communication theory essay sample

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1.1: An Introduction to Communication Theory

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• Page ID 79259

• Keith Green, Ruth Fairchild, Bev Knudsen, & Darcy Lease-Gubrud
• Ridgewater College via Minnesota State Colleges and Universities

Learning Objectives

After completing this section, students should be able to:

• identify and define the four communication settings
• illustrate communication as a transactional process
• explain the purposes of communication
• summarize the characteristics of communication
• explain sender-based versus receiver-based communication and what it means to be self-reflexive.

When registering for an “Introduction to Communication” class, most may wonder, “Is this just a public speaking class?” While certainly part of the field of Communication Studies, public speaking is only one of the many areas we address. A better way to consider the field of Communication Studies is to think of it as the study of oral and aural communication. We look not only at the classic public speaking setting, we also consider how we use oral communication (speaking) and aural communication (listening) to interact with those around us, to build relationships, to satisfy our own personal needs, to exchange information, to persuade others, and to work collaboratively in groups. Public speaking is but one facet of a much larger field.

Studying communication enhances our soft skills. As we prepare for a career, we are developing two sets of skills: hard skills and soft skills. Hard skills are specific to our fields, such as an accountant who needs to know how to handle credits and debits; a nurse who needs to know human anatomy and how to take a blood pressure reading; or a police officer who needs to know the law and how to use physical force appropriately and judiciously.

Soft skills are those skills that apply across the board and enhance our ability to work with others in a range of settings. These include such skills the ability to work collaboratively, to present ideas effectively in writing or speaking, to listen effectively, to think critically, and to develop and maintain healthy collegial relationships.

According to Forbes magazine, employers look for 10 core skills:

1. Ability to work in a team structure 2. Ability to make decisions and solve problems 3. Ability to communicate verbally with people inside and outside an organization 4. Ability to plan, organize and prioritize work 5. Ability to obtain and process information 6. Ability to analyze quantitative data 7. Technical knowledge related to the job 8. Proficiency with computer software programs 9. Ability to create and/or edit written reports 10. Ability to persuade and influence others (Adams, 2014).

Communication Studies addresses many of these skills, especially items 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 10. This course will introduce these skill areas, and additional Communication Studies classes can advance and refine those skills to an even greater degree. The ideal end result is a strong set of hard skills packaged in a strong set of soft skills; hard skills look great on a resume, and soft skills look great in an interview. In this course, we will be addressing the three classic settings of communication studies, along with a new, emerging setting. The classic settings are Interpersonal Communication (one with one), Small Group Communication (several among several), and Public Speaking (one to many). We will also look at the newest communication setting to emerge: Computer-Mediated Communication (communication via technology). We start by reviewing some basics of communication theory which apply to all communication, such as how communication works, perception, verbal and nonverbal communication, diversity, listening, and disclosure. After looking at this broad foundation, we will then look more deeply at some specific dynamics of each of these communication contexts.'

The Communication Settings

Interpersonal Communication

Interpersonal Communication is "The complex process through which people produce, interpret, and coordinate messages to create shared meanings, achieve social goals, manage their personal identities, and carry out their relationships" (Verderber, 2016). This is the everyday communication we engage in with our friends, loved ones, work colleagues, or others we encounter. Although we tend to assume this is “one-with-one,” it can be among several. So, when at a party, we are engaging in interpersonal communication with quite a few people.

We do not engage in interpersonal communication with only those we already know. Communication with anyone is an interpersonal encounter, regardless of any prior relationship. Since a range of relationship types exists, talking with a significant other is interpersonal communication, but so, too, is placing an order at McDonalds with a server, who is a stranger.

To understand why we are so driven to engage in interpersonal communication, it is important to first understand the most fundamental drive of communication: to reduce uncertainty. Humans are unique animals in that we can engage in abstract thought, taking in the world around us and converting it to mental images. As far as we know, all other animals live in a world of stimulus-response. They react instinctively to whatever is around them at the moment. If we startle a deer while walking in the woods, it will run regardless of our intent; it does not stop to think about whether we are a threat or not, it just acts. Humans, on the other hand, use stimulus- thought -response. We sense the world around us, we think about it, we talk about it, and finally we respond to it. We respond to thought more than stimulus. According to the theory of General Semantics,

As human organisms, we have limits as to what we can experience through our senses. Given these limitations, we can never experience “all” of what is “out there” to experience…. To the degree that our reactions and responses to all forms of stimuli are automatic, or conditioned, we copy animals, like Pavlov’s dog. To the degree that our reactions and responses are more controlled, delayed, or conditional to the given situation, we exhibit our uniquely-human capabilities (Institute of General Semantics, 2012a).

Communication is the key tool we use to manage and respond to the world around us. It is our key survival tool. By connecting with other humans, we can test and assess our perceptions, our thoughts about the stimuli, to determine if our responses to those thoughts are reasonable.

The overriding goal of interpersonal communication is to reduce uncertainty by fulfilling our needs for belongingness and acceptance . Humans are deeply social creatures, getting much of our sense of personal value and worth through our interactions with those around us. Belongingness is our need to feel we fit in and belong to a group of some sort . Each of us has at least one "reference group," a collection of individuals with whom acceptance is extremely important. We spend time with these people, we talk with them, and we joke with them. We care about what they think of us because we are strongly driven to feel we belong to that group; it gives us a place to fit in and feel valued. An intimate relationship with a significant other can also give us a feeling of belongingness. The connections with a long-term partner, parents, or children can give us comfort and certainty in our lives.

Acceptance is not the same as agreement. We look for those who accept and understand who we are . Although we can disagree about specific topics or issues, the underlying human relationship is still solid and exists despite those superficial disagreements. They accept our traits, both positive and negative. They like who we are; thus, they accept us as we are, the good and the bad, not necessarily for what we do or for our successes and failures.

Because these two needs are so strong in us, being in a strange place where we know no one can be very unsettling. Consider the awkwardness we feel in a social setting where we do not know many of the others present. Most probably feel a bit lost and uncertain as to we fit in. When in such a setting, most of us will deliberately try to connect with someone to fulfill those needs, at least temporarily.

Image 5 is a simple model for interpersonal communication. The model shows both people as equal, as represented by the letters being the same size and value. The two arrows indicate both individuals communicate equally, in a balanced sense of power, both speaking and listening. This does not mean that in one specific communication encounter everything is exactly equal; rather, it means over the life of the relationship there is a sense of relative balance. For example, in virtually any marriage there will be a division of power with each partner having more power in some areas, but overall, there is a relative balance in worth, value, respect, speaking, and listening.

• Small Group Communication

Small Group Communication is described as several among several . It is similar to interpersonal in that many of the dynamics of good interpersonal communication apply to several people interacting, but the primary difference is in the goal.

The goal of small group communication is task completion. However, for us to work with a group to effectively complete a task requires our basic interpersonal needs be met. The group communicates and works collaboratively most effectively to achieve a common end result when there is a sense of acceptance and belongingness among members. We are all familiar with what happens when we speak up in a group but get ignored; we quit participating.

Image 7 is a simple model for small group communication. In this model, we are looking at a task group of five people. According to Bormann and Bormann (1980), five is the ideal size for a task group. The individuals are all modeled as being of equal value and worth, and the connecting lines indicate all members participate equally with all other group members. Realistically, such equality of participation will not occur in every group meeting; however, this model represents what should occur over the life of that group.

• Public Speaking

The third setting is Public Speaking . Public speaking can be described as one to many . Note for interpersonal and small group, we speak of with and among others to suggest a sense of mutual exchange and responsibility. In public speaking, however, the majority of the message is from the speaker to the audience, and as a result the speaker carries significantly more responsibility for the success of the communication event. Although the audience does retain some responsibility (attending to the message; decoding; interpreting; asking questions), it is not as equal as with interpersonal and small group. Consider a traditional, college lecture class. We easily accept the greater responsibility the instructor bears over the success of the class, especially in presenting well-developed, clearly structured lectures. The students still have their duties, such as attending class and actively listening, but there is no doubt the instructor bears more responsibility for the speaking situation.

