What is QuantCrit?

Quantitative critical theory (quantcrit).

Critical Race Theory (CRT) began in the 1970s and 1980s to address social injustices and racial oppression (Ladson-Billings, 2013; West, 1995; Sleeter & Bernal, 2004). Subsequently, scholars in many fields, including education (Ladson-Billings, 1998; Ladson-Billings, 2009), have used CRT to guide their work in areas such as LatCrit, FemCrit, AsianCrit, and WhiteCrit (Solorzano & Yosso, 2001). Each of these branches applies the defining characteristics of CRT (e.g., examining oppressive power structures, challenging the ideas of objectivity, and considering intersectionality of individual’s identities; Ladson-Billings, 2013) in novel contexts.

The tenets of CRT are not explicitly qualitative, but CRT research has historically used qualitative methods. The predominance of qualitative methods in CRT investigations is, in part, due to CRT’s focus on individual’s narratives and counter-narratives (McGee, 2020). However, quantitative critical (QuantCrit; Stage, 2007) theory has emerged to inform the use of quantitative methods in ways consistent with the tenets of critical theory. Scholars (e.g., Covarrubias et al., 2018; Gilborn et al., 2018) have proposed a set of tenets for QuantCrit research. We have attempted to synthesize these tenets and provide examples of how they can inform different stages of quantitative research in our Tenets of QuantCrit workshop materials.

critical theory quantitative research

Tenets of QuantCrit

Quantitative Critical (QuantCrit) research is a relatively new field of study grounded in critical theory. The nascency of QuantCrit has led multiple scholars to propose various related tenets. In what follows, we offer a synthesis of several tenets of QuantCrit we have applied to our research, their applications to education research in general, and citations for more information.

critical theory quantitative research

The centrality of oppression

QuantCrit researchers take as a fact that structural racism and sexism plague the U.S. economic, political, and educational systems. Gaps in student performance result from systems-wide policies and approaches that implicitly and explicitly disadvantage broad groups of students, particularly those that do not identify as white men. Students are oppressed for a myriad of dimensions of diversity beyond gender and race, including ableness, religious affiliation, and socioeconomic status. QuantCrit researchers commit to disrupting narratives that frame minoritized students as deficient and disrupting oppressive systems through anti-racist and anti-sexist work.

Example research application

When discussing the causes of inequities, QuantCrit researchers don’t have to speculate about the causes. By a priori stating that the causes are racist, sexist, and classist power structures, researchers can focus their discussion on identifying the mechanisms and impacts of these oppressive systems.

Data and methods are not neutral

Researchers often fail to adequately discuss the biases introduced in data collection and analysis methods. This leads many researchers and readers to interpret quantitative findings as objective facts. QuantCrit research acknowledges that all data and analysis methods introduce biases and strives to minimize and explicitly discuss these biases.

QuantCrit researchers avoid biasing findings by critically examining commonly used methods. For example, using p-values as go-no-go tests to identify differences between groups is particularly problematic in equity research. P-values depend on sample size. As many minoritized groups are underrepresented in the sciences, collecting sufficiently large sample sizes to find statistically significant differences between students who are minoritized and white men is prohibitive for many research projects. The lack of data from minoritized students has led many research projects to find that racism’s impacts are not statistically significant and conclude that equity was achieved. Instead of using p-values to represent uncertainty, QuantCrit researchers use confidence intervals to create a more nuanced and less biased interpretation of findings.

critical theory quantitative research

Data cannot speak for itself

When researchers present data or findings without explicitly providing a perspective, readers will likely interpret the data and findings through the dominant perspective, which often leads to racist and sexist interpretations (see Tenet 1). Such interpretations reinforce existing deficit narratives about minoritized groups.

When discussing differences between demographic groups, QuantCrit researchers don’t refer to them as the impacts of gender or race gaps but the impacts of sexism and racism. One way to do this in educational settings is to frame the differences as educational debts (Ladson-Billings, 2006) that society owes the students.

Groups are neither natural nor inherent

In U.S. society, we often take one’s racial and gender identity as being immutable features of a person. QuantCrit research reframes these aspects of individuals’ identities as being socially constructed and fluid. Statistical analysis requires aggregation of data to support claims about group outcomes. QuantCrit research strives to create models that respect students’ identities.

QuantCrit researchers minimize student data aggregation, representing as much diversity in student outcomes as their data can reasonably allow. When aggregating data, QuantCrit researchers should do so in transparent ways that do not erase students and respect their identities.

critical theory quantitative research

Taking an intersectional perspective

Identity is multifaceted (e.g., race, gender), each aspect of which exists along an axis. The interaction at the intersection of these axes shapes an individual’s experience of the world. For example, Black women experience racism differently from Black men and sexism differently from White women.

When developing statistical models, QuantCrit researchers explore the additional information that including interaction terms for demographic variables provides. By having an interaction term for gender and race, a model can predict the impacts of sexism and racism in ways that are not merely additive.

Valuing narrative and counter-narrative

Critical theory places great value on individuals’ lived experiences. Narratives and counter-narratives capture these experiences. Counter-narratives represent the experiences and perspectives of minoritized people and often contradict our culture’s dominant narratives (e.g., our educational system is meritocratic). QuantCrit researchers strive to include people’s voices from minoritized groups in the data and research teams to ensure diversity in the narratives promoted.

QuantCrit researchers can incorporate counter-narrative in a variety of ways. For example, QuantCrit researchers can integrate testimonios into a mixed-methods analysis (Covarrubias et al., 2018). QuantCrit researchers also strive to develop research teams with diverse experiences, perspectives, and identities. In projects where the research team lacks diversity, hiring an equity consultant to perform an audit of the work can provide a needed perspective.

Final note: There are other tenets of critical theory that inform our work, but we do not include those here for the sake of brevity (e.g., interest convergence). In creating this list, we focused on the tenets that have been most influential in shaping our QuantCrit research.

critical theory quantitative research

Additional resources:

Covarrubias, A., Nava, P. E., Lara, A., Burciaga, R., Vélez, V. N., & Solorzano, D. G. (2018). Critical race quantitative intersections: A testimonio analysis. Race Ethnicity and Education, 21(2), 253-273.

Crenshaw, K. (1990). Mapping the margins: Intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of color. Stan. L. Rev., 43, 1241.

