applied sociology research topics

Research Topics & Ideas: Sociology

50 Topic Ideas To Kickstart Your Research Project

If you’re just starting out exploring sociology-related topics for your dissertation, thesis or research project, you’ve come to the right place. In this post, we’ll help kickstart your research by providing a hearty list of research ideas , including real-world examples from recent sociological studies.

PS – This is just the start…

We know it’s exciting to run through a list of research topics, but please keep in mind that this list is just a starting point . These topic ideas provided here are intentionally broad and generic , so keep in mind that you will need to develop them further. Nevertheless, they should inspire some ideas for your project.

To develop a suitable research topic, you’ll need to identify a clear and convincing research gap , and a viable plan to fill that gap. If this sounds foreign to you, check out our free research topic webinar that explores how to find and refine a high-quality research topic, from scratch. Alternatively, consider our 1-on-1 coaching service .

Sociology-Related Research Topics

• Analyzing the social impact of income inequality on urban gentrification.
• Investigating the effects of social media on family dynamics in the digital age.
• The role of cultural factors in shaping dietary habits among different ethnic groups.
• Analyzing the impact of globalization on indigenous communities.
• Investigating the sociological factors behind the rise of populist politics in Europe.
• The effect of neighborhood environment on adolescent development and behavior.
• Analyzing the social implications of artificial intelligence on workforce dynamics.
• Investigating the impact of urbanization on traditional social structures.
• The role of religion in shaping social attitudes towards LGBTQ+ rights.
• Analyzing the sociological aspects of mental health stigma in the workplace.
• Investigating the impact of migration on family structures in immigrant communities.
• The effect of economic recessions on social class mobility.
• Analyzing the role of social networks in the spread of disinformation.
• Investigating the societal response to climate change and environmental crises.
• The role of media representation in shaping public perceptions of crime.
• Analyzing the sociocultural factors influencing consumer behavior.
• Investigating the social dynamics of multigenerational households.
• The impact of educational policies on social inequality.
• Analyzing the social determinants of health disparities in urban areas.
• Investigating the effects of urban green spaces on community well-being.
• The role of social movements in shaping public policy.
• Analyzing the impact of social welfare systems on poverty alleviation.
• Investigating the sociological aspects of aging populations in developed countries.
• The role of community engagement in local governance.
• Analyzing the social effects of mass surveillance technologies.

Sociology Research Ideas (Continued)

• Investigating the impact of gentrification on small businesses and local economies.
• The role of cultural festivals in fostering community cohesion.
• Analyzing the societal impacts of long-term unemployment.
• Investigating the role of education in cultural integration processes.
• The impact of social media on youth identity and self-expression.
• Analyzing the sociological factors influencing drug abuse and addiction.
• Investigating the role of urban planning in promoting social integration.
• The impact of tourism on local communities and cultural preservation.
• Analyzing the social dynamics of protest movements and civil unrest.
• Investigating the role of language in cultural identity and social cohesion.
• The impact of international trade policies on local labor markets.
• Analyzing the role of sports in promoting social inclusion and community development.
• Investigating the impact of housing policies on homelessness.
• The role of public transport systems in shaping urban social life.
• Analyzing the social consequences of technological disruption in traditional industries.
• Investigating the sociological implications of telecommuting and remote work trends.
• The impact of social policies on gender equality and women’s rights.
• Analyzing the role of social entrepreneurship in addressing societal challenges.
• Investigating the effects of urban renewal projects on community identity.
• The role of public art in urban regeneration and social commentary.
• Analyzing the impact of cultural diversity on education systems.
• Investigating the sociological factors driving political apathy among young adults.
• The role of community-based organizations in addressing urban poverty.
• Analyzing the social impacts of large-scale sporting events on host cities.
• Investigating the sociological dimensions of food insecurity in affluent societies.

Recent Studies & Publications: Sociology

While the ideas we’ve presented above are a decent starting point for finding a research topic, they are fairly generic and non-specific. So, it helps to look at actual sociology-related studies to see how this all comes together in practice.

Below, we’ve included a selection of recent studies to help refine your thinking. These are actual studies,  so they can provide some useful insight as to what a research topic looks like in practice.

• Social system learning process (Subekti et al., 2022)
• Sociography: Writing Differently (Kilby & Gilloch, 2022)
• The Future of ‘Digital Research’ (Cipolla, 2022).
• A sociological approach of literature in Leo N. Tolstoy’s short story God Sees the Truth, But Waits (Larasati & Irmawati, 2022)
• Teaching methods of sociology research and social work to students at Vietnam Trade Union University (Huu, 2022)
• Ideology and the New Social Movements (Scott, 2023)
• The sociological craft through the lens of theatre (Holgersson, 2022).
• An Essay on Sociological Thinking, Sociological Thought and the Relationship of a Sociologist (Sönmez & Sucu, 2022)
• How Can Theories Represent Social Phenomena? (Fuhse, 2022)
• Hyperscanning and the Future of Neurosociology (TenHouten et al., 2022)
• Sociology of Wisdom: The Present and Perspectives (Jijyan et al., 2022). Collective Memory (Halbwachs & Coser, 2022)
• Sociology as a scientific discipline: the post-positivist conception of J. Alexander and P. Kolomi (Vorona, 2022)
• Murder by Usury and Organised Denial: A critical realist perspective on the liberating paradigm shift from psychopathic dominance towards human civilisation (Priels, 2022)
• Analysis of Corruption Justice In The Perspective of Legal Sociology (Hayfa & Kansil, 2023)
• Contributions to the Study of Sociology of Education: Classical Authors (Quentin & Sophie, 2022)
• Inequality without Groups: Contemporary Theories of Categories, Intersectional Typicality, and the Disaggregation of Difference (Monk, 2022)

As you can see, these research topics are a lot more focused than the generic topic ideas we presented earlier. So, for you to develop a high-quality research topic, you’ll need to get specific and laser-focused on a specific context with specific variables of interest.  In the video below, we explore some other important things you’ll need to consider when crafting your research topic.

Get 1-On-1 Help

If you’re still unsure about how to find a quality research topic, check out our Research Topic Kickstarter service, which is the perfect starting point for developing a unique, well-justified research topic.

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100 Sociology Research Topics You Can Use Right Now

Sociology is a study of society, relationships, and culture. It can include multiple topics—ranging from class and social mobility to the Internet and marriage traditions. Research in sociology is used to inform policy makers, educators, businesses, social workers, non-profits, etc.

Below are 100 sociology research topics you can use right now, divided by general topic headings. Feel free to adapt these according to your specific interest. You'll always conduct more thorough and informed research if it's a topic you're passionate about.

Art, Food, Music, and Culture

• Does art imitate life or does life imitate art?
• How has globalization changed local culture?
• What role does food play in cultural identity?
• Does technology use affect people's eating habits?
• How has fast food affected society?
• How can clean eating change a person's life for the better?
• Should high-sugar drinks be banned from school campuses?
• How can travel change a person for the better?
• How does music affect the thoughts and actions of teenagers?
• Should performance artists be held partially responsible if someone is inspired by their music to commit a crime?
• What are some examples of cultural misappropriation?
• What role does music play in cultural identity?

Social Solutions and Cultural Biases

• What (if any) are the limits of free speech in a civil society?
• What are some reasonable solutions to overpopulation?
• What are some ways in which different types of media content influence society's attitudes and behaviors?
• What is the solution to stop the rise of homegrown terrorism in the U.S.?
• Should prescription drug companies be allowed to advertise directly to consumers?
• Is the global warming movement a hoax? Why or why not?
• Should the drinking age be lowered?
• Should more gun control laws be enacted in the U.S.?
• What bias exists against people who are obese?
• Should polygamy be legal in the U.S.? Why or why not?
• Should there be a legal penalty for using racial slurs?
• Should the legal working age of young people be raised or lowered?
• Should the death penalty be used in all cases involving first-degree murder?
• Should prisons be privately owned? Why or why not?
• What is privilege? How is it defined and how can it be used to gain access to American politics and positions of power?
• How are women discriminated against in the workplace?
• What role does feminism play in current American politics?
• What makes a patriot?
• Compare/analyze the social views of Plato and Aristotle
• How has labor migration changed America?
• What important skills have been lost in an industrialized West?
• Is the #MeToo movement an important one? Why or why not?
• What conflict resolution skills would best serve us in the present times?
• How can violence against women be dealt with to lower incidence rates?
• Should students be allowed to take any subject they want in High School and avoid the ones they don't like?
• How should bullies be dealt with in our country's schools?
• Do standardized tests improve education or have the opposite effect?
• Should school children be forced to go through metal detectors?
• What is the best teacher/student ratio for enhanced learning in school?
• Do school uniforms decrease teasing and bullying? If so, how?
• Should teachers make more money?
• Should public education be handled through private enterprises (like charter schools)?
• Should religious education be given priority over academic knowledge?
• How can schools help impoverished students in ways that won't embarrass them?
• What are ethical values that should be considered in education?
• Is it the state's role or the parents' role to educate children? Or a combination of both?
• Should education be given more political priority than defense and war?
• What would a perfect educational setting look like? How would it operate and what subjects would be taught?

Marriage and Family

• How should a "family" be defined? Can it be multiple definitions?
• What is a traditional role taken on by women that would be better handled by a man (and vice versa)?
• How has marriage changed in the United States?
• What are the effects of divorce on children?
• Is there a negative effect on children who are adopted by a family whose ethnicity is different than their own?
• Can children receive all they need from a single parent?
• Does helicopter parenting negatively affect children?
• Is marriage outdated?
• Should teens have access to birth control without their parents' permission?
• Should children be forced to show physical affection (hugs, etc.) to family members they're uncomfortable around?
• What are the benefits (or negative impact) of maintaining traditional gender roles in a family?
• Are social networks safe for preteens and teens? Why or why not?
• Should the government have a say in who can get married?
• What (if any) are the benefits of arranged marriages?
• What are the benefits for (or negative impact on) children being adopted by LGBTQ couples?
• How long should two people date before they marry?
• Should children be forced to be involved in activities (such as sports, gymnastics, clubs, etc.), even when they'd rather sit at home and play video games all day?
• Should parents be required to take a parenting class before having children?
• What are potential benefits to being married but choosing not to have children?

