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A Step-By-Step Guide to Write the Perfect Dissertation

“A dissertation or a thesis is a long piece of academic writing based on comprehensive research.”

The significance of dissertation writing in the world of academia is unparalleled. A good dissertation paper needs months of research and marks the end of your respected academic journey. It is considered the most effective form of writing in academia and perhaps the longest piece of academic writing you will ever have to complete.

This thorough step-by-step guide on how to write a dissertation will serve as a tool to help you with the task at hand, whether you are an undergraduate student or a Masters or PhD student working on your dissertation project. This guide provides detailed information about how to write the different chapters of a dissertation, such as a problem statement , conceptual framework , introduction , literature review, methodology , discussion , findings , conclusion , title page , acknowledgements , etc.

What is a Dissertation? – Definition

Before we list the stages of writing a dissertation, we should look at what a dissertation is.

The Cambridge dictionary states that a dissertation is a long piece of writing on a particular subject, especially one that is done to receive a degree at college or university, but that is just the tip of the iceberg because a dissertation project has a lot more meaning and context.

To understand a dissertation’s definition, one must have the capability to understand what an essay is. A dissertation is like an extended essay that includes research and information at a much deeper level. Despite the few similarities, there are many differences between an essay and a dissertation.

Another term that people confuse with a dissertation is a thesis. Let's look at the differences between the two terms.

What is the Difference Between a Dissertation and a Thesis?

Dissertation and thesis are used interchangeably worldwide (and may vary between universities and regions), but the key difference is when they are completed. The thesis is a project that marks the end of a degree program, whereas the dissertation project can occur during the degree. Hanno Krieger (Researchgate, 2014) explained the difference between a dissertation and a thesis as follows:

“Thesis is the written form of research work to claim an academic degree, like PhD thesis, postgraduate thesis, and undergraduate thesis. On the other hand, a dissertation is only another expression of the written research work, similar to an essay. So the thesis is the more general expression.

In the end, it does not matter whether it is a bachelor's, master or PhD dissertation one is working on because the structure and the steps of conducting research are pretty much identical. However, doctoral-level dissertation papers are much more complicated and detailed.

Problems Students Face When Writing a Dissertation

You can expect to encounter some troubles if you don’t yet know the steps to write a dissertation. Even the smartest students are overwhelmed by the complexity of writing a dissertation.

A dissertation project is different from any essay paper you have ever committed to because of the details of planning, research and writing it involves. One can expect rewarding results at the end of the process if the correct guidelines are followed. Still, as indicated previously, there will be multiple challenges to deal with before reaching that milestone.

The three most significant problems students face when working on a dissertation project are the following.

Poor Project Planning

Delaying to start working on the dissertation project is the most common problem. Students think they have sufficient time to complete the paper and are finding ways to write a dissertation in a week, delaying the start to the point where they start stressing out about the looming deadline. When the planning is poor, students are always looking for ways to write their dissertations in the last few days. Although it is possible, it does have effects on the quality of the paper.

Inadequate Research Skills

The writing process becomes a huge problem if one has the required academic research experience. Professional dissertation writing goes well beyond collecting a few relevant reference resources.

You need to do both primary and secondary research for your paper. Depending on the dissertation’s topic and the academic qualification you are a candidate for, you may be required to base your dissertation paper on primary research.

In addition to secondary data, you will also need to collect data from the specified participants and test the hypothesis . The practice of primary collection is time-consuming since all the data must be analysed in detail before results can be withdrawn.

Failure to Meet the Strict Academic Writing Standards

Research is a crucial business everywhere. Failure to follow the language, style, structure, and formatting guidelines provided by your department or institution when writing the dissertation paper can worsen matters. It is recommended to read the dissertation handbook before starting the write-up thoroughly.

Steps of Writing a Dissertation

For those stressing out about developing an extensive paper capable of filling a gap in research whilst adding value to the existing academic literature—conducting exhaustive research and analysis—and professionally using the knowledge gained throughout their degree program, there is still good news in all the chaos.

We have put together a guide that will show you how to start your dissertation and complete it carefully from one stage to the next.

Find an Interesting and Manageable Dissertation Topic

A clearly defined topic is a prerequisite for any successful independent research project. An engaging yet manageable research topic can produce an original piece of research that results in a higher academic score.

Unlike essays or assignments, when working on their thesis or dissertation project, students get to choose their topic of research.

You should follow the tips to choose the correct topic for your research to avoid problems later. Your chosen dissertation topic should be narrow enough, allowing you to collect the required secondary and primary data relatively quickly.

Understandably, many people take a lot of time to search for the topic, and a significant amount of research time is spent on it. You should talk to your supervisor or check out the intriguing database of ResearchProspect’s free topics for your dissertation.

Alternatively, consider reading newspapers, academic journals, articles, course materials, and other media to identify relevant issues to your study area and find some inspiration to get going.

You should work closely with your supervisor to agree to a narrowed but clear research plan.Here is what Michelle Schneider, learning adviser at the University of Leeds, had to say about picking the research topics,

“Picking something you’re genuinely interested in will keep you motivated. Consider why it’s important to tackle your chosen topic," Michelle added.

Develop a First-Class Dissertation Proposal.

Once the research topic has been selected, you can develop a solid dissertation proposal . The research proposal allows you to convince your supervisor or the committee members of the significance of your dissertation.

Through the proposal, you will be expected to prove that your work will significantly value the academic and scientific communities by addressing complex and provocative research questions .

Dissertation proposals are much shorter but follow a similar structure to an extensive dissertation paper. If the proposal is optional in your university, you should still create one outline of the critical points that the actual dissertation paper will cover. To get a better understanding of dissertation proposals, you can also check the publicly available samples of dissertation proposals .

Typical contents of the dissertation paper are as follows;

• A brief rationale for the problem your dissertation paper will investigate.
• The hypothesis you will be testing.
• Research objectives you wish to address.
• How will you contribute to the knowledge of the scientific and academic community?
• How will you find answers to the critical research question(s)?
• What research approach will you adopt?
• What kind of population of interest would you like to generalise your result(s) to (especially in the case of quantitative research)?
• What sampling technique(s) would you employ, and why would you not use other methods?
• What ethical considerations have you taken to gather data?
• Who are the stakeholders in your research are/might be?
• What are the future implications and limitations you see in your research?

Let’s review the structure of the dissertation. Keep the format of your proposal simple. Keeping it simple keeps your readers will remain engaged. The following are the fundamental focal points that must be included:

Title of your dissertation: Dissertation titles should be 12 words in length. The focus of your research should be identifiable from your research topic.

Research aim: The overall purpose of your study should be clearly stated in terms of the broad statements of the desired outcomes in the Research aim. Try and paint the picture of your research, emphasising what you wish to achieve as a researcher.

Research objectives: The key research questions you wish to address as part of the project should be listed. Narrow down the focus of your research and aim for at most four objectives. Your research objectives should be linked with the aim of the study or a hypothesis.

Literature review: Consult with your supervisor to check if you are required to use any specific academic sources as part of the literature review process. If that is not the case, find out the most relevant theories, journals, books, schools of thought, and publications that will be used to construct arguments in your literature research.Remember that the literature review is all about giving credit to other authors’ works on a similar topic

Research methods and techniques: Depending on your dissertation topic, you might be required to conduct empirical research to satisfy the study’s objectives. Empirical research uses primary data such as questionnaires, interview data, and surveys to collect.

On the other hand, if your dissertation is based on secondary (non-empirical) data, you can stick to the existing literature in your area of study. Clearly state the merits of your chosen research methods under the methodology section.

Expected results: As you explore the research topic and analyse the data in the previously published papers, you will begin to build your expectations around the study’s potential outcomes. List those expectations here.

Project timeline: Let the readers know exactly how you plan to complete all the dissertation project parts within the timeframe allowed. You should learn more about Microsoft Project and Gantt Charts to create easy-to-follow and high-level project timelines and schedules.

References: The academic sources used to gather information for the proposed paper will be listed under this section using the appropriate referencing style. Ask your supervisor which referencing style you are supposed to follow.

The proposals we write have:

• Precision and Clarity
• Zero Plagiarism
• High-level Encryption
• Authentic Sources

Investigation, Research and Data Collection

This is the most critical stage of the dissertation writing process. One should use up-to-date and relevant academic sources that are likely to jeopardise hard work.

Finding relevant and highly authentic reference resources is the key to succeeding in the dissertation project, so it is advised to take your time with this process. Here are some of the things that should be considered when conducting research.

dissertation project, so it is advised to take your time with this process. Here are some of the things that should be considered when conducting research.

You cannot read everything related to your topic. Although the practice of reading as much material as possible during this stage is rewarding, it is also imperative to understand that it is impossible to read everything that concerns your research.

This is true, especially for undergraduate and master’s level dissertations that must be delivered within a specific timeframe. So, it is important to know when to stop! Once the previous research and the associated limitations are well understood, it is time to move on.

However, review at least the salient research and work done in your area. By salient, we mean research done by pioneers of your field. For instance, if your topic relates to linguistics and you haven’t familiarised yourself with relevant research conducted by, say, Chomsky (the father of linguistics), your readers may find your lack of knowledge disconcerting.

So, to come off as genuinely knowledgeable in your own field, at least don’t forget to read essential works in the field/topic!

Use an Authentic Research database to Find References.

Most students start the reference material-finding process with desk-based research. However, this research method has its own limitation because it is a well-known fact that the internet is full of bogus information and fake information spreads fasters on the internet than truth does .

So, it is important to pick your reference material from reliable resources such as Google Scholar , Researchgate, Ibibio and Bartleby . Wikipedia is not considered a reliable academic source in the academic world, so it is recommended to refrain from citing Wikipedia content.Never underrate the importance of the actual library. The supporting staff at a university library can be of great help when it comes to finding exciting and reliable publications.

Record as you learn

All information and impressions should be recorded as notes using online tools such as Evernote to make sure everything is clear. You want to retain an important piece of information you had planned to present as an argument in the dissertation paper.

Write a Flawless Dissertation

Start to write a fantastic dissertation immediately once your proposal has been accepted and all the necessary desk-based research has been conducted. Now we will look at the different chapters of a dissertation in detail. You can also check out the samples of dissertation chapters to fully understand the format and structures of the various chapters.

Dissertation Introduction Chapter

The introduction chapter of the dissertation paper provides the background, problem statement and research questions. Here, you will inform the readers why it was important for this research to be conducted and which key research question(s) you expect to answer at the end of the study.

Definitions of all the terms and phrases in the project are provided in this first chapter of the dissertation paper. The research aim and objectives remain unchanged from the proposal paper and are expected to be listed under this section.

Dissertation Literature Review Chapter

This chapter allows you to demonstrate to your readers that you have done sufficient research on the chosen topic and understand previous similar studies’ findings. Any research limitations that your research incorporates are expected to be discussed in this section.

And make sure to summarise the viewpoints and findings of other researchers in the dissertation literature review chapter. Show the readers that there is a research gap in the existing work and your job is relevant to it to justify your research value.

Dissertation Methodology

The methodology chapter of the dissertation provides insight into the methods employed to collect data from various resources and flows naturally from the literature review chapter.Simply put, you will be expected to explain what you did and how you did it, helping the readers understand that your research is valid and reliable. When writing the methodology chapter for the dissertation, make sure to emphasise the following points:

• The type of research performed by the researcher
• Methods employed to gather and filter information
• Techniques that were chosen for analysis
• Materials, tools and resources used to conduct research (typically for empirical research dissertations)
• Limitations of your chosen methods
• Reliability and validity of your measuring tools and instruments (e.g. a survey questionnaire) are also typically mentioned within the mythology section. If you used a pre-existing data collection tool, cite its reliability/validity estimates here, too.Make use of the past tense when writing the methodology chapter.

Dissertation Findings

The key results of your research are presented in the dissertation findings chapter . It gives authors the ability to validate their own intellectual and analytical skills

Dissertation Conclusion

Cap off your dissertation paper with a study summary and a brief report of the findings. In the concluding chapter , you will be expected to demonstrate how your research will provide value to other academics in your area of study and its implications.It is recommended to include a short ‘recommendations’ section that will elaborate on the purpose and need for future research to elucidate the topic further.

Follow the referencing style following the requirements of your academic degree or field of study. Make sure to list every academic source used with a proper in-text citation. It is important to give credit to other authors’ ideas and concepts.

Note: Keep in mind whether you are creating a reference list or a bibliography. The former includes information about all the various sources you referred to, read from or took inspiration from for your own study. However, the latter contains things you used and those you only read but didn’t cite in your dissertation.

Proofread, Edit and Improve – Don’t Risk Months of Hard Work.

Experts recommend completing the total dissertation before starting to proofread and edit your work. You need to refresh your focus and reboot your creative brain before returning to another critical stage.

Leave space of at least a few days between the writing and the editing steps so when you get back to the desk, you can recognise your grammar, spelling and factual errors when you get back to the desk.

It is crucial to consider this period to ensure the final work is polished, coherent, well-structured and free of any structural or factual flaws. Daniel Higginbotham from Prospects UK states that:

“Leave yourself sufficient time to engage with your writing at several levels – from reassessing the logic of the whole piece to proofreading to checking you’ve paid attention to aspects such as the correct spelling of names and theories and the required referencing format.”

What is the Difference Between Editing and Proofreading?

Editing means that you are focusing on the essence of your dissertation paper. In contrast, proofreading is the process of reviewing the final draft piece to ensure accuracy and consistency in formatting, spelling, facts, punctuation, and grammar.

Editing: Prepare your work for submission by condensing, correcting and modifying (where necessary). When reviewing the paper, make sure that there are coherence and consistency between the arguments you presented.

If an information gap has been identified, fill that with an appropriate piece of information gathered during the research process. It is easy to lose sight of the original purpose if you become over-involved when writing.

Cut out the unwanted text and refine it, so your paper’s content is to the point and concise.Proofreading: Start proofreading your paper to identify formatting, structural, grammar, punctuation and referencing flaws. Read every single sentence of the paper no matter how tired you are because a few puerile mistakes can compromise your months of hard work.

Many students struggle with the editing and proofreading stages due to their lack of attention to detail. Consult a skilled dissertation editor if you are unable to find your flaws. You may want to invest in a professional dissertation editing and proofreading service to improve the piece’s quality to First Class.

Tips for Writing a Dissertation

Communication with supervisor – get feedback.

Communicate regularly with your supervisor to produce a first-class dissertation paper. Request them to comprehensively review the contents of your dissertation paper before final submission.

Their constructive criticism and feedback concerning different study areas will help you improve your piece’s overall quality. Keep your supervisor updated about your research progress and discuss any problems that you come up against.

Organising your Time

A dissertation is a lengthy project spanning over a period of months to years, and therefore it is important to avoid procrastination. Stay focused, and manage your time efficiently. Here are some time management tips for writing your dissertation to help you make the most of your time as you research and write.

• Don’t be discouraged by the inherently slow nature of dissertation work, particularly in the initial stages.
• Set clear goals and work out your research and write up a plan accordingly.
• Allow sufficient time to incorporate feedback from your supervisor.
• Leave enough time for editing, improving, proofreading, and formatting the paper according to your school’s guidelines. This is where you break or make your grade.
• Work a certain number of hours on your paper daily.
• Create a worksheet for your week.
• Work on your dissertation for time periods as brief as 45 minutes or less.
• Stick to the strategic dissertation timeline, so you don’t have to do the catchup work.
• Meet your goals by prioritising your dissertation work.
• Strike a balance between being overly organised and needing to be more organised.
• Limit activities other than dissertation writing and your most necessary obligations.
• Keep ‘tangent’ and ‘for the book’ files.
• Create lists to help you manage your tasks.
• Have ‘filler’ tasks to do when you feel burned out or in need of intellectual rest.
• Keep a dissertation journal.
• Pretend that you are working in a more structured work world.
• Limit your usage of email and personal electronic devices.
• Utilise and build on your past work when you write your dissertation.
• Break large tasks into small manageable ones.
• Seek advice from others, and do not be afraid to ask for help.

Dissertation Examples

Here are some samples of a dissertation to inspire you to write mind-blowing dissertations and to help bring all the above-mentioned guidelines home.

DE MONTFORT University Leicester – Examples of recent dissertations

Dissertation Research in Education: Dissertations (Examples)

How Long is a Dissertation?

The entire dissertation writing process is complicated and spans over a period of months to years, depending on whether you are an undergraduate, master’s, or PhD candidate. Marcus Beck, a PhD candidate, conducted fundamental research a few years ago, research that didn’t have much to do with his research but returned answers to some niggling questions every student has about the average length of a dissertation.

A software program specifically designed for this purpose helped Beck to access the university’s electronic database to uncover facts on dissertation length.

The above illustration shows how the results of his small study were a little unsurprising. Social sciences and humanities disciplines such as anthropology, politics, and literature had the longest dissertations, with some PhD dissertations comprising 150,000 words or more.Engineering and scientific disciplines, on the other hand, were considerably shorter. PhD-level dissertations generally don’t have a predefined length as they will vary with your research topic. Ask your school about this requirement if you are unsure about it from the start.

Focus more on the quality of content rather than the number of pages.

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Phrases to Avoid

No matter the style or structure you follow, it is best to keep your language simple. Avoid the use of buzzwords and jargon.

A Word on Stealing Content (Plagiarism)

Very straightforward advice to all students, DO NOT PLAGIARISE. Plagiarism is a serious offence. You will be penalised heavily if you are caught plagiarising. Don’t risk years of hard work, as many students in the past have lost their degrees for plagiarising. Here are some tips to help you make sure you don’t get caught.