Gillborn, D., Warmington, P., & Demack, S. (2018). QuantCrit: education, policy, ‘Big Data’ and principles for a critical race theory of statistics. Race Ethnicity and Education, 21(2), 158-179.

Ladson-Billings, G. (2006). From the achievement gap to the education debt: Understanding achievement in US schools. Educational researcher, 35(7), 3-12.

Ladson-Billings, G. (2013). Critical race theory—What it is not!. In Handbook of critical race theory in education (pp. 54-67). Routledge.

López, N., Erwin, C., Binder, M., & Chavez, M. J. (2018). Making the invisible visible: advancing quantitative methods in higher education using critical race theory and intersectionality. Race Ethnicity and Education, 21(2), 180-207.

Stage, F. K. (2007). Answering critical questions using quantitative data. New directions for institutional research, 2007(133), 5-16.

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Publication Patterns of Higher Education Research Using Quantitative Criticalism and QuantCrit Perspectives

  • Published: 18 October 2022
  • Volume 47 , pages 967–988, ( 2022 )

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  • Annie M. Wofford   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2246-1946 1 &
  • Christa E. Winkler   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1700-5444 2  

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While higher education scholars have become progressively more interested in employing critical approaches within quantitative research, there is a significant need to improve our understanding about the dissemination and publication of such work. Drawing from a systematic scoping review of 15 years of published higher education literature that integrates quantitative methods and critical inquiry, this article examines 45 manuscripts explicitly using quantitative criticalist or QuantCrit (i.e., quantitative critical race theory) perspectives. Specifically, we investigate which outlets published the included articles, scope and metrics of each outlet, and disciplinary (mis)alignment between contributing authors and publishing outlets. Findings reveal important trends about the uptick in published scholarship using critical quantitative approaches, the equity-focused scope of outlets that have published the majority of manuscripts in our sample, and how scholars’ disciplinary training and affiliation may be associated with publication trends. Given that publication processes may serve as a gatekeeping mechanism in academic knowledge dissemination, we conclude with implications for faculty holding power in publishing outlets (e.g., on editorial boards) as well as scholars engaging quantitative criticalism and QuantCrit in higher education.

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Acknowledgements

This research was supported by a grant from the American Educational Research Association Division D. All authors contributed to the study conception, design, and data collection. Data analysis was led by Dr. Christa E. Winkler and writing of the full manuscript was led by Dr. Annie M. Wofford, with both authors making substantial contributions to these processes throughout. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. The authors gratefully acknowledge Dr. Nathaniel Bray and the reviewers of this special issue for their thoughtful feedback.

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Wofford, A.M., Winkler, C.E. Publication Patterns of Higher Education Research Using Quantitative Criticalism and QuantCrit Perspectives. Innov High Educ 47 , 967–988 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10755-022-09628-3

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A Practical Guide to Writing Quantitative and Qualitative Research Questions and Hypotheses in Scholarly Articles

Edward barroga.

1 Department of General Education, Graduate School of Nursing Science, St. Luke’s International University, Tokyo, Japan.

Glafera Janet Matanguihan

2 Department of Biological Sciences, Messiah University, Mechanicsburg, PA, USA.

The development of research questions and the subsequent hypotheses are prerequisites to defining the main research purpose and specific objectives of a study. Consequently, these objectives determine the study design and research outcome. The development of research questions is a process based on knowledge of current trends, cutting-edge studies, and technological advances in the research field. Excellent research questions are focused and require a comprehensive literature search and in-depth understanding of the problem being investigated. Initially, research questions may be written as descriptive questions which could be developed into inferential questions. These questions must be specific and concise to provide a clear foundation for developing hypotheses. Hypotheses are more formal predictions about the research outcomes. These specify the possible results that may or may not be expected regarding the relationship between groups. Thus, research questions and hypotheses clarify the main purpose and specific objectives of the study, which in turn dictate the design of the study, its direction, and outcome. Studies developed from good research questions and hypotheses will have trustworthy outcomes with wide-ranging social and health implications.

INTRODUCTION

Scientific research is usually initiated by posing evidenced-based research questions which are then explicitly restated as hypotheses. 1 , 2 The hypotheses provide directions to guide the study, solutions, explanations, and expected results. 3 , 4 Both research questions and hypotheses are essentially formulated based on conventional theories and real-world processes, which allow the inception of novel studies and the ethical testing of ideas. 5 , 6

It is crucial to have knowledge of both quantitative and qualitative research 2 as both types of research involve writing research questions and hypotheses. 7 However, these crucial elements of research are sometimes overlooked; if not overlooked, then framed without the forethought and meticulous attention it needs. Planning and careful consideration are needed when developing quantitative or qualitative research, particularly when conceptualizing research questions and hypotheses. 4

There is a continuing need to support researchers in the creation of innovative research questions and hypotheses, as well as for journal articles that carefully review these elements. 1 When research questions and hypotheses are not carefully thought of, unethical studies and poor outcomes usually ensue. Carefully formulated research questions and hypotheses define well-founded objectives, which in turn determine the appropriate design, course, and outcome of the study. This article then aims to discuss in detail the various aspects of crafting research questions and hypotheses, with the goal of guiding researchers as they develop their own. Examples from the authors and peer-reviewed scientific articles in the healthcare field are provided to illustrate key points.

DEFINITIONS AND RELATIONSHIP OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

A research question is what a study aims to answer after data analysis and interpretation. The answer is written in length in the discussion section of the paper. Thus, the research question gives a preview of the different parts and variables of the study meant to address the problem posed in the research question. 1 An excellent research question clarifies the research writing while facilitating understanding of the research topic, objective, scope, and limitations of the study. 5

On the other hand, a research hypothesis is an educated statement of an expected outcome. This statement is based on background research and current knowledge. 8 , 9 The research hypothesis makes a specific prediction about a new phenomenon 10 or a formal statement on the expected relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable. 3 , 11 It provides a tentative answer to the research question to be tested or explored. 4

Hypotheses employ reasoning to predict a theory-based outcome. 10 These can also be developed from theories by focusing on components of theories that have not yet been observed. 10 The validity of hypotheses is often based on the testability of the prediction made in a reproducible experiment. 8