Generational

• Should communities take better care of their elderly? How?
• What are some generational differences among Generations X, Y, and Z?
• What benefits do elderly people get from interaction with children?
• How has Generation Y changed the country so far?
• What are the differences in communication styles between Generation X and Generation Y (Millennials)?
• Why could we learn from our elders that could not be learned from books?
• Should the elderly live with their immediate family (children and grandchildren)? How would this resolve some of our country's current problems?
• What are some positive or negative consequences to intergenerational marriage?

Spiritualism, religion, and superstition

• Why do some people believe in magic?
• What is the difference between religion and spiritualism?
• Should a government be a theocracy? Why or why not?
• How has religion helped (or harmed) our country?
• Should religious leaders be able to support a particular candidate from their pulpit?
• How have religious cults shaped the nation?
• Should students at religious schools be forced to take state tests?
• How has our human connection with nature changed while being trapped in crowded cities?
• Which generation from the past 200 years made the biggest impact on culture with their religious practice and beliefs? Explain your answer.

Addiction and Mental Health

• How should our society deal with addicts?
• What are ethical values that should be considered in mental health treatment?
• Should mental health be required coverage on all insurance policies?
• Is mental health treatment becoming less stigmatized?
• How would better access to mental health change our country?
• What are some things we're addicted to as a society that are not seen as "addiction," per se?
• Should medicinal marijuana be made legal?
• What are some alternative treatments for mental health and wellness instead of antidepressants?
• Has social media helped or harmed our society?
• Are video games addictive for young people and what should be done to curb the addiction?
• Should all recreational drugs be made legal?
• How has mental health treatment changed in the past 20 years?
• Should recreational marijuana be made legal?
• How is family counseling a good option for families going through conflict?

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What is Applied Sociology?

A brief introduction on applied sociology.

By Dr Zuleyka Zevallos, 23 May 2009. 1

The aim of this article is to broadly sketch what it means to be working as an applied sociologist. I begin with a general introduction into the discipline of sociology, before providing a definition of its applied branch. I then provide a concise background history of the different practices that might be considered under the rubric of ‘applied sociology’. Lastly, I present an outline of the professional skills that a degree in sociology can offer its graduates.

My discussion on applied sociology refers to those professionals who use the principles of sociology outside a university setting in order to provide their clients with an in-depth understanding of some specific facet of society that requires information gathering and analysis.

Applied sociologists work in various industries, including private business, government agencies and not-for-profit organisations. The work of applied sociologists is especially concerned with changing the current state of social life for the better. This can include anything from increasing the health and wellbeing of a disadvantaged community group; working with law enforcement organisations to implement a rehabilitation program for criminal offenders; assisting in planning for natural disasters; and enhancing existing government programs and policies.

I will show that a degree in sociology has several career benefits, but I specifically focus on the strong communication, research and interpersonal skills that prove advantageous to sociology graduates looking for work. I argue that applied sociology can help to improve any professional sector that might benefit from a critical evaluation of how a particular social issue, group or organisation works.

What is Sociology?

In a very general sense, sociology can be defined as the study of ‘the bases of social membership’ (Abercrombie, Hill and Turner 2000: 333). That is, sociology is the study of what it means to be a member of a particular society, and it involves the critical analysis of the different types of social connections and social structures that constitute a society. This includes questions about how and why different groups are formed and the various meanings attached to different modes of social interaction, such as between individuals or social networks; face to face versus online communications; local and global discourses, and so on.

Sociology also encompasses the study of the social institutions that shape social action. A social institution is a complex, but distinctive, sub-system of society that regulates human conduct (Berger 1963: 87). For example, the media acts as a social institution that can influence the way in which ‘facts’ are represented and interpreted; the law and politics impact on the ways in which different cultural groups define what is deemed ‘right’ and ‘moral’; the institutions of economy and education affect social status (that is, wealth and inequality among individuals); and the institution of family shapes our ideas about partnership, work, gender, sex, childrearing, and our bodies, as well as various other aspects of our lives.

Sociology can therefore be used to study all the social experiences that human beings are capable of imagining – from practices of childbirth, to the use technologies, to our attitudes and rituals regarding death – and everything else in between. People usually understand their problems in reference to their own personal life story and they are not always aware of the complex links between their own lives and the rest of the world’s history (Mills 1959: 5). The ‘sociological imagination’ helps us to make sense of the connections between history, biography and place (Mills 1959: 6).

Sociology allows us to study individual behaviour in a broader context, to take into consideration how societal forces might impact upon individuals, as well as the ways in which individuals construct the world around them, and how they manage to resist existing power relationships in order to achieve social change. In this light, sociology represents ‘a transformation of consciousness’ (Berger 1963: 21).

Sociology questions taken-for-granted assumptions about the world we live in (what we see as ‘familiar’ and ‘normal’ within the context of our everyday lives), and it provides a new and more critical perspective of the world, through the use of scientific theories, concepts and empirical evidence.

Sociology is often perceived as an academic profession, but there are many places outside of universities where sociology can be used to enhance personal and professional development.

A definition of applied sociology

Applied sociology is a term that describes practitioners who use sociological theories and methods outside of academic settings with the aim to ‘produce positive social change through active intervention’ (Bruhn 1999: 1). More specifically, applied sociology might be seen as the translation of sociological theory into practice for specific clients.  That is, this term describes the use of sociological knowledge in answering research questions or problems as defined by specific interest groups, rather than the researcher (Steele and Price 2007: 4).

Applied research is sometimes conducted within a multidisciplinary environment and in collaboration with different organisations, including community services, activist groups and sometimes in partnership with universities. Some applied sociologists may not explicitly use sociological theories or methods in their work, but they may use their sociological training more broadly to inform their work and their thinking.

I will now go on to provide a broad overview of the history of applied sociology, including some of the professional roles that sociologists have traditionally taken on, and the variations of sociological practices that exist today.

History and applications of sociological practice

Harry Perlstadt (2007) traces the history of applied sociology to 1850, and the work of Auguste Comte, one of sociology’s founding figures. Perlstadt writes that Comte divided the discipline of sociology in two parts: social statics , the study of social order, and social dynamics , the study of social progress and development (2004: 342-343). Perlstadt argues that Comte’s theory lends itself to two types of sociologies: ‘basic research’ and social interventionism.

Basic researchers educate and influence public debate, and social interventionists are political activists who are responsible for actively enforcing social change (2004: 343). According to Perlstadt, Comte saw applied researchers as occupying a ‘ translational role ’ in-between these two positions. Nevertheless, almost 160 years later, there remains a long-standing divide between the so-called ‘pure’ and ‘practical’ research traditions in sociology. While these differences may appear to be artificial, ambivalence persists between academic and applied sociologies, despite the fluidity and intersections between these practices (see Gouldner 1965; DeMartini 1982; Rossi 1980).

Roles for Practitioners

Hans Zetterberg (1964) argues that ‘practical’ sociological knowledge might be distinguished into five roles: decision-maker, educator, social critic, researcher for clients, and consultant. First, the sociologist as decision-maker is someone who uses social science in order to shape policy decisions (1964: 57-58).

The sociologist as an educator is a person who teaches sociology to students, typically in a university setting (1964: 28-60), although sociology is now increasingly taught in high schools and as part of specialist courses.

The sociologist as a commentator and social critic is someone who writes for a wider public through books and articles aimed at an educated public, with a view of influencing public opinion (1964: 61-62).

The sociologist as researcher for clients might be someone who works with public or private organisations, such as mental health groups, banks, or some other company that commissions research on very specific topics (1964: 61-62).

Finally, the sociologist who acts as a consultant works to answer a specific and practical problem as defined by a particular client, using their client’s language and by making specific reference to their client’s problem, rather than a broader social problem or grand social theory (1964: 62-63).

Zetterberg positions applied sociologists as fulfilling the latter two roles: client work and consultancy .

Variations of Applied Sociological Practices

Joseph DeMartini (1979) identifies that applied sociology can take on two variations. First, applied researchers might use basic empirical methods in collecting information in order to help shape informed decisions, such as in the creation of social policy. In this meaning, sociologists might be directly working within government agencies, or they might work for private research organisations, or they might be contracted for one or the other. He lists the following activities as examples of this applied methodological approach:

‘evaluation research, program evaluation, cost/benefit analysis, systems analysis, community ethnography, public opinion polling, and market analysis’ (1979: 333).

While these sociologists might employ scientific theories and concepts, their specialisation is actually the application of sociological research techniques in order to gather specific information, rather than the application of sociological theories per se (1979: 334).

Second, applied researchers might be employed more specifically for their knowledge of sociological concepts and theories in order to help their clients better understand a narrowly defined issue. Activities might include assessing the determinants of observed phenomena, such as the causes of crime, explaining demographic changes, and evaluating the shifts in social movements.

Alternatively, applied sociologists might propose a course of action in order to achieve targeted change, such as by increasing the economic outcomes of a disadvantaged community, reforming illegal behaviours, or developing a framework in order to prepare a local community in the advent of a natural disaster (1979: 334).

To clarify the distinction between these two applied practices, DeMartini uses the example of social policy: in the first case, where methods take primacy, applied sociological research techniques are employed in order to create and inform new social policies; in the second instance, where theories and concepts have greater relevance to the clients, applied sociological knowledge is used to evaluate existing social policies.

DeMartini notes, however, that this differentiation is for illustration purposes, and that, in fact, applied practices run along a continuum in between these two practices (1979: 333). Methods and theories cannot be used in isolation, but some jobs might require more emphasis on one than the other.

Distinguishing Academic and Applied Sociology

Howard Freeman and Peter Rossi (1984) argue that the application of sociological knowledge is different for academic and applied sociologists. They see that some of the work that academics do might be considered to be ‘applied’, particularly as universities are seeking more external revenue, and so they encourage academics to carry out contract work. Nevertheless, by and large, Freeman and Rossi see that academic and applied sociologists are distinguished in six ways.

First, applied sociologists’ careers rely less on publishing in academic journals, and, instead, they focus more on the utility of their work to a specialised (non-academic) audience . Since, they are hired by external stakeholders, their rewards are judged by their sponsors, on the basis of whether these clients see the work as being useful to them (1984: 572). Academics rely more on peer-evaluations, and there is high prestige in publishing in academic journals.