• Copying and pasting from an academic source is an unforgivable sin. Rephrasing text retrieved from another source also falls under plagiarism; it’s called paraphrasing. Summarising another’s idea(s) word-to-word, paraphrasing, and copy-pasting are the three primary forms plagiarism can take.
• If you must directly copy full sentences from another source because they fill the bill, always enclose them inside quotation marks and acknowledge the writer’s work with in-text citations.

Are you struggling to find inspiration to get going? Still, trying to figure out where to begin? Is the deadline getting closer? Don’t be overwhelmed! ResearchProspect dissertation writing services have helped thousands of students achieve desired outcomes. Click here to get help from writers holding either a master's or PhD degree from a reputed UK university.

Frequently Asked Questions

What does a dissertation include.

A dissertation has main chapters and parts that support them. The main parts are:

• Introduction
• Literature review
• Research Methodology
• Your conclusion

Other parts are the abstract, references, appendices etc. We can supply a full dissertation or specific parts of one.

What is the difference between research and a dissertation?

A research paper is a sort of academic writing that consists of the study, source assessment, critical thinking, organisation, and composition, as opposed to a thesis or dissertation, which is a lengthy academic document that often serves as the final project for a university degree.

Can I edit and proofread my dissertation myself?

Of course, you can do proofreading and editing of your dissertation. There are certain rules to follow that have been discussed above. However, finding mistakes in something that you have written yourself can be complicated for some people. It is advisable to take professional help in the matter.

What If I only have difficulty writing a specific chapter of the dissertation?

ResearchProspect ensures customer satisfaction by addressing all relevant issues. We provide dissertation chapter-writing services to students if they need help completing a specific chapter. It could be any chapter from the introduction, literature review, and methodology to the discussion and conclusion.

You May Also Like

Are you looking for intriguing and trending dissertation topics? Get inspired by our list of free dissertation topics on all subjects.

Looking for an easy guide to follow to write your essay? Here is our detailed essay guide explaining how to write an essay and examples and types of an essay.

Learn about the steps required to successfully complete their research project. Make sure to follow these steps in their respective order.

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The Dissertation Process Explained in 6 Simple Steps

Completing your doctoral program is no easy feat, yet the payoff makes it all worthwhile. You’ll challenge yourself with academic rigor and defend your thesis as you showcase your knowledge to a panel of experts.

One of the hardest parts of the dissertation process is simply getting started. Here are six steps to guide you to successfully earning your doctoral degree by tackling your dissertation, from start to finish.

Step 1: Brainstorm Topics

Finding a research topic that’s right for you and your doctoral studies requires some serious thought. A doctoral program can take years to complete, so it’s important you choose a topic that you’re passionate about. Whether that’s in the field of education administration or entrepreneurship, find an area of study that suits your academic interests and career goals. 

As a doctoral candidate, you’ll take on the role of an independent researcher, which means you’ll be facilitating your own studies and academic milestones. Choose a topic that gets your wheels turning and stirs up an urgent sense of curiosity. However, take note that not every idea will suit a doctoral dissertation and the manuscript formatting. Many students make the mistake of choosing a topic that is too broad. Doctoral dissertations must be researchable and demonstrative based on qualitative or quantitative data. 

Do some preliminary research to determine if someone has already conducted similar research. Being flexible with your brainstorming will allow you to refine your topic with ease. Take constructive criticism from peers and mentors seriously so that you set yourself up for success from day one. If you find yourself feeling a bit lost, don’t be afraid to turn to experts in your field for their opinion. At this initial stage of the dissertation process, you should be the most open to exploring new ideas and refining your area of research.

Step 2: Find a Faculty Mentor and Committee Assignment

Once your topic is approved by the university, you’ll be tasked with selecting a faculty mentor. Finding a faculty chairperson is one of the most important steps you will take in your dissertation process , apart from crafting and delivering your manuscript. After all, your mentor will guide your academic work over the course of your doctoral studies for the next several years. You two will develop a working relationship, so it’s crucial that you choose a mentor you can collaborate and communicate with effectively.

At most universities, your faculty chair will be dedicated to the dissertation process full time. That means they will have the skills, expertise and time to support all of your needs. However, for the other members of your dissertation committee, you’ll want to consider logistics as well. You may have a dream faculty mentor you’d appreciate working with, but they must have the time and attention to dedicate to make the investment worthwhile for you both. Be upfront about your intended timeline, weekly and monthly time commitment, and expectations around communication. When you approach a faculty member about serving as part of your dissertation committee, leave the door open for them to say “no,” so you’re sure to find the right fit and someone who can commit in the long run. 

Some universities make the selection process easy by assigning a dissertation chair and committee to you. For example, doctoral students at SNU are assigned a committee comprised of four people: a dissertation chair within the program’s department, a second departmental faculty member, a member from outside the department who has scholarly expertise in the student’s research topic, and the Dissertation Director who coordinates all communication among the committee members.

Step 3: Develop and Submit a Proposal

Think of the proposal as an opportunity for you to both suss out your ideas and create a convincing argument to present to the faculty committee. Your proposal is the first look at your thesis statement, where you:

• Introduce the topic
• Pose a set of related topics
• Outline the qualitative and quantitative data you hope to extract through careful research  

Again, be open to critical feedback. During this stage, you have the opportunity to reflect and refine the direction of your research. Faculty members will likely reciprocate your proposal with pointed questions that identify gaps in your proposal development or information-seeking process. 

You’ll go through a set of one or more revisions based on faculty feedback. You’ll then submit your proposal application for final approval. Once you have the entire committee’s approval, you’ll begin to collect data.

Step 4: Conduct Research and Data Analysis

In your proposal, you’ll outline your plan to conduct careful research, collect data and analyze that data. Throughout the research process, refer back to your outline to chart your own progress and to build a collection of measurable results to present to your faculty mentor. 

The next step is to add the data you collect to your proposal in two sections. The first section will summarize the data, and the second will offer an interpretation of that data. This step also lends itself to a series of revisions between you and the dissertation committee. Be prepared to implement those changes as you begin to draft your manuscript .

Step 5: Draft Your Manuscript

First, consult with your university’s policies and procedures regarding the doctoral manuscript academic requirements and scholarly style. Check with your department to inquire about additional departmental procedures. 

Consider Your Format 

Develop a consistent format in the early stages, so that submitting your thesis to the Advisory Committee and Examining Committee will run smoothly and you can receive swift feedback. You want to create both a professional and intuitive system for the academic committee and your general audience to be able to easily peruse your thesis. 

Pay close attention to proper sourcing of previously published content and provide a numbering system (page numbers and charts) that reflects the formatting of your thesis, not the numbering system of a previous publication. Devise chapter layout with the same level of scrutiny. Number chapters sequentially, and create a uniform system to label all charts, tables and equations. And last but not least, be sure to follow standard grammatical conventions, including spelling and punctuation. 

Cite Your Sources

As you gather research and develop your manuscript, you must cite your sources accurately and consistently. Check with your department ahead of time in case you should be formatting your resources according to specific departmental standards. In the absence of departmental standards, create a format of your own that you can adhere to with consistency. Most doctoral candidates will choose to include sources at the end of each chapter or in one single list at the end of their dissertation. 

Craft Your Content

You’ll spend the bulk of your time crafting the content of the manuscript itself . You’ll  begin by summarizing relevant sourcing and reviewing related literature. The purpose of this first section is to establish your expertise in the field, establish clear objectives for your research, identify the broader context within which the research resides, and provide more acute context for the data itself. You’ll then discuss the methods of analyzing the research before transitioning into data analysis in a chapter-by-chapter breakdown. Finally, in your conclusion, you’ll link your direct research to the larger picture and the implications of its impact in your field.

Step 6: Defend Your Thesis

The pinnacle of your research will be defending your thesis in front of a panel of experts — the dissertation committee. Sometimes this takes place in person, or, as has proved increasingly common during the past year, by video/voice conferencing. 

This is your opportunity to demonstrate all that you have learned over multiple years of careful research and analysis. The committee will pose questions to both clarify and challenge your level of knowledge in an impromptu fashion. In some cases, based on the committee’s perception, you may need to submit a secondary oral defense. Ultimately, the committee will determine a successful delivery of your dissertation and the chance to proudly assert your doctoral status after completing all degree requirements. 

No matter which path you choose to pursue en route to your doctoral, online and in-person education options can make your dream of completing your degree one step closer to reality. Take a look at SNU’s online and on-campus course offerings today.

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Home » Dissertation – Format, Example and Template

Dissertation – Format, Example and Template

Table of Contents

Dissertation

Definition:

Dissertation is a lengthy and detailed academic document that presents the results of original research on a specific topic or question. It is usually required as a final project for a doctoral degree or a master’s degree.

Dissertation Meaning in Research

In Research , a dissertation refers to a substantial research project that students undertake in order to obtain an advanced degree such as a Ph.D. or a Master’s degree.

Dissertation typically involves the exploration of a particular research question or topic in-depth, and it requires students to conduct original research, analyze data, and present their findings in a scholarly manner. It is often the culmination of years of study and represents a significant contribution to the academic field.

Types of Dissertation

Types of Dissertation are as follows:

Empirical Dissertation

An empirical dissertation is a research study that uses primary data collected through surveys, experiments, or observations. It typically follows a quantitative research approach and uses statistical methods to analyze the data.

Non-Empirical Dissertation

A non-empirical dissertation is based on secondary sources, such as books, articles, and online resources. It typically follows a qualitative research approach and uses methods such as content analysis or discourse analysis.

Narrative Dissertation

A narrative dissertation is a personal account of the researcher’s experience or journey. It typically follows a qualitative research approach and uses methods such as interviews, focus groups, or ethnography.

Systematic Literature Review

A systematic literature review is a comprehensive analysis of existing research on a specific topic. It typically follows a qualitative research approach and uses methods such as meta-analysis or thematic analysis.

Case Study Dissertation

A case study dissertation is an in-depth analysis of a specific individual, group, or organization. It typically follows a qualitative research approach and uses methods such as interviews, observations, or document analysis.

Mixed-Methods Dissertation

A mixed-methods dissertation combines both quantitative and qualitative research approaches to gather and analyze data. It typically uses methods such as surveys, interviews, and focus groups, as well as statistical analysis.

How to Write a Dissertation

Here are some general steps to help guide you through the process of writing a dissertation:

• Choose a topic : Select a topic that you are passionate about and that is relevant to your field of study. It should be specific enough to allow for in-depth research but broad enough to be interesting and engaging.
• Conduct research : Conduct thorough research on your chosen topic, utilizing a variety of sources, including books, academic journals, and online databases. Take detailed notes and organize your information in a way that makes sense to you.
• Create an outline : Develop an outline that will serve as a roadmap for your dissertation. The outline should include the introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion.
• Write the introduction: The introduction should provide a brief overview of your topic, the research questions, and the significance of the study. It should also include a clear thesis statement that states your main argument.
• Write the literature review: The literature review should provide a comprehensive analysis of existing research on your topic. It should identify gaps in the research and explain how your study will fill those gaps.
• Write the methodology: The methodology section should explain the research methods you used to collect and analyze data. It should also include a discussion of any limitations or weaknesses in your approach.
• Write the results: The results section should present the findings of your research in a clear and organized manner. Use charts, graphs, and tables to help illustrate your data.
• Write the discussion: The discussion section should interpret your results and explain their significance. It should also address any limitations of the study and suggest areas for future research.
• Write the conclusion: The conclusion should summarize your main findings and restate your thesis statement. It should also provide recommendations for future research.
• Edit and revise: Once you have completed a draft of your dissertation, review it carefully to ensure that it is well-organized, clear, and free of errors. Make any necessary revisions and edits before submitting it to your advisor for review.

Dissertation Format

The format of a dissertation may vary depending on the institution and field of study, but generally, it follows a similar structure:

• Title Page: This includes the title of the dissertation, the author’s name, and the date of submission.
• Abstract : A brief summary of the dissertation’s purpose, methods, and findings.
• Table of Contents: A list of the main sections and subsections of the dissertation, along with their page numbers.
• Introduction : A statement of the problem or research question, a brief overview of the literature, and an explanation of the significance of the study.
• Literature Review : A comprehensive review of the literature relevant to the research question or problem.
• Methodology : A description of the methods used to conduct the research, including data collection and analysis procedures.
• Results : A presentation of the findings of the research, including tables, charts, and graphs.
• Discussion : A discussion of the implications of the findings, their significance in the context of the literature, and limitations of the study.
• Conclusion : A summary of the main points of the study and their implications for future research.
• References : A list of all sources cited in the dissertation.
• Appendices : Additional materials that support the research, such as data tables, charts, or transcripts.

Dissertation Outline

Dissertation Outline is as follows:

Title Page:

• Title of dissertation
• Author name
• Institutional affiliation
• Date of submission
• Brief summary of the dissertation’s research problem, objectives, methods, findings, and implications
• Usually around 250-300 words

Table of Contents:

• List of chapters and sections in the dissertation, with page numbers for each

I. Introduction

• Background and context of the research
• Research problem and objectives
• Significance of the research

II. Literature Review

• Overview of existing literature on the research topic
• Identification of gaps in the literature
• Theoretical framework and concepts

III. Methodology

• Research design and methods used
• Data collection and analysis techniques
• Ethical considerations

IV. Results

• Presentation and analysis of data collected
• Findings and outcomes of the research
• Interpretation of the results

V. Discussion

• Discussion of the results in relation to the research problem and objectives
• Evaluation of the research outcomes and implications
• Suggestions for future research

VI. Conclusion

• Summary of the research findings and outcomes
• Implications for the research topic and field
• Limitations and recommendations for future research

VII. References

• List of sources cited in the dissertation

VIII. Appendices

• Additional materials that support the research, such as tables, figures, or questionnaires.

Example of Dissertation

Here is an example Dissertation for students:

Title : Exploring the Effects of Mindfulness Meditation on Academic Achievement and Well-being among College Students

This dissertation aims to investigate the impact of mindfulness meditation on the academic achievement and well-being of college students. Mindfulness meditation has gained popularity as a technique for reducing stress and enhancing mental health, but its effects on academic performance have not been extensively studied. Using a randomized controlled trial design, the study will compare the academic performance and well-being of college students who practice mindfulness meditation with those who do not. The study will also examine the moderating role of personality traits and demographic factors on the effects of mindfulness meditation.

Chapter Outline:

Chapter 1: Introduction

• Background and rationale for the study
• Research questions and objectives
• Significance of the study
• Overview of the dissertation structure

Chapter 2: Literature Review

• Definition and conceptualization of mindfulness meditation
• Theoretical framework of mindfulness meditation
• Empirical research on mindfulness meditation and academic achievement
• Empirical research on mindfulness meditation and well-being
• The role of personality and demographic factors in the effects of mindfulness meditation

Chapter 3: Methodology

• Research design and hypothesis
• Participants and sampling method
• Intervention and procedure
• Measures and instruments
• Data analysis method

Chapter 4: Results

• Descriptive statistics and data screening
• Analysis of main effects
• Analysis of moderating effects
• Post-hoc analyses and sensitivity tests

Chapter 5: Discussion

• Summary of findings
• Implications for theory and practice
• Limitations and directions for future research
• Conclusion and contribution to the literature

Chapter 6: Conclusion

• Recap of the research questions and objectives
• Summary of the key findings
• Contribution to the literature and practice
• Implications for policy and practice
• Final thoughts and recommendations.

References :

List of all the sources cited in the dissertation

Appendices :

Additional materials such as the survey questionnaire, interview guide, and consent forms.

Note : This is just an example and the structure of a dissertation may vary depending on the specific requirements and guidelines provided by the institution or the supervisor.

How Long is a Dissertation

The length of a dissertation can vary depending on the field of study, the level of degree being pursued, and the specific requirements of the institution. Generally, a dissertation for a doctoral degree can range from 80,000 to 100,000 words, while a dissertation for a master’s degree may be shorter, typically ranging from 20,000 to 50,000 words. However, it is important to note that these are general guidelines and the actual length of a dissertation can vary widely depending on the specific requirements of the program and the research topic being studied. It is always best to consult with your academic advisor or the guidelines provided by your institution for more specific information on dissertation length.

Applications of Dissertation

Here are some applications of a dissertation:

• Advancing the Field: Dissertations often include new research or a new perspective on existing research, which can help to advance the field. The results of a dissertation can be used by other researchers to build upon or challenge existing knowledge, leading to further advancements in the field.
• Career Advancement: Completing a dissertation demonstrates a high level of expertise in a particular field, which can lead to career advancement opportunities. For example, having a PhD can open doors to higher-paying jobs in academia, research institutions, or the private sector.
• Publishing Opportunities: Dissertations can be published as books or journal articles, which can help to increase the visibility and credibility of the author’s research.
• Personal Growth: The process of writing a dissertation involves a significant amount of research, analysis, and critical thinking. This can help students to develop important skills, such as time management, problem-solving, and communication, which can be valuable in both their personal and professional lives.
• Policy Implications: The findings of a dissertation can have policy implications, particularly in fields such as public health, education, and social sciences. Policymakers can use the research to inform decision-making and improve outcomes for the population.

When to Write a Dissertation

Here are some situations where writing a dissertation may be necessary:

• Pursuing a Doctoral Degree: Writing a dissertation is usually a requirement for earning a doctoral degree, so if you are interested in pursuing a doctorate, you will likely need to write a dissertation.
• Conducting Original Research : Dissertations require students to conduct original research on a specific topic. If you are interested in conducting original research on a topic, writing a dissertation may be the best way to do so.
• Advancing Your Career: Some professions, such as academia and research, may require individuals to have a doctoral degree. Writing a dissertation can help you advance your career by demonstrating your expertise in a particular area.
• Contributing to Knowledge: Dissertations are often based on original research that can contribute to the knowledge base of a field. If you are passionate about advancing knowledge in a particular area, writing a dissertation can help you achieve that goal.
• Meeting Academic Requirements : If you are a graduate student, writing a dissertation may be a requirement for completing your program. Be sure to check with your academic advisor to determine if this is the case for you.