Conversely, hypotheses can also be rephrased as research questions. Several hypotheses based on existing theories and knowledge may be needed to answer a research question. Developing ethical research questions and hypotheses creates a research design that has logical relationships among variables. These relationships serve as a solid foundation for the conduct of the study. 4 , 11 Haphazardly constructed research questions can result in poorly formulated hypotheses and improper study designs, leading to unreliable results. Thus, the formulations of relevant research questions and verifiable hypotheses are crucial when beginning research. 12

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Excellent research questions are specific and focused. These integrate collective data and observations to confirm or refute the subsequent hypotheses. Well-constructed hypotheses are based on previous reports and verify the research context. These are realistic, in-depth, sufficiently complex, and reproducible. More importantly, these hypotheses can be addressed and tested. 13

There are several characteristics of well-developed hypotheses. Good hypotheses are 1) empirically testable 7 , 10 , 11 , 13 ; 2) backed by preliminary evidence 9 ; 3) testable by ethical research 7 , 9 ; 4) based on original ideas 9 ; 5) have evidenced-based logical reasoning 10 ; and 6) can be predicted. 11 Good hypotheses can infer ethical and positive implications, indicating the presence of a relationship or effect relevant to the research theme. 7 , 11 These are initially developed from a general theory and branch into specific hypotheses by deductive reasoning. In the absence of a theory to base the hypotheses, inductive reasoning based on specific observations or findings form more general hypotheses. 10

TYPES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions and hypotheses are developed according to the type of research, which can be broadly classified into quantitative and qualitative research. We provide a summary of the types of research questions and hypotheses under quantitative and qualitative research categories in Table 1 .

Research questions in quantitative research

In quantitative research, research questions inquire about the relationships among variables being investigated and are usually framed at the start of the study. These are precise and typically linked to the subject population, dependent and independent variables, and research design. 1 Research questions may also attempt to describe the behavior of a population in relation to one or more variables, or describe the characteristics of variables to be measured ( descriptive research questions ). 1 , 5 , 14 These questions may also aim to discover differences between groups within the context of an outcome variable ( comparative research questions ), 1 , 5 , 14 or elucidate trends and interactions among variables ( relationship research questions ). 1 , 5 We provide examples of descriptive, comparative, and relationship research questions in quantitative research in Table 2 .

Hypotheses in quantitative research

In quantitative research, hypotheses predict the expected relationships among variables. 15 Relationships among variables that can be predicted include 1) between a single dependent variable and a single independent variable ( simple hypothesis ) or 2) between two or more independent and dependent variables ( complex hypothesis ). 4 , 11 Hypotheses may also specify the expected direction to be followed and imply an intellectual commitment to a particular outcome ( directional hypothesis ) 4 . On the other hand, hypotheses may not predict the exact direction and are used in the absence of a theory, or when findings contradict previous studies ( non-directional hypothesis ). 4 In addition, hypotheses can 1) define interdependency between variables ( associative hypothesis ), 4 2) propose an effect on the dependent variable from manipulation of the independent variable ( causal hypothesis ), 4 3) state a negative relationship between two variables ( null hypothesis ), 4 , 11 , 15 4) replace the working hypothesis if rejected ( alternative hypothesis ), 15 explain the relationship of phenomena to possibly generate a theory ( working hypothesis ), 11 5) involve quantifiable variables that can be tested statistically ( statistical hypothesis ), 11 6) or express a relationship whose interlinks can be verified logically ( logical hypothesis ). 11 We provide examples of simple, complex, directional, non-directional, associative, causal, null, alternative, working, statistical, and logical hypotheses in quantitative research, as well as the definition of quantitative hypothesis-testing research in Table 3 .

Research questions in qualitative research

Unlike research questions in quantitative research, research questions in qualitative research are usually continuously reviewed and reformulated. The central question and associated subquestions are stated more than the hypotheses. 15 The central question broadly explores a complex set of factors surrounding the central phenomenon, aiming to present the varied perspectives of participants. 15

There are varied goals for which qualitative research questions are developed. These questions can function in several ways, such as to 1) identify and describe existing conditions ( contextual research question s); 2) describe a phenomenon ( descriptive research questions ); 3) assess the effectiveness of existing methods, protocols, theories, or procedures ( evaluation research questions ); 4) examine a phenomenon or analyze the reasons or relationships between subjects or phenomena ( explanatory research questions ); or 5) focus on unknown aspects of a particular topic ( exploratory research questions ). 5 In addition, some qualitative research questions provide new ideas for the development of theories and actions ( generative research questions ) or advance specific ideologies of a position ( ideological research questions ). 1 Other qualitative research questions may build on a body of existing literature and become working guidelines ( ethnographic research questions ). Research questions may also be broadly stated without specific reference to the existing literature or a typology of questions ( phenomenological research questions ), may be directed towards generating a theory of some process ( grounded theory questions ), or may address a description of the case and the emerging themes ( qualitative case study questions ). 15 We provide examples of contextual, descriptive, evaluation, explanatory, exploratory, generative, ideological, ethnographic, phenomenological, grounded theory, and qualitative case study research questions in qualitative research in Table 4 , and the definition of qualitative hypothesis-generating research in Table 5 .

Qualitative studies usually pose at least one central research question and several subquestions starting with How or What . These research questions use exploratory verbs such as explore or describe . These also focus on one central phenomenon of interest, and may mention the participants and research site. 15

Hypotheses in qualitative research

Hypotheses in qualitative research are stated in the form of a clear statement concerning the problem to be investigated. Unlike in quantitative research where hypotheses are usually developed to be tested, qualitative research can lead to both hypothesis-testing and hypothesis-generating outcomes. 2 When studies require both quantitative and qualitative research questions, this suggests an integrative process between both research methods wherein a single mixed-methods research question can be developed. 1

FRAMEWORKS FOR DEVELOPING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions followed by hypotheses should be developed before the start of the study. 1 , 12 , 14 It is crucial to develop feasible research questions on a topic that is interesting to both the researcher and the scientific community. This can be achieved by a meticulous review of previous and current studies to establish a novel topic. Specific areas are subsequently focused on to generate ethical research questions. The relevance of the research questions is evaluated in terms of clarity of the resulting data, specificity of the methodology, objectivity of the outcome, depth of the research, and impact of the study. 1 , 5 These aspects constitute the FINER criteria (i.e., Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, and Relevant). 1 Clarity and effectiveness are achieved if research questions meet the FINER criteria. In addition to the FINER criteria, Ratan et al. described focus, complexity, novelty, feasibility, and measurability for evaluating the effectiveness of research questions. 14