Second, Freeman and Rossi argue that applied sociologists have narrow constraints on their time and the specificity of their work outputs , while academic sociologists are more free to choose their research topic (notwithstanding the politics of grant funding and the publishing potential of certain topics) (1984: 572-573).

Third, applied sociologists adhere to ‘absolute norms’ of rigorous scholarship ‘only to the extent necessary to achieve usable results ‘ (1984: 573; my emphasis). There is sometimes a swift turnover expected of the work by applied researchers, while academics generally have a longer time-frame with which to develop their scholarship.

Fourth, applied sociologists are more concerned with ‘external validity’, that is, the extent to which their conclusions speak directly to their specific client’s topic area , rather than to some general social problem or broader group. Academics tend to focus more on ‘internal validity’ – to making a contribution to the academic literature, and the judgements of their peers (1984: 573).

Fifth, applied sociologists are driven by the ‘ practical payoffs’  of their activities, such as their client’s judgement of the utility of this applied work to the client’s situation, while academics are required to defend the merits of their work in relation to their theoretical contribution.

In connection, the final difference between applied and academic sociologists is that the former judges the success of their work on their client’s adoption of their proposed solutions , and their ability to influence their stakeholders’ decision-making , while the conclusions proposed by academics do not always lend themselves to specific actions (1984: 573).

Freeman and Rossi’s distinctions between the work of academic and applied sociologists are, in reality, not so absolute, but these points do identify some of the broad facets of applied sociology.

In summary, applied sociologists work for specific stakeholders, their research topics and time is often constrained by their sponsors’ needs and wishes, their work is less concerned with making a contribution to academic scholarship, and they are more interested in practical payoffs that will have a direct influence on their clients.

Clinical Sociology

There are various other sociological practices that fall under the ‘applied’ rubric. For example, clinical sociology is a term that has been used since the 1930s to describe ‘sociologically based interventions’, usually in reference to sociological work done across the health sector, in social work, and even in forensic settings (Bruhn and Rebach 1996: 3). This work includes collaborating with medical practitioners, nurses, psychologists, psychiatrists and nutritionists, as well as advocacy and support in mental health programs, including through counselling, interpersonal therapy, intervention programs with youth, substance abuse services, and group grief counselling.

Social Engineering

The term social engineering describes the applied research activities that are used in social planning, and it is also used to critique the value judgements made about what constitutes ‘pure’ and ‘applied’ research (Gouldner 1965; Israel 1966). Jonathan Turner (1998) runs with the idea of ‘sociological engineering’ to describe the type of sociology ‘that tries to deal with the real world’ (1998: 246). He argues that applied sociological knowledge lends itself to a systems engineering approach. He sees that applied sociology should be used to break abstract theoretical principles into ‘rules of thumb’ about social structures, in order to identify how societies are built, how to evaluate the problems of a given social structure, and how to break down the structures that are not working well (1998: 248).

Whatever we choose to call it, applied sociologists’ use of methods and theories has one central goal: to change some specific facet of social life.

Public Sociology

One thing that practitioners seem to agree on is that their work needs to be carried out in a way that is both accessible to their clients and devoid of academic jargon. In this connection, applied sociology has some synergy with public sociology , the branch of sociology that aims to engage ‘lay’ audiences, including neighborhood groups and grassroots organisations, with the aim of stimulating informed public dialogue (Burawoy 2004: 5-6).

Rita Simon (1987) argues that communication skills are quintessential in an applied context; sociologists who work in non-academic sectors should therefore be able to express themselves in plain language and not in ‘sociologese’ (using phrases that only people with a sociology degree might understand). She writes,

‘Basically, I think graduate students have to be taught that scientific writing is not a thing apart from ordinary prose; the aim is still to communicate efficiently, effectively, and if possible, aesthetically’ (1987: 34).

The next section takes up this issue of graduate careers in applied sociology.

Jobs in applied sociology

Employers place a strong value in sociological training, including our methodological excellence in conducting research and analysis, our ability to evaluate a wide variety of resources, and our effective communication skills, both written and oral (Germov and Poole 2006: 12).  Moreover, sociologists are trained to appreciate different world-views, and so our interpersonal skills also give us an advantage in the job marketplace (cf. Sabin 1987: 396).

Most job advertisements (at least in Australia) will indicate two requirements that are nowadays almost universal in professional sectors: reflexive social skills and the ability for workers to adhere to equity and diversity laws. Sociology graduates are well placed to get along with their co-workers, to respect diversity in the workplace, and to foster good client relationships with various different public groups due to our discipline’s comparative focus on other cultures, and our critical appreciation of social context (both in terms of history and place).

Despite their marketable qualities, sociology graduates do not always understand the types of career pathways available to them outside of academia. Few jobs that sociologists do are labelled under the category of ‘sociologist’.  Nevertheless, the reality is that sociologists’ general skills are useful in a wide range of professional contexts.

For example, Edward Sabin (1987) writes that in Washington, USA, of the 1.6 million non-academic jobs that were listed in 1980, only 560 were identified as ‘sociologists’. The rest of the people in this sample were employed predominantly as professional and technical workers (113,640 people), systems analysts (19,850), and as writers and/or editors (8,690). A smaller proportion of workers were employed as public relations specialists (3,750), statisticians (2,870), statistical clerks (1,040), and urban and regional planners (760) (1987: 396). Sabin argues that the position of systems analyst holds great potential for applied sociologists, as it involves data processing, as well as an understanding of how organisations and businesses work. He writes,

‘Sociologists have a head start in understanding how people, procedures, and automated systems fit together, which is the focus of the systems analyst’ (1987: 397).

As far as the professional and technical workers category is concerned, Sabin sees that the general skills of a sociologist, rather than their specialist knowledge in one niche area (such as the topic of their thesis), is more likely to open up employment opportunities.

So, while employers may not advertise for ‘sociologists’, they might instead ask for the various roles identified above, as well as some of the positions listed below (although this is by no means an exhaustive list): •    research coordinator, •    research associate/officer/fellow, •    qualitative analyst, •    project manager, •    strategic analyst, •    public policy assistant, •    policy analyst, •    urban development adviser, •    human rights officer, •    case manager, •    impact planning or evaluations officer, •    education consultant, •    gender specialist.

Sociology graduates therefore need to have a broader understanding of the different types of career paths that are out there waiting for them, and they need to better recognise that sociologists can be employed in the most (seemingly) unlikely places.  For further discussion of applied sociology in the Australian context, and some examples of these practitioners’ work, see our online journal, Working Notes.

Applied sociological work can fit in well within any professional context; wherever people work, sociologists can help them grow by better understanding their business, their workers, their work practices, or whatever issues are of interest to their organisation. Rather than having a narrow focus on the types of companies and groups that might hire sociologists, sociology students and the wider public need to better recognise that sociologists are employed across a multitude of business, government and private industries. The quality of their work is exemplary, and, moreover, it can make a substantial contribution to the way the world works.

Further Resources

Visit our Working Notes section to read articles about applied sociology written by applied sociologists, or watch our videos with applied researchers and activists. See our other resources .

1.    At the time of writing, Zuleyka was employed as a Social Scientist in the Australian public service, and she was an Adjunct Research Fellow with the Swinburne Institute of Social Research, Australia. She remains in her Adjunct position but now works as an applied sociologist elsewhere . This article was last updated 5th June 2014: added sub-headings and images. Paragraphs broken up into smaller chunks. Added Further Resources section. No text in the body of the article has been otherwise altered.

Acknowledgements

Thank you to Lucy Nelms for commenting on an earlier draft of this article.

Abercrombie, N., S. Hill and B. S. Turner (2000) The Penguin Dictionary Of Sociology , 4th ed. London: Penguin Books.

Berger, P. (1963) Invitation To Sociology: A Humanistic Perspective . New York: Anchor Books.

Bruhn, J. G. (1999) ‘Introductory Statement: Philosophy and Future Direction’, Sociological Practice 1(1): 1-2.

Bruhn, J. G. and H. M. Rebach (1996) Clinical Sociology: An Agenda For Action . New York: Plenum Press.

Burawoy, M. (2004) ‘Public Sociologies: Contradictions, Dilemmas, And Possibilities’, Social Forces 82(4): 1-16.

DeMartini, J. R. (1979) ‘Applied Sociology: An Attempt At Clarification And Assessment’, Teaching Sociology 6(4): 331-354.

DeMartini, J. R. (1982) ‘Basic And Applied Sociological Work: Divergence, Convergence, Or Peaceful Co-existence?’, The Journal Of Applied Behavioural Science 18(2): 203-215.

Freeman, H. E. and P. H. Rossi (1984) ‘Furthering The Applied Side Of Sociology’, American Sociological Review 49(4): 571-580.

Germov, J. and M. Poole (2006) ‘The Sociological Gaze: Linking Private Lives To Public Issues’ pp. 3-20 in J. Germov and M. Poole (Eds) Public Sociology: An Introduction To Australian Society . Crows Nest: Allen & Unwin.

Gouldner, A. W. (1965) ‘Explorations In Applied Social Science’, pp. 5-22 in A. W. Gouldner (Ed) Applied Sociology: Opportunities And Problems . New York: Free Press.

Israel, J. (1966) ‘Remarks On The Sociology Of Social Scientists’, Acta Sociologica 9(3-4): 193-200.

Mills, C. W. (1959) The Sociological Imagination . New York: Oxford University Press.

Perlstadt, H. (2007) ‘Applied Sociology’, pp. 342-352 in C. D. Bryant and D. L. Peck (Eds) 21st Century Sociology: A Reference Handbook . Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

Rossi, P. H. (1980) ‘Presidential Address: The Challenge And Opportunities Of Applied Social Research’, American Sociological Review 45(6): 889-904.

Sabin, E. (1987) ‘Hidden Jobs: Good News For Sociologists’, The American Sociologist 18(4): 394-399.

Simon, R. J. (1987) ‘Graduate Education In Sociology: What Do We Need To Do Differently?’, The American Sociologist 18(1): 32-36.

Steele, S. F. and J. Price (2007) Applied Sociology: Terms, Topics, Tools And Tasks, 2nd ed .  Belmont: Thomson Wadsworth Publishing.