Purpose of Dissertation

some common purposes of a dissertation include:

• To contribute to the knowledge in a particular field : A dissertation is often the culmination of years of research and study, and it should make a significant contribution to the existing body of knowledge in a particular field.
• To demonstrate mastery of a subject: A dissertation requires extensive research, analysis, and writing, and completing one demonstrates a student’s mastery of their subject area.
• To develop critical thinking and research skills : A dissertation requires students to think critically about their research question, analyze data, and draw conclusions based on evidence. These skills are valuable not only in academia but also in many professional fields.
• To demonstrate academic integrity: A dissertation must be conducted and written in accordance with rigorous academic standards, including ethical considerations such as obtaining informed consent, protecting the privacy of participants, and avoiding plagiarism.
• To prepare for an academic career: Completing a dissertation is often a requirement for obtaining a PhD and pursuing a career in academia. It can demonstrate to potential employers that the student has the necessary skills and experience to conduct original research and make meaningful contributions to their field.
• To develop writing and communication skills: A dissertation requires a significant amount of writing and communication skills to convey complex ideas and research findings in a clear and concise manner. This skill set can be valuable in various professional fields.
• To demonstrate independence and initiative: A dissertation requires students to work independently and take initiative in developing their research question, designing their study, collecting and analyzing data, and drawing conclusions. This demonstrates to potential employers or academic institutions that the student is capable of independent research and taking initiative in their work.
• To contribute to policy or practice: Some dissertations may have a practical application, such as informing policy decisions or improving practices in a particular field. These dissertations can have a significant impact on society, and their findings may be used to improve the lives of individuals or communities.
• To pursue personal interests: Some students may choose to pursue a dissertation topic that aligns with their personal interests or passions, providing them with the opportunity to delve deeper into a topic that they find personally meaningful.

Advantage of Dissertation

Some advantages of writing a dissertation include:

• Developing research and analytical skills: The process of writing a dissertation involves conducting extensive research, analyzing data, and presenting findings in a clear and coherent manner. This process can help students develop important research and analytical skills that can be useful in their future careers.
• Demonstrating expertise in a subject: Writing a dissertation allows students to demonstrate their expertise in a particular subject area. It can help establish their credibility as a knowledgeable and competent professional in their field.
• Contributing to the academic community: A well-written dissertation can contribute new knowledge to the academic community and potentially inform future research in the field.
• Improving writing and communication skills : Writing a dissertation requires students to write and present their research in a clear and concise manner. This can help improve their writing and communication skills, which are essential for success in many professions.
• Increasing job opportunities: Completing a dissertation can increase job opportunities in certain fields, particularly in academia and research-based positions.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Writing your dissertation - structure and sections

Posted in: dissertations

In this post, we look at the structural elements of a typical dissertation. Your department may wish you to include additional sections but the following covers all core elements you will need to work on when designing and developing your final assignment.

The table below illustrates a classic dissertation layout with approximate lengths for each section.

Hopkins, D. and Reid, T., 2018.  The Academic Skills Handbook: Your Guid e to Success in Writing, Thinking and Communicating at University . Sage.

Your title should be clear, succinct and tell the reader exactly what your dissertation is about. If it is too vague or confusing, then it is likely your dissertation will be too vague and confusing. It is important therefore to spend time on this to ensure you get it right, and be ready to adapt to fit any changes of direction in your research or focus.

In the following examples, across a variety of subjects, you can see how the students have clearly identified the focus of their dissertation, and in some cases target a problem that they will address:

An econometric analysis of the demand for road transport within the united Kingdom from  1965 to 2000

To what extent does payment card fraud affect UK bank profitability and bank stakeholders?  Does this justify fraud prevention?

A meta-analysis of implant materials for intervertebral disc replacement and regeneration.

The role of ethnic institutions in social development; the case of Mombasa, Kenya.

Why haven’t biomass crops been adopted more widely as a source of renewable energy in the United Kingdom?

Mapping the criminal mind: Profiling and its limitation.

The Relative Effectiveness of Interferon Therapy for Chronic Hepatitis C

Under what conditions did the European Union exhibit leadership in international climate change negotiations from 1992-1997, 1997-2005 and 2005-Copenhagen respectively?

The first thing your reader will read (after the title) is your abstract. However, you need to write this last. Your abstract is a summary of the whole project, and will include aims and objectives, methods, results and conclusions. You cannot write this until you have completed your write-up (look at our six point checklist for writing an abstract ).

Introduction

Your introduction should include the same elements found in most academic essay or report assignments, with the possible inclusion of research questions. The aim of the introduction is to set the scene, contextualise your research, introduce your focus topic and research questions, and tell the reader what you will be covering.  It should move from the general  and work towards the specific. You should include the following:

• Attention-grabbing statement (a controversy, a topical issue, a contentious view, a recent problem etc)
• Background and context
• Introduce the topic, key theories, concepts, terms of reference, practices, (advocates and critic)
• Introduce the problem and focus of your research
• Set out your research question(s) (this could be set out in a separate section)
• Your approach to answering your research questions.

See also Writing your introduction .

Literature review

Your literature review is the section of your report where you show what is already known about the area under investigation and demonstrate the need for your particular study. This is a significant section in your dissertation (30%) and you should allow plenty of time to carry out a thorough exploration of your focus topic and use it to help you identify a specific problem and formulate your research questions.

You should approach the literature review with the critical analysis dial turned up to full volume. This is not simply a description, list, or summary  of everything you have read. Instead, it is a synthesis of your reading, and should include analysis and evaluation of readings, evidence, studies and data, cases, real world applications and views/opinions expressed.  Your supervisor is looking for this detailed critical approach in your literature review, where you unpack sources, identify strengths and weaknesses and find gaps in the research.

In other words, your literature review is your opportunity to show the reader why your paper is important and your research is significant, as it addresses the gap or on-going issue you have uncovered.

See also:  Developing your literature review - getting started  and   Developing your literature review - top tips

You need to tell the reader what was done. This means describing the research methods and explaining your choice. This will include information on the following:

• Are your methods qualitative or quantitative... or both? And if so, why?
• Who (if any) are the participants?
• Are you analysing any documents, systems, organisations? If so what are they and why are you analysing them?
• What did you do first, second, etc?
• What ethical considerations are there?

It is a common style convention to write what was done rather than what you did, and write it so that someone else would be able to replicate your study.

Here you describe what you have found out. You need to identify the most significant patterns in your data, and use tables and figures to support your description. Your tables and figures are a visual representation of your findings, but remember to describe what they show in your writing. There should be no critical analysis in this part (unless you have combined results and discussion sections).

Here you show the significance of your results or findings. You critically analyse what they mean, and what the implications may be. Talk about any limitations to your study, evaluating the strengths and weaknesses of your own research, and make suggestions for further studies to build on your findings. In this section, your supervisor will expect you to dig deep into your findings and critically evaluate what they mean in relation to previous studies, theories, views and opinions.

This is a summary of your project, reminding the reader of the background to your study, your objectives, and showing how you met them. Do not include any new information that you have not discussed before.

This is the list of all the sources you have cited in your dissertation. Ensure you are consistent and follow the conventions for the particular referencing system you are using. (Note: you shouldn't include books you've read but do not appear in your dissertation).

Include any extra information that your reader may like to read. It should not be essential for your reader to read them in order to understand your dissertation. Your appendices should be labelled (e.g. Appendix A, Appendix B, etc). Examples of material for the appendices include detailed data tables (summarised in your results section), the complete version of a document you have used an extract from, etc.

Adapted from: https://www2.le.ac.uk/offices/ld/all-resources/writing/writing-resources/planning-and-conducting-a-dissertation-research-project

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Selecting Research Area

Selecting a research area is the very first step in writing your dissertation. It is important for you to choose a research area that is interesting to you professionally, as well as, personally. Experienced researchers note that “a topic in which you are only vaguely interested at the start is likely to become a topic in which you have no interest and with which you will fail to produce your best work” [1] . Ideally, your research area should relate to your future career path and have a potential to contribute to the achievement of your career objectives.

The importance of selecting a relevant research area that is appropriate for dissertation is often underestimated by many students. This decision cannot be made in haste. Ideally, you should start considering different options at the beginning of the term. However, even when there are only few weeks left before the deadline and you have not chosen a particular topic yet, there is no need to panic.

There are few areas in business studies that can offer interesting topics due to their relevance to business and dynamic nature. The following is the list of research areas and topics that can prove to be insightful in terms of assisting you to choose your own dissertation topic.

Globalization can be a relevant topic for many business and economics dissertations. Forces of globalization are nowadays greater than ever before and dissertations can address the implications of these forces on various aspects of business.

Following are few examples of research areas in globalization:

• A study of implications of COVID-19 pandemic on economic globalization
• Impacts of globalization on marketing strategies of beverage manufacturing companies: a case study of The Coca-Cola Company
• Effects of labour migration within EU on the formation of multicultural teams in UK organizations
• A study into advantages and disadvantages of various entry strategies to Chinese market
• A critical analysis of the effects of globalization on US-based businesses

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is also one of the most popular topics at present and it is likely to remain so for the foreseeable future. CSR refers to additional responsibilities of business organizations towards society apart from profit maximization. There is a high level of controversy involved in CSR. This is because businesses can be socially responsible only at the expense of their primary objective of profit maximization.

Perspective researches in the area of CSR may include the following:

• The impacts of CSR programs and initiatives on brand image: a case study of McDonald’s India
• A critical analysis of argument of mandatory CSR for private sector organizations in Australia
• A study into contradictions between CSR programs and initiatives and business practices: a case study of Philip Morris Philippines
• A critical analysis into the role of CSR as an effective marketing tool
• A study into the role of workplace ethics for improving brand image

Social Media and viral marketing relate to increasing numbers of various social networking sites such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, YouTube etc. Increasing levels of popularity of social media among various age groups create tremendous potential for businesses in terms of attracting new customers.

The following can be listed as potential studies in the area of social media:

• A critical analysis of the use of social media as a marketing strategy: a case study of Burger King Malaysia
• An assessment of the role of Instagram as an effective platform for viral marketing campaigns
• A study into the sustainability of TikTok as a marketing tool in the future
• An investigation into the new ways of customer relationship management in mobile marketing environment: a case study of catering industry in South Africa
• A study into integration of Twitter social networking website within integrated marketing communication strategy: a case study of Microsoft Corporation

Culture and cultural differences in organizations offer many research opportunities as well. Increasing importance of culture is directly related to intensifying forces of globalization in a way that globalization forces are fuelling the formation of cross-cultural teams in organizations.

Perspective researches in the area of culture and cultural differences in organizations may include the following:

• The impact of cross-cultural differences on organizational communication: a case study of BP plc
• A study into skills and competencies needed to manage multicultural teams in Singapore
• The role of cross-cultural differences on perception of marketing communication messages in the global marketplace: a case study of Apple Inc.
• Effects of organizational culture on achieving its aims and objectives: a case study of Virgin Atlantic
• A critical analysis into the emergence of global culture and its implications in local automobile manufacturers in Germany

Leadership and leadership in organizations has been a popular topic among researchers for many decades by now. However, the importance of this topic may be greater now than ever before. This is because rapid technological developments, forces of globalization and a set of other factors have caused markets to become highly competitive. Accordingly, leadership is important in order to enhance competitive advantages of organizations in many ways.

The following studies can be conducted in the area of leadership:

• Born or bred: revisiting The Great Man theory of leadership in the 21 st century
• A study of effectiveness of servant leadership style in public sector organizations in Hong Kong
• Creativity as the main trait for modern leaders: a critical analysis
• A study into the importance of role models in contributing to long-term growth of private sector organizations: a case study of Tata Group, India
• A critical analysis of leadership skills and competencies for E-Commerce organizations

COVID-19 pandemic and its macro and micro-economic implications can also make for a good dissertation topic. Pandemic-related crisis has been like nothing the world has seen before and it is changing international business immensely and perhaps, irreversibly as well.

The following are few examples for pandemic crisis-related topics:

• A study into potential implications of COVID-19 pandemic into foreign direct investment in China
• A critical assessment of effects of COVID-19 pandemic into sharing economy: a case study of AirBnb.
• The role of COVID-19 pandemic in causing shifts in working patterns: a critical analysis

Moreover, dissertations can be written in a wide range of additional areas such as customer services, supply-chain management, consumer behaviour, human resources management, catering and hospitality, strategic management etc. depending on your professional and personal interests.

[1] Saunders, M., Lewis, P. & Thornhill, A. (2012) “Research Methods for Business Students” 6th edition, Pearson Education Limited.

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Research Process

• Brainstorming
• Explore Google This link opens in a new window
• Explore Web Resources
• Explore Background Information
• Explore Books
• Explore Scholarly Articles
• Narrowing a Topic
• Primary and Secondary Resources
• Academic, Popular & Trade Publications
• Scholarly and Peer-Reviewed Journals
• Grey Literature
• Clinical Trials
• Evidence Based Treatment
• Scholarly Research
• Database Research Log
• Search Limits
• Keyword Searching
• Boolean Operators
• Phrase Searching
• Truncation & Wildcard Symbols
• Proximity Searching
• Field Codes
• Subject Terms and Database Thesauri
• Reading a Scientific Article
• Website Evaluation
• Article Keywords and Subject Terms
• Cited References
• Citing Articles
• Related Results
• Search Within Publication
• Database Alerts & RSS Feeds
• Personal Database Accounts
• Persistent URLs
• Literature Gap and Future Research
• Web of Knowledge
• Annual Reviews
• Systematic Reviews & Meta-Analyses
• Finding Seminal Works
• Exhausting the Literature
• Finding Dissertations
• Researching Theoretical Frameworks
• Research Methodology & Design
• Tests and Measurements
• Organizing Research & Citations This link opens in a new window
• Scholarly Publication
• Learn the Library This link opens in a new window

Library Basic Training: Resources for Doctoral Success

• Library Basic Training: Resources for Doctoral Success Reviews the most important resources for your dissertation research. Learn how to search for scholarly articles and dissertations, place Interlibrary Loan requests, find information about research methodology and design, use Google Scholar, and more.

NU Dissertation Center

If you are looking for a document in the Dissertation Center or Applied Doctoral Center and can't find it please contact your Chair or The Center for Teaching and Learning at [email protected]

• NCU Dissertation Center Find valuable resources and support materials to help you through your doctoral journey.
• Applied Doctoral Center Collection of resources to support students in completing their project/dissertation-in-practice as part of the Applied Doctoral Experience (ADE).

Dissertation Research

Dissertation topics are a special subset of research topics. All of the previously mentioned techniques can, and should, be utilized to locate potential dissertation topics, but there are also some special considerations to keep in mind when choosing a dissertation topic.

Dissertation topics should interesting, feasible, relevant, and worthy. The criterion of feasibility is especially important when choosing a dissertation topic. You don’t want to settle on a topic and then find out that the study you were imagining can’t be done, or the survey or assessment instrument you need can’t be used. You also want to make sure that you select a topic that will allow you to be an objective researcher. If you select a topic that you have worked closely on for many years, make sure you are still open to new information, even if that information runs counter what you believe to be true about the topic. To learn more about feasibility, see the Center for Teaching & Learning's Feasibility Checklist .

It is very important to think about these considerations beforehand so that you don’t get stuck during the dissertation process. Here are some considerations to keep in mind when choosing a dissertation topic:

• Access to the primary literature relating to your topic
• Access to grey literature relating to your topic
• Access to the surveys and assessment instruments that you will need
• Access to the study group to conduct your study
• IRB approval for your study
• Access to equipment for your study, if needed

Note that published surveys and assessment instruments are generally NOT free. Due to copyright laws you will more than likely need to purchase the survey from the publisher in order to gain permissions to use in your own study. Unpublished surveys and assessments (usually found in the appendices of articles) may be freely available, but you will need to contact the author(s) to gain permission to use the survey in your research.

Looking at previously published dissertations is a great way to gauge the level of research and involvement that is generally expected at the dissertation level. Previously published dissertations can also be good sources of inspiration for your own dissertation study. Similar to scholarly articles, many dissertations will suggest areas of future research. Paying attention to those suggestions can provide valuable ideas and clues for your own dissertation topic. Note that dissertations are not considered to be peer-reviewed documents, so carefully review and evaluate the information presented in them.

The literature review section in a dissertation contains a wealth of information. Not only can the literature review provide topic ideas by showing some of the major research that has been done on a topic, but it can also help you evaluate any topics that you are tentatively considering. From your examination of literature reviews can you determine if your research idea has already been completed? Has the theory that validates your study been disproved by new dissertation research? Is your research idea still relevant to the current state of the discipline? Literature reviews can help you answer these questions by providing a compact and summative description of a particular research area.

You may find it difficult to find scholarly articles, and books in which your hypothesis is directly addressed. If so, then expand your search to theories and variables that are related, but not directly so. No matter how specific or elusive your topic is, there is research out there that is relevant, so keep looking. Look for resources that address one or two of the variables in your study, theories that are either directly or indirectly related, as well as research that relates specifically to the population of interest. By focusing on resources that address different parts of your research topic, you can combine this information in a way that is directly applicable.

The sub-pages in this section provide resources for your Dissertation Research.

Dissertation Research FAQs

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HOW TO WRITE DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA IN RESEARCH

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DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA

Description of the study area is the act of describing the characteristics, qualities and physical features of an area, location, neighbourhood, city or community that is being studied or investigated for research purposes. Describing a study area is an important part of research, not just to the researcher, but to all concerned both now and in the future.