The PICOT and PEO frameworks are also used when developing research questions. 1 The following elements are addressed in these frameworks, PICOT: P-population/patients/problem, I-intervention or indicator being studied, C-comparison group, O-outcome of interest, and T-timeframe of the study; PEO: P-population being studied, E-exposure to preexisting conditions, and O-outcome of interest. 1 Research questions are also considered good if these meet the “FINERMAPS” framework: Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, Relevant, Manageable, Appropriate, Potential value/publishable, and Systematic. 14

As we indicated earlier, research questions and hypotheses that are not carefully formulated result in unethical studies or poor outcomes. To illustrate this, we provide some examples of ambiguous research question and hypotheses that result in unclear and weak research objectives in quantitative research ( Table 6 ) 16 and qualitative research ( Table 7 ) 17 , and how to transform these ambiguous research question(s) and hypothesis(es) into clear and good statements.

a These statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

b These statements are direct quotes from Higashihara and Horiuchi. 16

a This statement is a direct quote from Shimoda et al. 17

The other statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

CONSTRUCTING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

To construct effective research questions and hypotheses, it is very important to 1) clarify the background and 2) identify the research problem at the outset of the research, within a specific timeframe. 9 Then, 3) review or conduct preliminary research to collect all available knowledge about the possible research questions by studying theories and previous studies. 18 Afterwards, 4) construct research questions to investigate the research problem. Identify variables to be accessed from the research questions 4 and make operational definitions of constructs from the research problem and questions. Thereafter, 5) construct specific deductive or inductive predictions in the form of hypotheses. 4 Finally, 6) state the study aims . This general flow for constructing effective research questions and hypotheses prior to conducting research is shown in Fig. 1 .

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Research questions are used more frequently in qualitative research than objectives or hypotheses. 3 These questions seek to discover, understand, explore or describe experiences by asking “What” or “How.” The questions are open-ended to elicit a description rather than to relate variables or compare groups. The questions are continually reviewed, reformulated, and changed during the qualitative study. 3 Research questions are also used more frequently in survey projects than hypotheses in experiments in quantitative research to compare variables and their relationships.

Hypotheses are constructed based on the variables identified and as an if-then statement, following the template, ‘If a specific action is taken, then a certain outcome is expected.’ At this stage, some ideas regarding expectations from the research to be conducted must be drawn. 18 Then, the variables to be manipulated (independent) and influenced (dependent) are defined. 4 Thereafter, the hypothesis is stated and refined, and reproducible data tailored to the hypothesis are identified, collected, and analyzed. 4 The hypotheses must be testable and specific, 18 and should describe the variables and their relationships, the specific group being studied, and the predicted research outcome. 18 Hypotheses construction involves a testable proposition to be deduced from theory, and independent and dependent variables to be separated and measured separately. 3 Therefore, good hypotheses must be based on good research questions constructed at the start of a study or trial. 12

In summary, research questions are constructed after establishing the background of the study. Hypotheses are then developed based on the research questions. Thus, it is crucial to have excellent research questions to generate superior hypotheses. In turn, these would determine the research objectives and the design of the study, and ultimately, the outcome of the research. 12 Algorithms for building research questions and hypotheses are shown in Fig. 2 for quantitative research and in Fig. 3 for qualitative research.

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EXAMPLES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS FROM PUBLISHED ARTICLES

  • EXAMPLE 1. Descriptive research question (quantitative research)
  • - Presents research variables to be assessed (distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes)
  • “BACKGROUND: Since COVID-19 was identified, its clinical and biological heterogeneity has been recognized. Identifying COVID-19 phenotypes might help guide basic, clinical, and translational research efforts.
  • RESEARCH QUESTION: Does the clinical spectrum of patients with COVID-19 contain distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes? ” 19
  • EXAMPLE 2. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
  • - Shows interactions between dependent variable (static postural control) and independent variable (peripheral visual field loss)
  • “Background: Integration of visual, vestibular, and proprioceptive sensations contributes to postural control. People with peripheral visual field loss have serious postural instability. However, the directional specificity of postural stability and sensory reweighting caused by gradual peripheral visual field loss remain unclear.
  • Research question: What are the effects of peripheral visual field loss on static postural control ?” 20
  • EXAMPLE 3. Comparative research question (quantitative research)
  • - Clarifies the difference among groups with an outcome variable (patients enrolled in COMPERA with moderate PH or severe PH in COPD) and another group without the outcome variable (patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH))
  • “BACKGROUND: Pulmonary hypertension (PH) in COPD is a poorly investigated clinical condition.
  • RESEARCH QUESTION: Which factors determine the outcome of PH in COPD?
  • STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: We analyzed the characteristics and outcome of patients enrolled in the Comparative, Prospective Registry of Newly Initiated Therapies for Pulmonary Hypertension (COMPERA) with moderate or severe PH in COPD as defined during the 6th PH World Symposium who received medical therapy for PH and compared them with patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH) .” 21
  • EXAMPLE 4. Exploratory research question (qualitative research)
  • - Explores areas that have not been fully investigated (perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment) to have a deeper understanding of the research problem
  • “Problem: Interventions for children with obesity lead to only modest improvements in BMI and long-term outcomes, and data are limited on the perspectives of families of children with obesity in clinic-based treatment. This scoping review seeks to answer the question: What is known about the perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment? This review aims to explore the scope of perspectives reported by families of children with obesity who have received individualized outpatient clinic-based obesity treatment.” 22
  • EXAMPLE 5. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
  • - Defines interactions between dependent variable (use of ankle strategies) and independent variable (changes in muscle tone)
  • “Background: To maintain an upright standing posture against external disturbances, the human body mainly employs two types of postural control strategies: “ankle strategy” and “hip strategy.” While it has been reported that the magnitude of the disturbance alters the use of postural control strategies, it has not been elucidated how the level of muscle tone, one of the crucial parameters of bodily function, determines the use of each strategy. We have previously confirmed using forward dynamics simulations of human musculoskeletal models that an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. The objective of the present study was to experimentally evaluate a hypothesis: an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. Research question: Do changes in the muscle tone affect the use of ankle strategies ?” 23