Turner, J. H. (1998) ‘Must Sociological Theory And Sociological Practice Be So Far Apart?: A Polemical Answer’, Sociological Perspectives 41(2): 243-258.

Zetterberg, H. L. (1964) ‘The Practical Use Of Sociological Knoweldge’, Acta Sociologica 7(2): 57-72.

Image Credits

1) Banksy .

3) Jusben Morgue File .

4) Banksy .

5) Mu-Am-Spring2008 (2008) Faces of Athens- Sociology Project . Flickr.

6) Michele0188 (2011) Hopeful the Egyptian Government will listen . Flickr.

7) Antsnax (2009) SCARE TSBVI Volunteers . Flickr.

8) Banksy .

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Journal of Applied Social Science

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The Journal of Applied Social Science publishes research articles, essays, research reports, teaching notes, and book reviews on a wide range of topics of interest to the social science practitioner. Specifically, we encourage submission of manuscripts that, in a concrete way, apply social science or critically reflect on the application of social science. Authors must address how they either improved a social condition or propose to do so, based on social science research .

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Application-Oriented Research This article details the development, implementation, and evaluation of a social science application. The goal: Provide readers with concrete examples of, and practical information on, applications to inform future implementations and applications.

Reflection on Process This article provides first-person reflection and/or critique on how we apply social science knowledge. The format is more creative. The goal: Spark discussion and debate, inspire future work in our discipline.

Engaged Scholarship This article provides social scientific insights, interpretations of findings, concepts, etc., that can improve understanding of social processes and increase the likelihood of the reader being able to improve communications, professional outcomes, and interactions. The goal: Translate social science knowledge into action steps.

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Sociology Research Areas

The department has a long-standing tradition of engaging and valuing theoretically driven empirical research. This approach to sociology uses sophisticated theoretical reasoning and rigorous methodological tools, many of which are developed by Cornell faculty, to answer fundamental questions about the social world, how it is organized and how it is changing.

In addition to the research areas below, the department also hosts several unique research hubs and institutes on campus. These include:

Center for the Study of Inequality

Center for the Study of Economy and Society

Social Dynamics Lab

Community and Urban Sociology

Community and urban sociology are foundational topics in sociology. The shift from rural to urban society is one of the largest and most profound shifts in the history of society.

Read more about Community and Urban Sociology

Computational Social Science

With the rapid increase in the availability and use of computers, and their capacity to process information rapidly, the value of knowledge associated with computational resources has increased substantially. T

Read more about Computational Social Science

Sociology overlaps with other social sciences (like anthropology) considerably. Students who take the culture of area will be expected to understand the relationships between social and other approaches (e.g., anthropological) to understanding culture.

Read more about Culture

Economy and Society

Economic sociology analyzes economic phenomena such as markets, corporations, property rights, and work using the tools of sociology.

Read more about Economy and Society

A student who specializes in the area of gender must demonstrate special knowledge of how biological sex and gender shape individuals’ identities, how they shape experiences in everyday social life, individuals’ experiences with major social institutions, and also, therefore, important life outcomes such as family, career, and health.

Read more about Gender

Inequality and Social Stratification

Sociologists of inequality study the distribution of income, wealth, education, health and longevity, autonomy, status, prestige, political power, or other desired social goods, often (though not exclusively) across groups defined by social classes and occupations, race, gender, immigrant status, age, or sexual orientation.

Read more about Inequality and Social Stratification

Methodology

Sociologists approach their objects of study in a number of ways.

Read more about Methodology

Organizations, Work and Occupations

Like families, organizations are important social institutions. This area is designed to increase students’ knowledge and mastery of a range of organizations, including business firms, non-profit organizations, and government bodies.

Read more about Organizations, Work and Occupations

Policy Analysis

Sociology is increasingly linked to issues of social policy. This includes public policy, health policy and related domains.

Read more about Policy Analysis

Political Sociology and Social Movements

This is a long-standing focus of the field of sociology at Cornell. The realm of political action is an important domain for understanding social structure at the national and local levels.

Read more about Political Sociology and Social Movements

Race, Ethnicity and Immigration

Students who specialize in this area focus on the role of the individual statuses of race/ethnicity and the experience of immigration (e.g., rates of in- vs out-migration)

Read more about Race, Ethnicity and Immigration

Science, Technology and Medicine

Like the sociology of health and illness, students to take this area are usually interested in concepts associated with health and medicine.

Read more about Science, Technology and Medicine

Social Demography

Demographers in the field of sociology carry out research on varied aspects of population composition, distribution, and change.

Read more about Social Demography

Social Networks

Social network analysis is a way of conceptualizing, describing, and modeling society as sets of people or groups linked to one another by specific relationships, whether these relationships are as tangible as exchange networks or as intangible as perceptions of each other.

Read more about Social Networks

Social Psychology

Social psychologists study how behaviors and beliefs are shaped by the social context in which people are embedded.

Read more about Social Psychology

Sociology of Education

The sociology of education is an important topic for understanding individuals’ outcomes with respect to things like occupation and labor market status

Read more about Sociology of Education

Sociology of Family

Family research in the field of sociology addresses patterns of change and variation in family behaviors and household relationships by social class, race/ethnicity, and gender.

Read more about Sociology of Family

Sociology of Health and Illness

There is increasing recognition (including within the field of medicine) that health and illness are a function of social factors (e.g., inequality).

Read more about Sociology of Health and Illness

Top 50 Sociology Research Topics Ideas and Questions

Interesting Sociology Research Topics and Questions: Due to the vastness of the possibilities, coming up with sociological research topics can be stressful. In order to help narrow down the specificities of where our interests lie, it is important to organize them into various subtopics. This article will be focusing on various sociology research topics, ideas, and questions, one can venture into, to write an effective sociology research paper .

• Social Institutions

Interactions with social institutions are inextricably linked to our lives. Social institutions such as family, marriage, religion, education, etc., play a major role in defining the type of primary and secondary identities we create for ourselves. They also define the types and natures of our various relationships with fellow individuals and social systems around us and play a huge role in the type of socialization we are exposed to in various stages of our lives. Some topics that one can consider to examine the roles that social institutions play in different dimensions of our lives are as follows:

• Hierarchical creation of Distinction and Differentiation in cultures rich in Plurality
• Violence perpetuated in the structures of Family, Marriage and Kinship
• Sexually Abused Boys – The contribution of familial and societal neglect due to unhealthy stereotypes resulting in silenced voices of male victims
• The Institution of Dowry – Turning Marriage into an Unethical Transaction Process
• Gendered Socialization of young children in Indian households and how it feeds into the Patriarchy
• Marital Rape – An Examination on the Importance of Consent
• How do the institutions of Family, Marriage and Kinship contribute towards the Socialization of young minds?
• In the Pretext of upholding the Integrity of the Family – The Horrifying Prevalence of Honor Killing
• The Underlying Influence of Religion and Family in the cultivation of Homophobic sentiments – A Case Study
• The Roles of Family, Education and Society in both enforcing as well as eradicating negative sentiments towards Inter-caste Marriages.
• The effects of Divorce on young minds and their interactions with their social environments and the relationships they create. Are there primarily negative effects as society dictates, or could divorce also have possible effects for children in mentally/ physically abusive parents?
• Examining the Influence of class status on Parenting styles
• Social Issues

Our society is never rid of the conflict. It lies in our very human nature to create conflict-ridden- situations and seek multiple ways to resolve them. Conflict is ingrained in human society, and the more diverse it is, in terms of social institutions, nationalities, gender identities, sexualities, races, etc., the more prone to conflict we are. It is not always necessarily a bad thing, but a clear sociological examination of these social issues that stem from our various interactions is of utmost importance, in order to come up with optimal and rational solutions. Some social issues that one can focus on for delving into research are as follows:

• Reconceptualizing the underlying differences between Race and Ethnicity with the help of examples and examining the interchangeable usage of the two terms
• Assess from a Sociological perspective the rise in Xenophobia after the rise of Covid-19
• Examining the prevalence of gender-inequality in the workspace and solutions that can help overcome it
• Sociological Perspective on Ethnic Cleansing and possible solutions
• 10 Things that Need to Change in the Society in order to be more accommodative of Marginalized Communities and help tackle their Challenges
• The Directly Proportional Relationship between Privilege and Power – A Sociological Examination
• Demonization of the Occident by the Orient – A Case Study
• Dimensions of Intersectionality – An Examination through Feminist Theory
• Examining the Manner in which the Modern Education System feeds into Harmful Capitalistic Ideals with examples
• The perpetuation of differential treatment of male and female students within Indian Educational Systems
• Scarcity of Resources or rather the Accumulation of the World’s Resources in the Hands of a Few? – A Sociological Examination
• Links between Colonialism and Christianity and their effects on the Colonized
• Creation and conflict of Plural Identities in the Children of Migrants
• The Overarching need for Social Reform to precede and hence ensure Economic Reform
• Marxist Perspectives

Karl Marx was a renowned German Sociologist from whom comes the Marxist Theories. Through works such as “The Communist Manifesto” (1848) and other renowned works, his views on capitalist society, the unequal division of labor, class conflict, and other issues spread throughout the world, influencing many. His influential works significantly widened the Marxist perspective. He sought to explain and analyze the various inequalities and differences that were imposed on society and led to class conflict; for which the economic system of capitalism was blamed. His views on other topics like religion, education, interdisciplinarity, climate change, etc. were also highly praised. Here are some of the topics one can venture into for researching Marx’s perspectives.

