explore historical data with the help of digital tools ( Hoekstra and Koolen, 2019 ). The feature of this tool is the ability to explore a large amount of historical information. A gyroscopic instrument based on a 3D digital model has been developed in Germany ( Niklaus et al., 2019 ). Such models can be used in augmented and virtual reality. A similar study was carried out in Slovakia based on the research of historical mountain objects with the help of 3D visualization ( Pavolová et al., 2019 ).

Interactive learning environments and online platforms are one of the most effective learning methods in the modern world ( Borba et al., 2018 ; Ismailova and Ergashev, 2019 ). Modern online platforms make it possible to study any subject due to their rich functionality ( Ijaz et al., 2017 ). All online learning platforms are characterized by different directions. However, most modern online educational platforms are universal, so they can be used to study the history of any period. For example, the online learning platform Coursera hosts various courses taught by the representatives of foreign universities ( Korableva et al., 2019 ). At the same time, the advantage is that many courses are in English, which contributes to the development of linguistic and communicative competencies. This online educational platform can be used to study history, as it provides courses to study the history of different periods and countries, which teachers can use as supporting material for the study of history.

The online platform Udemy is aimed at the development of various courses, which make it possible to improve not only professional competencies but also increase general skills, which indicates the use of a student-centered teaching approach ( Hooshyar et al., 2019 ). The advantage of this platform is its special features that allow history teachers to conduct online classes about different historical events, demonstrate audio and video recordings, as well as design tests and deliver them to students.

In the context of art, there is Skillshare platform that is primarily focused on the development of creativity and lateral thinking ( Arya et al., 2021 ). The platform contains films, video tutorials, and animation that can be used in history lessons as an additional type of visualization of theoretical material. There is also a similar online platform – MasterClass – which offers courses for developing professional skills related to various art topics. The advantage of both platforms is a wide range of interactive materials that are focused on practice and contribute to the development of practical skills and competencies.

On the other hand, researchers from the UK and Columbia point to a new era of “digital” history, which can break the ground in science through the use of online tools for studying historical facts. For instance, they note that even in wealthy Western countries, social barriers and inflated expectations of history students may disappear due to the intensified use of computers and other digital tools by their educators. Scholars also indicate that digitalization provides every student with free access to information: one can virtually visit a history museum in another part of the world or read ancient manuscripts that are available online ( Crymble and Afanador-Llach, 2021 ).

A study conducted in the United States showed the effectiveness of the educational platform "EdX", which contains a lot of courses in the humanities, language studies, and the arts ( Shih et al., 2015 ). The advantage is the use of the STEM approach, which promotes the development of interdisciplinary areas and thus contributes to the development of professional competencies in several areas of knowledge at the same time.

The online platform "Khan Academy" is focused on the practical application of the theoretical knowledge gained as it contains exercises and videos demonstrating theory ( Rueda and Rey, 2018 ). The advantage is the ability to practice and visualize theoretical material about history. The disadvantage is the impossibility of conducting online classes on the platform as users can only download and use ready-made materials.

The TED platform contains many video lectures on various topics, which can be used not only in teaching, but also for general development ( Özmen and Yucel, 2019 ). This allows students to develop not only professional competencies but also personal skills. In addition, the online platform is in English, which contributes to the study of subjects in English and the development of communicative competence. Mit Open CourseWare is another platform that provides video content to be used in the educational process as additional tools for the theoretical material visualization about history.

Google Classroom is an interactive learning environment that allows users to create a virtual classroom that can be accessed by the teacher and students studying a specific subject ( Fitriningtiyas et al., 2019 ). On the platform, the teacher can share lectures about history, video or audio recordings about different historical events, as well as develop tests or other assessment assignments. In line with this, students get an e-mail notification about the task and the deadline for its completion; they upload their assignments and can see the assessments received. The disadvantage is the impossibility of conducting online classes.

"WizIQ" is a virtual classroom, which enables educators to design their online courses in a specific subject ( Ahmed and Osman, 2020 ). The advantage is the interactive platform format, which facilitates the visualization of theory about history in the form of courses created by the teacher, which allows students to watch video lectures several times at any time.

The Interactive Learning Environments group, represented by Zoom, Skype, Google Meet, etc., makes it possible to implement distance learning ( Demir et al., 2020 ). The advantage of these programs is online lessons can be delivered on the platforms. In addition, screen sharing functionality allows teachers and students to show presentations, video or audio recordings, which contributes to the visualization of theoretical material.

The study of the digitalization of education in Russia is quite relevant in terms of analyzing the primary students' interaction with digital content. Research ( Gairbekova, 2021 ) shows that the basic opportunities for Russian students to access online learning are rather poor. For example, the Russian population is not adequately provided with the Internet, and no significant positive shifts in this respect were noted during the period under consideration. On the other hand, such a situation makes the community view the need for an effective education transformation from a new angle. According to educators, the distance education process often implies low academic performance (as handout materials are more perception-friendly), loss of students' ability to create and show initiative, fear of public speaking, formal attitude to the tasks performed, harmful effect of computer on mental and physical health, sense of false competence (when information access is equated to competence mastery), and weak socialization ( Orishev et al., 2020 ). Therefore, the study of history should be detailed and take into account the characteristic aspects of Russian higher education system.

The purpose of this study is to investigate the effectiveness of interactive learning environments and online platforms in learning history. The objectives of the research are as follows: on the basis of a survey, to reveal the level of university involvement in digital technologies and the level of students' motivation to study history; to develop a program with the use of digital technologies; on the basis of a repeated survey, to reveal the effectiveness of the developed program and its effect on the indicators of students' motivation to study history.

2. Methods and materials

2.1. research design.

The study relied on the experimental method in order to conduct two surveys before and after studying the developed program to indicate the level of university involvement and the level of students' motivation to study history. In addition, a modeling method was used when developing a program to increase the level of students' motivation to learn through the use of modern digital technologies.

2.2. Sample

The research was carried out at the Department of National History of Moscow City University (Moscow, the Russian Federation). A total of 623 students took part in the experiment: 124 students of 1–4 years of study of the "History" profile and 499 students of 1–5 years of study of the "Pedagogical education" profile. The main criteria for the selection of students were to indicate the year of study and specialty ( Table 1 ). Concurrently, age and gender characteristics were not taken into account. Students of other training profiles did not participate in the experiment. Along with the student respondents, the survey process also involved faculty of the same department. Their initial sample encompassed 29 people.

Table 1

Student sample characteristics.

2.3. Survey

There were 5 research stages. During the first stage, a survey was conducted. All students were sent a Google form with the following questions: “Which methods of studying history are used in your educational institution: traditional or modern ones?”, “Are digital tools used in the classroom to study history?”, “Does the use of digital tools affect your motivation to study history?”, “Assess your level of motivation to learn: high, average, low”, “What professional competencies and skills develop when using digital tools?”, “Is it necessary to introduce modern digital technologies into the educational process?”. There were no time limits to answer the questions ( Figure 1 ).

The structure of the training program with the use of digital technologies.

The training program consisted of a thematic module "Digital technologies in the study of history" divided into classes aimed at the acquaintance with digital technologies, increasing motivation to learn and improving the level of knowledge of history ( Table 2 ). To study the developed program, the students needed a computer and headphones to view the educational materials and videos or access the educational platforms. The implemented digital program allowed students to view images (videos) and was part of the tasks given. For example, after reading the relevant materials, students had to find common and distinctive features of two historical processes within the study of a topic. The human resources involved in the learning process are the students who participated in the experiment and the teachers of the university where the experiment was conducted. All classes took place in special university classrooms; for the sake of convenience, the students were divided into several groups of 15–20 people. The training course duration was 1 month. The materials to familiarize students with digital technologies and the peculiarities of their application in the study of history were selected for the course. The modern historical period of world history development was chosen to study history, so the topics of the program were devoted to the study of various aspects of the history of different countries, with an emphasis on Russian history. The program focused on the global (recent) history section of the international relations of the Russian Federation and covered the following topics: “The Modern Stage of International Relations,” “The Collapse of the Bipolar System of International Relations,” “The Collapse of the USSR and the Changes in the Global Balance of Power,” “Changes in Foreign Policy of the US, China, Europe, and Arab countries,” “Regional and Global Politics in the 1990s,” “International Terrorism,” “International Relations in the 21st Century and Global Politics,” “Global Problems of Humankind,” and “Russian Foreign Policy and its Place in International Relations.” History books (“Mastering Modern World History” ( Lowe, 2013 ); “Princeton Review AP World History: Modern Premium Prep” ( Princeton Review, 2020 ), and “History of International Relations: A Non-European Perspective” ( Ringmar, 2019 )) were also selected as the course focused on the study of history and the use of digital technologies in the study of history. The program provides a high level of visualization of the material for students – in addition to the text, respondents have the opportunity to perceive the accompanying audio, media, and graphic materials on the topic.

Table 2

The third stage involved teaching students of the Department of National History (Moscow City University, the Russian Federation) in accordance with the developed program. The developed training program was uploaded on the Moodle platform. The teachers and all students received access to the course. To get acquainted with the training program and view all its components, it was necessary to sign in with a Google account; everyone was sent an invitation to join the course and an access code by e-mail. To enter the system, each teacher or student had to enter their e-mail address and the access code. The platform page contained the program, the materials and links to all websites for the acquaintance with digital technologies or downloading the applications needed for training.

During the fourth stage, a repeated survey was conducted in order to identify the effectiveness of training in accordance with the developed program. The procedure was the same as for the first survey. However, the questions related to the motivation of students to learn were selected for the experiment: “Does the use of digital tools affect the level of your motivation to study history?”, “Assess your level of motivation to learn: high, average, low,” “What professional competencies and skills develop when using digital tools?”.

Students’ creative thinking was checked both before and after the implementation of the program. For this purpose, Williams’ “cube” model for students’ creative thinking testing was used ( Williams, 1979 ).