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESES IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES

  • EXAMPLE 1. Working hypothesis (quantitative research)
  • - A hypothesis that is initially accepted for further research to produce a feasible theory
  • “As fever may have benefit in shortening the duration of viral illness, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response when taken during the early stages of COVID-19 illness .” 24
  • “In conclusion, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response . The difference in perceived safety of these agents in COVID-19 illness could be related to the more potent efficacy to reduce fever with ibuprofen compared to acetaminophen. Compelling data on the benefit of fever warrant further research and review to determine when to treat or withhold ibuprofen for early stage fever for COVID-19 and other related viral illnesses .” 24
  • EXAMPLE 2. Exploratory hypothesis (qualitative research)
  • - Explores particular areas deeper to clarify subjective experience and develop a formal hypothesis potentially testable in a future quantitative approach
  • “We hypothesized that when thinking about a past experience of help-seeking, a self distancing prompt would cause increased help-seeking intentions and more favorable help-seeking outcome expectations .” 25
  • “Conclusion
  • Although a priori hypotheses were not supported, further research is warranted as results indicate the potential for using self-distancing approaches to increasing help-seeking among some people with depressive symptomatology.” 25
  • EXAMPLE 3. Hypothesis-generating research to establish a framework for hypothesis testing (qualitative research)
  • “We hypothesize that compassionate care is beneficial for patients (better outcomes), healthcare systems and payers (lower costs), and healthcare providers (lower burnout). ” 26
  • Compassionomics is the branch of knowledge and scientific study of the effects of compassionate healthcare. Our main hypotheses are that compassionate healthcare is beneficial for (1) patients, by improving clinical outcomes, (2) healthcare systems and payers, by supporting financial sustainability, and (3) HCPs, by lowering burnout and promoting resilience and well-being. The purpose of this paper is to establish a scientific framework for testing the hypotheses above . If these hypotheses are confirmed through rigorous research, compassionomics will belong in the science of evidence-based medicine, with major implications for all healthcare domains.” 26
  • EXAMPLE 4. Statistical hypothesis (quantitative research)
  • - An assumption is made about the relationship among several population characteristics ( gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD ). Validity is tested by statistical experiment or analysis ( chi-square test, Students t-test, and logistic regression analysis)
  • “Our research investigated gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD in a Japanese clinical sample. Due to unique Japanese cultural ideals and expectations of women's behavior that are in opposition to ADHD symptoms, we hypothesized that women with ADHD experience more difficulties and present more dysfunctions than men . We tested the following hypotheses: first, women with ADHD have more comorbidities than men with ADHD; second, women with ADHD experience more social hardships than men, such as having less full-time employment and being more likely to be divorced.” 27
  • “Statistical Analysis
  • ( text omitted ) Between-gender comparisons were made using the chi-squared test for categorical variables and Students t-test for continuous variables…( text omitted ). A logistic regression analysis was performed for employment status, marital status, and comorbidity to evaluate the independent effects of gender on these dependent variables.” 27

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESIS AS WRITTEN IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES IN RELATION TO OTHER PARTS

  • EXAMPLE 1. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
  • “Pregnant women need skilled care during pregnancy and childbirth, but that skilled care is often delayed in some countries …( text omitted ). The focused antenatal care (FANC) model of WHO recommends that nurses provide information or counseling to all pregnant women …( text omitted ). Job aids are visual support materials that provide the right kind of information using graphics and words in a simple and yet effective manner. When nurses are not highly trained or have many work details to attend to, these job aids can serve as a content reminder for the nurses and can be used for educating their patients (Jennings, Yebadokpo, Affo, & Agbogbe, 2010) ( text omitted ). Importantly, additional evidence is needed to confirm how job aids can further improve the quality of ANC counseling by health workers in maternal care …( text omitted )” 28
  • “ This has led us to hypothesize that the quality of ANC counseling would be better if supported by job aids. Consequently, a better quality of ANC counseling is expected to produce higher levels of awareness concerning the danger signs of pregnancy and a more favorable impression of the caring behavior of nurses .” 28
  • “This study aimed to examine the differences in the responses of pregnant women to a job aid-supported intervention during ANC visit in terms of 1) their understanding of the danger signs of pregnancy and 2) their impression of the caring behaviors of nurses to pregnant women in rural Tanzania.” 28
  • EXAMPLE 2. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
  • “We conducted a two-arm randomized controlled trial (RCT) to evaluate and compare changes in salivary cortisol and oxytocin levels of first-time pregnant women between experimental and control groups. The women in the experimental group touched and held an infant for 30 min (experimental intervention protocol), whereas those in the control group watched a DVD movie of an infant (control intervention protocol). The primary outcome was salivary cortisol level and the secondary outcome was salivary oxytocin level.” 29
  • “ We hypothesize that at 30 min after touching and holding an infant, the salivary cortisol level will significantly decrease and the salivary oxytocin level will increase in the experimental group compared with the control group .” 29
  • EXAMPLE 3. Background, aim, and hypothesis are provided
  • “In countries where the maternal mortality ratio remains high, antenatal education to increase Birth Preparedness and Complication Readiness (BPCR) is considered one of the top priorities [1]. BPCR includes birth plans during the antenatal period, such as the birthplace, birth attendant, transportation, health facility for complications, expenses, and birth materials, as well as family coordination to achieve such birth plans. In Tanzania, although increasing, only about half of all pregnant women attend an antenatal clinic more than four times [4]. Moreover, the information provided during antenatal care (ANC) is insufficient. In the resource-poor settings, antenatal group education is a potential approach because of the limited time for individual counseling at antenatal clinics.” 30
  • “This study aimed to evaluate an antenatal group education program among pregnant women and their families with respect to birth-preparedness and maternal and infant outcomes in rural villages of Tanzania.” 30
  • “ The study hypothesis was if Tanzanian pregnant women and their families received a family-oriented antenatal group education, they would (1) have a higher level of BPCR, (2) attend antenatal clinic four or more times, (3) give birth in a health facility, (4) have less complications of women at birth, and (5) have less complications and deaths of infants than those who did not receive the education .” 30

Research questions and hypotheses are crucial components to any type of research, whether quantitative or qualitative. These questions should be developed at the very beginning of the study. Excellent research questions lead to superior hypotheses, which, like a compass, set the direction of research, and can often determine the successful conduct of the study. Many research studies have floundered because the development of research questions and subsequent hypotheses was not given the thought and meticulous attention needed. The development of research questions and hypotheses is an iterative process based on extensive knowledge of the literature and insightful grasp of the knowledge gap. Focused, concise, and specific research questions provide a strong foundation for constructing hypotheses which serve as formal predictions about the research outcomes. Research questions and hypotheses are crucial elements of research that should not be overlooked. They should be carefully thought of and constructed when planning research. This avoids unethical studies and poor outcomes by defining well-founded objectives that determine the design, course, and outcome of the study.