The study area is sometimes referred to as a study site in research, some higher institutions refer to the description of the study area as the “ profile of the study area “. In order to properly give a detailed description of an area, the researcher should have an in-depth knowledge of the study area in the project , and this can only be possible by reviewing other related materials in the form of published Journals, textbooks, etc., by academicians within a particular field of study or when the researcher is familiar with the neighbourhood or area in question.

In a dissertation, the description of a study area usually comes under Chapter Three (in most cases) with the exception of some institutions with special formats for presenting research papers. But the key point is that the captions on whichever chapter this subject is mentioned are usually written as “A Brief Description of Study Area” . This is not to limit the information provided but to apply some sort of concision in that it should be skillfully couched to enable a good flow in the presentation without creating confusion.

In summary, there are three aspects to the description of study area – (brief) (description) (study area)

The fact that it is termed brief does not necessarily mean it shouldn’t be detailed.

Your description should cover a broad spectrum of information; this would include location, geography, climatic condition, social infrastructure, vegetation, density, humidity, temperature, topography, terrain and so on.

The study area should be your area of coverage that is, your case study. Introducing information from other areas or regions will have no significance on the subject matter, hence your primary focus would be on the area your research is covering. At this point, you are expected to include maps of the study area (in colour).

What you’re expected to write is a detailed description of your study area to give your reader an idea of what your study area looks like. Get Samples 

Depending on the research topic, the pattern of describing the study area could vary;

If a project topic is focused on investigating issues or problems that concern a state or province the description will bother around everything that makes up the location. For example “ Evaluation of the Issues Affecting Girl-Child Education in FCT Abuja ” is a broad topic that focuses on FCT-Abuja as a case study, hence to describe the study area which in this case is FCT-Abuja, adequate data on everything that makes up or best describes Abuja as a Federal Capital Territory has to be brought in and properly described. The description should include the vegetation in Abuja, the population of Abuja, Abuja’s topography, its climatic condition, the culture of people living in Abuja, the terrain (that is, the flatness or sloppiness of Roads in Abuja), the nature of business, market data, rainfall, electricity, common food, the number of ethnic group in the territory, religion of residents among others.

The essence of the description of the study area is to enable an outsider to have an idea of the area or neighbourhood that is being researched, this knowledge will also help the readers to understand the body of your work and try to envision what your study is trying to pass across. It will also influence people’s judgment of the topic being researched.

If the project topic is centred on a particular catchment or neighbourhood for example “ A Critical Examination of Facilities Management Strategy on Public Properties – A Case Study of Central Bank of Nigeria Staff Quarters ” the description will take a different shape. In this case, it should include a brief summary of the neighborhood where the CBN staff quarters are located followed by a broad description of the CBN staff quarters environment and premises. Let’s look at the following example;

“ The CBN staff quarters is a large purpose-built residential estate for senior, intermediate and junior CBN staff members. It is properly fenced around its perimeter solid block walls with a giant double two-way gate at the main entrance and another small pedestrian gate by the side. The estate comprises of the following; 16 Blocks of 8 units of 2bedroom flats each totalling 128 flats, 12 Block of 8 units of 3bedroom flats each totalling another 97 flats, and 6 Blocks of 6 units of 3bedroom flats each totalling 36 flats with additional buildings at the rear for intermediate and junior staff. The senior staff also have a large garage for parking vehicles .”

In addition, a detailed description of the site and construction details of the buildings will beef up your work. For example:

“ The site is rectangular in shape, it has a flat or table surface and properly drains off water during heavy downpours. The site measures approximately 22.32 hectares .”

The construction details should encompass; the type of floor, wall, doors, windows, ceiling, fittings, roof and the materials used in constructing them. For example, a brief description of the floor can be written like this “ The floor is made of mass concrete on hardcore filling well rammed over consolidated laterite and finished with terrazzo material ” The other building components (windows, doors, ceiling, wall, fitting and roof) should have their description proper done like the “floor”.

The facilities in the CBN staff estate should also come in the description. A short write-up can be done to explain to the reader or supervisor the available facilities installed and used in the CBN staff quarters, for example, “ The facilities provided in the CBN staff quarters are; water treatment plant, cameras, sewage treatment plant, generator house, heavy duty generator set to illuminate the premises, pumping machine (Sumo) to circulate water to all apartments, borehole, external lighting points and lawn tennis court for exercise .”

Sometimes an institution could be a case study of a project. Let’s use this project topic as an example “ An Analysis of the Maintenance and Management Problem of the University of Lagos Hostel Buildings ”.

To describe this study area the following sub-headings should be developed and expanded:

This involves the description of the University’s location, including the city and local government area where it is situated.

The History, Origin and Growth of the Study Area:

Tracing the historical background of the University of Lagos, its various campuses, colleges (college of medicine), the total size of the school premises, total number of staff and students (undergraduates and postgraduate students), annual enrollment of students, the various faculties and departments and other facilities attached to the universities and subsidiary campuses or learning institutions within and outside the state, or country is paramount.

Important : Make sure to include a colour map in your description to guide your readers and supervisor further.

SAMPLE OF DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA

Frequently asked questions about the description of study area., what is the general description of the study area.

There is no such thing as a general description of the study area, the pattern of describing a particular area might differ from the way other areas are described. This is dependent on the type and nature of the area that is going to be described. No two locations have exactly the same features, hence you cannot give a written account of locations A and B the same way, which is why the researcher will need to either visit the area of the study or source materials with comprehensive and recent information on a particular area to be described in the research paper.

Examples of areas of study?

The determination of a study area is dependent on the type or nature of the researchable problem that the researcher wants to solve. For example, an ideal study area for “Impact of indiscriminate dumps on children’s health” would be a neighbourhood that experiences a high volume of indiscriminate dumps such as ghettos, slum neighbourhoods, high-density or populated neighbourhoods etc.

Also, if a project topic is   “Impact of social media on junior secondary school subjects” the area of study will comprise a certain number of junior secondary schools in a particular area not necessarily the entire State, Region or Province. The area of study must be connected with the project topic, this is because the research problem is first identified before developing a topic around the problem. So, the research has to identify a problem, search for areas affected by the identified problem and then develop a topic that captures the problem and the area of study.

The following can represent an area of study; Primary and Secondary Schools, Communities, Organizations, Provinces, Streets, Local Government Areas, hospitals, Banks, TV and Radio Stations, Government Agencies, Military Barracks, Police Stations, Specialized Buildings, Events, Shrines, Layouts etc.

Some people may want to carry out simple research about their home or certain areas or components in their home, this could be academic or personal research about an identified problem in the home. Hence, examples of study areas at home would include, the premises, building structures, the environment, farmland or plantation farm, auxiliary facilities, recreational areas in the home, pool sites, cooking or baking area etc. depending on the project topic.

What is a study area in research?

Study areas are locations where a researcher plans to carry out an in-depth study about a topic or existing problem. This is usually indicated in the research proposal for the supervisor to vet and approve. If approved, the researcher or student is expected to visit the study area to observe and gather information related to the existing problem in that neighbourhood. A study area is also referred to as a study site or research site.

What is the importance of the study area in research?

The importance of the study area cannot be over-emphasized. I have taken time to explain this question in the article “ Reasons for Choosing a Study Area in Research ”.

Must a description of the study area in a project be broad?

No.  I mentioned earlier in this article that most research papers or projects require a brief description of your study area, so you could write a brief account of your study area in about one to three pages depending on how vast the area is. You don’t need to write more than is required, just provide the relevant information needed and you’re good.

Get complete samples of the Description of Study Areas here  

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14 Replies to “HOW TO WRITE DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA IN RESEARCH” .

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Thank you Zelalem, you can send a message if you need further guide. I wish you success!

What if I choose a Senior high school in Enugu state? Am I going to write about the school or the State itself?

If your project topic is about a particular high school then the description should focus on the School itself not the State.

very good concept. Really I appreciate it.

Awesome, thanks Ray.

Helpful information .Thanks

Thank you Peres Bett.

How to write description of the study Area

This is great information just as I wanted it to be. thanks a lot man

Thanks Richard.

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Section 7. Learning Modalities and Resources: Doctoral Learning and Resources

• Learning Modalities and Resources
• Instructional Delivery Models
• Learning and Research Resources

Doctoral Research Sequence

Institutional review board, dissertation and doctoral capstone credit, doctoral capstone completion process, doctoral committee member roles and functions, guidance for walden students on the use of external consultants for capstone projects, selection and appointment of committees, doctoral capstone project inclusion in the institutional repository.

• Academic Residencies, Labs, and Intensives Requirements
• Field Experience
• Master's Final Projects
• Doctoral Final Projects

Internal and external researchers and program leaders representing Walden University’s fields of doctoral study key stakeholders collaborated to generate a list of specific research competencies expected of all doctoral graduates from Walden.

Research competency standards of PhD programs in typical graduate programs were reviewed, as were those of external higher education associations such as The Higher Learning Commission of the North Central Association of Colleges and Schools and the Council of Graduate Schools, as well as several professional accrediting bodies. The result of this extensive review and collaboration resulted in establishing 48 specific areas of competency organized around the following seven broad areas:

• Philosophy of research
• Research project design and approaches
• Quantitative research techniques
• Qualitative research techniques
• Quantitative quality assurance
• Qualitative quality assurance
• Professional practice

Doctoral Research Sequence Courses

Doctoral of education (edd) research sequence courses, doctoral research competencies and related learning objectives.

Completion of the doctoral research sequence (RSCH 8110, RSCH 8210, and RSCH 8310) and the additional advanced-level courses required within each student’s program will enable students to achieve mastery of the specific set of these research competencies required for their field of study and professional goals.

Topic Area and Competency: Philosophy of Research

Topic area and competency: research project design and approaches, topic area and competency: quantitative research techniques, topic area and competency: qualitative research techniques, topic area and competency: quantitative quality assurance, topic area and competency: qualitative quality assurance, topic area and competency: professional practice, registering, completing, and receiving credit for the research sequence courses.

Students register for the Research Sequence courses using the regular course registration process.

Walden University is committed to conducting its research involving human subjects under rigorous ethical principles.

The university’s Institutional Review Board (IRB) has been established to comply with existing regulations of the federal government. Specifically, the university follows the Federal Policy for the Protection of Human Subjects (45 CFR 46).

University research ethics forms and guidance can be found at the Institutional Review Board web page.

Scope of Authority

Information required for review, doctoral student responsibilities regarding research data, doctor of philosophy programs.

Students in PhD programs are enrolled in dissertation courses each term that they are working on completing their dissertation. Course credit is earned for each individual dissertation course successfully completed. If students complete the minimum dissertation credit required for their program but have not yet completed the dissertation process, they are continuously registered for the dissertation course until they receive final approval of their dissertation. In the rare event that a student completes his or her dissertation before earning the minimum required dissertation credits, only the chief academic officer can approve dissertation credit waivers. Students must be registered in the final term for which they receive approval of their dissertation. For program-specific information regarding dissertation credit, students should refer to the program and course information provided in the catalog.

Professional Doctorate Programs

Most professional doctorate programs have a capstone requirement that varies from that of the dissertation. Students in professional doctorate programs must complete a doctoral study, capstone, or project. The total credit requirement varies by program and is in addition to any practicum or field experience requirements. As with the dissertation, students are enrolled in a doctoral capstone course each term until they have met the total requirements for the program. For program-specific information regarding doctoral capstone credit, students should refer to the program and course information provided in the catalog.

KAM and Mixed-Model Programs

Students enrolled in a KAM or Mixed-Model program follow the same model of continuous registration as students in PhD programs. Students are continuously registered in a Research Forum course during the completion of the KAM and the dissertation. Students are responsible for completing all KAM coursework prior to engaging in the dissertation stage of their program. A dissertation committee cannot be formed or active until the student has completed all of their KAM requirements. For program-specific information regarding KAM and/or dissertation credit, students should refer to the program and course information provided in the catalog.

Please note, for all programs, students must be actively registered in the appropriate course in order to conduct research for a doctoral research artifact (dissertation/doctoral capstone/KAM) or to receive support services from Walden University.

There are several milestones within the stages of the doctoral capstone or project process. For a visual of the stages and milestones, refer to the Doctoral Capstone Development document on the Office of Research and Doctoral Services website. Students should use the Doctoral Degree Coach—an interactive, virtual tool—to stay on track and complete their doctoral capstone or project. Students can access the Doctoral Degree Coach on the homepage of their capstone/project course, or on the Doctoral Degree Coach webpage.

All students enrolled in a Walden University doctoral program will proceed through the following stages and milestones as they complete their capstone:

Doctoral Capstone Development | Stages and Milestone

A doctoral capstone (e.g., dissertation, project study, etc.) is required in the final phase of a student’s doctoral journey. During capstone development, students integrate their program of study into an in-depth exploration culminating in the completion of a doctoral research study. Students complete the study independently, with the support of a capstone committee, and following the guidance from program capstone resources and the Doctoral Degree Coach ™. Once enrolled in the university capstone course, students are registered each term until the successful completion of all stages.

Capstone Stages

Progress Milestones within the Stages

Prospectus  .

The Doctoral Prospectus is a brief document that provides preliminary information about the capstone research. It serves as the tentative plan for developing the Proposal and is evaluated to ensure doctoral-level work (e.g., feasibility, alignment, etc.) by the committee chair, second committee member, and a program-level designee. Program-level approval is required to progress to the Proposal.

Proposal  

The Doctoral Proposal consists of the initial chapters or sections of the capstone and an APA-style reference list. The Proposal presents a detailed plan of the proposed research and describes a specific problem, the related literature, and the intended research methodology. The Proposal is evaluated by the committee to ensure doctoral-level work (e.g., an exhaustive review of literature, alignment, etc.). Students complete an oral defense, and the Proposal Stage culminates with the research ethics review process. IRB approval is required to progress to the Final Study.

• For more information on the oral defense milestone, see the  Office of Research and Doctoral Services  website under  Oral Defense .
• For more information on the IRB approval process, consult the  Institutional Review Board (IRB): Research Ethics  webpage.

Final Study  

After the IRB application has been approved, students conduct their research, collect and analyze data, report findings, and draw conclusions. With the guidance of the committee, students write the remaining chapters or sections of the capstone as well as the document abstract. The Final Study is evaluated by the committee to ensure doctoral-level work (e.g., accurate results, alignment, etc.). Students complete the form and style review process and an oral defense. The Final Study stage culminates in the Chief Academic Officer (CAO) designee review process. CAO approval is required for capstone completion.

• For more information on the Form and Style Review, consult the  Form and Style  webpage.

Faculty members in Walden University doctoral programs who accept the duty of serving on a dissertation or doctoral study committee assume a dual responsibility of high importance. One part is service to their students; the other is service to the academic practice, discipline, and professional field to which the dissertation is related. For the first part, expectations concerning the faculty service to be performed are determined by students’ needs, and by university academic policy pertaining to how these needs are to be addressed. For the second, expectations are set both by university academic policy and by policies and practice that frame acceptable work in the discipline and professional field at large.

The committee’s guidance to students will be “team advice.” Any written dialogue between a student and a committee member is shared within the committee. Committee members recognize that issues may be controversial, divide opinions, or otherwise cause disagreement. When conflicts arise, the committee members are obligated to restrict the discussion to only other committee members and the committee chairperson, to avoid involving students in disputes or disagreements among themselves. The committee chairperson will act as a mediator to resolve the situation and obtain a consensus.

Walden intends that dissertation/doctoral study committee members work as a team, directly guiding students through the proposal, research and analysis, and ultimately the final oral presentation. Although the committee members are expected to support and facilitate students’ progress through their doctoral capstone project, students are ultimately responsible for preparing a dissertation/doctoral study that meets the rigors of academic excellence.

Required Roles in Walden Doctoral Committees

Most Walden doctoral capstone (e.g. dissertation, doctoral study, etc.) committees will be comprised of a committee chair and co-chair/second committee member. 

The committee chairperson leads the committee members as they work with students on their doctoral capstone projects. As a result, the chairs are primarily responsible for ensuring that such projects meet all of Walden’s requirements including those pertaining to content coverage, methodology, research ethics, and form and style. Moreover, they are responsible for making sure that the work of committee fulfills expectations of service to the student, the academic discipline(s), and professional field(s) of practice involved. Chairs must lead, monitor, coordinate, and assess the progress of the capstone research from start to finish. In order for the chair to provide effective leadership of capstone committees, committee members must individually apprise the committee chairperson of their respective expertise, if not already known or any special knowledge that they may be able to contribute to the student’s capstone project. Committee members must contact the committee chairperson before beginning to work with students. Chairs must be from the program in which students are enrolled, with further specificity required from some schools.

Second Member

The second member collaborates with chair throughout capstone completion process to provide overall guidance about the acceptability of the capstone taking into account:

• Walden capstone rubric requirements
• Norms of program and profession
• Form and style requirements

In addition, between the chair and the second member, the following functions must be fulfilled. The functions may be split between these two members, or the chair or second member could perform both roles.