The survey of the course teachers as equal subjects using digital educational tools was carried out in the form of in-depth interviews. As the number of teachers was optimal for processing their results individually, about 10–15 min were allocated for the conversation with each of them. The questions posed were standard and structured, e.g., “Would the system of teaching historical subjects improve with the help of online platforms?”, “Were you comfortable working with students with the help of online platforms?”, “Would the digitalization of teaching students affect their creative thinking levels?”

The next step was to test the impact of the program used on students' academic performance. Specifically, weighted student module control results were compared before and after digital tools' implementation. While the first module test included topics studied before the implementation of the program, the second one incorporated the set of topics covered online directly via the platform.

2.4. Statistical processing

The respondents' responses were processed in Statistica and Microsoft Excel and separate diagrams reflecting each question indicators were created.

2.5. Research limitations

The limitations of the study are associated with a small sample as the experiment involved only one university (the Department of National History, Moscow City University, Moscow, the Russian Federation); other universities in different countries were not studied.

2.6. Ethical issues

The authors declare that the work is written with due consideration of ethical standards. The study was conducted in accordance with the ethical principles approved by the Ethics Committee of Moscow City University (Protocol № 9 of 15.09.2020). The experiment was carried out in compliance with all ethical standards and anonymity; there were no requirements to provide confidential information (name, surname or place of residence, etc.). The respondents gave their written consent for the conduct of the research and data processing. One of the requirements was to indicate the year of study at the time of the experiment.

Figure 2 shows the respondents' answers to the question “What methods of studying history are used in your educational institution?” The majority of students (62%) noted the use of traditional methods and 38% of respondents indicated the use of the modern ones. Simultaneously, it should be noted that traditional training supporters were overwhelmingly women – 69%; most males preferred digital applications in education. These indicators demonstrate the poor level of development of technical competence and digital skills, which need to be introduced into the educational process. Factors that have influenced such figures may be teachers' use of traditional teaching methods based on paragraph reading, memorization and mechanical reproduction of teaching material, as well as low level of technical competence of teachers, unwillingness to use modern digital technologies in teaching and learning, to involve students in modern teaching methods and teaching approaches.

The respondents' answers to the question "What methods of studying history are used in your educational institution?"

The majority of students (52%) noted that digital tools for the study of history are rarely used in the classroom. At the same time, 30% said that digital tools are not used in history learning and only 18% reported their use in the classroom, which indicates a poor level of knowledge about modern digital technologies and the peculiarities of their application in the classroom to study history. Since the vast majority of students reported a low level of history education digitalization, this field has considerable room for further improvement. On the other hand, students noted that the prevailing part of digital material deals with key historical facts (e.g., World War II), whereas less significant dates are omitted in these terms. The reason for this is primarily the poor availability of the literature dedicated to less popular topics in the foothold of Russian studies.

Also, 71% of respondents noted that the use of digital tools affects their motivation to study history, 19% of students found it difficult to answer the question and 10% said that digital technology use does not affect their motivation for learning history. As the share of those who did not catch a motivational impulse from using digital learning tools (10%) is too small compared to individuals recognizing the benefit (71%), a suggestion can be made on the possible fruitfulness of creating a digitalized mechanism encouraging humanities study. At the same time, such results might be influenced by globalization, IT spread in education, the global coronavirus pandemic, and the overall effect of the digital society.

The students assessed their motivation to study history as average (43%), low (47%), and high (10%). Such indicators indicate the average level of motivation of students to study history. Factors that have influenced such numerical indicators may be students' lack of interest in teaching in general, teachers' use of outdated teaching methods and uninteresting presentation of educational material to students, limited use of modern teaching methods and digital technologies.

An interesting gradation of the motivational aspect was found in terms of age (respondents' academic year). First of all, it was unveiled that junior students were more motivated to study history using apps (true for almost 90%). Secondly, the overall level of motivation was noted to decrease significantly with the university year – from 78% in the 1st to 43% in the 5th year of study. These two outcomes can be caused by many factors: professional reorientation of seniors, digitalization of the youth, or more active use of digital apps in recent times.

It is worth noting that before the program was implemented, about 47% of history students were characterized by an average level of creative thinking development, while a high level of divergent thinking was inherent to less than one-fifth of them. This fact signifies an excellent potential for creative thinking as one of the key competencies in the considered field of study to be developed via education digitalization.

Figure 3 shows the respondents' answers to the question "What professional competencies and skills develop when using digital tools?" before and after the training course. Before the training course, the most frequent answers were “technical competence (modern technologies)” (62%), “creativity” (65%), “critical thinking” (60%), “strategic thinking” (55%), and “practical skills" (78%). After the course completion, the indicators of professional competencies and skills were as follows: “technical competence (modern technologies)” (72%), “creativity” (75%), “critical thinking” (71%), “strategic thinking” (65%), and “practical skills” (88%). At the same time, in comparison with the first survey, the indicators increased by 10%. Such results indicate the need to extend the implemented course in order to obtain larger-scale shifts in the competencies mentioned. Quite interesting here is that “technical competence (modern technologies)” and “creativity,” the elements with the most advanced indicators, are closely interconnected within the analyzed historical course and were the subject of improvement among the students.

The respondents' answers to the question "What professional competencies and skills develop when using digital tools?" before and after the training course.

With that being said, almost all students (95%) agitated for the introduction of digital technologies in their educational process, considering it an integral part of the evolution of Russian higher education. Only 5% of the surveyed learners did not feel a particular need for it, which, however, is quite a small share. Among these 5%, almost all (88%) were unanimous supporters of traditional history teaching through textbooks (believing that the vastness of the Internet can distort the essence of the material).

Satisfactory in relation to the implementation of digital educational tools were also the faculty survey outcomes. The sample of educators as the future moderators of digital programs for Russian universities overwhelmingly agreed with the expediency of reforming the education system. Hence, almost 85% of them ( Figure 4 ) were of the view that the system of teaching history will gain from the implementation of digital tools, while 65% were convinced that the digitalization of history education would positively impact student creativity.

Faculty survey results ( n = 29).

At the end of the training course, there was another survey which demonstrated an increase in all indicators. Therefore, after training, the majority of students (85%) noted that the use of digital technologies affects their motivation to study history while 10% found it difficult to answer this question and 5% noted no effect of digital tools on their motivation level.

Compared to the results obtained in the first survey, the students assessed their motivation to study history as high (20%), average (50%), and low (30%).

Alongside this, the results of the improvement in students’ academic performance were quite noticeable when comparing the results of respondents' module (interim) control carried out before and after the implementation of the digital program ( Table 3 ).

Table 3

Respondents' academic performance before and after digital program's implementation.

From the standard deviation data, we see that the average score for Module 1 was σ1 = 78.7, while for Module 2, it equaled σ2 = 81.54. This indicates a significant improvement in students' academic performance against the background of the digital application implementation. Based on the comparison of the results obtained in the two surveys, it can be concluded that the developed program is effective for the study of history. All indicators, in particular those related to the level of motivation, have increased, which indicates the possibility of introducing digital technologies into the educational process.

Faculty interviewing outcomes, on the contrary, testify to the availability of risks associated with the sudden shift to digital education. Overwhelmingly (85%), educators point to insufficient technical support to universities, which prevents high-quality digital learning provision. Other risks also include poor digital knowledge among teachers, low level of optimality of the Internet base, and its insufficient transparency in Russia.

Historical materials are digitized with the help of digital technologies to be uploaded in open online archives. For example, the Russian Historical Society has posted digitized archives that contain historical data of Russia on its website ( Figure 5 ). The archive simplifies the search for information about the history of Russia as it makes it possible to get acquainted with the archives online. Moreover, the online archive also contains archival information on other countries that took part in World War II, which is an advantage as historians can use such archives to study the history of not only Russia but also other countries ( Figure 6 ).

Open archive of the Russian Historical Society.

Figure 7 shows the online archive "Arolsen archives", which makes it possible to find digitized historical documents related to the victims of Nazi persecution. Also, the website provides information in 6 languages, which is another advantage. However, the disadvantage is that the online archive gives access to only one historical period and students can use it to study the history of that period.

Online archive "Arolsen archives".

It is worth noting that online archives can also be featured on virtual library sites. For example, the Library of Congress website hosts electronic collections of historical documents ( Figure 8 ). The advantage is the user-friendly interface divided into thematic groups. Thus, history students have an opportunity to quickly find the information they need to prepare for history classes.

Library of congress.

During the pandemic, online libraries became more popular and they can replace archives. An example of such a library is the World Digital Library supported by UNESCO and the US Library of Congress ( Figure 9 ). The website contains materials related to world history, the history of the United States, European manuscripts, etc. The advantage of the library is that each topic is accompanied by visualization (pictures, photographs, interactive maps) while the material is structured by timelines. Such characteristics make it easier to find information and contribute to increased motivation and interest in the study of history.

Virtual library "World Digital Library".

Figure 10 shows the online archive "National archives" that combines national archives of the history of different countries, which is its advantage. Students can use this archive to search for world history e-books that are featured on the website. In addition, students can view posters and pictures that visualize historical events and facilitate the perception of information.

Online archive "National archives".

Thus, online archives and virtual libraries allow students to get acquainted with archival documents online while digital technologies, in particular visualization tools, make the process of studying history easier and more interesting, which increases student motivation to learn.

The results of creative thinking testing according to Williams’ methodology demonstrate that, while only 18% of students had a high level of divergent thinking before the implementation of the digital program, their percentage advanced to 58% after the experiment ended. This testifies to the beneficial effect of digital means on the creative thinking of history students. That is, one of the supportive arguments in favor of history instruction digitalization is an increase in divergent thinking of higher education students. Creative thinking analysis conducted against the gender backdrop unveiled a significant improvement of this skill in females – from 37% (before the program) to 69% (after the program), whereas for males, this difference was not as striking – 29% and 43%, respectively.

4. Discussion

The results of the two surveys indicate the relevance of the problem of using digital information technologies in the educational process not only in Russia but also in other countries. For example, researchers in Australia and England have proposed 4D Printing Classroom as a virtual classroom. The mechanism feature is its interactive 4D format. As a result of the use, it was concluded that digital technology is effective in learning ( Zolfagharian et al., 2021 ).