• Marxist perspective on the Effect of Capitalism on the Climate Crisis
• Marxist perspective on the Importance of the element of Interdisciplinarity within Indian Sociology as an Academic Discipline
• Marxist Criticism of Normative Ethical Thought

Read: How to Apply Sociology in Everyday Life

The majority of the world’s population is exposed to various forms of media in today’s world such as, Films, Newspapers, TV Shows, Books, Online Sources, Social-Media etc. The consumption of such content has increased to such an extent that it now plays a huge role in the way individual identities are shaped and influenced. They also play a huge role in influencing the opinions and views we hold about the world’s issues and various phenomena, and now hold the power to become driving forces of social change in society. These are some areas that have the potential for in-depth sociological research:

• A Sociological Analysis of the Influence of Pop Culture in an Individual’s socialization process and building body image
• Influence of social media in the ongoing perpetuation of Western standards of Beauty
• A Sociological Analysis of Representations of Masculinity in Audio/Visual/Print Advertisements and the effects the pose for audiences who are offered this content
• A Sociological Analysis on the Fetishization of Queer Relationships as Token Diversity in Film
• A Sociological Perspective on the Perpetuation of Casteism in the Bollywood Industry by means of Endorsements for Colorist advertisements, as well as portrayal of Negative Stereotypes of Marginalized Communities on the big screen
• Popular Cinema – Possessing Potential to both Reinforce or Challenge Hegemonic Masculinity
• A Detailed Sociological Analyses of Cultural Appropriation in Media and how it perpetuates unhealthy Fetishization of certain cultures
• Trace Representations of Hegemonic Masculinity in Popular Media – Assessing spectator relationship

READ: How to Write Academic Paper: Introduction to Academic Writing

• Political Issues

Just as social issues, political issues are equally important. The various political systems of the world determine the kind of governance we are under and the nature of human rights we are ensured as citizens. A sociological assessment of the various relationships between the different political issues instigated by the numerous forms of political power is of utmost importance. Such sociological indulgence helps in assessing the nature of these issues and the effect these issues have on citizens. Colonialism, Caste system, Resource conflicts, Communism, etc. and their roles in the political arena, as well as the nature of the world governments of today, can be assessed using research questions/ topics such as these:

• Sociological Inspection on the International Peacekeeping Efforts in local conflicts
• Tracing the Role of Colonialism in the act of instigating Contemporary and Historical conflicts in post-colonial states – A Case Study
• Illustrating with examples the Vitality of Symbolic Representation of Indian Nationalism and how it contributes to Nationalistic Sentiments
• Comparative Analysis on the two cases of Palestine/Israel conflict and Kashmir/India conflict within the dimensions of State Violence, Separatism and Militancy
• Case Study outlining the influence of socio-economic and political factors that result in the creation and perpetuation of Conflict over Resources.
• Trace the Relationship between Naxalism and Intrastate Conflict
• Analyzing the existence of Caste based Violence in India
• Examination of the extent to which Freedom of Speech and Expression is allowed to be practiced and controlled under the Indian Government today
• Sociological Analysis on the Occupation of Kashmir within Dimensions of Militancy and Human Rights
• Sociological Analysis on the Occupation of Palestine
• Annihilation of Caste: A Review – Stirring the Waters Towards a Notional Reform to Attain Fundamental Social Reforms
• The demonization of Communism – A Sociological Perspective
• Role of Social Movements – A Sociological Case Study

We will update with more sociology research topics like Urban Sociology, industries, crime, mental health, Etc.

Also READ: How to write a Sociology Assignment – Guide

Angela Roy is currently pursuing her majors in Sociology and minors in International Relations and History, as a part of her BA Liberal Arts Honors degree in SSLA, Pune. She has always been driven to play a part in changing and correcting the social evils that exist in society. With a driving passion for breaking down harmful societal norms and social injustices, she seeks to learn and understand the different social institutions that exist in society like family, marriage, religion and kinship, and how they influence the workings and functioning of various concepts like gender, sexuality and various types of socializations in an individual’s life. She envisions herself to play a vital role in building safe places for today’s marginalized communities and creating a world that is characterized by equity and inclusiveness, free of discrimination and exploitative behaviors.

2.1 Approaches to Sociological Research

Learning objectives.

By the end of this section, you should be able to:

• Define and describe the scientific method.
• Explain how the scientific method is used in sociological research.
• Describe the function and importance of an interpretive framework.
• Describe the differences in accuracy, reliability and validity in a research study.

When sociologists apply the sociological perspective and begin to ask questions, no topic is off limits. Every aspect of human behavior is a source of possible investigation. Sociologists question the world that humans have created and live in. They notice patterns of behavior as people move through that world. Using sociological methods and systematic research within the framework of the scientific method and a scholarly interpretive perspective, sociologists have discovered social patterns in the workplace that have transformed industries, in families that have enlightened family members, and in education that have aided structural changes in classrooms.

Sociologists often begin the research process by asking a question about how or why things happen in this world. It might be a unique question about a new trend or an old question about a common aspect of life. Once the question is formed, the sociologist proceeds through an in-depth process to answer it. In deciding how to design that process, the researcher may adopt a scientific approach or an interpretive framework. The following sections describe these approaches to knowledge.

The Scientific Method

Sociologists make use of tried and true methods of research, such as experiments, surveys, and field research. But humans and their social interactions are so diverse that these interactions can seem impossible to chart or explain. It might seem that science is about discoveries and chemical reactions or about proving ideas right or wrong rather than about exploring the nuances of human behavior.

However, this is exactly why scientific models work for studying human behavior. A scientific process of research establishes parameters that help make sure results are objective and accurate. Scientific methods provide limitations and boundaries that focus a study and organize its results.

The scientific method involves developing and testing theories about the social world based on empirical evidence. It is defined by its commitment to systematic observation of the empirical world and strives to be objective, critical, skeptical, and logical. It involves a series of six prescribed steps that have been established over centuries of scientific scholarship.

Sociological research does not reduce knowledge to right or wrong facts. Results of studies tend to provide people with insights they did not have before—explanations of human behaviors and social practices and access to knowledge of other cultures, rituals and beliefs, or trends and attitudes.

In general, sociologists tackle questions about the role of social characteristics in outcomes or results. For example, how do different communities fare in terms of psychological well-being, community cohesiveness, range of vocation, wealth, crime rates, and so on? Are communities functioning smoothly? Sociologists often look between the cracks to discover obstacles to meeting basic human needs. They might also study environmental influences and patterns of behavior that lead to crime, substance abuse, divorce, poverty, unplanned pregnancies, or illness. And, because sociological studies are not all focused on negative behaviors or challenging situations, social researchers might study vacation trends, healthy eating habits, neighborhood organizations, higher education patterns, games, parks, and exercise habits.

Sociologists can use the scientific method not only to collect but also to interpret and analyze data. They deliberately apply scientific logic and objectivity. They are interested in—but not attached to—the results. They work outside of their own political or social agendas. This does not mean researchers do not have their own personalities, complete with preferences and opinions. But sociologists deliberately use the scientific method to maintain as much objectivity, focus, and consistency as possible in collecting and analyzing data in research studies.

With its systematic approach, the scientific method has proven useful in shaping sociological studies. The scientific method provides a systematic, organized series of steps that help ensure objectivity and consistency in exploring a social problem. They provide the means for accuracy, reliability, and validity. In the end, the scientific method provides a shared basis for discussion and analysis (Merton 1963). Typically, the scientific method has 6 steps which are described below.

Step 1: Ask a Question or Find a Research Topic

The first step of the scientific method is to ask a question, select a problem, and identify the specific area of interest. The topic should be narrow enough to study within a geographic location and time frame. “Are societies capable of sustained happiness?” would be too vague. The question should also be broad enough to have universal merit. “What do personal hygiene habits reveal about the values of students at XYZ High School?” would be too narrow. Sociologists strive to frame questions that examine well-defined patterns and relationships.

In a hygiene study, for instance, hygiene could be defined as “personal habits to maintain physical appearance (as opposed to health),” and a researcher might ask, “How do differing personal hygiene habits reflect the cultural value placed on appearance?”

Step 2: Review the Literature/Research Existing Sources

The next step researchers undertake is to conduct background research through a literature review , which is a review of any existing similar or related studies. A visit to the library, a thorough online search, and a survey of academic journals will uncover existing research about the topic of study. This step helps researchers gain a broad understanding of work previously conducted, identify gaps in understanding of the topic, and position their own research to build on prior knowledge. Researchers—including student researchers—are responsible for correctly citing existing sources they use in a study or that inform their work. While it is fine to borrow previously published material (as long as it enhances a unique viewpoint), it must be referenced properly and never plagiarized.

To study crime, a researcher might also sort through existing data from the court system, police database, prison information, interviews with criminals, guards, wardens, etc. It’s important to examine this information in addition to existing research to determine how these resources might be used to fill holes in existing knowledge. Reviewing existing sources educates researchers and helps refine and improve a research study design.

Step 3: Formulate a Hypothesis

A hypothesis is an explanation for a phenomenon based on a conjecture about the relationship between the phenomenon and one or more causal factors. In sociology, the hypothesis will often predict how one form of human behavior influences another. For example, a hypothesis might be in the form of an “if, then statement.” Let’s relate this to our topic of crime: If unemployment increases, then the crime rate will increase.

In scientific research, we formulate hypotheses to include an independent variables (IV) , which are the cause of the change, and a dependent variable (DV) , which is the effect , or thing that is changed. In the example above, unemployment is the independent variable and the crime rate is the dependent variable.

In a sociological study, the researcher would establish one form of human behavior as the independent variable and observe the influence it has on a dependent variable. How does gender (the independent variable) affect rate of income (the dependent variable)? How does one’s religion (the independent variable) affect family size (the dependent variable)? How is social class (the dependent variable) affected by level of education (the independent variable)?

Taking an example from Table 12.1, a researcher might hypothesize that teaching children proper hygiene (the independent variable) will boost their sense of self-esteem (the dependent variable). Note, however, this hypothesis can also work the other way around. A sociologist might predict that increasing a child’s sense of self-esteem (the independent variable) will increase or improve habits of hygiene (now the dependent variable). Identifying the independent and dependent variables is very important. As the hygiene example shows, simply identifying related two topics or variables is not enough. Their prospective relationship must be part of the hypothesis.

Step 4: Design and Conduct a Study

Researchers design studies to maximize reliability , which refers to how likely research results are to be replicated if the study is reproduced. Reliability increases the likelihood that what happens to one person will happen to all people in a group or what will happen in one situation will happen in another. Cooking is a science. When you follow a recipe and measure ingredients with a cooking tool, such as a measuring cup, the same results is obtained as long as the cook follows the same recipe and uses the same type of tool. The measuring cup introduces accuracy into the process. If a person uses a less accurate tool, such as their hand, to measure ingredients rather than a cup, the same result may not be replicated. Accurate tools and methods increase reliability.