The goal of public speaking is a transmission of information. The speaker has some sort of idea/information/position to share with the group and shares that information in this primarily unidirectional process.

The model for public speaking, image 9, is somewhat different than for the other two. First, notice the difference between the way the speaker and the audience are modeled. This represents the speaker as the primary source for the communication, having significantly more responsibility for the creation, sending, and substance of the message. Second, note the smaller, lighter arrows from the audience to the speaker. Audiences communicate with speakers via feedback, ranging from subtle (such as slight facial expression changes) to overt (such as laughter, asking questions, and applause). A good speaker uses feedback to gauge how the event is going. For example, if the audience looks bored, perhaps the speaker needs to liven things up a bit, or if they look confused, perhaps the speaker should rephrase something.

• Computer-Mediated Communication

Computer-mediated communication (CMC) is communication occurring through the use of computer technologies . If we stop to consider all the ways we communicate via technology, it is mind-boggling. Everything from cell phones, texting, email, social media (like Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram), discussion boards, and video conferencing all fall in this category. Although most of those reading this text probably cannot recall a time without the internet or cell phones, in the timeline of human communication, these technologies are still very young. However, they continue to develop at a rapid pace, impacting how we connect with one another in ways we do not yet fully understand. Researchers are investigating ways technology is impacting how we communicate, form and manage relationships, work collaboratively, and even how we maintain a sense of self.

We already know constant connectivity has benefits and drawbacks. Many workplaces have now become a blend of face-to-face and online. An online student shared the first thing she does when she gets to her office is start Skype, a video-conferencing tool, and then spends her day working both with those physically present and those connecting digitally from around the nation and world. We use social media to maintain long-distance relationships which in the not-too-distant past would have faded from lack of contact. Distant family members can remain connected, sharing special events or even just daily life. Funerals, weddings, and other important ceremonies are no longer limited to those who can travel to attend. In addition to personal use, organizations can save millions in travel costs using CMC tools. Our own Minnesota State higher education system holds hundreds of meetings annually via CMC tools, saving travel costs and time away from other duties. Even more striking is the ability of people to use social media tools to effect social change. The first, large social movement facilitated by CMC was the Arab Spring of 2011. Through the use of CMC tools like Twitter and Facebook, hundreds of thousands of disaffected citizens of several Middle Eastern countries took to the streets in protest of the status quo. In 2017, the United States saw large protests after the election of Donald Trump, protests largely organized using social media. Through this instantaneous, non-controlled mode of communication, people can find and connect with those sharing their concerns and passions.

There may be some influences of CMC that are more troubling. Attention spans may be shrinking. With Twitter’s 140 character limit, we are becoming more and more accustomed to brief, pithy messages instead of well-developed and thoughtful discourse. Managing boredom without technology may be more difficult. With the endless internet, even the slightest sense of boredom can be immediately alleviated by simply searching for something new. Since so many needs can now be fulfilled without stepping outside, those who are shy and reluctant to leave the comfort of their home can become even more isolated, with basic necessities such as groceries available for delivery via online marketplaces. Your authors have noticed a dramatic change on college campuses; while waiting for a class to start, instead of talking and developing friendships, students are silently attentive to their phones. Since we can now avoid awkward social situations by simply looking at our phones, the ability to initiate and maintain casual, acquaintance-level conversations is not needed, so the skill of “small talk” is not practiced and developed.

We have fingertip access to virtually the entire knowledge base of the human race, bringing centuries of learning to the remotest parts of our world. We have also seen the explosion of echo chambers and confirmation bias. There are so many sources of information targeted to specific political viewpoints people can choose to read or view only the news and information reinforcing the validity of their existing positions. In other words, instead of sharing common sources of information, conservatives consume conservative news and liberals consume liberal news. Since humans avoid uncertainty, echo chambers feed on our drive for information confirming our existing worldview, affirming our worldview is the “correct” view of reality.

The field of Communication Studies is far more than just public speaking. We consider the entire human communication process, looking to understand the dynamics of each of these settings to be better equipped to make thoughtful choices in managing those encounters. While each of these contexts has its own unique traits, they all share the basic communication process.

Human communication, at its best, is a process filled with complexity and hindrances. We certainly experience moments in which we feel we have really "connected" with others, but such moments are the exception to the rule. Due to the very involved and multi-faceted nature of communication, it is highly prone to breakdowns and errors. We have all experienced the frustrations of agreeing with someone about something, believing we completely understood one another, only to find later that the other person's idea of what we agreed to is totally different than our own. By understanding the complexity of communication, we are more capable of diagnosing communication problems, and more equipped to identify and employ solutions to those problems.

Communication is the transactional process of using symbolic language to stimulate shared meaning . This definition has a lot to it, and each component needs consideration.

To understand the concept of transactional , we need to see where communication theory was in the past, and where are we today. At first, communication was seen as a linear process. The sender said something to the receiver. The receiver then processed the message to understand it. The problem with this approach is it only shows communication as flowing one direction; it does not account for the fact many of our messages are responses to what we heard or experienced. The linear model does not allow for nor describe the relationship of one message to another. We then moved to a circular model which shows the sender sends a message to the receiver, and then the receiver sends a message back to the sender as feedback to what was said. In effect, the sender becomes the receiver, and the receiver becomes the sender. This model is much better in that it accounts for those related messages; however, it can also suggest all messages have a causal relationship with what was just experienced. This simply is not true. Many messages are independent of what was just experienced. If Darcy tells a joke and the class laughs, she is sending a message (the joke) and the class is sending feedback (laughter). The circular model accurately describes what happened. However, something like clothing usually does not fit the circular model. If Lucinda is wearing a uniform to work because it is required, fits the circular model; she is wearing the uniform because of a message from her employer. Rarely, however, is our choice of clothing a response to a message; more often it is what we feel like wearing. The circular model does not account for this independence.

The linear model is too narrow, and the circular model is too broad. Today, we use the transactional model of communication. The transactional model says we have multiple messages flowing simultaneously between people . Some messages are independent, and some messages are causal (or feedback). As we interact, we sort out these messages, distinguishing feedback from independent messages. Task-shifting comes easily to us: “we are capable of receiving, decoding, and responding to another person’s behavior, while at the same time that other person is receiving and responding to ours” (Adler, 2012). Our brains have enormous processing power, so to engage in these simultaneous tasks is quite easy.

Communication is a process , instead of a single act. A process is an event comprised of many parts, working together, with each part having a dependence on the other . Consider the complexity of a car. It works via a process of many different parts operating in concert to produce propulsion. If any one part breaks down, depending on how integral it is to the process, the whole vehicle stops moving. Communication is similar in that if a key part of the process fails, the whole thing stops working. Or, if a secondary part fails, it may keep running, but not smoothly. Either way, if one part fails, the whole process is affected. The next part of the definition, symbolic language , requires we think about what language actually is. Whether written or spoken, language is a set of sounds or shapes to which we attach meaning . When looking at this text, students are simply looking at a series of shapes on a page. The shapes are inherently meaningless. When we speak, all we are doing is making sound and using the structures of our mouth to shape sound into certain patterns, but those sounds also are meaningless.

Although they are just shapes and sounds, they symbolize an object or concept. A symbol is using a sound or visual image to stimulate meaning. For instance, when we see the classic red circle with the diagonal line in Image 14, we know it means “don’t do” something. Through our life experiences, we learn to associate meaning with certain sounds or shapes.

The process of making those associations occurs only within the minds of the people involved; there is no such thing as truly "objective" meaning. Each of us attaches a meaning to a word that is unique to us; we each see language in our own individual way. The meanings we attach may be similar, but often those meanings can be dramatically different. Some words are far more concrete, and some are much more abstract. Consider a word like “cat.” For most students reading this, they probably think of a four legged, feline creature that is typically kept as a pet, or, for those on farms, to kill rodents. Most of us probably picture something very similar; yet, we will also have differences. For those having a cat, perhaps they visualize their own cat. For those who like cats, they attach a positive connotation to the symbol; if they do not like cats, the connotation they attach may be far more negative. Nonetheless, since “cat” is so concrete, we have little room for misunderstanding.