The possibility of using digital games in the study of history is also being analyzed ( Shih et al., 2015 ). The developed game is based on real historical events. As a result, on the basis of the experiment, it was found that the cognitive skills of players increased under the influence of the game, which is a practical element of learning. A similar study was conducted in Portugal ( Cruz et al., 2017 ). The mobile game was developed for the study of the history of Portugal and its user-friendly interface allows it to be used not only by students but also by schoolchildren. In addition, on its basis, new games to study the history of other countries can be developed. The JEGER app was developed to study the history of Indonesia, and its innovative character was proven by the student survey. Thus, 94% of respondents noted that the application can be used in the study of history and 89% appreciated its user-friendly interface ( Sulistyo et al., 2020 ).

Researchers from Finland considered the effectiveness of 3D Immersive Learning Environments, online archives and online libraries in learning history and their impact on students' motivation to read ( Mystakidis and Berki, 2018 ). As a result, it was concluded that the motivational characteristics of students were increased with the help of the interactive learning environment, online archives and online libraries. Similar results were obtained in the present study as after the completion of the developed program with the use of digital technologies, online archives and online libraries the level of student motivation increased and the indicators of professional skills and competencies also improved by 10%.

Researchers from the United States analyzed the use of online archives and libraries in the process of studying history and concluded that the level of motivation of students to learn under the influence of modern digital technologies ( Carbajal and Caswell, 2021 ). The advantages of using online libraries and online archives, as in our study, identified ease of use, visualization of historical events and historical figures, digitized documents of different historical periods and maps, movies and videos on historical events and others.

In Taiwan, spherical video-based virtual reality (SVVR) was developed to be used in art history studies ( Wu et al., 2021 ). Based on the experiment, it was concluded that this digital technology is effective in improving students' self-efficacy and academic performance indicators. At the same time, it is emphasized that learning based on virtual reality has not affected the cognitive skills of students.

Turkish researchers examined the effectiveness of the online education platform WiziQ in learning ( Ahmed and Osman, 2020 ). As a result, it was concluded that it affects motivation, academic performance and relations between students, which was evidenced by the results of the group that studied on the online platform. In the present study that relied on the Moodle platform, similar results were obtained. American researchers also emphasize the effectiveness of online educational platforms noting the importance of feedback that online platforms provide ( Goldin et al., 2017 ). On the other hand, Malaysian scholars point out that introducing HOTS into history education will attract students to historical disciplines and improve their academic achievements. In addition to this, the introduction of HOTS is believed to facilitate creating a quality educational system in Malaysia capable of competing in the global market. Researchers claim the direct effect of the digitalization of history education on the level of students’ creativity. Therefore, the results of the present paper have many in common with the inferences from related publications of world scholars ( Parimaladevi and Ahmad, 2019 ).

5. Conclusions

The results of the first survey show that the majority of students (62%) noted the use of traditional methods and 38% of respondents indicated the use of the modern ones. The majority of students (52%) also answered that digital tools are rarely used in the study of history while 71% of respondents reported that digital technology affects their motivation to learn. Therefore, the majority of students rated their level of motivation as average (43%) or low (47%). The most frequent professional competencies and skills are “technical competence (modern technologies)” (62%), “creativity” (65%), “critical thinking” (60%), “strategic thinking” (55%), and “practical skills” (78%). Based on the results obtained in the first survey, a program was developed to increase the motivation of students to study history and archeology, as well as to familiarize themselves with modern educational technologies that can be used in the learning process. The second survey showed an increase in the indicators of students' motivation to learn, which indicates the effectiveness of the developed program for the study of history. The majority of students (85%) answered that digital tools affect their motivation to learn. Thus, they rated it as medium (50%), high (20%) and low (30%). Accordingly, the indicators of professional competencies and skills increased by 10%: “technical competency (modern technologies)” (72%), “creativity” (75%), “critical thinking” (71%), “strategic thinking” (65%), and “practical skills” (88%). The novelty of this study resides in the justification of a significant reform in higher history education through the introduction of digital means in teaching. Furthermore, the collected findings confirm the positive impact of education digitalization on students’ creative thinking (from 18% to 58%). The practical significance and prospects for further research are explained by the possibility of using the developed program for the study of history in other universities located in different countries. Also, the methodological basis of the proposed program can be used to study not only history but also other subjects as digital technologies are relevant in the modern education system.

Declarations

Author contribution statement.

Olga Malysheva: Performed the experiments; Contributed reagents, materials, analysis tools or data, Wrote the paper.

Elena Tokareva: Conceived and designed the experiments; Performed the experiments; Wrote the paper.

Larisa Orchakova: Analyzed and interpreted the data; Contributed reagents, materials, analysis tools or data; Wrote the paper.

Yulia Smirnova: Conceived and designed the experiments; Analyzed and interpreted the data; Wrote the paper.

Funding statement

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability statement

Declaration of interest's statement.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Additional information

No additional information is available for this paper.

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Four Key Language Skills: Speaking, Listening, Reading, and Writing

Discover how these skills interconnect and contribute to language proficiency, communication, and personal development., introduction.

Language is a multifaceted tool that serves as a means of communication, expression, and understanding. Within the realm of language acquisition, four primary skills play a central role: speaking, listening, reading, and writing. Each of these skills contributes uniquely to one's language proficiency and plays a vital role in different aspects of life. In this post, we will delve into the relative importance of these four key language skills and how they complement each other.

Speaking is often considered the most critical language skill, as it directly enables human communication. It facilitates interaction with others, both socially and professionally, allowing individuals to express their thoughts, ideas, and emotions effectively. The ability to speak fluently is especially crucial in situations like business negotiations, job interviews, and everyday conversations. Effective speaking enhances one's confidence, builds relationships, and fosters cultural understanding.

Listening is the counterpart to speaking, and it is equally essential in effective communication. Without strong listening skills, misunderstandings can arise, leading to breakdowns in communication. Active listening involves not only hearing words but also comprehending their meaning, tone, and context. Proficient listening enhances language learners' ability to engage in meaningful conversations, understand cultural nuances, and respond appropriately. In educational settings, strong listening skills are crucial for learning and comprehension.

Reading expands one's knowledge and understanding of language. It allows individuals to access a vast wealth of information, literature, and culture. Through reading, individuals can explore diverse perspectives, historical accounts, and contemporary issues. Reading also plays a significant role in academic and professional contexts, where individuals are required to process, analyze, and synthesize written information. Strong reading skills lead to improved vocabulary, comprehension, and critical thinking.

Writing is the skill that allows individuals to express their thoughts and ideas in a structured and organized manner. It serves as a means of documentation, creativity, and self-expression. In academic and professional settings, effective writing is essential for creating reports, essays, emails, and other forms of communication. It also plays a crucial role in preserving knowledge, culture, and history through the written word. Strong writing skills enable individuals to convey their thoughts with clarity and precision.

The Interplay of Skills

While each of these four language skills holds significance on its own, their importance is interconnected. They complement and reinforce each other, creating a holistic language proficiency. For instance, strong listening skills aid in developing accurate pronunciation when speaking. Reading enhances vocabulary, which in turn improves writing. Writing practice can lead to a deeper understanding of grammatical structures, benefiting both speaking and listening.

Moreover, in the modern world, technology has blurred the lines between these skills. Communication platforms, such as social media and instant messaging, require a combination of speaking, listening, reading, and writing. Multimedia content, including videos and podcasts, encourages learners to engage in both listening and speaking activities.

In conclusion, the four key language skills—speaking, listening, reading, and writing—each hold a unique and essential place in language acquisition and proficiency. Their relative importance depends on the context, goals, and individual preferences. However, it is the interplay of these skills that results in a well-rounded and effective communicator. Language learners benefit most when they strive for balance and competence in all four skills, enabling them to navigate the complexities of language in diverse personal, educational, and professional settings.

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Chapter Fourteen – Presentation Aids

A fountain resembling a faucet floating in midair gushing out an endless supply of water.

“Grifo mágico” by emijrp. CC-BY .

“I know you can’t read this from the back there,” the presenter apologizes to a screen so full of words you would think the entire speech had been crammed into one slide. This is just the first of a seemingly endless string of slides I can’t read, charts so full of numbers I can’t decipher the meaning, and clip art so clichéd I can’t help but roll my eyes and sigh. It is not long before I’m presented with an incredibly dense graph I can’t make any sense of since he keeps interrupting my concentration with actual talking. “When is he going to come to the point already?” I think to myself as I start to doodle in the margins of the handout of the PowerPoint slides for the very talk I’m currently sitting through. Why did he even bother with a presentation? He could have just emailed us all of the handout and saved us from this painful, dull spectacle. As he reads from his slides and belabors his statistics, my mind drifts to grocery lists and the upcoming weekend. I can think of a hundred better uses for an hour.

It seems nearly impossible to see a presentation that doesn’t revolve around a lengthy PowerPoint, so much so that you might think it was a requirement for giving a speech. The phrase “death by PowerPoint” was coined in response to the ubiquitous, wordy, and intellectually deadening presentations that focus on the slides rather than the content or the presenter. With the speaker reading directly from the slides, or worse, showing slides with text so small that it can’t be read, viewers are often left wondering what the need for the presentation is at all. A simple handout would convey the message and save everyone’s time. PowerPoint, however, is just one of the visual aids available to you as a speaker. Your ability to incorporate the right visual aid at the right time and in the right format can have a powerful effect on your audience. Because your message is the central focus of your speech, you only want to add visual aids that enhance your message, clarify the meaning of your words, target the emotions of your audience, and/or show what words fail to clearly describe.

A visual image is a simple thing, a picture that enters the eyes. – Roy H. Williams

“mwdCyborgLenses” by em den. CC-BY-NC-SA .

Learning how to create effective visuals that resonate with your audience is important for a quality presentation. Understanding basic principles of how visual information is processed alone and in combination with audio information can make or break your visuals’ effectiveness and impact. Incorporating visuals into your speech that complement your words rather than stand in place of them or distract from them, will set you apart from other presenters, increase your credibility, and make a bigger and more memorable impact on your audience.