Disclosure: The authors have no potential conflicts of interest to disclose.

Author Contributions:

  • Conceptualization: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
  • Methodology: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
  • Writing - original draft: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
  • Writing - review & editing: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
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The Four Types of Research Paradigms: A Comprehensive Guide

The Four Types of Research Paradigms: A Comprehensive Guide

  • 5-minute read
  • 22nd January 2023

In this guide, you’ll learn all about the four research paradigms and how to choose the right one for your research.

Introduction to Research Paradigms

A paradigm is a system of beliefs, ideas, values, or habits that form the basis for a way of thinking about the world. Therefore, a research paradigm is an approach, model, or framework from which to conduct research. The research paradigm helps you to form a research philosophy, which in turn informs your research methodology.

Your research methodology is essentially the “how” of your research – how you design your study to not only accomplish your research’s aims and objectives but also to ensure your results are reliable and valid. Choosing the correct research paradigm is crucial because it provides a logical structure for conducting your research and improves the quality of your work, assuming it’s followed correctly.

Three Pillars: Ontology, Epistemology, and Methodology

Before we jump into the four types of research paradigms, we need to consider the three pillars of a research paradigm.

Ontology addresses the question, “What is reality?” It’s the study of being. This pillar is about finding out what you seek to research. What do you aim to examine?

Epistemology is the study of knowledge. It asks, “How is knowledge gathered and from what sources?”

Methodology involves the system in which you choose to investigate, measure, and analyze your research’s aims and objectives. It answers the “how” questions.

Let’s now take a look at the different research paradigms.

1.   Positivist Research Paradigm

The positivist research paradigm assumes that there is one objective reality, and people can know this reality and accurately describe and explain it. Positivists rely on their observations through their senses to gain knowledge of their surroundings.

In this singular objective reality, researchers can compare their claims and ascertain the truth. This means researchers are limited to data collection and interpretations from an objective viewpoint. As a result, positivists usually use quantitative methodologies in their research (e.g., statistics, social surveys, and structured questionnaires).

This research paradigm is mostly used in natural sciences, physical sciences, or whenever large sample sizes are being used.

2.   Interpretivist Research Paradigm

Interpretivists believe that different people in society experience and understand reality in different ways – while there may be only “one” reality, everyone interprets it according to their own view. They also believe that all research is influenced and shaped by researchers’ worldviews and theories.

As a result, interpretivists use qualitative methods and techniques to conduct their research. This includes interviews, focus groups, observations of a phenomenon, or collecting documentation on a phenomenon (e.g., newspaper articles, reports, or information from websites).

3.   Critical Theory Research Paradigm

The critical theory paradigm asserts that social science can never be 100% objective or value-free. This paradigm is focused on enacting social change through scientific investigation. Critical theorists question knowledge and procedures and acknowledge how power is used (or abused) in the phenomena or systems they’re investigating.

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Researchers using this paradigm are more often than not aiming to create a more just, egalitarian society in which individual and collective freedoms are secure. Both quantitative and qualitative methods can be used with this paradigm.

4.   Constructivist Research Paradigm

Constructivism asserts that reality is a construct of our minds ; therefore, reality is subjective. Constructivists believe that all knowledge comes from our experiences and reflections on those experiences and oppose the idea that there is a single methodology to generate knowledge.

This paradigm is mostly associated with qualitative research approaches due to its focus on experiences and subjectivity. The researcher focuses on participants’ experiences as well as their own.

Choosing the Right Research Paradigm for Your Study

Once you have a comprehensive understanding of each paradigm, you’re faced with a big question: which paradigm should you choose? The answer to this will set the course of your research and determine its success, findings, and results.

To start, you need to identify your research problem, research objectives , and hypothesis . This will help you to establish what you want to accomplish or understand from your research and the path you need to take to achieve this.

You can begin this process by asking yourself some questions:

  • What is the nature of your research problem (i.e., quantitative or qualitative)?
  • How can you acquire the knowledge you need and communicate it to others? For example, is this knowledge already available in other forms (e.g., documents) and do you need to gain it by gathering or observing other people’s experiences or by experiencing it personally?
  • What is the nature of the reality that you want to study? Is it objective or subjective?

Depending on the problem and objective, other questions may arise during this process that lead you to a suitable paradigm. Ultimately, you must be able to state, explain, and justify the research paradigm you select for your research and be prepared to include this in your dissertation’s methodology and design section.

Using Two Paradigms

If the nature of your research problem and objectives involves both quantitative and qualitative aspects, then you might consider using two paradigms or a mixed methods approach . In this, one paradigm is used to frame the qualitative aspects of the study and another for the quantitative aspects. This is acceptable, although you will be tasked with explaining your rationale for using both of these paradigms in your research.

Choosing the right research paradigm for your research can seem like an insurmountable task. It requires you to:

●  Have a comprehensive understanding of the paradigms,

●  Identify your research problem, objectives, and hypothesis, and

●  Be able to state, explain, and justify the paradigm you select in your methodology and design section.

Although conducting your research and putting your dissertation together is no easy task, proofreading it can be! Our experts are here to make your writing shine. Your first 500 words are free !