Researchers also strive for validity , which refers to how well the study measures what it was designed to measure. To produce reliable and valid results, sociologists develop an operational definition , that is, they define each concept, or variable, in terms of the physical or concrete steps it takes to objectively measure it. The operational definition identifies an observable condition of the concept. By operationalizing the concept, all researchers can collect data in a systematic or replicable manner. Moreover, researchers can determine whether the experiment or method validly represent the phenomenon they intended to study.

A study asking how tutoring improves grades, for instance, might define “tutoring” as “one-on-one assistance by an expert in the field, hired by an educational institution.” However, one researcher might define a “good” grade as a C or better, while another uses a B+ as a starting point for “good.” For the results to be replicated and gain acceptance within the broader scientific community, researchers would have to use a standard operational definition. These definitions set limits and establish cut-off points that ensure consistency and replicability in a study.

We will explore research methods in greater detail in the next section of this chapter.

Step 5: Draw Conclusions

After constructing the research design, sociologists collect, tabulate or categorize, and analyze data to formulate conclusions. If the analysis supports the hypothesis, researchers can discuss the implications of the results for the theory or policy solution that they were addressing. If the analysis does not support the hypothesis, researchers may consider repeating the experiment or think of ways to improve their procedure.

However, even when results contradict a sociologist’s prediction of a study’s outcome, these results still contribute to sociological understanding. Sociologists analyze general patterns in response to a study, but they are equally interested in exceptions to patterns. In a study of education, a researcher might predict that high school dropouts have a hard time finding rewarding careers. While many assume that the higher the education, the higher the salary and degree of career happiness, there are certainly exceptions. People with little education have had stunning careers, and people with advanced degrees have had trouble finding work. A sociologist prepares a hypothesis knowing that results may substantiate or contradict it.

Sociologists carefully keep in mind how operational definitions and research designs impact the results as they draw conclusions. Consider the concept of “increase of crime,” which might be defined as the percent increase in crime from last week to this week, as in the study of Swedish crime discussed above. Yet the data used to evaluate “increase of crime” might be limited by many factors: who commits the crime, where the crimes are committed, or what type of crime is committed. If the data is gathered for “crimes committed in Houston, Texas in zip code 77021,” then it may not be generalizable to crimes committed in rural areas outside of major cities like Houston. If data is collected about vandalism, it may not be generalizable to assault.

Step 6: Report Results

Researchers report their results at conferences and in academic journals. These results are then subjected to the scrutiny of other sociologists in the field. Before the conclusions of a study become widely accepted, the studies are often repeated in the same or different environments. In this way, sociological theories and knowledge develops as the relationships between social phenomenon are established in broader contexts and different circumstances.

Interpretive Framework

While many sociologists rely on empirical data and the scientific method as a research approach, others operate from an interpretive framework . While systematic, this approach doesn’t follow the hypothesis-testing model that seeks to find generalizable results. Instead, an interpretive framework, sometimes referred to as an interpretive perspective , seeks to understand social worlds from the point of view of participants, which leads to in-depth knowledge or understanding about the human experience.

Interpretive research is generally more descriptive or narrative in its findings. Rather than formulating a hypothesis and method for testing it, an interpretive researcher will develop approaches to explore the topic at hand that may involve a significant amount of direct observation or interaction with subjects including storytelling. This type of researcher learns through the process and sometimes adjusts the research methods or processes midway to optimize findings as they evolve.

Critical Sociology

Critical sociology focuses on deconstruction of existing sociological research and theory. Informed by the work of Karl Marx, scholars known collectively as the Frankfurt School proposed that social science, as much as any academic pursuit, is embedded in the system of power constituted by the set of class, caste, race, gender, and other relationships that exist in the society. Consequently, it cannot be treated as purely objective. Critical sociologists view theories, methods, and the conclusions as serving one of two purposes: they can either legitimate and rationalize systems of social power and oppression or liberate humans from inequality and restriction on human freedom. Deconstruction can involve data collection, but the analysis of this data is not empirical or positivist.

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70 Catchy Sociology Research Paper Topics That Really Stand Out

If you are taking sociology in college, you will agree that it is one of the fascinating subjects because it involves dealing with things that define and affect people, such as cultures, customs, and how people’s ways of life change.

Despite being an enthralling subject, many students find it challenging to pick the best sociology topics. To help you address the problem, we have picked the best 70 sociology topics for research that you can use. So, use them as they are or tweak them a little to reflect your preference.

Sociology Research Topics on Teenagers and Children

When growing up, childhood is the most carefree period of life, but it does not mean that kids do not have issues. However, these issues change as they become teenagers, and you can focus on them to formulate your sociological research question for your paper. If you are interested in children and teenagers, here is a list of sociological topics to consider:

• What is the influence of sports on the mental health of teenagers?
• Is sexual education good for children?
• What is the best way to deal with bullying in schools?
• Exploring the main reasons why kids do not have stereotypes.
• Should we give religious education priority over academic knowledge?
• Self-identification in teenagers: What are the causes?
• How does homeschooling impact children’s socialization abilities?
• Should adults consider teenagers as equals?
• Teenage suicides: What are the leading causes?
• Teachers or parents: Who has a bigger role in preventing early pregnancies?

Sociology Papers Topics on Social Media

Social media has emerged as the new method of communication, both at the personal and corporate levels. As more social media platforms, such as Twitter, YouTube, and Facebook become the new norm, here are some related sociology research topics for college students.

• Can we consider social media as a reliable source of information?
• Using social media to improve the hiring process in companies.
• Understanding the role of influencers on social media users.
• Comparing the use of Instagram and Facebook in education.
• Online relationships: Can they be considered real?
• Cyberbullying on social media.
• If social media is outlawed today, would our lives be better?
• How can we use social media to help change people’s behavior?
• Social media development over time: How will it affect education in the future?
• Social media development: What is the effect on the development of civil societies?

Good Sociology Research Topics in Marriage and Family

We are all part of a family, and it plays a great impact on who we become later in life. For students who want to explore issues related to families, here are some examples of interesting sociology research topics that can get them top grades.

How should we define a family?

Traditional gender roles taken by men: Would they be better handled by women?

How has marriage changed in the UK?

Exploring the implications of divorce on children.

Are there negative impacts of kids adopted by families of different ethnicities?

Why have the cases of single parenthood increased so much in the last three decades?

Is the institution of marriage outdated?

Should we allow teens to get access to birth control without the permission of their guardians?

Should the government be allowed to decide who can get married?

Reviewing the implications for kids being adopted by LGBT couples.

Understanding the benefits of being married but choosing to stay childless.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of following the traditional gender roles in the family today?

Should all parents be required to take parenting classes before having children?

Do you support the use of the one-child policy in China to reduce population?

Easy Sociology Research Topics

Like we mentioned earlier, sociology is a broad subject, but it is crucial to select the research ideas carefully to avoid getting bored midway. So, if you like to keep things simple and you are wondering, “ What are some good sociology research topics,” here are some good suggestions.

• Why do more people prefer online communication today?
• Is anonymity when using the internet important?
• What are the best techniques for training kids with deviant behavior?
• For how long should people date before getting married?
• Exploring the differences between generations X and Z.
• The benefits of letting the elderly interact with children.
• What are the negative implications of intergenerational marriage?
• Exploring the differences between spiritualism and religion.
• Why do some city administrations only allow some businesses and disallow others in their jurisdictions?

Environmental Sociology Research Topics

People’s behaviors, policies, economic levels, and levels of education, among other aspects have huge implications on the environment. So, what areas of the environment and related topics do you want to explore? Here are some great topic samples to consider.

• An analysis of domestic inequality and carbon emissions.
• Is environmental activism alone enough in addressing the problem of global pollution?
• Exploring the latest trends in environmental justice: A case study of the United States.
• Food system localization: Comparing the Pros and Cons.

What implications does recycling for environmental reasons have on an individual’s social well-being?

• Why everyone has a role to play in addressing the problem of climate change.
• What are the main causes and consequences of global warming?
• Facing the truth: Can the global society address the problem of global warming?
• Why conservation should be taught from an early stage of a child development.

Sociology Research Proposal Topics

If you are required to work on a research project, and the proposal needs to get the nod from your lecturer before proceeding, here are some great topics to consider:

• How do stereotypes of age impact employment?
• Comparing liberal feminism and radical feminism.
• What age group is at a higher risk of getting involved in deviant behavior?
• Do women have fewer professional opportunities compared to men?
• How are sexuality and gender viewed by students in private versus public schools?
• Is it more important to be popular or successful in school today?
• Playing video games for more than 10 hours every week: What impact does it have on students’ learning abilities?
• Should we make medicinal marijuana legal?

Good Sociology Research Questions in Culture and Cultural Biases

Some of the hottest research questions in sociology about culture and cultural biases include:

• Are the policies and laws protecting free speech in society enough?
• What are the best solutions for reducing population growth in the globe?
• Should we allow prescription drug companies to make direct advertisements to consumers?
• What are the biases that exist against obese people?
• Should we have legal penalties for people who use racial slurs?
• How is gender discrimination in the workplace perpetrated?
• What role does feminism play in American politics in the 21 st century?
• What are the differences between labor immigration in Europe and the US?
• Should the drinking age be lowered?
• What are some of the best solutions for addressing homegrown terrorism in the United States?

Once You Have Sociology Research Topics, what Next?

If you want to get top grades, the first step is selecting excellent research paper topics. However, whether you have selected environmental, family, or medical sociology research topics, the bigger task is actually ahead, and you should consider seeking writing help from our professionals . We have writing experts who can handle every topic in sociology, be it a sociological research question or sociology of the family research topics. You can never go wrong with a pro on your side!

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What is Applied Sociology? History, Definition, and Jobs

• Post published: March 13, 2023
• Post author: Applied Worldwide
• Reading time: 20 mins read
• Post category: Professional Development / Teach Socially

Applied Sociology is the use of sociological skills and knowledge to improve the well-being of society, but there is much more context to the question, “What is Applied Sociology?” Applied sociology has a long and interesting history, including the many challenges applied sociologists have faced. But, many professional opportunities remain despite those challenges. In this article we address applied sociology’s history and current state, including examples of applied sociology and valuable sociological skills.

What is Applied Sociology from a Historical Perspective?