Types of Visual Aids

In the past, transparencies displayed with overhead projectors, posters, and flip charts were common visual aids, but these have mostly been replaced with computer technology. For many people, the term “visual aids” for presentations or speeches is synonymous with PowerPoint (often long, dry, painful PowerPoint at that), but this is just one type of visual aid. You should consider all the available options to determine what will be most effective and appropriate for your presentation.

If you wear clothes that don’t suit you, you’re a fashion victim. You have to wear clothes that make you look better. – Vivienne Westwood

Personal Appearance

Some people choose to dress up as part of their presentation, and this can help set the tone of the speech or reinforce a specific point. A speaker may wear a handmade sweater in a talk about knitting in order to inspire others to begin the hobby. Another speaker may opt for a firefighter’s uniform in a speech about joining the local volunteer fire department in an effort to appeal to the respect most people have for people in uniform. As mentioned in the previous chapter, if you’re delivering a speech on sleep deprivation, wearing pj’s could be appropriate!

If you wear clothes that don’t suit you, you’re a fashion victim. You have to wear clothes that make you look better . – Vivienne Westwood

“Firefighters Onboard Royal Navy Destroyer HMS Edinburgh” by UK Ministry of Defence. CC-BY-NC .

If you aren’t dressing in relation to your topic, you should dress appropriately for your audience and venue. A presentation to a professional audience or at a professional conference would lend itself to appropriate business attire. If you are giving a presentation to your local Girl Scout troop, more casual clothing may be the best choice. Any time you are doing a demonstration, make sure you are dressed appropriately to give the demonstration. It is difficult for a speaker to show how to correctly put on a rock-climbing harness if she is wearing a skirt the day of the presentation.

Beyond dressing appropriately for your audience and topic, the audience will make judgments about you even before your presentation begins. Your dress, mannerisms, the way you greet the audience when they are arriving, how you are introduced, and the first words out of your mouth all impact your credibility and ability to connect with your audience. Make sure you are calm and welcoming to your audience when they arrive and greet them in a professional manner. Your credibility and professionalism suffer when the audience arrives and you are busy scrambling around attempting to finish your preparations. [1]

Objects and Props

“Honestly I Don’t Remember Much from This Lecture” by Daniel Lu. CC-BY-NC-ND .

Objects and props, such as a bicycle helmet for a speech on bike safety or an actual sample of the product you are trying to sell, can greatly enhance your presentation. Seeing the actual item will often make it easier for your audience to understand your meaning and will help you connect with your audience on an emotional level. Props can be used as part of demonstrations (discussed below) or as a stand-alone item that you refer to in your speech.

There are several important considerations for using props in your presentation. If you have a large audience, showing the prop at the front of the venue may mean that audience members can’t see the item. The alternative to this is to pass the item around, though Young and Travis [2] advise caution in passing objects around during your speech, as most people will be seeing the object after you have moved on with your talk. Having your prop out of sync with your presentation, either as it is passed around disrupting your audience’s attention or by having your prop visible when you aren’t talking about it, is distracting to your audience and message. To make the most effective use of props in your presentation, carefully consider how the object will be visible to your entire audience when you are speaking about it, and make sure it is out of sight when you are not.

Demonstration

“A dad teaches his daughter the hula hoop at the 2011 Downton Cuckoo Fair” by Anguskirk. CC-BY-NC-ND .

A demonstration can serve two different purposes in a speech. First, it can be used to “wow” the audience. Showing off the features of your new product, illustrating the catastrophic failure of a poorly tied climbing knot, or launching a cork across the room during a chemistry experiment are all ways of capturing the audience’s attention. Demonstration should not be gimmicky, but should add value to your presentation. When done well, it can be the memorable moment from your speech, so make sure it reinforces the central message of your talk.

Demonstration can also be used to show how something is done. People have different learning styles, and a process demonstration can help visual learners better understand the concept being taught. Consider for a moment the difference between reading the instructions on how to perform CPR, watching someone perform CPR, and trying CPR on the training dummy. As evidenced by the huge number of online videos illustrating how to do something, there is great value in watching while you learn a new task.

If your presentation includes a process where seeing will improve understanding, consider including a demonstration.

Because you have a limited time to present, make sure your demonstrations are succinct, well-rehearsed, and visible to the entire audience. Be prepared for the demonstration to fail and have a back-up plan in place. It is better to move forward with your presentation than to fret with trying to get your demonstration perfect or fixed. However, if you are providing a demonstration of your new product, make sure it is as error free as possible. If you can’t be positive the product will perform as expected, it is better to skip the demonstration.

Posters and Flip Charts

If you are presenting to a small audience, around a dozen people, you may choose to use a poster rather than PowerPoint. The focus of your poster should be to support your core message and can be left behind to remind those in attendance of your presentation after you have left. Posters should look professional (e.g., not handwritten), be visible to everyone in the room, and follow design rules covered later in this chapter. Before your presentation, you should ask whether posters must be hung or be free standing. For posters that will be hung from a wall, sturdy poster or matte boards will suffice. If your poster is going to be free standing or if you are going to use the same poster for multiple presentations, you should consider using a tri-fold display board.

“Dad’s Jr. Year Science Fair Project” by Rev. Xanatos Satanicos Bombasticos. CC-BY-NC-SA .

Other text-based visual aids include white boards and flip charts. Both can be used to write or draw on during the presentation and should be used with several caveats. Writing during your presentation actually takes away from your speaking time, so make sure to factor this into your speaking time. Speaking and writing at the same time can be tricky because the audience will have a difficult time processing what they are hearing when they are also trying to read what you write. Additionally, if you are writing, you need to be careful not to turn your back on your audience, which is makes it harder for them to hear you and for you to connect with your audience. Legible handwriting that can be seen at a distance is of prime importance, so using these kinds of visual aids should be limited to small audiences. While some speakers write and draw to highlight important points, this takes an enormous amount of skill and practice. For those with less developed skills, flip charts are best limited to situations where audience input is necessary for the direction or continuation of the presentation. [3]

The soul never thinks without a picture. – Aristotle

Audio and Video

A large amount of digitized audio and video is now available to be included and embedded in your presentation. Select short clips; Young and Travis [4] recommend only 10 – 20 seconds, but this will depend in part on the length of the presentation, the purpose of the presentation, and clip content and relevance. You should not have a presentation primarily composed of audio/video clips. Select only clips that reinforce the message or serve as an appropriate segue into your next topic.

When including audio or video in your speech, there are several technical considerations. It is important that the clip be properly cued to start at exactly where you want it to begin playing. It distracts from both your audience’s attention and your credibility when you are fumbling with technology during a speech. It is also important that your file format can be played on the computer you are using. Since not all computers will play all file formats, be sure to test playability and audio volume before your presentation. Again, going back to providing a professional appearance from your first interaction with your audience, you should iron out the technical details before they enter the room. As with a demonstration, if your clip isn’t playing properly, move on rather than attempt to correct the issue. Fumbling with technology is a waste of your audience’s valuable time.

There are many schools of thought on the use of handouts during a presentation. The most common current practice is that the presenters provide a copy of their PowerPoint slides to the participants before or after the presentation. This is so common that some academic and professional conferences require presenters to submit their slides prior to the event, so copies of the slides can be made for each attendee. Despite this prevailing trend, you should avoid using your slides as handouts because they serve different purposes. Using your presentation slides as the handout both shortchanges your slides and fails as a handout.

U.S. soldier distributing handouts explaining symptoms of tuberculosis to local residents at Bunabun Health Center in Madang, Papua New Guinea.

“Lt. Lydia Battey distributes handouts” by Kerryl Cacho. Public domain.

Handouts are best used to supplement the content of your talk. If you are providing statistical data, your slide may only show the relevant statistic focusing on the conclusion you want your audience to draw. Your handout, on the other hand, can contain the full table of data. If you need to show a complex diagram or chart, a handout will be more legible than trying to cram all that information on a slide. Since you need to simplify the data to make it understandable on a slide, the handout can contain the evidence for your message in a way that is legible, detailed, complex, and shows respect for the audience’s time and intelligence. [5]

You don’t need to include everything in your talk, and you don’t need to pack all your information into your slides. Write a handout document with as much detail as you want and keep the slides simple. Presenters often feel the need to display all the data and information they have so they will appear knowledgeable, informed, and thoroughly prepared. You can help ease this feeling by creating a handout with all of the detailed data you wish, which leaves your slides open to focus on your key message. [6]

There are many true statements about complex topics that are too long to fit on a PowerPoint slide. – Edward Tufte

Crafting an appropriate handout will take additional time for the presenter but doing so will result in a take-away document that will stand on its own and a slide show that focuses on effective visual content. Duarte (2008) and Tufte (2003) recommend handouts only for dense, detailed information. Reynolds [7] expands on this idea, noting that your handout needs to be complete enough to stand in your place since you won’t be there to present the information or answer questions.

When to distribute handouts is also heavily debated. So common is the practice of providing handouts at the beginning of a presentation that it may seem wrong to break the convention. It is important to understand, however, that if people have paper in front of them while you are speaking, their attention will be split between the handout, your other visual aids, and your words. To counter this, you might consider distributing handouts as they are needed during the presentation and allowing time for people to review them before continuing on. [8] This may not be a viable option for shorter presentations, and the interruption in the flow of the presentation may be hard to recover from. Unless having the documents in front of your audience is absolutely critical to the success of the presentation, handouts should be distributed at the end of the presentation.

“Steve Jobs Presentation” by Ken.gz. CC-BY .

Slideware is a generic term for the software used create and display slide shows such as Microsoft PowerPoint , Apple iWorks Keynote , Google Drive Presentation , Zoho Show and others. Composed of individual slides, collectively known as the slide deck , slideware is a de facto standard for presentation visual aids despite criticisms and complaints about the format. In truth, the problem is not with the software but in the use of the software. The focus of much of the remainder of this chapter will be suggestions and best practices for creating effective slide decks that will be high impact and avoid many of the complaints of slideware detractors. Before this discussion, there are two distinct slideware presentation styles that should be mentioned.