Compare “cat” to “fun.” Think of the many different ways people have fun. Fun is not something we can point to. Having fun is an internal sensation based on a personal judgement, so it is highly abstract. For many, going to a Friday night party is fun, but for some, such a social setting is very uncomfortable. There are many who derive a lot of fun from cleaning the bathroom, tending to a garden, or cooking complex meals, things others may see as sheer drudgery. Clearly, the opportunity for miscommunication when using abstract language is dramatically higher than when using concrete words. In using these written or oral symbols, our goal is to stimulate shared meaning among the participants. Suzanne selects and sends symbols to Arlene, and she hopes Arlene will attach meaning very similar to what she intended. The ideal result is what the speaker intends by her message and how the receiver interprets the message are highly similar . Unfortunately, due to the complexity of this process, the likelihood of misunderstanding far outweighs the likelihood of true shared understanding.

Since we cannot directly transfer meaning from one person to another, we must use an interpretive process to attempt to stimulate meaning. This process has several stages, all of which offer opportunity for misunderstanding:

• We select symbols that have a certain meaning for us based on our life experience.
• We translate them into sounds and shapes.
• We send them to the receiver.
• The receiver sees or hears the shapes and sounds.
• The receiver determines what discrete symbols they have seen or heard.
• The receiver attaches meaning to those symbols based on their life experiences.

As a child, many have played the game, “telephone.” In this game, the children sit in a row, and the first child says something to the second child, who then shares it with the third child, and so on until it reaches the last child. Typically, the story the last child hears is quite different than the story as it began. Note each time it went from one child to another, the story was re-translated according to each child’s understanding of language. Just like the communication process, every time the message is translated it is changed, so misunderstandings are very common. We are not, however, bound to stay lost in this sea of multiple interpretations. As we learn more about how communication functions, we learn to monitor and manage the process far more effectively. The final aspect of the transactional model is the idea of mutual responsibility . In communication, all participants have some responsibility for the success or failure of the communication . The person speaking has a responsibility to send a clear, organized, understandable message; and the listener has a responsibility to attend to the message, interpret it, respond to it, and if they do not understand it, to ask for clarification. Even in public speaking situations where the speaker carries a larger burden of responsibility, the audience still shares responsibility for success. A classroom is a good example of this. No matter how well a teacher teaches, if a student simply refuses to try to understand the material, the teacher cannot force the student to learn. The student must meet the teacher "half way," so to speak.

The Purposes of Communication

Since communication is so complex, a reasonable question arises: Why do we do it? Evolutionary theory tells us instinctual behaviors exist to aid in the survival and perpetuation of the species. While the specific ways we communicate are culturally determined, the drive to communicate is an innate human trait. To understand the purposes of communication, we need to begin at a very basic level. As discussed earlier, humans live in a stimulus-thought-response world, and we use communication as the tool to manage and respond to the world around us. By connecting with other humans, we can test and assess our perceptions, our thoughts about the stimuli, to determine if our responses to those thoughts are reasonable. In using that tool, we fulfill several needs:

1. We use communication to make sense of the world around us.

Since our actions are primarily based on how we think about the world around us, communication is the tool we use to develop, categorize, and modify these perceptions. We only have language because we have the ability to abstract , to create mental images and symbols of the external world . We can then talk about, think about, and generally manipulate our internal world to enhance our understanding of people, events, and experiences. In other words, language allows us to think.

As we process the world within our own minds (a form of intrapersonal communication), and as we interact with those around us (interpersonal communication), these internal images are tested, verified, and modified. Sharing our perceptions of the world with those around us is crucial in maintaining a sense of comfort and security that our view of the world is realistic and valid. While we do not seek this validation from everyone, we do seek it from our key reference groups. We want to know that we are seeing the world “accurately,” which actually means, “similarly to those important to me.”

2. We use communication to maintain a healthy sense of self.

Humans are inherently social creatures because we need acceptance and belongingness to feel we fit in and have worth to others. Interaction gives us a sense of how others see and value us, and as we gain a sense of value and importance from others, our sense of self-worth is validated or supported. For example, if Bev thinks her sense of humor is one of her good traits, and if others validate that perception by laughing at her jokes, her sense of self has been affirmed.

As mentioned earlier, we are not seeking acceptance from everyone; rather, we develop reference groups . A reference group is a collection of individuals with whom acceptance and belongingness is very important (Hyman, 1942). We place high value on how they respond to us, and we strive to maintain good relationships and friendships with these individuals.

3. We use communication to bind us socially.

Communication also facilitates the building of relationships. In interpersonal communication, when we use the term “relationship,” we mean it differently than commonly used. Most often, students initially assume relationship means an exclusive relationship, like intimate partners. However, within this field, a relationship is any connection we have with anyone . We have a range of relationships, from the transient, such as with a clerk at a gas station, to the intimate connection of a spouse.

Regardless of the type, a relationship is nothing but how we communicate with that person; a relationship is defined and measured by the type of communication occurring. With acquaintances, we say very little, speak about limited topics for a limited time, and there is virtually never any sort of physical relationship, except perhaps a handshake. In intimate relationships, conversations tend to be longer and over a broader range of topics, and the level of physical contact may increase. We need these connections to maintain a sense of self and to fulfill our interpersonal needs, but we also need to maintain a sense of society, of connection with others we may not know well or count among our friends. Simple acts, such as saying "hello" to the checkout person at the grocery store, or commenting on the weather with a work colleague, keep us connected. We have all experienced individuals who seem to utterly ignore us, and we usually attribute highly negative labels to them, such as "stuck up," "conceited," or "pretentious." When Keith comes to the office in the morning, it is important he engages in the litany of "good mornings" and "hellos" with colleagues as it confirms his collegial connection. A simple hello, a wave, or a smile reaffirms our sense of all being connected to each other as members of the society.

A tool we use to facilitate this connection is scripts . Scripts are socially prescribed topics and dialogues we have learned to use to engage in casual, socially necessary communication (Koerner, 2002). The most common script for those in the United States is the classic "Hi, how are you?" "I'm fine. How are you?" script. This script allows us to say a few simple phrases to fulfill our obligation to acknowledge others. This script is so strong that even in situations where we are not "fine," we will still say we are. Another example of a script is often experienced during the holidays when we encounter relatives we have not seen for a while. We may hear phrases like these (depending on age): "How are you? Boy, you've grown. How's school?" Once the script is played out, one of two tracks is usually taken: if there is a friendship with this person, the participants will branch out and extend the conversation; but if not, the script is exhausted and conversation dies. Even if the conversation dwindles, the participants have fulfilled their social obligation to connect and to demonstrate other-value. The script allows us to do so in a fairly painless, comfortable manner.

4. We use communication to share information and to influence others.

As we connect socially, we naturally run into a range of ideas, interests, expertise, and goals. Instead of having to know everything, we can communicate with others to tap into the global, human knowledge base. In our highly connected world, we can share information instantaneously; no question need go unanswered.

Education is a prime example of the information sharing function of communication. Students attend school to gain information, ideas, and perspectives from others. Students learn from teachers and other students, and teachers learn from students. If we do not know how to do something, we ask someone, we search online, or we pay an expert to do it for us.

A unique ability of humans is that we can share information across generational lines. Alfred Korzybski, founder of the theory of General Semantics, referred to this as “time-binding:”

Only humans have demonstrated the capability to build on the accumulated knowledge of prior generations. Korzybski referred to this capability as time-binding and declared it as the primary difference between humans and animals. Language and the symbolizing capabilities to record, document, and transmit information serves as the principle tool that facilitates time-binding (Institute of General Semantics, 2012b).