Methodology Expert

• Proposed research design including appropriateness for addressing the problem statement and research questions or for testing stated hypotheses
• Selection of specific methodology
• Selection of a sample of appropriate characteristics and size
• Program/professional norms
• Generally accepted ethical and moral principles regarding human subjects
• Data collection and analysis
• Presentation of the data and the conclusions drawn from the analyses

Content Expert

• Conceptualizing the research issues
• Preparing a literature review that provides a comprehensive summary of current knowledge and identifies the gap therein
• Identifying all variables and potential relationships
• Articulating a clearly defined research question
• Establishing the significance of the topic and the potential of the study to contribute to positive social change
• Degree to which assumptions and limitations impact upon the research conclusions
• Comprehensiveness of the literature review and theoretical base of the study (if appropriate)
• Potential for research outcomes to contribute to positive social change
• Overall significance of the research findings or outcomes

External, Non-Walden Dissertation/Doctoral Study Committee Member

In some rare cases, the committee chairperson may conclude that special expertise is needed to appropriately mentor or evaluate a specific aspect of a student’s research topic. In such instances, an external fourth member may be added to the committee. The qualifications of this member shall include all of the following:

• Expertise on the research topic, not otherwise available within the Walden faculty
• Possession of the highest academic degree awarded in the field
• A record of publications in scholarly journals closely associated with the topic area
• A record of guiding the development of doctoral dissertations in the topic area
• Evidence of current, active involvement in research related to the topic area

A request for such a member must be accompanied by a copy of the proposed member’s CV, and a letter from the student including all of the points above. An external member of a dissertation/doctoral study supervisory committee has the same rights and responsibilities as any other member. Review and approval of a non-Walden member nominated to a dissertation/doctoral study supervisory committee is in the purview of the program chair and/or dean of the student’s program. Nomination of such a member is initiated by the student, approved by the committee chairperson, and then evaluated by the program chair, who determines if the request shall be approved.

For more information on the specific responsibilities of each capstone committee member at each point in the capstone completion process, visit the Capstone Committee Process webpage.

Although the doctoral capstone project can seem daunting at the outset, the academic programs at Walden are designed to prepare students to complete their own projects. The need for added support is understandable, but completed capstones must represent the students’ work and learning, and demonstrate their skills as a holder of doctoral degrees. Students who choose to utilize support beyond services offered by the university need to be mindful of the pitfalls and potential problems that can arise. In today’s marketplace, there are some unscrupulous writers, scholars, and statisticians that cross boundaries and interfere with the originality of student work. The information below is provided to give clarity on this subject in relation to student and faculty expectations and support all students in selecting support options.

In working with editors, students should use these resources only for editing and clarifying, not for the synthesis of ideas or the generation of new concepts. Having someone else write parts of the document is a form of plagiarism, and it puts the entire project at risk.

Statisticians and Other Research Consultants

Research consultants’ services should be used for tutoring of statistical concepts and reviewing data analysis strategies; these are not services for designing the research, conducting the analyses, or interpreting the results. To have a successful oral presentation of the capstone, students need to be able to explain and defend every aspect of their work and to demonstrate an understanding of all concepts, synthesis, and analysis.

Caution and Support for Students

Unfortunately, a growing number of doctoral students hire editorial and statistical services from individuals and/or companies who make claims to deliver a product but fail to do so. In some cases, services performed by others may put students in a position that can jeopardize their status at the university. Walden University will not be able to support or accommodate students who become victims of misleading or unscrupulous consultants. Students should apply the guidance provided here when considering an outside consultant. Prior to seeking external resources, students should first consult the menu of support options available at no cost from the Office of Academic Support and the Office of Research and Doctoral Services Doctoral Methodology Advising .

Faculty Recommendations

Faculty members may suggest the use of an advisor or consultant when students display consistent editorial difficulties on document drafts, but they should not require students to use an external consultant and cannot require the use of a specific consultant.

Chairs and Second Members

Phd committees.

PhD students request the formation of their dissertation committee as part of an assignment during a course in their program. Using information that students share about their dissertation interests, program leaders match them with an appropriate committee chair and second committee member. Students may request a specific faculty member to serve on their committee; these requests are subject to program approval. Those requests are reviewed by program leaders to ensure the faculty member’s availability and appropriate expertise. Students will be notified about who is on their committee prior to the term in which they start their dissertation courses.

Professional Doctorate* Committees

Students in professional doctorate programs will have committee members appointed for them. Using information that students share about their capstone/project interests, program leaders match them with an appropriate committee after students have reached specific milestones within the program. Students will be notified about who is on their committee along with the next steps in the capstone/project process.

*Professional Doctorate programs include: EdD, DBA, DIT, DHA, DHS, DNP, DPA, DrPH, DSW, and PsyD

For information on changing one’s chair or second member after a committee is approved, students should consult the relevant Dissertation Guidebook or the Doctoral Study Guidebook for the program.

Notice of Right to Distribute

To assure transparency in doctoral training, Walden University reserves the right to distribute capstone products via the institutional repository (IR). Students cannot opt-out of IR participation. Capstones will be available in the repository as “Gratis Open Access”—the content is available to read free-of-charge, though its reuse is still restricted. Authors retain the copyright for their capstone product. Capstone products subject to this policy include dissertations, doctoral studies, project studies, and any equivalent documents that fulfill a doctoral capstone requirement. 

Capstone Product Content Distributed in the Repository

• Every capstone product will be catalogued in the IR upon receipt from ProQuest/UMI.
• The catalog record will include the title, author name, year of doctoral degree conferral, degree earned, the name of the committee chair, and the abstract.
• By default, the full text of the capstone product will be available in the repository upon receipt from ProQuest/UMI.

Embargo Option

Authors may opt to restrict access to the full text of their capstone in the IR by requesting a 1-year embargo period. The student will receive instructions for electing this option from the Office of Research and Doctoral Services along with other capstone completion documentation. If an embargo is requested:

• The embargo period begins upon receipt of the document from ProQuest/UMI.
• The full text of the capstone product will become available in the repository at the end of the embargo period, one year after receipt.
• A catalog record is created for the document upon receipt from ProQuest/UMI; i.e., information about the document will be discoverable in the repository even during the embargo period.
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• Knowledge Base
• Dissertation

How to Write a Dissertation or Thesis Proposal

Published on September 21, 2022 by Tegan George . Revised on July 18, 2023.

When starting your thesis or dissertation process, one of the first requirements is a research proposal or a prospectus. It describes what or who you want to examine, delving into why, when, where, and how you will do so, stemming from your research question and a relevant topic .

The proposal or prospectus stage is crucial for the development of your research. It helps you choose a type of research to pursue, as well as whether to pursue qualitative or quantitative methods and what your research design will look like.

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Table of contents

What should your proposal contain, dissertation question examples, what should your proposal look like, dissertation prospectus examples, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about proposals.

Prior to jumping into the research for your thesis or dissertation, you first need to develop your research proposal and have it approved by your supervisor. It should outline all of the decisions you have taken about your project, from your dissertation topic to your hypotheses and research objectives .

Depending on your department’s requirements, there may be a defense component involved, where you present your research plan in prospectus format to your committee for their approval.

Your proposal should answer the following questions:

• Why is your research necessary?
• What is already known about your topic?
• Where and when will your research be conducted?
• Who should be studied?
• How can the research best be done?

Ultimately, your proposal should persuade your supervisor or committee that your proposed project is worth pursuing.

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Strong research kicks off with a solid research question , and dissertations are no exception to this.

Dissertation research questions should be:

• Focused on a single problem or issue
• Researchable using primary and/or secondary sources
• Feasible to answer within the timeframe and practical constraints
• Specific enough to answer thoroughly
• Complex enough to develop the answer over the space of a paper or thesis
• Relevant to your field of study and/or society more broadly
• What are the main factors enticing people under 30 in suburban areas to engage in the gig economy?
• Which techniques prove most effective for 1st-grade teachers at local elementary schools in engaging students with special needs?
• Which communication streams are the most effective for getting those aged 18-30 to the polls on Election Day?

An easy rule of thumb is that your proposal will usually resemble a (much) shorter version of your thesis or dissertation. While of course it won’t include the results section , discussion section , or conclusion , it serves as a “mini” version or roadmap for what you eventually seek to write.

Be sure to include:

• A succinct introduction to your topic and problem statement
• A brief literature review situating your topic within existing research
• A basic outline of the research methods you think will best answer your research question
• The perceived implications for future research
• A reference list in the citation style of your choice

The length of your proposal varies quite a bit depending on your discipline and type of work you’re conducting. While a thesis proposal is often only 3-7 pages long, a prospectus for your dissertation is usually much longer, with more detailed analysis. Dissertation proposals can be up to 25-30 pages in length.

Writing a proposal or prospectus can be a challenge, but we’ve compiled some examples for you to get your started.

• Example #1: “Geographic Representations of the Planet Mars, 1867-1907” by Maria Lane
• Example #2: “Individuals and the State in Late Bronze Age Greece: Messenian Perspectives on Mycenaean Society” by Dimitri Nakassis
• Example #3: “Manhood Up in the Air: A Study of Male Flight Attendants, Queerness, and Corporate Capitalism during the Cold War Era” by Phil Tiemeyer

If you want to know more about AI for academic writing, AI tools, or research bias, make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

Research bias

• Survivorship bias
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• Availability heuristic
• Halo effect
• Hindsight bias
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The research methods you use depend on the type of data you need to answer your research question .

• If you want to measure something or test a hypothesis , use quantitative methods . If you want to explore ideas, thoughts and meanings, use qualitative methods .
• If you want to analyze a large amount of readily-available data, use secondary data. If you want data specific to your purposes with control over how it is generated, collect primary data.
• If you want to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables , use experimental methods. If you want to understand the characteristics of a research subject, use descriptive methods.

A thesis or dissertation outline is one of the most critical first steps in your writing process. It helps you to lay out and organize your ideas and can provide you with a roadmap for deciding what kind of research you’d like to undertake.

Generally, an outline contains information on the different sections included in your thesis or dissertation , such as:

• Your anticipated title
• Your abstract
• Your chapters (sometimes subdivided into further topics like literature review , research methods , avenues for future research, etc.)

A well-planned research design helps ensure that your methods match your research aims, that you collect high-quality data, and that you use the right kind of analysis to answer your questions, utilizing credible sources . This allows you to draw valid , trustworthy conclusions.

The priorities of a research design can vary depending on the field, but you usually have to specify:

• Your research questions and/or hypotheses
• Your overall approach (e.g., qualitative or quantitative )
• The type of design you’re using (e.g., a survey , experiment , or case study )
• Your sampling methods or criteria for selecting subjects
• Your data collection methods (e.g., questionnaires , observations)
• Your data collection procedures (e.g., operationalization , timing and data management)
• Your data analysis methods (e.g., statistical tests  or thematic analysis )

A dissertation prospectus or proposal describes what or who you plan to research for your dissertation. It delves into why, when, where, and how you will do your research, as well as helps you choose a type of research to pursue. You should also determine whether you plan to pursue qualitative or quantitative methods and what your research design will look like.

It should outline all of the decisions you have taken about your project, from your dissertation topic to your hypotheses and research objectives , ready to be approved by your supervisor or committee.

Note that some departments require a defense component, where you present your prospectus to your committee orally.

Formulating a main research question can be a difficult task. Overall, your question should contribute to solving the problem that you have defined in your problem statement .

However, it should also fulfill criteria in three main areas:

• Researchability
• Feasibility and specificity
• Relevance and originality

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Tutorial: How to Create a Study Area Map

Learn how to create a study area map in equator for environmental assessments, urban planning, or market research.

In various fields, including environmental assessment , urban planning, and market research, study area maps play a crucial role in understanding and analyzing specific geographic regions.

Study Area Map for a Proposed Flow Monitoring Program

What is a Study Area Map?

A study area map is a visual representation of a geographic region or area that is under investigation. It shows the boundaries, key features, and relevant data associated with the area of interest. These maps allow researchers, planners, and decision-makers to better understand the spatial characteristics of the area and can clearly and concisely present stakeholders with the findings.

When referring to environmental assessments and public consultation, having a well-designed study area map is crucial. A study area map provides stakeholders and decision-makers with a clear understanding of the geographical boundaries and scope of a project.

Study Area Map displayed at a Public Information Center or in a Environmental Assessment or Design Report for a Proposed Road Reconstruction Project

How to Create a Study Area Map in Equator

• Sign up or log into Equator
• Locate your study area by zooming into it with the mouse or using the search bar
• Create a +New Site and select Custom from the New Site menu
• Draw your site boundaries and select Create
• Select your baselayer: go to the Layers menu, click on the baselayer and select which map background is best for your project
• Edit site boundary: go to the Layers menu and click the site limits; choose the line type and colour for the boundary as well as the background colour
• Add annotation : label the study area, any streets, or any points of interest
• Click on annotation in the layers menu to edit the colour and style
• Add icons for key places (found in the right side menu)
• Even add photos for key issues if you would like (found in the right side menu)
• Export map: click the take screenshot button in top right corner

If you need to inset the study area into a report as its own separate drawing, check out the report-making tools in Equator .

Study Area Map for a Creek Realignment Project

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3. Methodology of Research 3.1. Study Area and Target Population

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Cherinet Bariso

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MASARAT E L I A S DURESSO (PhD)

Among the major root and tuber crops, anchote is a potential crop produced in Western parts of Ethiopia. In addition to food source, it takes wide portion in socioeconomic , cultural and medicinal value for the farming communities. To study the indigenous knowledge on utilization and conservation of anchote, ethno-botanical survey was conducted in 2012 for continuous three months (February, March and April) in Western part of Ethiopia. The landraces were also collected during survey. Forty nine anchote landraces were tested in 7x7 Simple Lattice Design at Wayu Tuqa District of East Wollega in 2012/013. The survey results showed that most of the respondents had sufficient experiences of growing Coccinia abyssinica (Lam.) Cogn. Socioeconomic status of the households and ecological requirements was found to be an important factor affecting the use, management and conservation of the crop. The difference in level of education had no impact on conservation and use of Coccinia abyssinica. It was also observed that the older informants were more knowledgeable than the younger ones, as they knew much more about the different local cultivars and values of use. Data of the mean values of all experimental units were subjected to analysis of variance for RCBD. Flower width (61.22%) showed high heritability and medium heritability was recorded for flower length (52.24%), indicated that such characters were least affected by environmental modifications so that; selection based on phenotypic performance would be reliable. Low heritability were recorded for traits like root length (33.72%), Leaf width (21.53%), total root yield (20.6%), leaf length (17.19%), root diameter (8.33%) and low heritability were recorded for other to indicate environmental effect that constitutes a major portion of the total phenotypic variation signifying that management practice is better than selection to improve those traits. Genetic advance as percentage of the mean ranged from 2.45% for leaf length to 77.08% for flower width. Within these range a relatively high genetic advance as percent of the mean was observed for flower length (57.72%) and flower width (77.08 %). High value for heritability and genetic advance of the characters in current study provide information for the existence of wider genetic diversity among anchote landraces which offers high chances for improving several traits of the crop through simple selection. Cluster analysis showed that four divergent groups were formed. Each cluster known by their highest and lowest mean value and it is helpful for easy selection of parents with the desired traits for hybridization or selection program.

Urgessa T Bekabil

Deforestation is a growing problem in many parts of the tropical world and one of the affected countries is Ethiopia. The general objective of this study is to assess the effect of population growth on forest resource in East Wollega Zone in general and Haro Limu woreda in particular. The data used for the study were collected from 89 farm households heads drawn from the four kebeles of Haro Limmu district. Probability proportional to size sampling technique was employed to select the farm households from four peasant associations, which were selected by random sampling techniques. Primary data were collected using a structured questionnaire. In addition, secondary data were extracted from relevant sources to supplement the data obtained from the survey. The result of this study reveals that population growth huge impact on forestry development in the ways of expanding agricultural land, using wood as energy sources and satisfying the input requirements in agricultural activity. Respondents use family planning services in reducing the impact of population growth on the forestry development.

addisu N Worku

Mersha Chanie

This study was conducted in Honkolo enclosed area found in Honkolo Wabe district of Arsi zone with in oromia region. The study objective was to critically assess the land use land cover change in Honkolo enclosed area, and explain socioeconomic and environmental impacts caused due to land use land cover change. To realize the objective data was collected from 95 sample rural households using questionnaire, 6 key informant interviews, and 4 Focus Group discussions with farmers and experts. Besides to this, satellite image of 30 meter resolution was also used to identify the land use and land cover change in the enclosed area with remote sensing and GIS software. The analysis of land use land cover change detection showed that farm land and settlement had been increasing from before the area was enclosed from human and animal interventions since 2010; the socioeconomic analysis revealed woody tree species that disappeared long time ago have been restored following the establishment of enclosures. Additionally, most of focus group discussion and key informant confirmed that they had obtained socio-economic and environmental benefits from the establishment of the area enclosures. From the analysis of the results on LULC it can be concluded that human interventions are the determinant factors for the changing land use and land cover. However, various problems were also identified such as shortages of firewood and scarcity of pastureland. Finally based on findings it is concluded that local community had got a positive attitude towards area enclosures practices. Therefore, close relationship among the local communities and other related bodies is essential for the success and effective management practices of area enclosures. Key words: Area enclosure, Land use/land over, land management, Land degradation, GIS, community participation

European Scientific Journal ESJ

Jiregna Garamu Tarafa

Abstract The main objective of this study was to examine, the population growth nexus land degradation in Nejo district. Correlation research design was used to carry out this study. Both quantitative and qualitative data used in the study. Primary and secondary data were used in this study. Non-probable sampling techniques were used to select the four peasant association from thirty-five of Nejo district, namely Walitate Agar, Bushane Alaltu, Micico Gorgise, and Lalisa Kemi. This was due to insufficient budget and time to include overall peasant associations in the district. Sampling formula used to determine sample of 99 households and were selected from the total of 3559 households using lottery method proportionally. Additional key informant like, DA (Development Agents) and district agricultural office head were interviewed and, model farmers participated in focus group discussion. Questionnaire presented to collect data from households, semi-structured interview used to complement data gathered using questionnaires from DA and district agricultural office.Focus group discussion also instruments used for data collection from model farmers. Finally, researcher undertakes field observation the land use and extent of physical land degradation. Quantitative data were analyzed using excel software package to compute its frequencies, percentage, means and standard deviation, Pearson correlation and linear regressions followed by discussion of the most important points. Data that were collected by semi-structure interview and open- ended questions were analyzed and interpreted in narrative approach to substantiate the quantitative information whenever required. Finally, the overall courses of the study was summarized with finding, conclusions some possible solution. The finding showed that as population growth non-cultivated areas added as crop land and the more use of other land uses for crop production. There is a significant negative correlation between areas land covered with grazing lands and population growth in the district.There is a significant negative correlation between areas of natural forest and population growth. Population growths have significant negative relationship with grazing lands. The population growths have significant positive relationship with grazing lands.The findings revealed that the population growth have no significant relationship with changes in areas of wet lands as.With respect to linear regressions were utilized to investigate the best indicators of changes in areas of forest plantation. The findings revealed that the population growth have significant positively relationship with forest plantation with hence population growth constitute the major determinants of land degradation as there were effect changing in land use cover of in Nejo district.The respondents were asked if they think that land degradation affects your livelihood. All of the respondents had agreed that land degradation affects their livelihood. The major costs of land degradation includes, reduced number of daily meals, reduced in quality of meals, withdrawal of children from school, poor health, lack of household energy consumptions such as fire wood & charcoal, decline in livestock caring capacity, decrease in range land, poverty and malnutrition, andinternalmigration. Based on finding the study drawn following recommendation the farmers need participate effectively throughout the entire district to assist in reducing the pressure on available land and vegetation resources in the district. The need to use alternative sources of energy like solar in medium and long-term and promote the growing of fast maturing tree species for sustainable charcoal production.