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Considering Critical Quantitative Research

Rachel Renbarger and Christen Priddie

Wednesday, March 30, 2022

critical theory quantitative research

At the Association for the Study of Higher Education (ASHE) conference in November, Drs. Christen Priddie ( National Survey of Student Engagement ) and Rachel Renbarger ( Accelerating Systemic Change Network ) moderated a panel of critical quantitative scholars to discuss how higher education researchers could incorporate critical quantitative practices into their scholarship. Experts included Drs. Katherine Cho (Miami University), Cindy Ann Kilgo (Indiana University), and Kamden Strunk (Auburn University). The session was well-attended and insightful, with key takeaways for 4 main questions that were established with panelist prior to the session: 

  • What is critical quantitative research? What are its goals? Critical quantitative research may not be possible to define, although the panelists did use key terms when describing it. They used terms such as systematic, systemic, and anti-positivistic and stated that critical quantitative includes an examination of race and racism within the analysis and interpretation, but also within the inclusion of theory. Ultimately, the goal of critical quantitative research would be for societal equity and ideally critical quantitative research would soon become the norm rather than the exception when it comes to education research. 
  • How have scholars learned how to do critical quantitative work? All of the panelists and moderators learned how to do quantitative research from an “objective,” positivist lens, but through their doctoral work realized that research was problematic (including their own work!) because of issues with variable, coding, analysis, and model choices. Indeed, Dr. Kilgo reflected that “How can I be objective when I get to choose what goes into the model and how I interpret it?” These choices demonstrate the power that researchers have within the seemingly unaffected quantitative science. Learning how to do this work came from learning from others, including qualitative researchers and communities of color who had been challenging research norms for a long time. 
  • What does critical quantitative research look like from the beginning to the end of a project? Panelists described the difficulties for quantitative researchers who are brought in after data collection which results in their objective centering on harm reduction rather than true critical quantitative work. Ideally, critical quantitative research occurs through every step of the process, from choosing a theoretical framework to writing up the findings. Dr. Cho stated that this work happens even within the literature review stages: “Does this gap in the literature actually exist? Does this research question even need to be analyzed?” This is because researchers often do not read the work of marginalized communities who have already solved these problems. Researchers should also ask themselves who this work is for; participants should want this research question answered and check to ensure they are not recreating harm through any sort of eugenics framing. When reporting, researchers should tell stories with the data, explain the results that will have actual utility for participant groups, policymakers, and practitioners, and avoid recreating harm (i.e., pitting groups against each other, perpetuating stereotypes) in what gets published. In each step of the process, researchers must think through and justify their research decisions while understanding that internalized and unchecked biases (e.g. racism, classism, sexism, heteronormativity, etc.) can harm our participants. 
  • How can we collaborate with other researchers who are less familiar with critical quantitative work? As with any collaborative work, panelists suggested finding colleagues who were open to new ideas and feedback during the research process. Dr. Strunk mentioned that, like anything, there is a distribution of colleagues’ willingness to interrogate their own thinking and processes. Identifying colleagues who understand the need for critical work can help prevent research projects getting stuck or not turning out the way it was intended. Critical quantitative researchers should not act like they’re the authority, but be willing to provide stories, explanations, or readings for colleagues who do not understand epistemological or methodological approaches. 

In sum, critical quantitative work does not have an easy formula or guidebook; researchers must think deeply about their own perspective and system inequities at all points of the research process. For folks interested in engaging in critical quantitative work, please see resources mentioned in the session (along with those on Dr. Cho’s website ): 

  • Patel, L. (2015). Decolonizing educational research: From ownership to answerability . Routledge.
  • Zuberi, T. (2001). Thicker than blood: How racial statistics lie . University of Minnesota Press.
  • Zuberi, T., & Bonilla-Silva, E. (Eds.). (2008). White logic, white methods: Racism and methodology . Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
  • Garcia, N. M., López, N. & Vélez, V. N. (2018). QuantCrit: Rectifying quantitative methods through critical race theory. Race Ethnicity and Education, 21 (2), 149-157. https://doi.org/10.1080/13613324.2017.1377675
  • Gillborn, D., Warmington, P., & Demack, S. (2018). QuantCrit: Education, policy, ‘Big Data’ and principles for a critical race theory of statistics. Race Ethnicity and Education , 21 (2), 158-179. https://doi.org/10.1080/13613324.2017.1377417
  • Harper, S. R. (2012). Race without racism: How higher education researchers minimize racist institutional norms. The Review of Higher Education , 36 (1), 9-29.
  • Strunk, K., & Hoover, P. (2019). Quantitative methods for social justice and equity: Theoretical and practical considerations. In K. Strunk & L. Locke (Eds.), Research methods for social justice and equity in education (pp. 191-203). Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05900-2

Evidence-Based Improvement in Higher Education resources and social media channels

Evidence-Based Improvement in Higher Education

Center for Postsecondary Research Indiana University School of Education 201 N. Rose Avenue Bloomington, IN 47405-1006 Phone: 812.856.5824 Email:  [email protected]

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VIDEO

  1. PART-1 Decision theory/ quantitative analysis of business decisions/MBA 2nd semister @samreen_shaik

  2. Lecture 41: Quantitative Research

  3. Critical Theory and Education Policy

  4. Quantitative Approach

  5. Positivist research

  6. Critical Theory, Postmodernism & Feminist Critique by Rey ty

COMMENTS

  1. Critical Quantitative Literacy: An Educational Foundation for Critical

    CQL is framed as the requisite combined knowledge of quantitative methodology and critical theory to support CritQuant, QuantCrit, and other equity-oriented quantitative research frameworks. It is (critical) theory- and (quantitative) method-agnostic and spans the entire process of quantitative inquiry, from hypotheses to design, to analysis ...

  2. Deeper than Wordplay: A Systematic Review of Critical Quantitative

    The one-in-ten: Quantitative critical race theory and the education of the 'new (white) oppressed'. Journal of Educational Policy, 34(3), 423-444 ... Malcolm-Piqueux L. (2015). Application of person-centered approaches to critical quantitative research: Exploring inequities in college financing strategies. New Directions for ...

  3. Embracing Critical Theory in Quantitative Research

    By recognising subjectivity in quantitative research, critical quantitative scholars can offer counternarratives that challenge normative interpretations of numeric data. Quantitative criticality (aka QuantCrit) is not a new idea. It has been around for over a decade and is growing.

  4. An Introduction to Critical Approaches

    The critical approach has, at its heart, an abiding interest in issues of justice, equity and equality. The critical nature of this approach allows for it to be used not merely as an approach to conducting qualitative research, but also as a method and, in some cases, as a methodology in its own right.