Humans have the unique ability to share information with those who lived before us and with those who will come after us. Oral histories have existed since the invention of language, and in some cultures the passing on of stories is of great cultural significance. With the advent of the printing press, we gained a tremendous ability to leave information for those who will come long after us. This ability to share information from generation to generation is why knowledge expands so rapidly; we learn from those before us, build on it, and then pass it on.

Not only can we exchange information, we can influence each other. We live immersed in persuasion on a variety of levels. The U.S. economic culture, and hence our whole American culture, thrives on one, simple persuasive act: advertising. Advertising encourages us to spend money, and it encourages us to spend that money in certain ways. In our democratic society, we use persuasion to influence local, state, and national policy. As a nation, we use our persuasive power to influence events worldwide.

Although numbers vary widely, Americans are exposed to an enormous amount of advertising:

• Average American sees 1,000 ads per day according to NBC special, "Sex, Buys and Advertising."
• Average U.S. citizen exposed to 32,000 ads per year Mark Dery, cited in Adbusters Quarterly.
• Number of commercial messages seen by age 40? 1,000,000 ads, according to Neil Postman (Harrington, 2012).

While we do not pay attention to all these messages, they are nonetheless an integral part of our social landscape. Persuasion is an inherent part of our cultural experience.

In addition to this broad, rather obvious use of persuasive messages, we also engage in interpersonal persuasion. With our friends we may argue about what movie to go see or where to dine. We may argue about sports teams, college, or politics. Without even realizing it, we influence our reference group members to see the world as we do, and they are doing the same to us. A simple conversation about whether a song is good or not, or whether a TV show is funny or not, is actually an interpersonal persuasion event. We also experience intrapersonal persuasion , persuasion within ourselves . Using our abilities to think, made possible by language, we are continually weighing options and making decisions. In effect, we debate ourselves: "Should I buy it?", "Should I ask her out?", "Should I take English or Music?". We talk to ourselves in an ongoing, internal dialogue. In private, that internal dialogue may even be spoken. For example, while driving a car many of us will talk out a problem to help work through issues and make decisions. We find this intrapersonal communication helps us discern the best course of action. In effect, we engage in self-persuasion.

The Characteristics of Communication

1. Communication success is rare. One of the core tenets of the theory of General Semantics is that due to the inherent complexity and interrelatedness of the components of the communication process, there is virtually always some factor inhibiting the success of communication (The Institute of General Semantics, 2012a). Those factors can range from blatant and overwhelming, such as the individuals not even speaking the same language, to more subtle and unnoticed, such as emotions that distort and alter the message being taken in. It is hard to imagine any sort of perfect communication. Granted, we all experience moments when we feel we truly connect with another person, and we feel we are able to share ideas and emotions in a very clear and pure manner; however, those wonderful moments are few and far between. This characteristic of communication emphasizes the need for us to listen carefully, speak clearly, and take time to make sure we really understand what the other is saying.

2. Communication occurs verbally and nonverbally. We communicate using a communication package . Our communication package is anything about us that has communication value . That package is comprised of two major types of communication: verbal and nonverbal. Verbal communication consists of language (words, meaning, syntax, grammar), and nonverbal communication consists of non-language communication variables (vocal traits, gestures, posture, and many more). According to Albert Mehrabian (1981), in emotional expression, verbal communication is about 7% of our overall communication package, and nonverbal is about 93% of the overall package. While we generally think of communication as speaking, most communication actually occurs without the use of language. Nonverbal is our primary form of communication. Consider how we use nonverbal traits to test if we believe a person is lying or not. They may say, “Nothing’s wrong,” but their body language and vocal factors may suggest they are deeply troubled. Due to the overwhelming influence of nonverbal, we virtually always see the nonverbal as a true expression of emotional state.

3. Communication is continuous . A very famous communication theorist, Paul Watzlowick, coined the phrase, "One cannot not communicate" (Watzlawick, 1967). No matter how hard we may try, we are always communicating something. Obviously we can quit speaking, but we cannot stop the myriad of nonverbal messages being sent: silence communicates; absence communicates. We all know the “silent treatment” can be a very powerful tool to express displeasure. If a student skips class or work, their absence communicates a message to the instructor or supervisor. As soon as another person even thinks of us, some sort of message is being conveyed.

Due to this ongoing nature of communication, we are also sending a blend of intentional and unintentional messages. Intentional messages are those sent deliberately and purposefully , while unintentional messages are those the sender is unaware of sending . For example, before Mark goes to a job interview, he carefully considers what to wear, rehearses answers to common questions, and even selects a pen that he believes makes him look more professional. These are intentional choices Mark is making to attempt to communicate a specific message. Once at the job interview, however, Mark may fidget with his pen, not make strong eye contact, or repeatedly clear his throat, behaviors of which he is totally unaware. These unconscious behavors may be unintentional, but since they still carry communication value, the interviewer may see Mark as nervous and lacking confidence.

4. Communication has ethical implications. Communication is a powerful tool. We know how easy it is to lie, and we have all heard of various scams that are based on lies. How we choose to communicate to others or how we choose to present information has ethical considerations of which we must be aware. According to the National Communication Association Credo for Ethical Communication:

Questions of right and wrong arise whenever people communicate. Ethical communication is fundamental to responsible thinking, decision making, and the development of relationships and communities within and across contexts, cultures, channels, and media. Moreover, ethical communication enhances human worth and dignity by fostering truthfulness, fairness, responsibility, personal integrity, and respect for self and others. We believe that unethical communication threatens the quality of all communication and consequently the well-being of individuals and the society in which we live (NCA, 2012).

Ethics is a set of standards to which we hold ourselves and others accountable . For example, most would agree lying is wrong, yet we do it every day. Sarah receives a call from someone she does not wish to speak with, so what excuse does she give? Mandy says something Brandon disagrees with, but Brandon does not voice disagreement in order to avoid a conflict. An instructor asks how many have read the assignment, and Martin raises his hand even though he did not do it. Cynthia cannot find a source for a speech, so she makes one up; after all, who is really going to know? Communication is about choice, and some of those choices are inconsistent with an ethical approach to communication.

5. Communication is culturally specific . Language varies from culture to culture. While this seems obvious when comparing Chinese to Somali to Arabic, it can also apply to the same language as used in different countries. English speakers travelling in other English-speaking countries quickly find words may be pronounced differently or have different meanings. Nonverbal communication also varies distinctly. A simple, non-threatening gesture in one culture could be the beginning of a severe conflict in another. As citizens in a highly-interconnected world in which people may move among a range of cultures, we should respect those communication variations and attempt to find ways to moderate and overcome those differences, focusing on creating connections, not exacerbating differences.

Remember too these differences can exist between co-cultures as well. Travelling around the United States we will quickly find communication differences. How the English language is used in Boston and New York is different than how it used in Alabama, or Minnesota. One of the most common topics used to illustrate these differences are words referencing soft drinks, such as Coca-Cola or Pepsi. In the Upper Midwest, “pop” is common, but other areas of the country have their own terms, such as “soft drink,” “soda,” or “coke.” The Atlantic magazine created the video below illustrating some of these differences (note: expletive at the very end of the video):

Figure :\(\PageIndex{20}\): https ://youtu.be/4HLYe31MBrg

Minnesota even has rich language diversity within its own borders. A visit to a small-town café in rural Minnesota may expose us to a style of language not usually heard in a club in downtown Minneapolis. Howard Mohr’s 1987 book, How to Talk Minnesotan, takes a humorous look at these regional communication traits, identifying words, phrases, and communication patterns reflective of regional Minnesota culture.

6. Communication reflects personality . We make assumptions of what a person is like based on communication behaviors. In western cultures, we usually see outgoing people as having more eye contact, a more open posture, and generally a more expressive demeanor. Likewise, quiet or shy people may avoid eye contact, use a more closed posture, and keep emotional expression at a minimum. While we want to be careful in making these assumptions, nonetheless these are an inherent part of the perception process. As we learn cultural norms, we learn to associate behaviors with assumed personality traits. This set of assumptions aids us in making quick decisions about people and events, helping us manage the uncertainty of new encounters. The obvious danger is stereotyping, but as effective, self-reflexive communicators, we recognize this tendency and work to moderate its influence.