Temesgen Sadi

This study attempts to assess the challenges and prospects of community policing in Nejo town, Oromia regional state. In order to achieve this objective, the study employed descriptive research design and combination of quantitative and qualitative research approach. The study used both primary and secondary sources in order to touch its objectives. Primary data were gathered through questionnaire, interview and focus group discussion while secondary data were gathered through document analysis, books, journal and other document. Questionnaires were distributed and administered by the researcher with the help of enumerators. Structured questionnaires were filled by households of 01 and 04 kebeles. Interviews were conducted with police members, community leaders and justice sector participants to attain profound information. Similarly, FGD was conducted with respondents selected from police and community members. Data were analyzed and interpreted using descriptive statistics and qualitative technique.The finding of the study revealed that, community and to some extent police have low understanding and perception toward community policing in the study area. In addition to this, the study identified institutional challenges, which include lack of coordination, lack of effective police service delivery, lack of professional police and police violation of human right. Similarly, the study identified social challenges affecting community policing, which include, lack of community participation, lack of police community relationship and lack of regular community policing forum. Under infrastructural challenges the study identified lack of adequate logistic support, lack of adequate budge and lack of resource to implement community policing effectively. The finding of the study also revealed that the practice of the key components of community policing mainly community partnership, problem solving and organizational transformations are not as such effective. Based on the finding of the study, the researcher recommends that enhancing awareness creation, effective coordination among the stakeholders, insuring transparency and accountability, building trust with community, establishing regular community policing forum, enhancing police capacity, allocating adequate budget and logistic support, improving community participation in order to sustain these strategies in the study area.

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This study attempted to arrive at the ways of indigenous practices for promoting sustainable land development in selected kebeles of Gimbi Woreda,West Wollega Zone, Oromia Regional State. The study area is typical for the high potential coffee production, mixed farming, and cereal crops in the Southwestern Ethiopian highlands. Land is a precious natural resource which demands efficient management in order to use it in a sustainable manner. A cross sectional research design was employed with descriptive survey method. About 319 household heads were selected using simple random sampling technique from three kebeles (kebele: Lowest Administrative Division) which were chosen purposively. In addition, thirteen key informants and nine household heads for FGD were selected by purposive sampling technique. Data collection tools included questionnaire, focus group discussions, key informant interview and field observation. The factors that affect sustainable land management include land holding size, fragmentation, land ownership security, size of livestock, and availability of labor and farm tools, and education of farmers. Finally, based on the findings of the study, it has been recommended that farmers need to get basic education and family planning services. They have to be organized in team and get access to credit and saving services. The local knowledge of farmers has to be encouraged and supported through continuous training. A few selected breeds of livestock should be encouraged in order to reduce overgrazing.

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• Published: 26 March 2024

Australian human-induced native forest regeneration carbon offset projects have limited impact on changes in woody vegetation cover and carbon removals

• Andrew Macintosh   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5700-7105 1 ,
• Don Butler   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6019-1078 1 ,
• Pablo Larraondo 2 ,
• Megan C. Evans 3 ,
• Dean Ansell 1 ,
• Marie Waschka   ORCID: orcid.org/0009-0001-4574-4834 1 ,
• Rod Fensham   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3658-5867 4 ,
• David Eldridge   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2191-486X 5 ,
• David Lindenmayer   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4766-4088 1 ,
• Philip Gibbons 1 &
• Paul Summerfield 1  

Communications Earth & Environment volume  5 , Article number:  149 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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• Climate-change mitigation
• Environmental studies

Carbon offsets are a widely used climate policy instrument that can reduce mitigation costs and generate important environmental and social co-benefits. However, they can increase emissions if they lack integrity. We analysed the performance of one of the world’s largest nature-based offset types: human-induced regeneration projects under Australia’s carbon offset scheme. The projects are supposed to involve the human-induced regeneration of permanent even-aged native forests through changes in land management. We analysed 182 projects and found limited evidence of regeneration in credited areas. Changes in woody vegetation cover within the areas that have been credited also largely mirror changes in adjacent comparison areas, outside the projects, suggesting the observable changes are predominantly attributable to factors other than the project activities. The results add to the growing literature highlighting the practical limitations of offsets and the potential for offset schemes to credit abatement that is non-existent, non-additional and potentially impermanent.

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Introduction

Carbon offsets are a widely used climate policy instrument that are considered integral to government and corporate decarbonisation plans 1 , 2 , 3 . Under offset schemes, projects that reduce emissions relative to counterfactual baselines receive credits, which can be used by others to offset their emissions. The benefits of offsets include that they can reduce mitigation costs, generate important environmental and social co-benefits, and reduce political resistance to carbon pricing by lowering compliance costs for facilities with carbon liabilities 4 , 5 , 6 .

Whether the environmental and economic benefits of offsets materialise depends on the environmental integrity of the credits. If the credits lack integrity, offsets can facilitate increases in emissions and thereby work against greenhouse gas mitigation objectives. Carbon offsets are considered to have environmental integrity when there is high confidence they represent real, additional and permanent abatement 1 , 7 , 8 , 9 . In this context, ‘realness’ refers to the extent to which credits reflect carbon removals or emission reductions that are directly attributable to the project activities 1 , 9 , 10 . ‘Additionality’ requires that the credited removals or emission reductions would not have occurred without the incentive provided by the offset scheme 11 . Permanence relates exclusively to sequestration projects and requires credited removals to persist in relevant carbon stocks like vegetation and soils 9 , 11 , 12 .

Research on the integrity of carbon offsets has found material issues with the realness, additionality and permanence of credited abatement, raising questions about their effectiveness in assisting decarbonisation 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 . Similar issues have arisen with biodiversity offsets 26 , 27 .

Carbon offsets have been a central feature of climate policy in Australia for two decades. Under a provincial mandatory carbon trading scheme (the world’s first) that operated in New South Wales and the Australian Capital Territory between 2003 and 2012 covered facilities were allowed to use offsets from designated project types to meet their emission reduction obligations 28 . In late 2011, a national carbon offset scheme was introduced, which was relied upon as the main Australian Government mitigation policy between 2014 and 2022 29 . The object of the national offset scheme is to incentivise offset projects that help Australia meet its international greenhouse gas mitigation obligations 29 . Each credit issued under the scheme is supposed to represent abatement equivalent to one tonne of CO 2 .

The national offset scheme is now linked to a national mandatory carbon pricing instrument; the Safeguard Mechanism. As with the previous provincial carbon trading scheme, facilities covered by the Safeguard Mechanism can use credits issued under the offset scheme to meet their emission reduction obligations. There are no restrictions on the extent to which covered facilities can rely on offset credits to meet their obligations. The only relevant restriction is that the credits must come from projects registered under the national scheme.

The most popular project type under the national offset scheme is human-induced regeneration of permanent even-aged native forests (HIR) 30 . HIR projects received 37 million credits to June 2023, almost 30% of the issuances under the scheme 31 . The projects cover almost 42 million hectares, an area larger than Japan 31 . As of 30 June 2023, they were the world’s fifth largest nature-based offset type by credit issuances, and the largest when projects involving avoided emissions are excluded (Supplementary Fig. S 1 ).

Under the applicable rules (found in the ‘HIR method’), HIR projects should involve the human-induced regeneration of permanent even-aged native forests across the entirety of the areas that are credited (‘credited areas’) (Fig.  1 ) 30 . The projects do not involve planting or direct seeding. Regeneration must be induced by the project activities from ‘the germination of in situ seed, or the growth of in situ seedlings, rootstock or lignotuber’ 30 . The project activities can include reducing grazing pressure from livestock and feral animals, management of non-native plants, and cessation of clearing of native plant regrowth 30 , 32 , 33 .

In the baseline scenario (yellow ribbon), clearing, grazing and/or weeds suppress regeneration of woody plants, ensuring the credited area has predominantly non-woody cover throughout the projection period. In the project scenario (black-red ribbon), the credited area initially has predominantly non-woody cover due to the effects of clearing, grazing and/or weeds. The project involves the removal or mitigation of these suppressors, which leads to even-aged forest regeneration. The credited area should transition from predominantly non-woody cover to predominantly sparse woody cover, and then to forest cover, and retain forest cover throughout the permanence period. In the regions where HIR projects are located, credited areas should have forest cover when tree and debris biomass reaches ~7.2–11 dry metric tonnes (dmt) per hectare.

Sequestration in HIR projects is not directly measured, it is estimated as the product of the size of the credited areas and sequestration per unit area, which is modelled using the Australian Government’s Full Carbon Accounting Model 34 . The model uses a simple tree yield formula to estimate above-ground biomass per hectare in regenerating forests 35 , 36 , 37 . It assumes credited areas start with little woody biomass and grow towards their maximum woody biomass potential under native vegetation. Maximum above-ground woody biomass potential ( M ) is modelled spatially using a range of biophysical parameters calibrated against measurements of intact native vegetation 38 . The most recent calibration of the tree yield formula estimates above-ground biomass in regeneration under average climate conditions after a years to be M.e (−23.81/a) (Supplementary Fig. S 2 ) 37 .

The above-ground biomass estimates from the model’s tree yield formula are partitioned into biomass and debris pools via standardised allocation ratios (e.g. root-shoot), and turnover and decomposition rates, to calculate carbon accumulation in live above- and below-ground biomass and debris 39 . The model includes a soil carbon module but it is not used for HIR projects; the projects are credited for increases only in live biomass and dead organic matter.

Most HIR projects are claiming to regenerate native forests by reducing grazing pressure from livestock and/or feral herbivores in arid and semi-arid ‘rangeland’ areas (<350 mm average annual rainfall) that have never been comprehensively cleared of native vegetation (Fig.  2 , Supplementary Fig. S 3 ). The location of the projects in uncleared rangelands (where there is often limited and highly variable rainfall) raises questions about the capacity of the credited areas to permanently support material additional woody biomass, and the realness, additionality and permanence of credited abatement 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 .

The 182 projects analysed in this paper in light green. Source: Australian Government. Area-based Emissions Reduction Fund (ERF) projects. Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra (2023); Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water. National Vegetation Information System (NVIS) data products, version 6. Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra (2023); New South Wales Government. NSW State Vegetation Type Map. NSW Government, Sydney (2023); Geoscience Australia. GEODATA COAST 100K 2004. Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra (2023).

Plant growth is constrained by the availability of resources (water, nutrients, light etc.), which limit woody biomass potential under native vegetation 44 , 45 , 46 . In most of Australia’s uncleared rangelands, the key limiting resource is water and its availability depends on variable rainfall, which fluctuates over time-scales from months to decades 47 . Variations in rainfall and water availability drive changes in plant growth, including woody biomass 47 , 48 .

The primary way grazing could affect forest cover in uncleared areas is by impeding woody plant recruitment during recovery after periods of drought or fires, where cover has been lost through tree death 49 , 50 , 51 . For grazing to prevent the regeneration of forests in these circumstances, grazing intensity after a mortality event would need to be sufficiently intense to prevent recruitment and then be maintained over multiple decades to suppress subsequent recruitment. Grazing in Australia’s uncleared rangelands has been shown to have local, short-term effects on regeneration, but assessments over larger spatial and temporal scales show that grazing has not generally reduced tree cover 52 , and that the influence of grazing alone on woody plants is minimal compared to the effect of variable rainfall 53 , 54 , 55 .

This is illustrated through the well-documented increase in tree cover that occurred across substantial parts of Australia’s grazed eastern rangelands through the twentieth century, particularly following a series of La Niña events from the 1950s that brought above-average rainfall 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 . Similarly, more than 300,000 ha of secondary native forest is re-cleared annually in Australia in areas previously cleared for grazing 39 , 60 , 61 , typically on cycles of around 8–30 years 53 , 60 . This re-clearing would not be necessary if grazing was suppressing regeneration of native forests.

Because grazing does not have a material negative influence on tree cover in Australia’s rangelands, HIR projects are unlikely to regenerate permanent native forest through grazing control in uncleared areas. In some cases, reduced grazing could increase tree cover but, generally, any management-induced increases are likely to be relatively small and often short-lived (since droughts can remove excess biomass accumulated during wet times) 62 .

The modelling approach used to calculate abatement for HIR projects compounds the resulting integrity risks. Projects could be credited for forest regeneration that has not occurred or that does not persist. The HIR method also does not control for the over-riding impacts of rainfall on regeneration in the rangelands, creating a risk that projects will be credited for increases in tree cover that are mainly attributable to natural variations in rainfall rather than the project activities (i.e. non-additional) 42 , 43 .

Here we present the results of an analysis of HIR projects conducted using the Australian Government’s National Forest and Sparse Woody (NFSW) dataset (Version 7.0) 63 . The dataset provides Landsat-derived estimates of the spatial extent of three classes of woody vegetation cover across Australia over the period 1988 to 2022. The data are a near-annual time series in which 25 m grid cells are classified as either non-woody, sparse woody (sub-forest woody cover where crown cover is between 5–19%) or forest (woody vegetation ≥2 m tall with crown cover >20% over at least 0.2 ha).

The object of our analysis was to assess the performance of HIR projects using two metrics:

the extent of the increase in forest cover and ‘woody cover’ (areas with either forest or sparse woody cover) in the credited areas of HIR projects; and

the extent to which changes in forest and woody cover in the credited areas of HIR projects have mirrored trends in paired controls for each project, comprising 3 km wide buffer areas outside the project boundaries that exclude areas in other HIR projects (‘comparison areas’).

Metric (1) provides a proxy measure of the likely increases in woody biomass in the credited areas of HIR projects. When combined with data on credit issuances, it serves as an indicator of over-crediting risk (i.e. whether sequestered CO 2 is likely to be materially less than credited sequestration). Metric (2) provides a measure of the extent to which changes in forest and woody cover in the credited areas of HIR projects are additional to what would otherwise have occurred (i.e. attributable to the project activities or other factors such as rainfall variability). Together, metrics (1) and (2) provide a basis on which to draw conclusions about the extent to which HIR projects have helped Australia meet its international mitigation obligations, consistent with the scheme’s objectives 29 .

Published estimates of the accuracy of the classifications of pixels to forest, sparse or non-woody in the NFSW dataset suggest accuracy of 95% or more for forest and non-woody classes where no change is indicated, with lower confidence for classification of sparse woody pixels (~66%) 39 , 64 . Error rates are likely to be somewhat higher for classification of changes between years, but there is also no reason to expect biases in error between credited areas and comparison areas used in our analysis. Notably, the Australian Government relies on the NFSW dataset to estimate land sector emissions and removals in its greenhouse accounts 39 . Greenhouse gas outcomes from changes in tree cover in Australia’s rangelands are not accounted for in Australia’s greenhouse accounts if they are not detected in the NFSW dataset. The fact that the Australian Government relies on the NFSW dataset to track reforestation and revegetation for greenhouse accounting purposes justifies its use to assess outcomes from HIR projects.

All HIR projects whose credited area location data were published as of 22 June 2023 and that were registered in or before 2018 (providing at least four data points in the NFSW time series post registration) were included in the analysis, except where they were completely surrounded by other projects or the published spatial files were corrupt 65 , 66 . The projects ( n  = 182) included in the analysis covered a combined area of 9.5 M ha, with their credited areas covering 3.4 M ha (Fig.  2 , Table  1 ). The projects in the sample were registered over the period 11 December 2013 to 30 November 2018, with most (75%) registered in 2015, 2016 and 2017 (Supplementary Fig. S 4 ).

Change in forest and sparse woody cover

The analysed projects received 27.4 million credits over the period from 11 December 2013 (when the first HIR project was registered) to 30 June 2022, suggesting a substantial proportion of the credited areas should have transitioned from non-woody cover to either sparse woody or forest cover because of the human-induced forest regeneration 31 . This has not occurred.

Almost 50% of the credited areas had sparse woody or forest cover when the projects were registered (median woody cover 46.5% (sd 22.5%), median forest cover 12.7% (sd 12.9%)). This is problematic as it indicates that most projects are seeking to regenerate permanent even-aged native forests on land that contained material amounts of pre-existing woody vegetation. Competition from the pre-existing woody vegetation is likely to limit additional forest regeneration.

Consistent with this, there was relatively little change in woody cover in the credited areas over the study period. Almost 80% of projects ( n  = 143) experienced negative or negligible change in woody cover in the credited areas over the period from project registration to 2022 (Table  1 , see methods for definitions of negative, negligible and positive woody cover change). Despite the absence of positive woody cover change, these 143 projects received 22.9 million credits over the period 31 .