A picture is a poem without words. – Horace

Pecha Kucha

Pecha Kucha is a method of presenting using a slide deck of 20 slides that display for 20 seconds per slide, advance automatically, and generally contain no text. [9] This method began in 2003 as a way to contain the length of presentations of architects and continues to grow in popularity, but is still reserved mostly for people in creative industries. [10] Because of the restrictive format, Pecha Kucha-style presentations help the speaker practice editing, pacing, connecting with the audience, focusing on the message, and using images in place of words. [11]

While not quite slideware, Prezi is digital presentation software that breaks away from the standard slide deck presentation. It requires users to plot out their themes before adding primarily image-focused content. [12] Instead of flipping through the slide deck, the presenter zooms in and out of the presentation to visually demonstrate connections not available in other slideware. The design of the software lends itself toward more rapidly changing visuals. This helps to keep the viewer engaged but also lends itself to over-populating the blank canvas with images. [13]

Prezi’s fast-moving images and, at times, unusual movement can make users dizzy or disoriented. Careful work is needed during planning and practice so that the point of the talk isn’t the wow factor of the Prezi software, but that your visuals enhance your presentation. The best way to learn more about this emerging tool is to visit the Prezi website to view examples .

If opting to use Prezi in a corporate environment, you should strongly consider one of the paid options for the sole purpose of removing the Prezi logo from the presentation.

Now that you have a better understanding of the different types of presentation aids you could employ during your speech, let’s discuss effective design principles of visual aids.

Design Principles

Slide and slide show design have a major impact on your ability to get your message across to your audience. Research shows that people have trouble grasping information when it comes at them simultaneously. “They will either listen to you or read your slides; they cannot do both.” [14] This leaves you, the presenter, with a lot of power to direct or scatter your audience’s attention. This section will serve as an overview of basic design considerations that even novices can use to improve their slides.

Figure 13.1. Two Powerpoint slides. The 'Too Little Information' slide shows a bulleted list of types of bicycles. The 'Too Much Information' slide shows the names and definitions of five kinds of bicycles.

Figure 13.1 by the Public Speaking Project. CC-BY-NC-ND .

First and foremost, design with your audience in mind. Your slide show is not your outline. The show is also not your handout. As discussed earlier, you can make a significantly more meaningful, content-rich handout that complements your presentation if you do not try to save time by making a slide show that serves as both. Keep your slides short, create a separate handout if needed, and write as many notes for yourself as you need.

All decisions, from the images you use to their placement, should be done with a focus on your message, your medium, and your audience. Each slide should reinforce or enhance your message, so make conscious decisions about each element and concept you include [15] and edit mercilessly. Taken a step further, graphic designer Robin Williams [16] suggests each element be placed on the slide deliberately in relation to every other element on the slide.

Providing the right amount of information, neither too much nor too little, is one of the key aspects in effective communication. [17] See Figure 13.1 as an example of slides with too little or too much information. The foundation of this idea is that if the viewers have too little information, they must struggle to put the pieces of the presentation together. Most people, however, include too much information (e.g., slides full of text, meaningless images, overly complicated charts), which taxes the audience’s ability to process the message. “There is simply a limit to a person’s ability to process new information efficiently and effectively.” [18] As a presenter, reducing the amount of information directed at your audience (words, images, sounds, etc.) will help them to better remember your message. [19] In this case, less is actually more.

Powerpoint slide with bar graph, titled College Enrollment by Gender, 1970-2009

Figure 13.2 by the Public Speaking Project. CC-BY-NC-ND .

The first strategy to keeping your slides simple is to include only one concept or idea per slide. If you need more than one slide, use it, but don’t cram more than one idea on a slide. While many have tried to prescribe the number of slides you need based on the length of your talk, there is no formula that works for every presentation. Use only the number of slides necessary to communicate your message, and make sure the number of slides corresponds to the amount of time allotted for your speech. Practice with more and fewer slides and more and less content on each slide to find the balance between too much information and too little.

With simplicity in mind, the goal is to have a slide that can be understood in 3 seconds. Think of it like a billboard you are passing on the highway. [20] You can achieve this by reducing the amount of irrelevant information, also known as noise , in your slide as much as possible. This might include eliminating background images, using clear icons and images, or creating simplified graphs. Your approach should be to remove as much from your slide as possible until it no longer makes any sense if you remove more. [21]

Slide Layout

Figure 13.3. The top slide is low contrast. The heading and bullet points are all the same color, weight, and size. The background of the slide is a gradient gradually switching from black to beige. The bottom slide is high contrast. The heading and bullet points have different weights, and the first letter of each bullet point is a different size and color. The background is pale, while the lettering is dark.

Figure 13.3 by the Public Speaking Project. CC-BY-NC-ND .

It is easy to simply open up your slideware and start typing in the bullet points that outline your talk. If you do this, you will likely fall into the traps for which PowerPoint is infamous. Presentation design experts Reynolds [22] and Duarte [23] both recommend starting with paper and pen. This will help you break away from the text-based, bullet-filled slide shows we all dread. Instead, consider how you can turn your words and concepts into images. Don’t let the software lead you into making a mediocre slide show.

Regarding slide design, focus on simplicity. Don’t over-crowd your slide with text and images. Cluttered slides are hard to understand (see Figure 13.2). Leaving empty space, also known as white space , gives breathing room to your design. The white space actually draws attention to your focus point and makes your slide appear more elegant and professional. Using repetition of color, font, images, and layout throughout your presentation will help tie all of your slides together. This is especially important if a group is putting visuals together collaboratively. If you have handouts, they should also match this formatting in order to convey a more professional look and tie all your pieces together. [24]

Another general principle is to use contrast to highlight your message. Contrast should not be subtle. Make type sizes significantly different. Make contrasting image placements, such as horizontal and vertical, glaringly obvious. A general principle to follow: if things are not the same, then make them very, very different, [25] as in Figure 13.3.

A common layout design is called the rule of thirds . If you divide the screen using two imaginary lines horizontally and two vertically, you end up with nine sections. The most visually interesting and pleasing portions of the screen will be at the points where the lines intersect.

Aligning your text and images with these points is preferred to centering everything on the screen. [26] [27] See Figure 13.4. Feel free to experiment with the right and left aligned content for contrast and interest. Sticking with a centered layout means more work trying to make the slide interesting. [28]

Understanding how people view images (and thus slides) can help you direct the viewer’s attention to the main point of your slide. In countries that read text from left to right and top to bottom, like English-speaking countries, people tend to also read images and slides the same way. Starting in the upper left of the screen, they read in a Z pattern , exiting the page in the bottom right corner unless their vision is side-tracked by the objects they are looking at (as in Figure 13.5).

Viewers’ eyes are scanning from focus point to focus point in an image, so you need to consciously create visual cues to direct them to the relevant information. Cues can be created subtly by the placement of objects in the slide, by showing movement, or more obviously by using a simple arrow. [29] Make sure all people and pets are facing into your slide and preferably at your main point, as in Figure 13.6. If your slide contains a road, path, car, plane, etc., have them also facing into your slide. When the natural motion or gaze of your images points away from your slide, your viewers look that way too. Being aware of this and addressing the natural tendencies of people when viewing images can help you select images and design slides that keep the viewer engaged in your message. [30]

Backgrounds and Effects

PowerPoint and other slideware have a variety of templates containing backgrounds that are easy to implement for a consistent slide show. Most of them, however, contain distracting graphics that are counter to the simplicity you are aiming for in order to produce a clear message. It is best to use solid colors, if you even need a background at all. For some slide shows, you can make the slides with full-screen images, thus eliminating the need for a background color.

Graphic design is the paradise of individuality, eccentricity, heresy, abnormality, hobbies and humors. – George Santayana

Should you choose to use a background color, make sure you are consistent throughout your presentation. Different colors portray different meanings, but much of this is cultural and contextual, so there are few hard and fast rules about the meaning of colors. One universal recommendation is to avoid the color red because it has been shown to reduce your ability to think clearly. Bright colors, such as yellow, pink, and orange, should also be avoided as background colors, as they are too distracting. Black, on the other hand, is generally associated with sophistication and can be a very effective background as long as there is sufficient contrast with the other elements on your slide. [31]

When designing your presentation, it is tempting to show off your tech skills with glitzy transitions, wipes, fades, moving text, sounds, and a variety of other actions. These are distracting to your audience and should be avoided. They draw attention away from you and your message, instead focusing the audience’s attention on the screen. Since people naturally look at what is moving and expect it to mean something, meaningless effects, no matter how subtle, distract your audience, and affect their ability to grasp the content. Make sure that all your changes are meaningful and reinforce your message [32] .

There are complicated and fascinating biological and psychological processes associated with color and color perception that are beyond the scope of this chapter. Because color can have such a huge impact on the ability to see and understand your visuals, this section will explore basic rules and recommendations for working with color.

Figure 13.7, warm and cool colors. A slide divided in half, with a cool blue color on one side and a warm orange color on the other. Words in different colors stretch across both halves to demonstrate the contrast. The words say warm colors, cool colors, tints are lighter, shades are darker. Warm colors is in warm colors, cool colors is in cool colors, tints are lighter is in a tint similar to the cool background, and shades are darker is in a shade similar to the warm background. It is clear that warm colors are easier to read against a cool background, cool colors are easier to read against a warm color, tints are hard to read against a similar tint, and shades are hard to read against a similar shade.

Figure 13.7 by the Public Speaking Project. CC-BY-NC-ND .

Much of what we perceive in terms of a color is based on what color is next to it. Be sure to use colors that contrast so they can be easily distinguished from each other (think yellow and dark blue for high contrast, not dark blue and purple). High contrast improves visibility, particularly at a distance. To ensure you have sufficient contrast, you can view your presentation in greyscale either in the software if available or by printing out your slides on a black and white printer. [33]

Color does not add a pleasant quality to design — it reinforces it. – Pierre Bonnard

As seen in Figure 13.7, warm colors (reds, oranges, yellows) appear to come to the foreground when set next to a cool color (blues, grays, purples) which recede into the background. Tints (pure color mixed with white, think pink) stand out against a darker background. Shades (pure color mixed with black, think maroon) recede into a light background. [34] If you want something to stand out, these color combination rules can act as a guide.