Sender-based versus receiver-based communication

We naturally tend to be egocentric, assuming others think as we do, use language as we do, and generally see the world as we do . Since the only head we live in is our own, it is the only actual experience we have; we cannot live as another person. This, however, leads to a problem.

Sender-based communication occurs when the sender acts in an egocentric manner, assuming the way they communicate is appropriate for everyone . A sender-based person firmly believes others see the world and think as they do. As a result, they see no need to adapt to others; after all, why change what is correct to begin with? This person will assume that once something is said, it is communicated; any failure in communication is the fault of the other person. A sender-based listener assumes how they interpret the message is how the sender intended it, not allowing for misinterpretation or misunderstandings. It is a very absolute, self-centered, and non-adaptive approach to communication.

Receiver-based communication occurs when the sender acts in a provisional manner, assuming they need to consider how best to communicate this specific message to this specific person or to this audience. They realize what works for one person or situation may not work for another. They know language interpretation varies depending on background, and concepts may have to be presented in a variety of ways depending on the receiver. Like everyone, they initially interpret the message egocentrically, but they then take a second step and ask, “Is this what the speaker intended?” They realize misunderstandings and misinterpretations are typical, and they work to offset those from the beginning.

Receiver-based communication does not restrict us from what we want to communicate; rather, it guides us to think of our receiver and then package that message in the most effective manner. We have all seen adults who seem to have no ability to talk to children; they do not know how to adapt their language to a child. A sender-based communicator has far more difficulty initiating and maintaining a range of relationships. Receiver-based communicators can move among a broader range of relationships, adapting to diversity far more effectively. As we work to improve the quality of our communication, this ability to ask, “What about the receiver?” is key. By shifting focus from ourselves to the other, we increase our ability to form messages more likely to lead to higher quality communication.

The ultimate goal of studying communication is to become self-reflexive . Being a self-reflexive communicator means thoughtfully making choices about the most appropriate communication methods for a situation . We ascertain the dynamics of the event, and we adapt our communication to work with those dynamics so as to increase the likelihood of success. We do not need to change our values, viewpoints, or beliefs; we need to learn how best to communicate with others in different situations. Consider a medical provider, such as a nurse or physician. They need to be self-reflexive to determine how best to speak to the diversity of patients they treat. They encounter varying ages, language abilities, education levels, and cultural backgrounds. By being sensitive to the need to adjust to the receiver, they can better communicate with their patients.

The terms and concepts students should be familiar with from this section include:

Oral and Aural Communication

Four communication settings

• Belongingness

The Transactional Theory of Communication

• Transactional
• Communication is a process
• Symbolic language
• Stimulating shared meaning
• Mutual Responsibility
• To makes sense of the world around us
• To maintain a healthy sense of self
• To share information and influence others
• Success is rare
• Occurs verbally and nonverbally
• Occurs continuously
• Has ethical implications
• Culturally specific
• Reflects personality

Sender-Based versus Receiver-based Communication

• Egocentricity
• Provisionalism
• Self-reflexiveness

Adams, S. (2014, November 12). The 10 skills employers most want in 2015 graduates . Retrieved from www.forbes.com/sites/susanad...-most-want-in- 2015-graduates/#5f39eeb52511

Adler, R.B., & Rodman, G. (2012). Understanding human communication (11th ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Bormann, E.G., & Bormann, N.C. (1980). Effective small group communication (3rd ed.). Minneapolis,MN: Burgess Publishing Company.

Harrington School of Communication and Media (2012). STAND Lesson 1: Understanding your exposure to advertising . The University of Rhode Island. mediaeducationlab.com/stand-l...re-advertising

Hyman, H.H. (1942). The Psychology of Status . Archives of Psychology, 269, 94-102. As cited in Childers, T.L., & Rao, A.R. (September, 1992). The influence of familial and peer-based reference groups on consumer decisions . Journal of Consumer Research . Retrieved from the Carlson School of Management, http://www.csom.umn.edu/

The Institute of General Semantics (2012a). Basic Understandings . Retrieved from http://www.generalsemantics.org/the-...nderstandings/ .

The Institute of General Semantics (2012b). Important terms . Retrieved from http://www.generalsemantics.org/the-...portant-terms/

Koerner, A.G. & Fitzpatrick., M.A. (2002). Toward a theory of family communication. Communication Theory 12 , 70-91. Retrieved from http://www.comm.umn.edu/~akoerner .

Mehrabian, A. (1981). Silent messages: implicit communication of emotions and attitudes. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co.

Mohr, H. (1987). How to Talk Minnesotan . New York, NY: Penguin Books.

NCA (2012). NCA credo for ethical communication . The National Communication Association. Retrieved from www.natcom.org/uploadedFiles/...munication.Pdf

Verderber, K.S., & MacGeorge, E.L. (2016). Inter-Act: Interpersonal communication, concept, skills and contexts (14th ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Watzlawick, P., Beavin, J.H., & Jackson, D.D.(1967). Pragmatics of human communication: A study of interactional patterns, pathologies, and paradoxes (pp. 48-71). New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company.

Essays About Communication: Top 5 Examples and Prompts

Are you writing essays about communication? Check out our top essay examples and writing prompts to help you get started.

Communication is power and is critical to building a well-connected society. Communicating well is vital in working with people and shedding light on problems and solutions. Practical communication skills can help build relationships. 

If you’re writing an essay on communication and are having a hard time choosing a topic to focus on, here is our round-up of the best essay examples to get you started:  

1. The Benefits of Communication and Teamwork by Karenina Loayza

2. it’s time to tune in: why listening is the real key to communication by kate murphy, 3. a love language spoken with hands by ross showalter, 4. the role of body language in communication by ashley tulio, 5. the power of storytelling in marketing by dylan jacob, 1. how-to develop communication skills, 2. how-to write an inspiring speech, 3. should all leaders be good communicators, 4. theories of mass communication, 5. how are schools developing children’s communication skills, 6. communicating face-to-face vs. online , 7. marketing communications: what are they, 8. is communicating on social media effective, 9. is it possible to communicate effectively on virtual workplace platforms, 10. how-to communicate in the workplace.

“In one task, we were blindfolded and had to describe a set of irregular pieces. With varying degrees of English and different experiences of the world, it was like explaining an elephant to an alien.” 

Loayza narrates an exercise in class where they have to describe surrounding objects as accurately as possible to keep others from stumbling on them. The writer said the exercise demonstrated effectively the need for good communication skills for teams to succeed.

“Schools and universities have courses in debate, rhetoric and elocution, but rarely classes that teach listening. You can get a doctorate in speech communication and join Toastmasters International to perfect your speaking skills, but who strives for excellence in listening?”

Murphy muses on a world that glorifies the speakers but leaves no room for the listeners like her. She points out how social media has created a generation that prefers interacting behind the screen and filtering out opinions that do not resonate with theirs. Instead, Murphy emphasizes listening as a foundation for better human relations and offers solutions for how others can develop their listening for successful communication. 

“Will showed me that not everyone makes promises they don’t intend to fulfil. I don’t have to invest in someone who promises an action they’ll never do. Relationships only move forward once the work of communication begins.”

Showalter, a deaf man, laments how non-deaf ex-lovers have promised to learn sign language to better communicate with him – only to see these promises broken. Then, one morning, a remarkable man in his life sends a video message reviving hopes for Showalter and redefines his standard in relationships for the better. 

“Non-verbal communication can affect our words as it can reiterate our message, contradict our words, reinforce our statement, substitute the meaning of what we are trying to say, and complement what we are trying to say. Body language is something that is usually natural and is often done instinctively rather than consciously.”

Tulio, a communications specialist, stresses the importance of using body language for expression. She provides tips on maximizing gestures and body movement to convey emotions in person and through videoconferencing. 