From a historical perspective, Lester Frank Ward represents the first understanding of applied sociology in the United States. Prior to Ward’s publication of Applied Sociology: A treatise on the Conscious Improvement of Society by Society , much of the discipline believed that sociologists should only describe social processes rather than change them.

Ward was one of the first in the United States to suggest sociologists ought to use our knowledge to make society better for people. In doing so, Lester Ward made the differentiation between applied sociology, pure sociology, and dynamic sociology.

Lester Ward on Applied Sociology

To Ward, pure sociology was the production of knowledge . We may think of this type of sociology as what many people refer to as ‘academic sociology.’ Within pure sociology, researchers use their theoretical and methodological skills to improve the overall knowledge-base in the discipline. Pure sociology has mostly manifested itself through journal articles and academic book publications. Contemporary pure sociologists work as tenure track professors, often at research-centered universities.

In addition to pure sociology, Lester Ward described an applied sociology. According to Ward, applied sociology occurs when professionals organize sociological knowledge into interventions that improve the well-being of society. In contemporary sociology, the practice of applied sociology is diverse. Therefore, we touch on contemporary examples in more depth in a later section of this article.

Finally, Lester Ward wrote about a dynamic sociology. Dynamic sociology, according to Ward, occurs when the production of knowledge is worked seamlessly into application. In these instances, sociological knowledge is be produced, organized, and applied to make society better.

What is Applied Sociology in Contemporary Society?

Lester Ward clearly envisioned a unity between applied and pure sociology, yet we continue to see a tension where applied sociology is seen as a threat to its counterpart. We would like to share a quote that demonstrates this tension. In 2019, we conducted several interviews with applied sociologists who were working in consulting careers. One of my participants had this to say.

“Applied sociology is seemingly viewed as a threat to research or in opposition to academic work. This is untrue. There are careers in applied sociology and we need to be filling these positions and, in fact, we need to be creating these positions. In order for that movement to occur, we must first move away from thinking of applied sociology as a threat. We need to have conversations. We must discuss the meaning of applied sociology and must participate. Additionally, we must educate our students and graduate students about applied sociology and how to become a part of the movement.”

In this quote, we see an applied sociologists talking about the problem with applied sociology. Application is important and valuable, but we need to be able to have conversations while we are training to prepare folks for their applied sociology careers. In essence, this problem became the foundation for Applied Worldwide . We believe we can reduce the narrative that applied sociology is a threat by enhancing the vision of applied sociology as a valuable and marketable set of skills.

Bringing Applied Sociology to the Internet

We believe the internet is a great starting place because when academic departments are unable to offer proper advice, students interested in applied sociology will have to conduct their own searches. To demonstrate a situation where a graduate student was unable to find proper advice, let’s look at this quote from a student at a PhD granting sociology department.

“I remember being in my professional seminar during my first semester of graduate school. There was probably around a dozen of us in the class and about half of us were really excited for the seminar because we were hungry to use our future degrees. As the seminar progressed we began to understand that we were only learning how to become tenured professors. Folks started asking questions like, ‘What are non-traditional sociology careers?,’ and ‘Can we talk about applied sociology?’ Our professor became immediately nervous by these questions. He asked one student to stand up and close the doors to the classroom. He continued to tell our class that we should not be asking these questions publicly because there were some powerful professors that would be upset if they heard we were not interested in tenure track jobs.”

The story above demonstrates an important point in regard to applied sociology. It is obvious that discussing applied sociology is discouraged in particular circles. This point seems to be especially true in departments with faculty concerned with their own individual legacy. We suppose these faculty would rather invest their time and energy in students who will take tenure track positions at prestigious universities and continue their line of pure sociological research.

Because of this lack of willingness to engage students in applied sociology, certain terms may be necessary to introduce before moving forward.

Applied Sociology Terms

There are a lot of different terms associated with applied sociological work. Here, we provide a few important terms that are regularly used by today’s applied sociologists.

Clients are important in applied sociology. If you spend any amount of time around applied sociologists, you will hear them talk about their clients. An applied or clinical sociologist’s livelihood revolves around their ability to meet and maintain relationships with clients. A client is a community member or organization paying a sociologist for services.

Sociology Consulting

We have previously defined and discussed sociology consulting . In short sociology consulting is “the independent, useful, and profitable application of sociological skills and knowledge.” As a consultant, an applied sociologist will work closely with clients to use skills and knowledge to improve society. These efforts may address organizational culture, structure, or policy.

Clinical Sociology

The Association for Applied and Clinical Sociology defines clinical sociology as,

“The use of sociological theories, concepts, and methods to carry out the same examinations with the primary purpose not only to translate findings, but also design, implement, and evaluate interventions meant to improve outcomes and respond to challenges.”

We see that clinical sociology goes beyond sociological translation into the realm of implementing solutions to problems. Often, clinical sociologists work with clients to help solve organizational problems.

Community-Engaged

We often hear the term ‘community-engaged,’ in sociology. It might be in discussion of a community-engaged class or someone who is conducting community-engaged research. This buzzword simply means integrating the local community into the sociological process. Community-engaged researchers will conduct research with members of the community rather than on members of the community. Further, community-engaged courses offer students the opportunity to apply their sociological knowledge in the local community rather than simply thinking theoretically.

Examples of Applied Sociology

The suppression of applied sociology exists around the world! Our quotes from sociologists above demonstrate the problem in the United States. Sociologist Maham Shah discusses a similar problem in Pakistan in her article, Practicing Sociology in Pakistan: Applying the Discipline. We have also heard similar sentiments from writers in Nigeria , Venezuela , and Canada .

Professional Organizations

Fortunately, there are resources to help people use their skills as applied sociologists. Some of the best resources are professional sociological associations. Nearly all of these organizations have or are creating sections specifically related to applied sociology. Joining these groups can help students find mentorship and other professional development resources.

• Association for Applied and Clinical Sociology
• Sociologists for Women in Society
• American Sociological Association section for Sociological Practice and Public Sociology
• British Sociological Association Applied Sociology Group
• Canadian Sociological Association Applied and Community Engaged Sociology Cluster

Profiles of Applied and Clinical Sociology

All of the above mentioned organizations are Applied Worldwide partners for our Profiles in Applied and Clinical Sociology Project. You can browse those profiles to see the kinds of work applied sociologists are conducting. In these profiles, you will find suggested readings, suggested courses, and other tips for translating your sociological experiences into careers in applied sociology.

Through our profile project we have established some of the primary industries where sociologists can have applied sociology careers in our contemporary society. Current industries where applied sociologists are making a mark include Health and Medicine, Business, Technology, and Criminal Justice.

Health and Medicine

To someone just learning about sociology, applying social science to health and medicine may not seem to make a lot of sense. However, medical sociology is a popular subfield within the discipline and those who practice it are equipped with knowledge on healthcare systems, health policy, medical education, and more—all from a sociological perspective. Our own Dr. Stephanie Wilson , for example, works with medical doctors conducting research on point-of-care medical information systems meant to assist providers in their clinical decision-making.

We’ve also profiled various professional sociologists who apply their skills in health and medicine. Lorella Palazzo , Karen Albright , Professor Robert Dingwall , Raeda Anderson , Catherine van de Ruit , Austin H Johnson , and Chloe E. Bird all offer their sociological skills in health-related settings. Our annual student essay competition also brought insight on sociology as it applies to health in medicine in two separate essays on nursing, including one essay titled “ Sociology is Important in Nursing and Beyond .”

Whether sociologists are starting their own businesses or using their skills to improve the business industry, this is one domain where sociologists are finding success. We see many applied sociologists being entrepreneurial with their skills and starting their own businesses. Josh Packard , Gary David , Karen Albright and others have all started their own businesses using various sociological skills.

Others use their sociology to improve businesses. Anthony Buono , Robert Dingwall , Gina Finelli , and Andrew Cohen all represent examples of sociologists working in business.

Technology is big business and there is plenty of room for sociologists to get into the industry. Applied Worldwide has conducted its own second domain analysis of the tech industry where we analyze job postings from major technology companies. We also have a call from a sociologist working in the tech industry titled, “ Sociologists, the Tech Industry Needs You! ” Both of these articles outline sociology jobs and skills in the technology industry.

Another recently published article called “ The Rise of Women in Tech: Going Against the Gender Script ” applies sociological ideas on gender socialization to the technology industry.

In addition to jobs in technology companies, sociologists are also well-equipped to offer branding and media services . For example Andrew Cohen and Temidayo Jacob , both describe how sociology helps them in their careers.

Criminal Justice

One final industry in which sociological skills are well-represented is criminal justice. Many sociologists incorporate criminology and legal studies into their work and training. That means they come away from school with deep understanding of our justice system and the organizations within it.

The first example we have to share is Lauren Gant . Lauren works with a team of researchers in Colorado with a goal of improving state-level criminal justice organizations and systems. Another example is Jackie Henke , who worked as a data analyst for the Superior Court of California. Lastly, we have James Frazier who uses his sociological skills in sex offender treatment programs.

Applied Sociology Skills

Communication.

Communication is one of the most valuable sociological skills. Throughout their education, sociologists learn to effectively communicate publicly, interpersonally, and in writing.

One of the most feared professional skills is public speaking, yet most sociology students gain experience with public speaking in their classes or when they attend professional conferences. We need to harness these experiences and demonstrate to employers that we are effective public communicators.

Second, it is important for sociologists to be good interpersonal communicators. As an example, think about interviewing, a research method many sociologists practice. To effectively extract information and stories from interview participants, sociologists must be proficient interpersonal communicators.

Finally, sociologists write a lot in their education. Once again, we ought to be advertising ourselves to employers as people who can effectively communicate through writing. We have previously written about how we believe writing is the most prized skill in sociology in an article titled, “ Writing in Sociology: One of our Most Valuable Skills .”

Research Methods

Research methods are the most discussed skill amongst the applied sociologists we interviewed in our profiles project. Nearly all of the professionals who responded mentioned research methods as a valuable skill.

Importantly, the type of research methods was less important. Both qualitative methods such as interviews and ethnography, as well as quantitative methods like statistics and data visualization are useful to practicing sociologists. In fact, when discussing research methods, most professionals suggested students learn as many methods as possible to add to their toolkits.