Figure 13.8. Two color wheels. The top wheel shows complementary colors, in this example, purple and yellow, are opposite each other on the color wheel. The analogous color wheel shows that analogous colors, in this example yellow, yellow-orange, and orange, are next to each other on the color wheel.

Figure 13.8 by the Public Speaking Project. CC-BY-NC-ND .

Avoid using red and green closely together. Red-green color blindness is the predominate form of color blindness, meaning that the person cannot distinguish between those two colors (Vorick, 2011). There are other forms of color blindness, and you can easily check to see if your visuals will be understandable to everyone using an online tool such as the Coblis Color Blindness Simulator to preview images as a color-blind person would see it. Certain red-blue pairings can be difficult to look at for the non-color blind. These colors appear to vibrate when adjacent to each other and are distracting and sometimes unpleasant to view. [35]

With all these rules in place, selecting a color palette , the group of colors to use throughout your presentation, can be daunting. Some color pairs, like complementary colors or analogous colors as in Figure 13.8, are naturally pleasing to the eye and can be easy options for the color novice. There are also online tools for selecting pleasing color palettes using standard color pairings including Kuler and Color Scheme Designer . You can also use websites like Colorbrewer to help identify an appropriate palette of colors that are visually distinct, appropriate for the colorblind, and that will photocopy well, should you decide to also include this information in a handout.

I’m a visual thinker, not a language-based thinker. My brain is like Google Images. – Temple Grandin

Figure 13.9. A list of bad font effects. Each term is in a font demonstrating the style. Script fonts is a cursive, flourished style. Decorative fonts is a medieval, short-stroked, thick style. Upper case is in only capitalized letters. All bold is bolded. Small Caps is all capitalized, with the first letter of each word slightly larger. Shadows has a lighter, slanted shadow behind it. Outlines is thinly outlined. Word Art is written on a curved baseline. Stretched has short, wide letters with lots of space between each letter.

Figure 13.9 by the Public Speaking Project. CC-BY-NC-ND .

There are thousands of fonts available today. One might even say there has been a renaissance in font design with the onset of the digital age. Despite many beautiful options, it is best to stick to standard fonts that are considered screen friendly. These include the serif fonts Times New Roman, Georgia, and Palatino, and the sans serif fonts Ariel, Helvetica, Tahoma, and Veranda. [36] These fonts work well with the limitations of computer screens and are legible from a distance if sized appropriately. Other non-standard fonts, while attractive and eye-catching, may not display properly on all computers. If the font isn’t installed on the computer you are presenting from, the default font will be used which alters the text and design of the slide.

Readability is a top concern with font use, particularly for those at the back of your audience, furthest from the screen. After you have selected a font (see previous paragraph), make sure that the font size is large enough for everyone to read clearly. If you have the opportunity to use the presentation room before the event, view your slides from the back of the room. They should be clearly visible. This is not always possible and should not be done immediately preceding your talk, as you won’t have time to effectively edit your entire presentation. Presentation guru Duarte [37] describes an ingenious way to test visibility from your own computer.

Measure your monitor diagonally in inches, display your slides, then step back the same number of feet as you measured on your monitor in inches. For example, if you have a 17-inch screen, step back 17 feet to see what is legible.

Create your own visual style… let it be unique for yourself and yet identifiable for others. – Orson Welles

In addition to font style and size, there are other font “rules” to improve your slides:

Don’t use decorative, script, or visually complex fonts.
Never use the Comic Sans font if you want to retain any credibility with your audience.
If you must use more than one font, use one serif font and one sans serif font.
Use the same font(s) and size(s) consistently throughout your presentation.
Don’t use all upper case or all bold.
Avoid small caps and all word art, shadows, outlines, stretching text, and other visual effects.
Use italics and underlines only for their intended purposes, not for design.

While there are many rules listed here, they can be summarized as” keep it as simple as possible.” [38] See Figure 13.9 for examples of poor font choices.

Nothing is more hotly debated in slide design than the amount of text that should be on a slide. Godin says “no more than six words on a slide. EVER.” [39] Other common approaches include the 5×5 rule — 5 lines of text, 5 words per line—and similar 6×6 and 7×7 rules. [40] Even with these recommendations, it is still painfully common to see slides with so much text on them that they can’t be read by the audience. The type has to be so small to fit all the words on the slide that no one can read it. Duarte [41] keenly points out that if you have too many words, you no longer have a visual aid. You have either a paper or a teleprompter, and she recommends opting for a small number of words.

Once you understand that the words on the screen are competing for your audience’s attention, it will be easier to edit your slide text down to a minimum. The next time you are watching a presentation and the slide changes, notice how you aren’t really grasping what the speaker is saying, and you also aren’t really understanding what you are reading. Studies have proved this split-attention affects our ability to retain information; [42] so when presenting, you need to give your audience silent reading time when you display a new slide. That is: talk, advance to your next slide, wait for them to read the slide, and resume talking. If you consider how much time your audience is reading rather than listening, hopefully you will decide to reduce the text on your slide and return the focus back to you, the speaker, and your message.

There are several ways to reduce the number of words on your page, but don’t do it haphazardly. As previously discussed, instead of simply abbreviating your message to make it “fit,” consider turning as many concepts as possible into images. Studies have shown that people retain more information when they see images that relate to the words they are hearing. [43] And when people are presented information for a very short time, they remember images better than words. [44]

An easy way to judge how much time your audience needs to read your slide silently, is to read the slide text to yourself in reverse order.

Figure 13.10, Quotations on Slides. A large black-and-white photograph showing two men in historical clothing standing on a cliff. Several mountains are behind them. A quote reads 'Government protection should be thrown around every wild grove and forest on the mountains.'

Figure 13.10 by the Public Speaking Project. CC-BY-NC-ND .

The ubiquitous use of bulleted lists is also hotly debated. PowerPoint is practically designed around the bulleted-list format, even though is it regularly blamed for dull, tedious presentations with either overly dense or overly superficial content. [45] Mostly this format is used (incorrectly) as a presenter’s outline. “ No one can do a good presentation with slide after slide of bullet points. No One. ” [46] Reserve bulleted lists for specifications or explaining the order of processes. In all other cases, look for ways to use images, a short phrase, or even no visual at all.

Quotes, on the other hand, are not as offensive to design when they are short, legible, and infrequently used. They can be a very powerful way to hammer a point home or to launch into your next topic. [47] See Figure 13.10 for an example. If you do use a quote in your slide show, immediately stop and read it out loud or allow time for it to be read silently. If the quote is important enough for you to include it in the talk, the quote deserves the audience’s time to read and think about it. Alternately, use a photo of the speaker or of the subject with a phrase from the quote you will be reading them, making the slide enhance the point of the quote.

Images can be powerful and efficient ways to tap into your audience’s emotions. Use photographs to introduce an abstract idea, to evoke emotion, to present evidence, or to direct the audience attention, just make sure it is compatible with your message. [48] Photos aren’t the only images available. You might consider using simplified images like silhouettes, line art, diagrams, enlargements, or exploded views, but these should be high quality and relevant. Simplified can be easier to understand, particularly if you are showing something that has a lot of detail. Simple images also translate better than words to a multicultural audience. [49] In all cases, choose only images that enhance your spoken words and are professional quality. This generally rules out the clip art that comes with slideware, whose use is a sign of amateurism. Select high-quality images and don’t be afraid to use your entire slide to display the image. Boldness with images often adds impact.

When using images, do not enlarge them to the point that the image becomes blurry, also known as pixelation . Pixelation, (Figure 13.11) is caused when the resolution of your image is too low for your output device (e.g. printer, monitor, projector). When selecting images, look for clear ones that can be placed in your presentation without enlarging them. A common practice is to use images over 1,000 pixels wide for filling an entire slide. If your images begin to pixelate, either reduce the size of the image or select a different image.

Never use an image that has a watermark on it, as in Figure 13.2. A watermark is text or a logo that is placed in a digital image to prevent people from re-using it. It is common for companies that sell images to have a preview available that has a watermark on it. This allows you, the potential customer, to see the image, but prevents you from using the image until you have paid for it. Using a watermarked image in your presentation is unprofessional. Select another image without a watermark, take a similar photo yourself, or pay to get the watermark-free version.

You can create images yourself, use free images from places like Pexels, or pay for images from companies like iStockphoto for your presentations. Purchasing images can get expensive quickly and searching for free images is time consuming. Be sure to only use images that you have permission or rights to use and give proper credit for their use. If you are looking for free images, try searching the Creative Commons database for images from places like Flickr, Google, and others. The creators of images with a Creative Commons License allow others to use their work, but with specific restrictions. What is and isn’t allowed is described in the license for each image. Generally, images can be used in educational or non-commercial settings at no cost as long as you give the photographer credit. Also, images created by the U.S. government and its agencies are copyright free and can be used at no cost.

One final consideration with using images: having the same image on every page, be it part of the slide background or your company logo, can be distracting and should be removed or minimized. As mentioned earlier, the more you can simplify your slide, the easier it will be for your audience to understand your message.

Graphs and Charts

As we mentioned in the chapter on support materials, if you have numerical data that you want to present, consider using a graph or chart. You are trying to make a specific point with the data on the slide, so make sure that the point—the conclusion you want your audience to draw — is clear. This may mean that you reduce the amount of data you present, even though it is tempting to include all of your data on your slide.

It is best to minimize the amount of information and focus instead on the simple and clear conclusion. [50] You can include the complete data set in your handout if you feel it is necessary. [51] Particularly when it comes to numerical data, identify the meaning in the numbers and exclude the rest. “Audiences are screaming ‘make it clear,’ not ‘cram more in.’ You won’t often hear an audience member say, ‘That presentation would have been so much better if it were longer.” [52] In some cases you can even ditch the graph altogether and display the one relevant fact that is your conclusion.