  5. Critical-Theory

    Critical theory in qualitative research in education. Critical theory, involves critique of knowledge and power aimed to transform practices in society. It has a long history of informing and shaping diverse qualitative research practices. Critical theory itself is not a research method, but a way to think about, know, and relate to the world ...

  6. Quantitative Critical Theory (QuantCrit)

    Quantitative Critical (QuantCrit) research is a relatively new field of study grounded in critical theory. The nascency of QuantCrit has led multiple scholars to propose various related tenets. In what follows, we offer a synthesis of several tenets of QuantCrit we have applied to our research, their applications to education research in ...

  7. Rethinking Critical Theory and Qualitative Research

    Critical theory amid the politics of culture and voice: Rethinking the discourse of educational research. In R. Sherman & R. Webb (Eds.), Qualitative research in education: Focus and methods (pp. 190-210). New York: Palmer. Google Scholar. Giroux, H. (1992). Border crossings: Cultural workers and the politics of education.

  8. (PDF) Tenets of QuantCrit

    Abstract. Quantitative Critical (QuantCrit) research is a relatively new field of study grounded in critical theory (Crenshaw, 1990; Ladson-Billings, 2006; 2013). The nascency of QuantCrit has led ...

  9. Quantitative criticalism: Guidelines for conducting transformative

    Quantitative Criticalism is a transdisciplinary framework that leverages tenets of critical social theory, CRT, and Black Feminist scholarship to identify and address social or institutional perpetrators of inequities within the quantitative research processed mentioned above (Gillborn et al., 2018; Sullivan et al., 2010).

  10. Quantitative criticalism: Guidelines for conducting transformative

    Drawing upon principles of critical social theory, critical race theory, and Black Feminist scholarship, this article elaborates on how family scientists can utilize Quantitative Criticalism, or QuantCrit, as a framework for conducting social justice-orientated quantitative research. We conclude by illustrating how the tenets of QuantCrit can ...

  11. Publication Patterns of Higher Education Research Using Quantitative

    While critical inquiry has historically been viewed as an endeavor for qualitative researchers in higher education, scholars have more recently considered the possibilities for quantitative approaches to be leveraged in support of critical inquiry (e.g., Garcia et al., 2018; Stage, 2007; Stage & Wells, 2014a).Frances Stage's () formal introduction of the term quantitative criticalist spurred ...

  12. A Practical Guide to Writing Quantitative and Qualitative Research

    INTRODUCTION. Scientific research is usually initiated by posing evidenced-based research questions which are then explicitly restated as hypotheses.1,2 The hypotheses provide directions to guide the study, solutions, explanations, and expected results.3,4 Both research questions and hypotheses are essentially formulated based on conventional theories and real-world processes, which allow the ...

  13. Critical Quantitative Literacy: An Educational Foundation for Critical

    Critical quantitative literacy (CQL) is introduced in this manuscript as a paradigm for teaching, learning, understanding, and applying quantitative methods in a way that supports the application of CritQuant and QuantCrit frameworks in educational research. Keywords: CQL, critical quantitative literacy, critical theory, CritQuant, equity ...

  14. The Four Types of Research Paradigms: A Comprehensive Guide

    As a result, positivists usually use quantitative methodologies in their research (e.g., statistics, social surveys, and structured questionnaires). ... Critical Theory Research Paradigm. The critical theory paradigm asserts that social science can never be 100% objective or value-free. This paradigm is focused on enacting social change through ...

  15. [PDF] Critical Quantitative Inquiry in Context

    Critical Quantitative Inquiry in Context. Frances K. Stage, Ryan S Wells. Published 1 June 2014. Education. New Directions for Institutional Research. This chapter briefly traces the development of the concept of critical quantitative inquiry, provides an expanded conceptualization of the tasks of critical quantitative research, offers ...

  16. (PDF) Rethinking Critical Theory and Qualitative Research

    as rational and autonomous beings, allows critical researchers new tools to rethink. the interplay among the various axes of power, identity, libido, rationality, and. emotion. In this ...

  17. Considering Critical Quantitative Research: 2022: NSSE Sightings (blog

    What is critical quantitative research? What are its goals? Critical quantitative research may not be possible to define, although the panelists did use key terms when describing it. ... QuantCrit: Education, policy, 'Big Data' and principles for a critical race theory of statistics. Race Ethnicity and Education, 21(2), 158-179. https://doi ...

  18. Transforming the future of quantitative educational research: a

    Quantitative Critical Race Theory (QuantCrit) is a burgeoning field of study seeking to challenge and improve the use of statistical data in social research. It pulls lessons and insights from Critical Race Theory and applies them to understanding social challenges.

  19. (PDF) Critical Theory in Research

    The proponents of critical theory establish connections between theory and practice, in the sense that the social content of research must have human dignity at its centre. The difference between ...

  20. Can You Really Measure That? Combining Critical Race Theory and

    The transdisciplinary observation also reflects how critical-quantitative studies of race exist in disciplines beyond educational research, such as the study of stratification economics, which focuses on how intergroup disparities in economics can be studied with sociological and social-psychological concepts of racial bias (Darity, Hamilton ...

  21. PDF Understanding Research Paradigms: A Scientific Guide

    Quantitative research is about measuring quantity to apply to a specific phenomenon and is ... (2000) that there are four types of paradigms of research - positivism, critical theory, realism and ...

  22. Handbook of Critical Education Research

    This handbook offers a contemporary and comprehensive review of critical research theory and methodology. Showcasing the work of contemporary critical researchers who are harnessing and building on a variety of methodological tools, this volume extends beyond qualitative methodology to also include critical quantitative and mixed-methods approaches to research.

  23. Critical Data Theory by Margaret Hu :: SSRN

    Critical Data Theory examines the role of AI and algorithmic decision making at its intersection with the law. This theory aims to deconstruct the impact of AI in law and policy contexts. The tools of AI and automated systems allow for legal, scientific, socioeconomic, and political hierarchies of power that can profitably be interrogated with ...

  24. Critical Race Theory, Methodology, and Semiotics: The Analytical

    According to Dillard (2008), activist-scholarship responds to the notion of research for research's sake, "mandating research and educational practice that are concrete physical actions in service to community and beyond solely researcher theorizing" (p. 279). CRT activist-scholarship is then, not simply a rhetorical opposition to ...