At an aggregate level, woody cover increased by a mere 0.8% (28,155 ha) across the 3.4 M ha credited area: forest cover increased by 3.6% (124,852 ha); and sparse woody cover decreased by −2.8% (96,697 ha) (Supplementary Fig.  5 ). By comparison, gains and losses in sparse woody cover alone across Australia averaged 2.2 M ha year −1 and −2.1 M ha year −1 respectively over the period 2013–14 to 2020–21 39 .

The modest gain in woody cover in the credited areas after project registration continued a trend that started in the late 2000s, before the HIR method was developed (Fig.  3 ). The increase in woody cover in the credited areas that pre-dates the method is difficult to reconcile with the premise of the projects: that grazing was previously suppressing regeneration and that, without the projects, it would not occur (Fig.  1 ).

Source: Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water. National Forest and Sparse Woody Vegetation Data (Version 7.0 - 2022 Release) (2023); Clean Energy Regulator. Emissions Reduction Fund project register. Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra (2023). The green bar shows when most (75%) of the HIR projects in the sample were registered (2015–2017).

There is a relationship between biomass in forest regeneration (above- and below-ground live biomass, litter, and dead wood) and crown cover in the forest systems where HIR projects are located 67 . This relationship suggests that forest cover (>20% crown cover) should be achieved when tree and debris biomass reaches 7.2 to 11 tonnes of dry matter per hectare, equivalent to 13.2–20.2 tCO 2 ha −1   67 . To 30 June 2022, estimated average credited sequestration in the 182 projects in the sample was 12.9 tCO 2 ha −1 (median 11.5 tCO 2 ha −1 , sd 8.9 tCO 2 ha −1 ) 31 . The estimated credited sequestration in 75 of these projects (41%) was ≥13.2 tCO 2 ha −1 (mean 21.6 tCO 2 ha −1 , median 20.8 tCO 2 ha −1 , sd 6.5 tCO 2 ha −1 ) 31 . This suggests that, based on the credits that have been issued, a substantial proportion of the total credited area should have already attained forest cover. However, for the 75 projects with credited sequestration ≥13.2 tCO 2 ha −1 , only 21% (188,880 ha) of the 898,680 ha total credited area had forest cover in 2022, and this was only a 1.8% (16,530 ha) increase relative to forest cover when the projects were registered (Fig.  4 , Supplementary Fig. S 6 ). There is a large apparent disparity between the credited and observed sequestration in the projects.

Note that under the HIR method, forest cover at project registration should be at or near 0% and reach 100% within ~10–15 years of when regeneration is modelled to have commenced. Source: Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water. National Forest and Sparse Woody Vegetation Data (Version 7.0 − 2022 Release) (2023); Clean Energy Regulator. Emissions Reduction Fund project register. Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra (2023).

Change in woody cover relative to trends in external comparison areas

Changes in forest and sparse woody cover in credited areas were far more strongly correlated with changes in cover in comparison areas than to the timing of project registration. Table  2 presents standardised coefficients from hierarchical regression models predicting annual cover changes in credited areas as a function of cover changes in comparison areas and a variable indicating whether the year of observation was before or after project registration. The coefficients for comparison areas are many times larger than those for project registration. Project registration did have a statistically significant effect for forest cover change, but not for woody cover change. While statistically significant, the identified effect of project registration on forest cover was small, being equivalent to ~0.5% per year following project registration.

The extent to which changes in forest and sparse woody cover within credited areas have mirrored changes in comparison areas suggests the limited changes observed within the credited areas are largely non-additional. As shown in Figs.  3 , 5 (Supplementary Table  S1 , Fig. S 7 ), there was a strong correlation between forest and sparse woody cover changes in the credited areas and comparison areas over the period before projects were first registered. Post registration, the correlation was maintained, suggesting factors other than the project activities (most likely rainfall variability) have been the dominant influence on woody cover changes.

Dashed lines indicate 1:1. Source: Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water. National Forest and Sparse Woody Vegetation Data (Version 7.0 − 2022 Release) (2023); Clean Energy Regulator. Emissions Reduction Fund project register. Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra (2023).

It is important to note that, while changes in forest and sparse woody cover relative to external comparison areas provide a useful indicator of the impact of project activities, they should not be construed as the only indicator of project effectiveness. HIR projects are credited on the basis that even-aged native forest is regenerating across the entirety of the credited area and that, within ~10–15 years of when regeneration is modelled to have commenced, all of the credited area will have forest cover. The modest gain in woody cover observed within credited areas, and small effect of project registration on forest cover change, suggest this is unlikely to occur.

Reforestation, avoided forest conversion and improved forest management have the potential to generate substantial amounts of low-cost abatement, while providing important biodiversity and other co-benefits 68 , 69 . Carbon offset schemes can incentivise these activities and reduce the economic cost of decarbonisation. However, the benefits of these nature-based offsets are contingent on offset projects being credited only for real, additional and permanent increases in relevant carbon stocks. Our findings suggest that HIR projects in Australia’s uncleared rangelands do not meet this requirement.

There was only a small positive overall increase in forest cover (3.6%), and negligible increase in combined sparse woody and forest cover (0.8%), across the combined 3.4 Mha credited area, where the 182 assessed projects are supposedly regenerating permanent even-aged native forests. Despite the absence of material increases in woody cover, the projects received 27.4 million credits over the study period 31 ; 22.9 million credits were issued to projects whose woody cover declined or was largely stagnant.

Given the levels of credited sequestration, the changes in woody cover should be readily apparent, beyond the levels of classification error in the underlying data, which is likely to be in the order of 5–10% 39 , 64 . A substantial proportion of the credited areas should have already attained forest cover and, at the very least, there should have been large increases in sparse woody cover that go well beyond changes observed in the external comparison areas. Neither has occurred.

Trends in forest and woody cover in the credited areas largely mirrored fluctuations in comparison areas, both before and after project registration. Regression models of changes in forest and woody cover in the credited areas identified far smaller effects for project registration than for cover changes in comparison areas. The results suggest the changes in forest and woody cover in the credited areas were largely non-additional, presumably because they reflect rainfall variability rather than responses to project activities 47 , 48 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 .

The small increases in forest and woody cover, and the small effect of project registration relative to variation in cover in the comparison areas, suggest HIR projects have done little to help Australia meet its international mitigation obligations, both in absolute terms and relative to credit issuances 39 . The underperformance is accentuated by the fact that, to date, the Australian Government alone has spent ~AU$300 million in purchasing credits from HIR projects and is contractually committed to purchase a further ~AU$1.2 billion 70 , 71 .

The results add to the growing literature highlighting the practical limitations of offsets and the potential for offset schemes to credit abatement that is non-existent, non-additional, and potentially impermanent 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 . They also serve as a reminder of why offsets are considered a high-risk policy instrument 10 , 72 , 73 .

Offsets are high-risk because of two factors: likelihood of error and the consequences when they occur. There is a high probability of error in the design and administration of the rules and processes that are intended to ensure credits are issued only for real, additional and permanent abatement. This is due to multiple factors, including the uncertainties associated with determining counterfactual baselines (what would net emissions have been within the project boundaries in the absence of the incentive provided by the scheme?) and the errors inherent in the measurement of emissions and removals from often dispersed sources and sinks 72 , 74 , 75 . Other pertinent factors that contribute to the likelihood of errors include the difficulty in overcoming adverse selection when seeking to exclude non-additional projects 74 , 76 , and the persistent tension within offset schemes to lower the stringency of measurement protocols to reduce transaction costs and thereby promote participation 77 .

Regardless of the cause, where errors occur and result in the issuance of low integrity credits, their use can lead to worse climate outcomes. This is because offsets are a permission to pollute, issued on the premise that the offset project has abated one tonne of emissions. Hence, when the credited abatement is not real, additional and permanent, offsets can enable an increase in emissions from a polluter with no offsetting emission reduction elsewhere.

The high-risk nature of offsets is why they are deprioritised in the ‘mitigation hierarchy’ that is often used in biodiversity-related regulatory approval processes 78 ; they are supposed to be a last resort reserved for when all other viable avoidance and mitigation options have been exhausted. The risk also provides the basis for the principle that offsets credits should only be used where there is high confidence the credits are likely to represent real, additional and permanent abatement 11 , 29 , 72 , 73 .

The root cause of the integrity issues with HIR projects is that credited areas have been allowed to be located in areas where native vegetation has not previously been comprehensively cleared, where the capacity to permanently increase forest carbon stocks is generally likely to be small, and in semi-arid and arid rangeland areas where there is substantial natural variability, which makes it difficult to separate the impacts of project activities from rainfall-induced changes 11 . The integrity problems with HIR projects have been compounded by the use of a modelled approach to the estimation of sequestration and allowing the model to be used in circumstances it was not calibrated for (i.e. to estimate regeneration on sites that contain material amounts of pre-existing woody vegetation) 30 , 37 .

Despite the risks, and the evidence of their limitations, carbon offsets are seen as indispensable by many policymakers; as evidenced through the Paris Agreement’s Article 6.4 Mechanism, the Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation and other similar initiatives 8 , 79 . With the commitment to their continued use, the challenge for policymakers is to demonstrate that offset schemes can have integrity.

The experience with HIR projects provides two generalisable lessons. First, that sequestration-related offsets are inappropriate for use in situations where the relevant carbon stocks are likely to be at or near their maximum sustainable potentials and where natural variability in the stocks is materially larger than the likely effects of management change. Second, care needs to be taken where models are used to estimate carbon stocks to ensure they are applied appropriately and with due regard to the need for conservativism.

Australia’s experience with HIR projects also highlights the importance of transparency 11 , 80 . From January 2013 until June 2023, no data on the location of credited areas were published under the scheme, which shielded projects from scrutiny. At the time of writing, proponents were still not required to publish offset reports or audit reports, or information on how they have modelled sequestration. Proponents are also not required to undertake any direct measurements of biomass in HIR projects and, where biomass measurements are voluntarily undertaken, they are not required to be published. Effective offset schemes require constant scrutiny and critical assessment, including from third parties. This cannot be provided without the public release of all information that is necessary for the proper evaluation of the performance and integrity of offset projects 11 .

HIR projects included in sample

As at 10 December 2023, there were 469 registered HIR projects. Up until April 2023, it was unlawful for the Clean Energy Regulator to publish data on the location of credited areas. Following changes to the law in April 2023, the Regulator first published credited area location data for 223 HIR projects on 6 June 2023.

To be included in the sample for the analysis, projects had to have published credited area location data and at least 4 years of data in the NFSW time series post the year they were registered ( n  = 191). This was to ensure there was a valid basis for determining the response of woody vegetation to the project activities. In addition, projects were excluded from the sample if they were completely surrounded by other projects ( n  = 4). These projects were excluded because it was not possible to designate a valid comparison area in accordance with the method described below. A further five projects were removed because the spatial data on their credited areas were not useable.

Credited area location data

The Clean Energy Regulator publishes credited area data in vector format. To facilitate our analysis, the dataset was converted into raster format. Due to differences between the map projections of each dataset, credited area data were rasterised using 10-m resolution vs the 25-m of the NFSW dataset. This increase in resolution allowed for improving the accuracy of the masking operation around partially intercepted pixels. To perform this conversion we used the standard gdal_rasterize command from the GDAL library to generate a raster preserving the original projection of the vector dataset 81 .

Carbon credit issuances

Carbon credit issuance data were obtained from the ERF Project Register published by the Clean Energy Regulator 31 . The Register contains data on total issuances and total issuances by Australian financial year (1 July–30 June). Credit issuances were included in a calendar year only where they were issued prior to 30 June of the same year. This ensured conservative estimates of credit issuances for the purposes of making comparisons of project performance.

Relative size of HIR projects

The relative size of HIR projects was analysed using data from the registries of seven offset schemes for the period 2013–2023: the ACCU scheme; Clean Development Mechanism; Verified Carbon Standard (VCS, or Verra); Gold Standard; American Carbon Registry; Climate Action Reserve; and Plan Vivo. Data on credit issuances by project type are provided in Supplementary Fig. S 1 .

External comparison areas

HIR projects have an outer project boundary, which is typically the boundary of the property on which it is located. The credited areas lie within the project boundary. The comparison areas, which are used as paired controls for each project, comprised 3 km wide buffer areas around the outside of project boundaries, excluding areas that intersected with other HIR projects.

The use of these 3 km wide comparison areas is likely to overstate the relative effects of the projects on woody cover. This is due to the way the credited areas are delineated. Under the HIR method, credited areas must contain only areas that have the potential to achieve forest cover (woody vegetation ≥2 m tall with crown cover >20% at 0.2 ha scale). They are also not allowed to have forest cover at commencement. This results in credited areas having exclusions inside and around them, even when the areas are subject to the same project activities (i.e. grazing control) and lie within the same fenced areas. In contrast, the comparison areas are comprised of all land within the 3 km wide buffers, excluding other HIR projects.

The characteristics of the credited areas and comparison areas means that, where the same changes in tree cover occur, there is likely to be a greater proportionate increase (or decrease) in cover in the credited areas relative to the comparison areas. This approach was adopted to ensure conservative outputs and because of the practical difficulty associated with delineating areas that share the same characteristics as the areas included in the credited areas.

National forest and sparse woody dataset analysis

Changes in woody cover (forest and sparse woody cover) in the credited areas and comparison areas were analysed using the Australian Government’s NFSW dataset (Version 7.0) 63 . The dataset provides Landsat-derived estimates of the extents of three classes of woody vegetation cover across Australia over the period 1988–2022. The data are a near-annual time series in which 25 m grid cells are classified as either non-woody, sparse woody (sub-forest woody cover where crown cover is between 5–19%) or forest (woody vegetation ≥2 m tall with crown cover >20% over at least 0.2 ha).

The analysis was undertaken using Terrak.io, a geospatial analytics platform developed by Haizea Analytics. This platform builds upon Cloud infrastructure and can provide on-demand analytics on large satellite and climate datasets through an API. Users can rely on Terrak.io to generate maps or zonal statistics showing temporal trends for large numbers or areas, defined using custom vector polygons. This infrastructure was used to calculate zonal statistics on the frequency of forest, sparse woody, and non-woody cover pixels within each project’s credited areas and comparison areas.

Classifying project changes in forest and sparse woody cover since registration

To assess whether woody cover in the credited areas of each project (i.e. the proportion of pixels with forest or sparse woody cover) experienced negative, negligible and positive change since the projects were registered (i.e. the results presented in Table  1 ), simple linear regression models were fit for each project to the time-series of the forest and sparse woody percentages in their credited areas from the year of registration forward, with the percentage of each cover class as the response variable and year as the only independent variable.

Projects were classified as having increased woody cover if the slope of either of the fits for forest or sparse cover was greater than 0.25% per year, provided the slope for the fit to the other woody cover class (i.e. sparse if the forest fit has a positive slope >0.25%) was greater than −0.05% per year.

Tree cover was deemed to be negligible if the sum of the slopes from the linear models fit to the sparse and forest cover were greater than −0.25% per year, and they did not meet the ‘increased’ requirements.

Projects whose tree cover did not meet either the ‘increased’ or ‘negligible’ requirements were deemed to have decreasing cover.

Comparing cover trends in carbon estimation areas and adjacent comparison areas

Changes in woody cover were calculated from the time-series of NFSW data from 1988 to 2022 63 . The percentage of pixels within the credited areas and comparison area classified as forest in each year was subtracted from the percentage of forest pixels in the preceding time point in the time series. Most time steps were annual, including all from 2004 on, but some spanned two or more years (’89–’91, ’92–’95, ’95–’98, ’98–2000, 2000–’02 and ’02–’04).

Hierarchical linear regression models, built using the lme4 package 82 in R (4.3.0, R Core Team 2022) 83 , were used to model cover changes within credited areas as a function of cover changes in comparison areas (indicating responses to broader environmental drivers) and a binary variable indicating whether the interval over which cover changes occurred was before or after the year of project registration. Models were built to include random effects accommodating the numerous observations made for each project by fitting separate intercepts for projects, as well as coefficients for the two fixed-effects (cover change in comparison areas and project registration) and a higher level intercept (Eq. ( 1 ), in the syntax of lmer: project_cover_change ~ comparison_area_change + registration + (1|project_ID)). Statistical significance of predictors was assessed via the anova function, by comparing the full model to models with each predictor removed in turn.

The cover change variables for credited areas (response) and comparison areas (fixed effect 1) were standardised (centred and scaled) by subtracting the variable mean from each observation, and dividing by its standard deviation (Supplementary Table  S2 ). The binary variable for project registration was not standardised (pre-registration = 0, post-registration = 1). This means that the coefficient for the comparison area predictor in each model is a measure of effect size, indicating the expected magnitude of change in the response credited area cover variable (in standard deviations) for a one standard deviation change in comparison area cover. The coefficient for project registration ( β 2 ) indicates the effect of project registration on year-to-year cover change in credited areas, again in units of standard deviation for the response variable, i.e. cover change in credited areas.

The strength of portfolio-scale correlations between the extent of each cover class (forest, sparse or woody) in the combined credited areas and in comparison areas, across the 182 projects (i.e. variables plotted in Fig.  3 ), was assessed using Pearson’s correlation coefficient from the cor.test function in R 83 . Correlation coefficients were also calculated for annual cover changes inside credited areas and in adjacent comparison areas, for both forest and woody cover classes (Supplementary Table  S1 ).