Different charts have different purposes, and it is important to select the one that puts your data in the appropriate context to be clearly understood. [53] Pie charts show how the parts relate to the whole and are suitable for up to eight segments, as long as they remain visually distinct. [54] Start your first slice of the pie at 12:00 with your smallest portion and continue around the circle clockwise as the sections increase in size. Usea line graph to show trends over time or how data relates or interacts. Bar charts are good for showing comparisons of size or magnitude [55] and for showing precise comparisons. [56] There are other types of charts and graphs available, but these are the most common.

When designing charts, one should use easily distinguishable colors with clear labels. Be consistent with your colors and data groupings. [57] For clarity, avoid using 3-D graphs and charts, and remove as much of the background noise (lines, shading, etc.) as possible. [58] All components of your graph, once the clutter is removed, should be distinct from any background color. Finally, don’t get too complex in any one graph, make sure your message is as clear as possible, and make sure to visually highlight the conclusion you want the audience to draw.

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LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS

Chapter 13 Design Principles. Authored by : Sheila Kasperek, MLIS, MSIT. Provided by : Mansfield University, Mansfield, PA. Located at : http://publicspeakingproject.org/psvirtualtext.html . Project : The Public Speaking Project. License : CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
Figures 13.1-13.14. Authored by : Sheila Kasperek and Tom Oswald . Located at : http://publicspeakingproject.org/psvirtualtext.html . Project : The Public Speaking Project. License : CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivative
Chapter 13 Objectives, Outline, and Introduction. Authored by : Sheila Kasperek, MLIS, MSIT. Provided by : Mansfield University, Mansfield, PA. Located at : http://publicspeakingproject.org/psvirtualtext.html . Project : The Public Speaking Project. License : CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
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Chapter 13 Types of Visual Aids. Authored by : Sheila Kasperek, MLIS, MSIT. Provided by : Mansfield University, Mansfield, PA. Located at : http://publicspeakingproject.org/psvirtualtext.html . Project : The Public Speaking Project. License : CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
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Brain, Decision-Making, and Mental Health 2050

First Online: 02 January 2023

Cite this chapter

Nima Rezaei 3 , 4 , 5 ,
Amene Saghazadeh 3 , 4 ,
Ali Ercan Altınöz 6 , 7 ,
Amer M. Burhan 8 , 9 , 10 ,
Ana Ferreira 11 ,
Anastasia K. Belolutskaya 12 , 13 ,
Andrea Lavazza 14 , 15 , 16 ,
Bernard Cadet 17 , 18 , 19 ,
Billy A. Danday 20 , 21 ,
Blanca Puig 22 ,
Christoph Meinel 23 ,
Daniela Dumitru 24 , 25 , 26 ,
Denisa Caculidis-Tudor 27 ,
Fernando Urcola-Pardo 28 ,
Gabriela-Paula Florea 29 , 26 ,
Ghsoon Reda 30 ,
Hideki Tsumura 31 , 32 ,
Ioana R. Podina 33 , 34 ,
James Patience 35 ,
Jana S. Rošker 36 , 37 ,
Jeffrey Scheuer 38 ,
Joana Reis 39 , 40 ,
Joanna Salapska-Gelleri 41 , 42 ,
Jozef Bavolar 43 ,
Juan Carlos Olabe 44 ,
Julia von Thienen 23 , 45 ,
Ka Sing Paris Lai 46 ,
Kelly Schuller 41 , 42 ,
Margherita Benzi 47 ,
Maria Evagorou 48 ,
Marián Ambrozy 49 ,
Martin Bourgeois 41 , 42 ,
Miguel Ángel Olabe 50 ,
Minsoo Kang 51 ,
Mirko Farina 52 , 53 ,
Myungjin Jung 54 , 51 ,
Oren Kolodny 55 ,
Paolo Musso 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 ,
Paul D. Loprinzi 54 ,
Rita Payan-Carreira 62 , 40 ,
Rui Sampaio da Silva 63 , 64 ,
Sedat Batmaz 65 , 66 ,
Şefika Dilek Güven 67 ,
Sérgio Roclaw Basbaum 68 , 69 , 70 , 71 ,
Todd McElroy 41 , 42 ,
Umberto Crisanti 72 , 73 ,
Wayne H. Slater 74 , 75 ,
Xabier Basogain 76 &
Žarko Paić 77 , 78

Part of the book series: Integrated Science ((IS,volume 12))

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The authors of Barin, Decision -Making, and Mental Health were asked how they would see the future of their field 30 years later. This chapter presents the authors’ views on this subject in 2050.

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Decision-making
Integrated brain sciences
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The brain is a great integrator of information, so most parts of this organ have an input into every decision we make. It is also extremely adaptable and, like all good computers , is adept at moving information around from one area to another, depending on circumstances. Harry Barry

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Integrated Science Association (ISA), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Tehran, Iran

Nima Rezaei & Amene Saghazadeh

Research Center for Immunodeficiencies, Children’s Medical Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Dr. Qarib St, Keshavarz Blvd, 14194, Tehran, Iran

Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

Nima Rezaei

Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, Eskisehir Osmangazi University, Eskisehir, Turkey

Ali Ercan Altınöz

Integrated Science Association (ISA), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Eskisehir, Turkey

Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada

Amer M. Burhan

Ontario Shores for Mental Health Sciences, Whitby, Toronto, ON, Canada

Integrated Science Association (ISA), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Whitby, Toronto, Canada

Interdisciplinary Centre for Social Sciences (CICS.NOVA), Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities (NOVA FCSH), NOVA University Lisbon, Lisboa, Portugal

Ana Ferreira

Moscow City University, Moscow, Russia

Anastasia K. Belolutskaya

Moscow State Lomonosov University, Moscow, Russia

Centro Universitario Internazionale, Arezzo, Italy

Andrea Lavazza

University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy

Integrated Science Association (ISA), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Milan, Italy

University of Normandy, Caen, France

Bernard Cadet

University of Estremadura, Badajoz, Spain

Integrated Science Association (ISA), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Caen, France

Leyte Normal University, Tacloban City, Philippines

Billy A. Danday

Integrated Science Association (ISA), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Tacloban City, Philippines

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Blanca Puig

Hasso Plattner Institute for Digital Engineering, University of Potsdam, Brandenburg, Potsdam, Germany

Christoph Meinel & Julia von Thienen

Department of Teacher Training, Bucharest University of Economic Studies, Bucharest, Romania

Daniela Dumitru

Doctoral School of Education and Department of Philosophy, West University of Timisoara, Timișoara, Romania

Integrated Science Association (ISA), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Bucharest, Romania

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Doctoral School of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

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Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain

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Doctoral School of Philosophy, University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

Gabriela-Paula Florea

Integrated Science Association (ISA), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Leicester, UK

Ghsoon Reda

Graduate School of Technology, Industrial and Social Sciences, Tokushima University, Tokushima, Japan

Hideki Tsumura

Integrated Science Association (ISA), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Tokushima, Japan

Department of Applied Psychology and Psychotherapy, University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

Ioana R. Podina

Integrated Science Association (ISA), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Poznań, Poland

Clinical Neuropsychiatry & Therapeutic Brain Stimulation Research, Parkwood Institute, London, ON, Canada

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Jozef Bavolar

Christian Brothers University, Memphis, TN, USA

Juan Carlos Olabe

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Julia von Thienen

Department of Psychiatry at Western University, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, London, ON, Canada

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University of Eastern Piedmont, Vercelli, Italy

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University of Nicosia, Nicosia, Cyprus

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College of International Business ISM Slovakia, Prešov, Slovakia

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University of the Basque Country, Biscay, Bilbao, Spain

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Health and Sport Analytics Laboratory, Department of Health, Exercise Science, and Recreation Management, The University of Mississippi, University, Lafayette, MS, 38677, USA

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Innopolis University, Innopolis, Russia

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Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Science, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel

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Universidad Católica Sedes Sapientiae, Lima, Peru

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Comprehensive Health Research Centre, Évora, Portugal

Rita Payan-Carreira

University of the Azores, Ponta Delgada, Portugal

Rui Sampaio da Silva

LanCog Group, Centre of Philosophy of the University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal

Department of Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, Social Sciences University of Ankara, Ankara, Turkey

Sedat Batmaz

Integrated Science Association (ISA), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Ankara, Turkey

Faculty of Semra Ve, Nursing Department, Haci Bektas Veli Nevsehir University, Nevşehir, Turkey

Şefika Dilek Güven

Post-Graduate Program in Technologies of Intelligence and Digital Design (TIDD-PUC-SP), Pontificia Universidade Católica de São Paulo (PUC-SP), São Paulo, Brazil

Sérgio Roclaw Basbaum

Techno.exe—Grupo de Estudos de Tecnoestése e Infocognição, Pontifícia Universidade Católica de São Paulo (PUC-SP), São Paulo, Brazil

GIIP—Grupo Internacional e Interinstitucional de Pesquisa Em Convergências Entre Arte, Ciência e Tecnologia, Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), São Paulo, Brazil

Integrated Science Association (ISA), Universal Scientific and Education Network (USERN), São Paulo, Brazil

British Association for Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapies (BABCP), London, UK

Umberto Crisanti

Integrated Science Association (ISA), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Kent, UK

Department of Teaching and Learning, Policy and Leadership, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, USA

Wayne H. Slater

Integrated Science Association (ISA), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), College Park, Maryland, USA

University of the Basque Country, Vitoria-Gasteiz, Araba, Spain

Xabier Basogain

Faculty of Textile Technology, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia

Integrated Science Association (ISA), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Zagreb, Croatia

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Correspondence to Nima Rezaei .