“In marketing, storytelling provides an avenue to connect to consumers unlike any other. Brands are empowered to share and sell their values and personality in a form that feels less like advertising and more like a concerted effort to strengthen relationships with customers.

The author cites the viewpoints of a business school professor who explains how storytelling can shape the world’s perception of a brand. Finally, the author outlines the vital elements that make an exciting story capable of connecting with an audience and effecting action among consumers.

10 Writing Prompts On essays about communication

To further expand your horizon on the subject, you can work around our list of prompts that are interesting and relevant to date:

You can narrow down this essay to target employees, students, aspiring leaders, or those who want to improve their conversation skills. First, list down recommendations such as expanding their vocabulary and listening. Then, explain how they can incorporate this into their daily routine. 

Writing a speech that strikes a chord requires extra work in developing empathy and understanding the audience. Next, you can focus on providing recommendations for your essay, such as putting in a personal touch and linking this story to the broader subject. Make sure you also offer simple writing tips such as using the active voice as much as possible, keeping sentences short, and keeping the tone conversational. 

Cite research studies that detail why effective communication is a critical skill that makes a leader. Then, write about the organizational pitfalls of poor communication. Later, leaders who can speak engagingly and listen attentively to their team members can address these pitfalls. 

Communication theory is the study of processes in sending and receiving information. Discuss the four main theories of mass communication: the Authoritarian Theory, the Libertarian Theory, the Soviet-Communist Theory, and the Social-Responsibility Theory. Explain each one. Explain how each remains relevant in understanding modern communication processes. 

Interview schools within your community and learn about their language curriculum and other efforts to empower children to communicate well. You can also interview child development experts. Find out the biggest challenges in helping children improve how they express their thoughts and ideas. Then, find out what schools and parents are doing to address them. 

While you’d hear many people expressing a preference for face-to-face meetings, there are undoubtedly benefits to online meetings, which some usually dismiss. Weigh in on the pros and cons of in-person and online meetings, especially in the current scenario of an ongoing pandemic. 

What are the new marketing channels marketers are leveraging to reach their audience? Several surveys and studies show where most marketing campaigns allocate their budgets. One example is video content. 

An interesting angle would also involve looking at epic brand fails. Cite two or more cases, find a communication mishap common between them and provide what lessons can today’s brands learn from these epic fails. 

From interacting with loved ones and finding someone to date and love, social media has dramatically changed our ways of communication. It might be great to interview the elders who have experienced communicating through snail mail. Dive into their nostalgia and discover how they compare the experience of letter writing against instant chatting through mobile apps. 

Several apps today aim to transform workplaces to be more connected for interaction and communication. First, list down the top apps most used in the corporate world and discuss why these communication forms are preferred over email. Then, delve into the drawbacks and aspects of the apps that need improvements according to what business users say. 

Recent studies show that employees quit their jobs when they feel unable to talk about their needs in the workplace. Research the communication culture in the top companies in a specific field. How are they engaging with their employees? How are they driving conversations toward critical concerns?

TIP: You don’t have to write an extended essay. Here is a guide to writing a concise and organized five-paragraph essay.

For more help with writing, check out our best essay writing tips for a stress-free writing process. 

Yna Lim is a communications specialist currently focused on policy advocacy. In her eight years of writing, she has been exposed to a variety of topics, including cryptocurrency, web hosting, agriculture, marketing, intellectual property, data privacy and international trade. A former journalist in one of the top business papers in the Philippines, Yna is currently pursuing her master's degree in economics and business.

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Communication Theories, Essay Example

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There are number of communication theories that we use to develop ourselves and our minds, to tell stories and to remove guilt, respectively. At the time we communicate, we usually disregard that there are some more things to our communication process than words. Of course, there is a language of our body. There are also numbers of symbols that encircle us, strongly force us into such behaviors that are already programmed. One of the important things in our communication process emerges from the process we utilize symbols as a factor of their thoughts. Symbolic reasoning and thinking is an efficient process incredibly. It let us to establish symbolic thoughts of the environment that free us to manage numbers of information than our mental power evolved to manage it. There are everyday symbols that someone faces everywhere. Common types of symbols include names, dress, and actions. An ordinary influential purpose of these symbols is to communicate the power.

Another theory of communication is called interactionism. It is a theoretical approach that directs social actions, for instance cooperation, conflict, identity formation, from the interaction of human being. This approach comprises on three important principles: language, meaning, and thought. Firstly, language provides ways through which we discuss our meaning with the help of symbols. We determine meanings in our conversations and acts with others. Secondly, meaning presents that we act toward things and people in accordance to its meaning that provide to those things or people. Thirdly, the thought adjust interpretation of each individual in relation to the meanings and symbols. Thought is taken as our mental conversation which needs numerous viewpoints. These three important principles come to the conclusions regarding the establishment of a human being’s self and socialization or survival into a broad community.

Another communication theory is Dramatism. It is the principle that language is a motivated and strategic reaction to a particular situation. It takes language as a way of action symbolic which is of symbolic nature instead of knowledge mode. The theory determines five critical factors of our human process of communication to tell stories and strain guilt. The act is considered which a communicated has performed. Next, the scene provides the background encircling our acts. In this way, agent is the personality who has done this act. And, the agency is the way that has been exercised to complete the job. Finally, the purpose is the implied or stated objective of the address. In short, to understand the process of communication with the help of Dramatism, one should analyze the situation with all these five factors. In addition, this theory contends that all speaking of public is a step to purge someone from a pervasive sense of guilt.

Finally, the Narrative theory is taken as communication process in which how someone communicate to the other person in the sense of telling about stories and events in a micro or macro way to describe some opinions. We establish our environment that we survive in by listening and telling the narratives or stories. Automatically we receive and send narratives daily. It does not bother whosoever the individual is. Usually, it is mistaken belief that individuals consider that we only exchange stories and narratives to our friends, in accordance this theory. It is not necessary that it must be a friend this could be a stranger on the train. When that individual explains us about their routine, and what thing has went wrong to what is fine, they are explaining us how they demand from us to see them because they are explaining us their story.

In conclusion, from all the above discussed methods of communication the symbolism is has more advantages than other theories, because symbols are considered as short-cuts which commonly by-pass consideration of conscious nature, activating intensely embedded responses of subconscious nature. For instance, when someone look at an individual in a Mercedes, a number of relations about that individual spring immediately to our minds.

Griffin, E. (2010). Communication a first look at communication theory. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Alder, R, & Rodmen G. (2009). Understanding Human Communication. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Knobloch, L. K. (2008).Engaging Theories in Interpersonal Communication Mulitple Perspectives. Los Angels: Sage Publications, Inc.

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Imagine a world without communication! You have a brilliant idea with you but don’t possess the power of communication. You have a strong desire for something, but cannot express your desires. Life would be dull, blank and the world would not be worth living. Such is the power of communication.

Communication is the essence of life . It is a necessity. To express themselves, human beings need to communicate. An individual has to communicate to express his feelings, pass on information to the other human beings and share his thoughts and feelings.

Do only Human Beings Communicate ?

Let us go through the following examples:

Ted spotted a poor weak pup lying almost lifeless on the streets and crying meekly. He took no time in taking the pup to a nearby vet and giving him the basic medical treatment the poor creature required. Have you ever thought how did Ted come to know that the pup requires immediate attention? The pup couldn’t speak.

The answer to the above question is through communication.

Ted came to know about the condition of the pup through communication only. The crying of pup was actually an indication that the creature needs to be immediately attended by the doctor. Through his crying the pup tried to communicate Ted about his deteriorating condition and requirement of medical aid.

Another example:

A gardener waters the plants when the leaves start turning brown, become dry and start showing withering signs. Turning brown, drying of leaves are actually ways the tree tries to communicate to the gardener that it is dying and needs to be watered immediately.

All the above examples support the communication theory.

What is communication Theory ?