Estimating credited sequestration

Credited sequestration was estimated using data from the ERF Project Register 31 . Total credit issuances to each project to 30 June 2022 were adjusted to account for relevant discounts (5% risk of reversal buffer and a 20% permanence period discount for projects with 25 year permanence periods). A uniform and conservative 0.5% deduction was made to account for fossil fuel use, based on Australian Government analysis of a sample of HIR projects that found average fuel use emissions were less than 0.02% of total project abatement 84 . The resulting estimates were converted from CO 2 to C using the atomic mass ratio, 44/12.

The approach used to compare credited sequestration to forest cover is conservative. Ideally, the comparison of forest cover to sequestration would be undertaken using the modelled sequestration for each project. This would ensure the estimates account for the fact that projects have been allowed to commence modelling regeneration before the projects were registered. Due to this, the amount of modelled sequestration across the projects is greater than the credited sequestration, accentuating the extent of relative underperformance. It was not possible to analyse the modelled sequestration because of transparency issues. Estimates of modelled sequestration are not published and no verified data are published on the modelling parameters used in HIR projects. At the time of writing, information about the choice of model calibration and modelling commencement dates had been published by the proponents of 63 HIR projects. However, the published data were incomplete (e.g. modelling points are not published) and unverified, rendering them unusable for these purposes.

Australian Government expenditure on carbon credits from HIR projects

We estimate that, to 4 December 2023, the Australian Government had spent ~AU$300 million in purchasing credits from HIR projects and was contractually committed to purchase a further ~AU$1.2 billion. The Australian Government does not publish data on carbon credit purchases or contracted credit prices by project. Due to this, our estimate of Australian Government expenditure on credits from HIR projects was based on the number of credits sold by each project to the Australian Government under Emissions Reduction Fund contracts, up until 4 December 2023 70 . Where contracts had multiple projects, the recorded credit sales were assumed to be sourced evenly from the contracted projects. Sale prices were assigned to each project based on the published weighted average carbon credit purchase price from the Emissions Reduction Fund auction at which the relevant project was contracted (range AU$10.23-AU$17.35) 71 . The estimate of the value of the remaining HIR credits contracted by the Australian Government was based on the number of credits originally contracted, less those delivered and the number of credits released or lapsed from delivery obligations 70 . The contracted prices assigned to each project were again based on the weighted average carbon credit purchase price from the Emissions Reduction Fund auction at which the relevant project was contracted 70 , 71 .

Data availability

The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study, including a summary of individual project data, are available on Figshare at: https://figshare.com/ [DOI: 10.6084/m9.figshare.25199786 and 10.6084/m9.figshare.25199789].

Code availability

Details of the hierarchical linear regression models developed in the study are provided above.

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A.M., D.B., P.L. and M.E. initiated and designed the research, with input from D.A. and M.W. A.M. led the drafting, with input from all authors, except P.S. D.B. designed and performed the statistical analysis. P.L. processed and analysed the woody cover data. A.M. compiled and analysed data on projects and crediting. R.F., D.E., D.L. and P.G. provided input on drafting and the literature review. P.S. designed and illustrated Fig.  1 .

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The authors declare the following competing interests. A.M. is a non-executive director of Paraway Pastoral Company Ltd. Paraway Pastoral Company Ltd has offset projects under Australia’s offset scheme. Paraway Pastoral Company Ltd does not have any human-induced regeneration projects. A.M., D.B., D.A. and M.W. advise public and private entities on environmental markets and Australia’s carbon offset scheme, including on the design of carbon offset methods. The remaining authors have no competing interests.

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Macintosh, A., Butler, D., Larraondo, P. et al. Australian human-induced native forest regeneration carbon offset projects have limited impact on changes in woody vegetation cover and carbon removals. Commun Earth Environ 5 , 149 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-024-01313-x

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What (exactly) is a research topic.

A research topic is the subject of a research project or study – for example, a dissertation or thesis. A research topic typically takes the form of a problem to be solved, or a question to be answered.

A good research topic should be specific enough to allow for focused research and analysis. For example, if you are interested in studying the effects of climate change on agriculture, your research topic could focus on how rising temperatures have impacted crop yields in certain regions over time.

To learn more about the basics of developing a research topic, consider our free research topic ideation webinar.

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A strong research topic comprises three important qualities : originality, value and feasibility.

• Originality – a good topic explores an original area or takes a novel angle on an existing area of study.
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A research topic and a research problem are two distinct concepts that are often confused. A research topic is a broader label that indicates the focus of the study , while a research problem is an issue or gap in knowledge within the broader field that needs to be addressed.

To illustrate this distinction, consider a student who has chosen “teenage pregnancy in the United Kingdom” as their research topic. This research topic could encompass any number of issues related to teenage pregnancy such as causes, prevention strategies, health outcomes for mothers and babies, etc.

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• What factors contribute to higher rates of teenage pregnancy in certain communities?
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Simply put, a key difference between a research topic and a research problem is scope ; the research topic provides an umbrella under which multiple questions can be asked, while the research problem focuses on one specific question or set of questions within that larger context.

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Finding quality sources is an essential step in the topic ideation process. To do this, you should start by researching scholarly journals, books, and other academic publications related to your topic. These sources can provide reliable information on a wide range of topics. Additionally, they may contain data or statistics that can help support your argument or conclusions.

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You can also use search engines like Google or Bing to locate websites with useful information about your topic. However, be sure to evaluate any website before citing it as a source—look for evidence of authorship (such as an “About Us” page) and make sure the content is up-to-date and accurate before relying on it.

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Once you’ve identified potential sources for your research project, take some time to evaluate them thoroughly before deciding which ones will best serve your purpose. Consider factors such as author credibility (are they an expert in their field?), publication date (is the source current?), objectivity (does the author present both sides of an issue?) and relevance (how closely does this source relate to my specific topic?).

By researching the current literature on your topic, you can identify potential sources that will help to provide quality information. Once you’ve identified these sources, it’s time to look for a gap in the research and determine what new knowledge could be gained from further study.

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Finding a strong gap in the literature is an essential step when looking for potential research topics. We explain what research gaps are and how to find them in this post.

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When evaluating potential research topics, it is important to consider the factors that make for a strong topic (we discussed these earlier). Specifically:

• Originality
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So, when you have a list of potential topics or ideas, assess each of them in terms of these three criteria. A good topic should take a unique angle, provide value (either to academia or practitioners), and be practical enough for you to pull off, given your limited resources.

Finally, you should also assess whether this project could lead to potential career opportunities such as internships or job offers down the line. Make sure that you are researching something that is relevant enough so that it can benefit your professional development in some way. Additionally, consider how each research topic aligns with your career goals and interests; researching something that you are passionate about can help keep motivation high throughout the process.

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When evaluating the feasibility and practicality of a research topic, it is important to consider several factors.

First, you should assess whether or not the research topic is within your area of competence. Of course, when you start out, you are not expected to be the world’s leading expert, but do should at least have some foundational knowledge.

Time commitment

When considering a research topic, you should think about how much time will be required for completion. Depending on your field of study, some topics may require more time than others due to their complexity or scope.

Additionally, if you plan on collaborating with other researchers or institutions in order to complete your project, additional considerations must be taken into account such as coordinating schedules and ensuring that all parties involved have adequate resources available.

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It’s also critically important to consider what type of resources are necessary in order to conduct the research successfully. This includes physical materials such as lab equipment and chemicals but can also include intangible items like access to certain databases or software programs which may be necessary depending on the nature of your work. Additionally, if there are costs associated with obtaining these materials then this must also be factored into your evaluation process.

Potential risks

It’s important to consider the inherent potential risks for each potential research topic. These can include ethical risks (challenges getting ethical approval), data risks (not being able to access the data you’ll need), technical risks relating to the equipment you’ll use and funding risks (not securing the necessary financial back to undertake the research).

If you’re looking for more information about how to find, evaluate and select research topics for your dissertation or thesis, check out our free webinar here . Alternatively, if you’d like 1:1 help with the topic ideation process, consider our private coaching services .

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Walker Institute Hosts the 2024 Barnes Symposium on Law and Morality

Dr. Nathan French, associate professor, from Miami University.

The Walker Institute hosted the 11th year Barnes Symposium on Law and Morality at USC last Thursday, March 21, 2024. The Barnes Symposium has provided our campus an opportunity to engage guest speakers on matters of religion and public life. This year’s speaker was Dr. Nathan French, associate professor, from Miami University. Dr. French talk was entitled “’Undoing the Folded Lie’: Mapping Responsibilities and Memories in Law at War.” The talk examined the erosion and possible collapse of international law around the questions of civilian protection during war, a concept called responsibility to protect. Dr. French explored the corollary legal responsibility of the responsibility to rebuild and considered these questions in the light of the war in Gaza. Drawing from the testimony given in the genocide case brought by South Africa against Israel, Dr. French explored the apparent limits and contradictions of how questions of responsibility were being recast in light of arguments in favor of state interests rather than international responsibilities. This talk was followed by a lively question and answer period.

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Transportation | Electric, hybrid cars cutting Bay Area’s carbon…

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Transportation

Breaking news, transportation | stanford names new president to replace former leader who resigned under cloud, transportation | electric, hybrid cars cutting bay area’s carbon footprint, uc berkeley researchers say, success needs doubling to meet state goal.

The Bay Area’s leading role in electric-vehicle adoption is producing a measurable drop in the region’s carbon footprint and contribution to the battle against climate change, new research from UC Berkeley suggests.

Last March, the Bay Area became the first U.S. metropolitan area where half of all new vehicle registrations were for EVs and hybrids, according to S&P Global Mobility.

In a paper published Thursday in the journal Environmental Science & Technology, UC Berkeley professor Ronald Cohen and researchers Naomi Asimow and Alexander Turner report that a network of nearly 60 carbon dioxide sensors around the Bay Area, mostly atop middle- and high-school buildings, provide the first evidence that electrified vehicles are lowering carbon emissions here.

RELATED:  Prices are falling on used EVs. Here’s how to get a deal

From 2018 and 2022, the sensors in the Berkeley Environmental Air Quality and CO2 Network recorded a small but consistent drop in CO2 emissions of about 1.8% a year, which the researchers say translates to an annual 2.6% drop in vehicle emission rates attributable to electric and hybrid cars.

“I would really like people to see this as an add-on to our success at reducing greenhouse gas emissions,” Cohen said. “We show from atmospheric measurements that adoption of electric vehicles is working, that it’s having the intended effect on CO2 emissions.”

To meet California’s goal to slash carbon emissions 85% from 1990 levels by 2045, that success would have to be doubled, Asimow pointed out.

Still, Cohen sees the emissions reduction as an encouraging sign that electrifying transportation can drive significant progress against climate change. “We really need to accelerate, but we’re on a track that’s not crazy difficult to get to where we want to get to,” Cohen said.

Electric transportation is seen as a key element in mitigating the effects of human-caused global warming by cutting the output of greenhouse gases from vehicle tailpipes. The White House has set a national goal for zero-emission vehicles representing half of all new vehicle sales by 2030. California in 2022 approved a regulation requiring all new cars sold to be zero-emission by 2035.

According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, today’s carbon dioxide emissions are the main cause of global warming into the future. The group of scientists said last year that climate change is expected to continue causing widespread damage to water availability, crop production and fishery yields while boosting infectious disease, population displacement, wildfire conditions and sea levels. Choices made now and in the near future will determine the fate of future generations, the group said in its report.

Reversing global increases in carbon dioxide emissions, Cohen, Asimow and Turner said in their paper, “represents one of the greatest challenges facing humankind.”

When Cohen began building the network of sensors in 2012, he did not foresee using them to assess emissions reductions from electrified cars in a region that leads the way in adoption of EVs. “We lucked out on that,” said Cohen, whose project started out as a way to pinpoint emission sources by neighborhood to probe public-policy effects on climate. “We started here in the Bay Area because it was home and it was easy to do things and have them break and go fix them.”

To reach their conclusions about electrified vehicles, Cohen and the other researchers factored in traffic patterns, the share of electric and hybrid vehicles on the road, the effects of COVID shutdowns and the shift to remote work, emissions data from other sources such as residential gas heating, and the increasing fuel efficiency of gas-powered vehicles.

Eugene Cordero, a climate science professor at San Jose State University, said that the UC Berkeley researchers’ methods left some uncertainty, although he found their results credible. “When you just go out and measure a gas in the air, the sources could be from lots of different places,” Cordero said.

Because most of the sensors are in the East Bay, it’s possible that the San Jose area would show larger reductions in carbon dioxide emissions, as data indicate that the South Bay has higher EV adoption rates than elsewhere in the Bay Area, Cordero said.

The research is valuable and highlights the fact that more study is needed to find and implement solutions to climate change, Cordero said. “We need to have better data on where we are being successful and where we need to improve.”

While the Bay Area has leapt to the front in EV adoption, the market for those vehicles, including in this region, has run into headwinds. Auto-industry analysts say worries over charging hassles and range have led to a slowdown in EV sales nationwide, and in the Bay Area, such concerns are rising while many of the early adopters already have the vehicles. Hybrids are now widely seen as a more reliable step into electrified vehicles, said Ivan Drury, an analyst at Edmunds, which tracks the auto industry.

For California to meet its goals, however, “you don’t get there with hybrid-electric,” Cohen said. “At some point we have to be all electric.”

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Crashes and Disasters | California wildfire: Cartago evacuated, bad weather grounds firefighting aircraft

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Transportation | The Old Road, used when The Grapevine is closed, set for $250 million widening

UFOs: Study lists Evansville area as one of the most credible 'hotspots' in the country

EVANSVILLE – Researchers with the University of Utah have used geographical data to identify the most credible UFO "hotspots" in the country.

Most of them were out west – home of Area 51 , Roswell and Skinwalker Ranch – or in the northeast. But there was an exception: the Evansville area.

The study, led by a pair of geography professors, was first published in the journal Scientific Reports in December, but started making the rounds across the Internet late last month. It listed Vanderburgh County and other Tri-State locales among the highest likelihood in the country for a "credible" sighting of "unidentified aerial phenomena" − the newfangled moniker for UFO.

But "credible" doesn't necessarily mean alien spacecraft.

According to the paper, researchers used "sky view potential" (light pollution, cloud cover, etc.) and "the potential for objects to be present in the sky" (proximity to airports and military installations) to determine the chances of seeing flying crafts that a lay person may not be able to pinpoint. They reasoned that if there are more objects darting around, and clear skies to see them in, more sightings will crop up.

They then examined 20 years of data collected by the National UFO Reporting Center , which breaks down sightings by location, and studied areas with lots of UFO reports (like Evansville) or scant UFO reports (like most of the Midwest).

The results? Multiple Tri-State counties, including Vanderburgh, were listed as hotspots with a 95% or 99% credibility rating.

"The results from a hotspot analysis ... show a strong trend with many more population standardized sightings (i.e., county reports per 10,000 people) reported in the Western U.S. and in the very Northeast, along withsome isolated areas including the tri-state border region of Illinois, Indiana, and Kentucky, surrounding Evansville, Indiana," the report reads in part.

Why is the Evansville area a UFO hotspot?

The high rates of sightings out west make sense for several reasons, researchers said.

For one, the desert climates of New Mexico, Arizona and California are largely devoid of "canopy cover" from tall trees, giving residents a clear view of those bright, expansive skies. People are also outdoors a lot due to yearlong warm weather, giving them plenty of chances to crane their heads upward.

But perhaps most importantly, those areas brim with what researchers called "paranormal ideation" – thanks in part to marinating in UFO culture since the alleged crash of a flying saucer in Roswell, New Mexico in 1947 . (For the record, the Air Force blamed the saucer sighting on a weather balloon. And the aliens people reported seeing were merely "anthropomorphic test dummies that were carried aloft.")

Other hotspots, though, aren't so easily explained.

Take the Pacific Northwest. There's plenty of paranormal ideation there ( hi, Bigfoot ), but heavy rainfall keeps the night sky covered, making UFO sightings difficult to ascertain. Authors don't provide much reasoning for the spike in the Northeastern U.S., either, nor the other sporadic areas of the map that burn red or deep orange, including Evansville.

But this area has a deep history of UFO and other paranormal sightings. In 1923, long before UFO culture seized the west, a boy named Norman Massie led a horse into a pasture on his family's property in Mount Erie, Illinois and found an otherworldly spacecraft waiting for him.

It had "lights all around it," he told columnist Len Wells in 1998. "... The machine was metallic and stood on three legs. The top was a dome with holes in it. The best way I could describe the top was it looked like melted glass.”

He even claimed he saw men milling around inside it. One, he said, was referred to as "The Commander."

Massie would go on to become a respected teacher and coach in Southern Illinois before dying in 2004 at the age of 91. He never changed his story.

Then came the aftermath of Roswell in '47. On July 8 of that year, three people were sunbathing on the roof of the old Downtown Evansville YMCA around 1:30 when they saw what Courier archives described as a “big red disk.” A couple hours later that same day, a man called the Courier and said he'd been flying in a small airplane with another man when six 15-foot-long saucers swarmed them.

Sightings continued into each subsequent decade. The last high-profile one came in 2021 , when an EPD officer reported seeing a string of strange lights blinking over the South Side.

"What are those lights?" he said in a video EPD later uploaded to its Facebook page. "What are those, man?"

According to the National UFO Reporting Center, sightings are still happening. The last one listed in the database occurred on Feb. 21, when a cylindrical object appeared in the south skies around 6:30 p.m. and dashed west.

In the paper published in December, researchers admitted that UFO data could be biased. "If your goal is to see a UAP, you may very well see one given the opportunity," they wrote.

But other reports came from people who didn't believe in strange aerial phenomena before they saw it themselves. And some even stepped forward despite fears of being mocked or ostracized.

"The stigma given to this area of research, if it is explored scientifically, should be over," researchers wrote. "We make no hypotheses about what people are seeing, only that they will see more when and where they have opportunity to.

"The question remains, however, as to what these sighting reports are of."