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Rezaei, N. et al. (2023). Brain, Decision-Making, and Mental Health 2050. In: Rezaei, N. (eds) Brain, Decision Making and Mental Health. Integrated Science, vol 12. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-15959-6_32

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16.2: Critical Thinking

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Lisa Schreiber and Morgan Hartranft
Millersville University via Public Speaking Project

We are approaching a new age of synthesis. Knowledge cannot be merely a degree or a skill... it demands a broader vision, capabilities in critical thinking and logical deduction, without which we cannot have constructive progress. ~ Li Ka Shing

Screen Shot 2019-07-06 at 1.37.53 PM.png

Shonda was researching information for her upcoming persuasive speech. Her goal with the speech was to persuade her classmates to drink a glass of red wine every day. Her argument revolved around the health benefits one can derive from the antioxidants found in red wine. Shonda found an article reporting the results of a study conducted by a Dr. Gray. According to Dr. Gray’s study, drinking four or more glasses of wine a day will help reduce the chances of heart attack, increase levels of good cholesterol, and help in reducing unwanted fat. Without conducting further research, Shonda changed her speech to persuade her classmates to drink four or more glasses of red wine per day. She used Dr. Gray’s study as her primary support. Shonda presented her speech in class to waves of applause and support from her classmates. She was shocked when, a few weeks later, she received a grade of “D”. Shonda’s teacher had also found Dr. Gray’s study and learned it was sponsored by a multi- national distributor of wine. In fact, the study in question was published in a trade journal targeted to wine and alcohol retailers. If Shonda had taken a few extra minutes to critically examine the study, she may have been able to avoid the dreaded “D.”

critical thinking defined

“Active, persistent, careful consideration of a belief or supposed form of knowledge in light of the grounds that support it and the further conclusions to which it tends” (Dewey, 1933, p. 9).

Screen Shot 2019-07-06 at 1.39.00 PM.png

The first key component of Dewey’s definition is that critical thinking is active . Critical thinking must be done by choice. As we continue to delve deeper into the various facets of critical thinking, we will learn how to engage as critical thinkers.

Probably one of the most concise and easiest to understand definitions is that offered by Barry Beyer: "Critical thinking... means making reasoned judgments" (Beyer, 1995, p. 8). In other words, we don’t just jump to a conclusion or a judgment. We rationalize and justify our conclusions. A second primary component of critical thinking, then, involves questioning. As critical thinkers, we need to question everything that confronts us. Equally important, we need to question ourselves and ask how our own biases or assumptions influence how we judge something.

In the following sections we will explore how to do critical thinking more in depth. As you read through this material, reflect back on Dewey’s and Beyer’s definitions of critical thinking.

critical thinking traits and skills

Critical thinkers tend to exhibit certain traits that are common to them. These traits are summarized in Table 6.1 (adapted from Facione, 1990, p. 6):

Recall that critical thinking is an active mode of thinking. Instead of just receiving messages and accepting them as is, we consider what they are saying. We ask if messages are well-supported. We determine if their logic is sound or slightly flawed. In other words, we act on the messages before we take action based on them. When we enact critical thinking on a message, we engage a variety of skills including: listening, analysis, evaluation, inference and interpretation or explanation, and self- regulation (adapted from Facione, 1990, p. 6)

Next, we will examine each of these skills and their role in critical thinking in greater detail. As you read through the explanation of and examples for each skill, think about how it works in conjunction with the others. It’s important to note that while our discussion of the skills is presented in a linear manner, in practice our use of each skill is not so straightforward. We may exercise different skills simultaneously or jump forward and backward.

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Without an open-minded mind, you can never be a great success. ~ Martha Stewart

In order to understand listening, we must first understand the difference between listening and hearing . At its most basic, hearing refers to the physiological process of receiving sounds, while listening refers to the psychological process of interpreting or making sense of those sounds.

Every minute of every day we are surrounded by hundreds of different noises and sounds. If we were to try to make sense of each different sound we would probably spend our day just doing this. While we may hear all of the noises, we filter out many of them. They pass through our lives without further notice. Certain noises, however, jump to the forefront of our consciousness. As we listen to them, we make sense of these sounds. We do this every day without necessarily thinking about the process. Like many other bodily functions, it happens without our willing it to happen.

Critical thinking requires that we consciously listen to messages. We must focus on what is being said – and not said. We must strive not to be distracted by other outside noises or the internal noise of our own preconceived ideas. For the moment we only need to take in the message.

Listening becomes especially difficult when the message contains highly charged information. Think about what happens when you try to discuss a controversial issue such as abortion. As the other person speaks, you may have every good intention of listening to the entire argument.

However, when the person says something you feel strongly about you start formulating a counter-argument in your head. The end result is that both sides end up talking past each other without ever really listening to what the other says.

Once we have listened to a message, we can begin to analyze it. In practice we often begin analyzing messages while still listening to them. When we analyze something, we consider it in greater detail, separating out the main components of the message. In a sense, we are acting like a surgeon on the message, carving out all of the different elements and laying them out for further consideration and possible action.

Screen Shot 2019-07-06 at 1.58.31 PM.png

Let’s return to Shonda’s persuasive speech to see analysis in action. As part of the needs section of her speech, Shonda makes the following remarks:

If we were to analyze this part of Shonda’s speech (see Table \(\PageIndex{2}\)), we could begin by looking at the claims she makes. We could then look at the evidence she presents in support of these claims. Having parsed out the various elements, we are then ready to evaluate them and by extension the message as a whole.

When we evaluate something we continue the process of analysis by assessing the various claims and arguments for validity. One way we evaluate a message is to ask questions about what is being said and who is saying it. The following is a list of typical questions we may ask, along with an evaluation of the ideas in Shonda’s speech.

Is the speaker credible?

Yes. While Shonda may not be an expert per se on the issue of health benefits related to wine, she has made herself a mini-expert through conducting research.

Does the statement ring true or false based on common sense?

It sounds kind of fishy. Four or more glasses of wine in one sitting doesn’t seem right. In fact, it seems like it might be bordering on binge drinking.

Does the logic employed hold up to scrutiny?

Based on the little bit of Shonda’s speech we see here, her logic does seem to be sound. As we will see later on, she actually commits a few fallacies.

What questions or objections are raised by the message?

In addition to the possibility of Shonda’s proposal being binge drinking, it also raises the possibility of creating alcoholism or causing other long term health problems.

How will further information affect the message?

More information will probably contradict her claims. In fact, most medical research in this area contradicts the claim that drinking 4 or more glasses of wine a day is a good thing.

Will further information strengthen or weaken the claims?

Most likely Shonda’s claims will be weakened.

What questions or objections are raised by the claims?

In addition to the objections we’ve already discussed, there is also the problem of the credibility of Shonda’s expert “doctor.”

A wise man proportions his belief to the evidence. ~ David Hume

inference and interpretation or explanation

The next step in critically examining a message is to interpret or explain the conclusions that we draw from it. At this phase we consider the evidence and the claims together. In effect we are reassembling the components that we parsed out during analysis. We are continuing our evaluation by looking at the evidence, alternatives, and possible conclusions.

Before we draw any inferences or attempt any explanations, we should look at the evidence provided. When we consider evidence we must first determine what, if any, kind of support is provided. Of the evidence we then ask:

Is the evidence sound?
Does the evidence say what the speaker says it does?
Does contradictory evidence exist?
Is the evidence from a valid credible source?

Even though these are set up as yes or no questions, you’ll probably find in practice that your answers are a bit more complex. For example, let’s say you’re writing a speech on why we should wear our seatbelts at all times while driving. You’ve researched the topic and found solid, credible information setting forth the numerous reasons why wearing a seatbelt can help save your life and decrease the number of injuries experienced during a motor vehicle accident. Certainly, there exists contradictory evidence arguing seat belts can cause more injuries. For example, if you’re in an accident where your car is partially submerged in water, wearing a seatbelt may impede your ability to quickly exit the vehicle. Does the fact that this evidence exists negate your claims? Probably not, but you need to be thorough in evaluating and considering how you use your evidence.

Screen Shot 2019-07-06 at 2.03.41 PM.png

“Imply” or “Infer”?

For two relatively small words, imply and infer seem to generate an inordinately large amount of confusion. Understanding the difference between the two and knowing when to use the right one is not only a useful skill, but it also makes you sound a lot smarter!

Let’s begin with imply. Imply means to suggest or convey an idea. A speaker or a piece of writing implies things. For example, in Shonda’s speech, she implies it is better to drink more red wine. In other words, she never directly says that we need to drink more red wine, but she clearly hints at it when she suggests that drinking four or more glasses a day will provide us with health benefits.

Now let’s consider infer. Infer means that something in a speaker’s words or a piece of writing helps us to draw a conclusion outside of his/her words. We infer a conclusion. Returning to Shonda’s speech, we can infer she would want us to drink more red wine rather than less. She never comes right out and says this. However, by considering her overall message, we can draw this conclusion.

Another way to think of the difference between imply and infer is:
A speaker (or writer for that matter) implies.
The audience infers.

Therefore, it would be incorrect to say that Shonda infers we should drink more rather than less wine. She implies this. To help you differentiate between the two, remember that an inference is something that comes from outside the spoken or written text.

A man who does not think for himself does not think at all. ~ Oscar Wilde

self-regulation

The final step in critically examining a message is actually a skill we should exercise throughout the entire process. With self-regulation, we consider our pre-existing thoughts on the subject and any biases we may have. We examine how what we think on an issue may have influenced the way we understand (or think we understand) the message and any conclusions we have drawn. Just as contradictory evidence doesn’t automatically negate our claims or invalidate our arguments, our biases don’t necessarily make our conclusions wrong. The goal of practicing self- regulation is not to disavow or deny our opinions. The goal is to create distance between our opinions and the messages we evaluate.

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the value of critical thinking

In public speaking, the value of being a critical thinker cannot be overstressed. Critical thinking helps us to determine the truth or validity of arguments. However, it also helps us to formulate strong arguments for our speeches. Exercising critical thinking at all steps of the speech writing and delivering process can help us avoid situations like Shonda found herself in. Critical thinking is not a magical panacea that will make us super speakers. However, it is another tool that we can add to our speech toolbox.

As we will learn in the following pages, we construct arguments based on logic. Understanding the ways logic can be used and possibly misused is a vital skill. To help stress the importance of it, the Foundation for Critical Thinking has set forth universal standards of reasoning. These standards can be found in Table \(\PageIndex{3}\).

When the mind is thinking, it is talking to itself. ~ Plato

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