Communication theory was proposed by S. F. Scudder in the year 1980. It states that all living beings existing on the planet communicate although the way of communication is different.

Plants communicate their need to be taken care of and watered immediately through visible changes in the colour of the leaves, and the falling of leaves and flowers.

Animals communicate by sounds, several movements to indicate that they are hungry or unwell or need medical attention.

A mother would never understand that her child is hungry unless and until the child cries. Crying is again a form through which the child communicates that he is hungry and needs food. The same applies when he is injured, where he uses crying again as a tool to communicate his pain and need of urgent medical attention.

Thus the universal law of communication theory says that all living beings whether they are plants, animals, human beings communicate through sound, speech, visible changes, body movements, gestures or in the best possible way to make the others aware of their thoughts, feelings, problems, happiness or any other information.

If a child scores less marks in examinations, parents would not speak to the child for sometime- again an effort to communicate that the parents are angry over the child’s performance and he needs to buck up for his further examinations. Try to irritate a stray dog, he will surely bark on you - again an animal’s way to communicate that he is angry and should not be irritated further.

Like human beings, animals also communicate among themselves through gestures and body movements. Monkeys always carry their babies with them wherever they go, again a way through which the mother tries to communicate that their babies are safe and the mother is there to take good care of them.

During the mating season of animals, communication through gestures plays a very important role in bringing them close, the same way a peacock dances to attract its partner.

Another model of communication says that communication is simply the process of transferring information from the sender to the recipient where the recipient decodes the information and acts accordingly. Large number of people also support this model of communication.

Communication Theory Framework

Let us examine communication and communication theory through the following viewpoints:

To summarize the communication theory proposes that to survive, every living entity, needs to communicate with others and also among themselves.

Communication is a dire need of survival .

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Communication Theory Concepts

Updated 14 June 2023

Subject Scientific Method ,  Communication ,  Learning

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Category Science ,  Sociology ,  Education

Topic Theory ,  Effective Communication ,  Study

Communication Theory

Communication theory dates back to the early 1950s and has evolved over time with contributions from a variety of disciplines and fields of study, including social sciences, humanities, technology, and history. Many researchers, like Robert T Craig, have also made significant contributions.

According to Craig (123), communication theory as a discipline demonstrates incoherence, which has made it difficult for communication theory to emerge as a field. Craig defines communication theory as an area of coherent metadiscursive activity, or discourse about discourse that has implications for communication practices. In his article, Communication Theory as a Field, Craig explores the reconstruction of communication theory such that the different types of theory can constitute a coherent field; this will help to eliminate the different viewpoints that exist which create separate fragments within the communication field. The reconstruction is based on two principles; the constitutive model of communication as a metamodel and communication theory as a metadiscourse. Craig (124-131).

The Constitutive Model

The constitutive model allows different models of communication theory to interact and provides a common role and cultural mission. This principle is conclusive of other models which constitute the communication process in a symbolic manner.

The Principle of Metadiscourse

The principle of metadiscourse proposes making communication a practical field in a way that the different communication theories can interact productively and become more insightful as a whole. Seven traditions of communication theory are reconstructed and presented in a matrix showing the similarities and differences between them, Craig (132). These traditions are arrived upon on the basis of concepts underlying the practice of communication and they include; Rhetorical, Semiotic, Phenormenological, Cybernetic, Sociopsychological, Sociocultural and Critical Traditions. Each of these traditions has its own view of communication.

Works Cited

Craig, R. T. Communication Theory. Journal for the Theory of Social

Behaviour, 119-161

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Communication Theories Overview Definition Essay

Social exchange theory, social penetration theory, cultural approach to organizations, works cited.

Social Exchange Theory explains social stability as a negotiated exchange process between two parties. The theory majorly addresses how people perceive cost and reward of interaction with the others. Costs are negative values that a person sees in a relationship for example the negative sides of a partner and the amount of effort and time spend in a relationship. On the other hand, rewards are the positive values of the relations, such as support, companionship and acceptance (Griffin 114).

In real life, I have seen couples breaking up because one thinks that he puts too much effort and cost into maintaining that relationship as compared to the partner. Many people make decisions based on the level of personal satisfaction they get from it or the time they spend in the relationship and whether they are compatible or not. Those people who receive more in relations as compared to what they give are usually happier.

However, other people may feel that a relationship is not fulfilling if they give more and receive less. Such kinds of people usually look for low-cost relationships; that is what they can afford and receive in return as they give. There is always a phrase stating that it is better to give, than receive. But according to social exchange theory, this is not the case since most people make decisions based on self-serving (Griffin 124).

Actually, there is no self sacrifice in most relationships, people always expect some benefits. I scratch your back, and you scratch mine is a phrase that can be used to express this condition in social relationships (Griffin 127) . I have also cases where a person decides to stay in a relationship even if it is costly simply because they do not have any other option. This person partly conforms to social exchange theory where people usually consider if a relationship is worth maintaining taking into account the benefits attained from the rewards. In this case, he does not consider whether the relationship benefits him; even if the cost is much more than rewards, he/she will maintain that relationship.

Social penetration theory mainly describes the vibrant closeness in a relationship. This theory states that closeness is a gradual process that eventually leads to self-disclosure.

When two people meet to get to know each other, initially, they will not be very open to each other. However, as time goes by and they get to know each other more, they develop closeness and mutual trust which eventually lead to self-disclosure. They begin to voluntarily share their feelings, history, secrets, values and attitudes. They actually begin to become transparent with each other about who they are and what life experience they have.

There are depth and breadth layers which shed away as two people get to know each other more; there are different topics that the two have shared concerning their lives while the amount of information shared on topics they discuss incorporates depth. People usually have private details concerning what they think and feel, and as their relationship grows, they begin to reveal their own attitude towards life in a broader and deeper way. This facilitates exchange of feelings and information.

Self-disclosure occurs out of mutual trust and closeness in a relationship. The two begin to become vulnerable to each other and this when you find a person gives a dresser drawer to his partner. However, it is important to be extra cautious before exposing your true feelings because it is hard to know the true feelings and thoughts of another person. The outcome will depend greatly on the reward and cost of the relationship. Early reward/cost usually has strong and positive impact on the reactions of a person when the partner decides to open up.

Every organization in the world always has their own culture which is the means by which things that are happening within the organizations are shared. Each company is surrounded by an environment known as a corporate culture which is composed of the character, climate and image of the organization. Organizational culture can be learned through metaphors, stories and rituals since they convey corporate messages shared by employees.

Corporate stories are information that management share with their employees while personal stories are employees’ personal accounts that they share with other personnel in the organization to define their role in the company (Griffin 130).

This means that there are symbolic forms that most organizations use to communicate with people taking, for example, state football team which is composed of administration, players, coaches and training staff. It is the team’s culture to have all these groups of people. The administration work is to tell corporate stories for the team while the coaches who are the managers of the team discuss how they view the players and the strategies.

The players, on the other hand, will tell personal stories where they can share their views about the coach or even other players. Players are not allowed to tell the same stories as the coach and this is part of the organizational culture which should be adhered to. Collegial stories are also told in the state football team whereby expected new players are discussed.

The organizational culture always everyone to air out their views concerning the new player. The ritual of the team is singing a particular song when the team wins. The organization also has a ritual of having cookout every year. This gives the team members the chance to freshen up as they wait for next season.

Griffin, Em. A First Look at Communication Theory. New York: McGraw-Hill Publishers, 2009. Print.

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Silent Symphony: the Language of Nonverbal Communication

This essay about the intricate dynamics of nonverbal communication in human interactions. It into how nonverbal cues, such as gestures, facial expressions, and tone of voice, play a significant role in conveying emotions, intentions, and understanding between individuals. Through vivid descriptions and examples, it explores how nonverbal communication shapes the fabric of our relationships, from casual encounters on bustling streets to intimate moments of connection. By unraveling the silent symphony of nonverbal cues, this essay highlights the importance of understanding and interpreting these subtle signals in navigating the complexities of human cooperation and communication.

How it works

In a tapestry human co-operation tangled, unverbal reigns report, ruler, orchestrating taciturn symphony our public fights. While put on make-up words natural habitat report, she – raffiné advancements movements-gestures, proofs, poser-ce makes a prosperous melody, nuanced down. Unverbal report, language unspoken, has swinging above our terms, conceptions, and understands he.

Appear he municipal busy street, abounds with life and energy. Between assemblages people, two strangers divide a passing glance. In this rapid moment, an unspoken exchange ouvre he, overcrowded with curiosity, intrigue, and at a case hint intuitional penetrating.

It is authority unverbal report, outstrips linguistic barriers to connections smithy, that defy explanation. In a choreography public co-operation, unverbal hints serve a choreographer, conducts dance conversation with an art and intuition. The warm smiles, costaud handshake, answer nod-these gestures talk encumbered, carries a compassion, consideration, and understanding. From other side, furrowed forehead, hand interrupted, or took conception can notice dread, scepticism, or discomfort. It – it taciturn conversation, that brings up a rhythm human connection, weaves a son importance and emotion in fabric our co-operations. Language meat appears so as suitable any semi dialect in a dictionary unverbal report, every advancement stroke on linen co-operation. From a tilt head despite swinging thigh, each gesture undertakes importance, tracks down trues and unspoken desires hypocrites. Inclination encourages a closeness and obligation, while change, far at a case, means a withdrawal or awkwardness. Image someone’s position builds mutual relations and solidarity, one forge obligations, that outstrip one words. In the taciturn talks a language meat, nuances talk encumbered, untangles vaguenesses human emotion and intention. Kinds, too, frisk an in central role theatre unverbal report, each smiles, sullen conception, and do furrows window in a spirit. Eye, quirked lip, done furrows, these for an eyebrow the refined moving carry a ghost emotions blinking, from merriment and entertainment despite a sadness and trouble. Our persons, in manner from ices, decorate landscape interns our hearts, deliver our truth values, even, when words no do us. It comes true through a language proof, that we connect, sympathize, and obligations smithy, that overcook. Tone an organ adds, that other diaper despite a symphony unverbal report, bend and every inclination filled with importance and emotion. A good lilt, at a case, carries warm and attachment, under edge high hints in embarrassment or anger. Rhythm performance, talks a laughter, brand sigh-all play in favour of a tapestry report prosperous, brings up conceptions and smithy connections in roads, both raffiné, so and profond.

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What Is Communication? Introduction To Communication Theory Essays Example

Type of paper: Essay

Topic: Communication , Sociology , Kant , Enlightenment , Immanuel Kant , Culture , Knowledge , Situation

Published: 12/04/2021

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In the late 1700s, Immanuel Kant had his first attempt to investigate the ground from which human knowledge established certain limits by investigating the structures of the human mind. In Kant’s (1781) Critique of Pure Reason, he argued that knowledge does not just come from experience but also from impressions created from the faculty of knowledge or a priori, which is independent of all experience. Meanwhile, Kant’s theory of perception insists “imagination is a necessary ingredient of perception itself” (Kant, 1965, p.120). It appears therefore, that impressions tend to produce images through the receptive sensible capacities of the mind, insisting the importance of imagination in perception. Communication scholars should understand this theory of Kant, as it gives them the capacity to distinguish imaginative from perceptual activities whenever they write something, which allows them to distinguish between fact and fiction, or that which is pure imagination. In the book that Tim Muehihof (2010) wrote, he reiterated the words of Sonja Foss when he wrote that: “Rhetoric does not simply provide a name for a situation [but] represents a creative strategy for dealing with that situation or for solving the problems inherent in it” (p.137). With this, communication refers also to the cultural context of the situation that, in a manner, instructs the readers how to maneuver through life by what they have learned from the written context. Thus, there is great cultural communication lesson to be taken in the writings of Muehihof (2010), as it pertains that words are not just letters being written or spoken but that they have the power to affect the environment or the framework. As Muehlhoff & Lewis (2010) reiterated from Foss, words may provide “a vocabulary of thoughts, actions, emotions, and attitudes for codifying and thus interpreting a situation” (p.137). Thus, pure observance becomes more of a reality because of the power of words. Lastly, it is important to view communication through the lens of social constructionism or the Constructivist framework, since meaning also arises from social systems and not just from people of the society (Allen, 2005, p.35). In social constructionism, it is reflected that humans create knowledge through social practices in which they insist on constructing a world based on how they perceive the surroundings. They learn about certain phenomena related to the society, such as gender, race, and social class—things that are said to be “natural, inevitable, universal, and biologically determined” (Allen, 2005, p.36). In this lens of social constructionism, people would understand that communication is more than just the use of words but also about interpreting the society.

References:

Allen, B.J. (2005). “Chapter 3: Social constructionism.” In S. May & D.K. Mumby’s (Eds.), Engaging organizational communication theory research: multiple perspectives (pp.35-50). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc. Print. Kant, I. (1965). Critique of pure reason. (N.K. Smith, Trans.) New York, NY: St. Martin’s Press. Print. Muehlhoff, T., & Lewis, T.V. (2010). “Chapter 7: Communicating about and evaluating the messages of popular culture.” Authentic communication: Christian speech engaging culture (pp.131-145). Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. Print.

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• Communication theory

Communication theory - Essay Example

• Subject: Other
• Type: Essay
• Level: College
• Pages: 2 (500 words)
• Downloads: 9
• Author: omohr

Extract of sample "Communication theory"

Communication theory: Introduction: Communication is essentially a means of meaningful exchange of ideas and opinions that gives rise to the development of mutual understanding between two or more individuals regarding a subject. Communication theory can be explained as a transactional paradigm (Mortensen, 2008, p. 9). Communication has been defined by different theories in different manners. Communication is basically the name of transmission of information form individual to individual. Communication turns subjectivity into objectivity as people tend to clarify one another’s doubts about various aspects.

With clearer concepts and objective understanding of matters, people are in a better position to play their individualistic and collective roles in the development of a civilized society. In most of the organizations in the contemporary age, communication with confidence and authority has become quite critical (Holmes, 2011). The organization in which I work is to much extent, a functional organization where different departments have well defined responsibilities, so people from different departments do not usually interact with one another.

In addition to the organization having a functional organization structure, there were several other factors that have played their role in discouraging interaction among employees. Such factors included but were not limited to differences of gender, age and culture. Employees from different culture have had presumed conceptions about their coworkers from different cultures and would not change their conceptions in the organizational context. Also, employees from opposite genders would hesitate to communicate with one another.

This was giving rise to interpersonal conflicts with various employees assuming irrational things about one another as a result of lack of communication until the new project manager brought about some drastic changes in the system of flow of communication within the organization. In fact these were the problems for which the chief executive had to hire a new project manager. Soon after the project manager took charge of his responsibilities, he deigned task forces for accomplishing individual tasks.

Each task force comprised a member from each of the departments. The task forces were strategically designed in such a way that would ensure representation of all cultures, ages and both genders in them. This brought people from different cultures, ages and genders close to one another and provided them with more frequent opportunities to interact with one another. Also, task forces developed team work, and members of the task force became members of a team. With more frequent communication, they resolved their issues, and made a productive team conducive for the organizational success.

In light of the case analysis of my organization, I can say that one potential means to resolve communication issues is to have more frequent communication. Lack of communication gives rise to ambiguities, confusions, misconceptions and misunderstanding that serve as potential threats for the organization’s sustainability and success. Therefore, in order to ensure flow of communication within an organization, managers should tend to design task forces so that workers would have frequent opportunities of communication.

This would give rise to mutual harmony and the workers would be in a better position to make optimum use of their abilities in the best interest of the organization. References: Holmes, T. (2011). What Is Corporate Communication Training? Retrieved from http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-corporate-communication-training.htm. Mortensen, C. D. (2008). Communication Theory. NJ: Transaction Publishers.

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