The last applied sociology skill we want to emphasize in this article is empathy. Sociologists are constantly challenged to take the perspective of others. We are always mastering new theories that teach us about the diverse lived realities of groups within society. When we analyze interview data, for example, we must understand the experiences being outlined from the perspective of that participant, or group of participants.

A latent function—to use sociology terminology—of those educational experiences is empathy. By learning to understand social problems at the social structural level, rather than simply at the individual level, we learn to empathize with individuals whose agency is constrained by those structures. You can read more about the relationship between applied sociology and empathy in this student essay.

Conclusions on What is Applied Sociology?

So, what is applied sociology? Applied sociology is the use of sociological skills and knowledge to improve the well-being of society. Applied sociologists use their skills with clients, as consultants and in clinical or community settings. Some of the professional domains where applied sociologists have found career success include health and medicine, business, technology, and criminal justice. Communication, research methods and empathy are some of the most cited valuable professional skills that sociologists acquire through their education.

Applied sociology is a discipline open to folks with a variety of educational backgrounds. A PhD is not required to practice sociology, and we hope the diverse professional experiences we shared here make that apparent!

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10 Sociology Topics to Research

Dec 07, 2022

Sociology is one of the most commonly chosen majors by college students year after year. What is sociology ? It is the social science that deals with the study of social life, change, causes, and consequences of human behavior. There’s no denying the inevitable pull of sociology research. According to Lou Corsino , professor of sociology and chair of the Department of Sociology and Anthropology at North Central College, “Anywhere that two people or two groups interact, that’s sociology.” In other words, anytime we ask ourselves why one person said or did something to another, we’re doing the work of sociological research. 

While everyone is an amateur sociologist in some form, however, informally chatting about human interactions is a lot easier than compiling ideas into a research paper or a dissertation. If you plan to study the subject, at some point, you will need to narrow your focus to one of many sociology topics. So what are research topics in this broad area of social science, and how can you choose what sociology research topic is best for you?

In this piece, we’ll examine the most common types of sociology research topics fall into, give you a sense of what research methods will help you find an area of focus, and step back to question why research into human behavior is so vital to us. Hopefully, this will help match student to the topic in a way to make your research smoother.

What are topics in sociology?

Much like the nature of social interaction itself, sociology covers a lot of ground, and thus there is no shortage of interesting sociology research topics. Depending on where you study and with whom, a sociological study can include a lot of different ideas. 

The key is to examine how people’s lives intersect with one another. Anywhere people cross over and engage in common practice, customs, rituals, or simply the building blocks of society like commerce, government, and essential services, there is a good sociology research topic to be found.

Writing for Owlcation , sociologist Brittany Kennedy uses a helpful model that runs the spectrum of those interactions and creates a list with a round number of 10 that is easy to remember and logically inclusive. Let’s look at those broad areas and break down what some more specific ideas could be within each of them.

1. Race, Nationality, and Ethnicity

The process by which humans identify and group themselves is a key component of how we think and treat one another. These ideas are particularly critical in our world right now, as long-held assumptions about these ideas are being tested and reshaped almost daily. Exploring these areas could include defining the difference between race and ethnicity, delving into the concept of patriotism, looking at how immigrant cultures influence and become part of a population over time, differing views of national identity from country to country, and more. 

2. Mass Media

For generations, we have been gripped by newspapers, magazines, radio, film, television, the Internet, and other forms of media and influenced by what we read, hear and see from these sources of information. And for close to two decades now, social media has become extremely powerful in its capacity both to make the world smaller and potentially drive us further apart. You could study how various people or groups are represented in the mass media, the civility or lack thereof in media discourse, the balance between journalism and entertainment, the nature of celebrity, and how it’s constructed by the mass media, among other ideas.

3. Youth Cultures

Every passing generation tends to obsess with youth culture as they struggle to come to terms with teenagers and young adults and how the young people in a culture construct their own distinct social network. There are great ideas caught up within youth culture because it’s a world unto itself—you can do fascinating work looking at how youths engage with the media, define sexuality, construct social class, engage in social movements, set trends in consumer culture, evolving social behavior, and look for help and support with growing up.

4. Sociology of Gender and Sexuality

An ever more complicated area of study, the gulf between men and women remains a fixation in the sociological study even as issues of homosexuality, queerness, and transsexuality bring infinite new dimensions to the subject of self-definition. You could look into issues of gender inequality in the workplace, culture, politics, media, and athletics, as well as medical and financial implications of gender and sexuality, the use of language around gender and sex, subsets of media related to particular areas of gender and sexual identity, and medical sociology research topics around how physicality relates to gender and sexuality.

5. Social Movements

Anytime social issues rise to the level of activism and organized activity, a social movement is created that is a ripe source for study. For lack of a better term, studying social movements involves choosing an “-ism” or an “-anti” and applying social research to it—feminism, socialism, classicism, racism, environmentalism, anti-hate movements, anti-vaccination supporters, and so on.

6. Cults, Clans, and Communities

There is a lot to be learned from studying how people group themselves according to common beliefs. That includes studies of prominent world religions like Catholicism, Islam, Judaism, Hinduism; cults like the Manson family, Heaven’s Gate, and the People’s Temple; belief-affiliated hate groups such as the Ku Klux Klan, Nation of Islam and Westboro Baptist Church; and fraternal orders like the Freemasons, the Elks, and the Moose. These groups have tremendous influence and the potential to create meaningful social change as well as do serious damage to societal order and civil liberty. As such, dissecting why people join these groups and how they behave is a critical venture.

7. Class Conflict and Inequalities

The intersection of classes and how we organize each social structure around “haves and have-nots” is one of the most pressing sociological issues.  You can do research on the definition and effects of poverty, differences in the impact of taxation, how race and ethnicity are tied to income inequality, differing levels of education and how they divide people, wealth and its impact on political affiliation, and much more under the umbrella of social class.

8. Spirituality, Superstition, and Legends

Though it can often be dismissed as an area just on the fringes of society, belief and investment in myths are a foundational aspect of any society. You can study historical ideas of myth and legend, like pantheons of gods in the ancient world, fairy tales and tall tales, and origin myths, or you can explore dynamics of the world today, like conspiracy theories, life on other planets, and the culture around monster and creature sightings. 

9. Consumerism

An area where you can find relatively easy sociology research topics is consumer culture because the artifacts are readily available in stores and on websites, and the research is published in numerous places in the form of sales figures. You can study societal issues around buying art and antiques, intellectual property like music and likeness rights, fine dining and food and wine culture, collecting as a hobby and way of grouping people, and even media and sports fandom and how people spend their money on it.

10. The Family

Last but not least is the closest topic to each of us—how we get along with relatives. There is a multitude of interesting directions to studying the family , including conflicting approaches to raising children, the effects of divorce and single parents on families, non-traditional family life, how race and ethnicity plays into the family dynamic, and much more.

How do I choose a topic?

David Kidwell wrote on EduBirdie about how a student can choose a topic for a sociology paper or project and presented some good basics to start with. He said, “Choosing a good topic for your sociology research should clearly outline a problem or make an argument that you want to make … Avoid too general or vague statements that can be read or understood differently. The trick is to come up with those sociology topics that inspire you and help your readers to find the solutions.”

When asked how he advises his students with the first step in their research, Corsino said, “Perhaps the best advice I give students is that the various mysteries that beguile sociology cover such a broad range of topics that students can always find something interesting to study on their own or work together with a faculty (member). This is the beauty of sociological thought.” 

In other words, sociology is everywhere and in everything we do, so let your own natural curiosity guide you into the research methods of sociology . Don’t think about a grade or what will be simplest—think about a part of social interaction or human interactions you would genuinely like to know more about and dive into it.

Why do we study sociology?

Ultimately, as interesting as sociology might seem, you’ll want to look at why you’re getting involved and what the benefits are. 

Corsino likens sociology to unraveling important puzzles the right way—taking it step by step and savoring the process.

“I like to think about research as detective work,” he said. “There is something to be discovered or uncovered. And there are clues along the way in terms of various types of data. In the end, one tries to solve the mystery, as best we can by drawing reasonable conclusions.  It takes work , but it is exciting when it comes together.”

If you need to think about it more concretely than that, Rubayet Al Sami provided another list for you to think about on Study Connexion —10 great things you can accomplish that are reasons to study sociology:

• Broaden your skillset and make yourself more likely to find a career. 
• Detect and solve social problems. 
• Learn about planning and development of businesses and municipalities.
• Understand society from a scientific perspective.
• Discover the role of institutions in the development of individuals.
• Figure out how to preserve and grow your own culture.
• Find a great complement to other majors that will increase your potential to learn.
• Broaden your outlook by examining differing perspectives.
• Gain a greater insight into international relations by looking at how their people interact.
• Examine your own outlook and motivations to find what matters most to you.

Looking to get into sociology and choose one of the areas of research we mentioned? Be sure to look for a school like North Central College that offers a challenging, intriguing sociology curriculum with plenty of opportunities to enhance your education, like a minor in Chicago Area Studies, completing Community Engaged Learning projects, and enhancing your research with a prestigious Richter Grant. 

Find out more about North Central College today.

Jacob Imm is the associate director of communication in the North Central College Office of Marketing and Communications. He has 12 years of collegiate communications experience and has worked with hundreds of college students. He has a bachelor’s degree from the University of Notre Dame and a master’s degree from Northern Illinois University.

Brittany Kennedy, Owlcation. https://owlcation.com/social-sciences/Great-Sociology-Research-Topics . 

David Kidwell, EduBirdie. https://edubirdie.com/blog/70-sociology-research-topics . 

Rubayet Al Sami, Study Connexion. https://studyconnexion.com/reasons-to-study-sociology/ . 

Sociology Program, North Central College. https://www.northcentralcollege.edu/program/sociology .

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From Research to Reality: Recruiting More Women into the Policing Profession: Preliminary Results of an NIJ-funded Applied Research Project

This webinar presents early work on a research project aimed at developing and testing recruitment strategies to attract more women into the policing profession.

This webinar features the work of Dr. Jen Ranier, a research psychologist who studies workplace and workforce issues at RTI International. The project presented in this webinar had the goal of identifying ways to help law enforcement agencies recruit more women. The research was divided into three phases that first aimed to understand current practices and identify strategies for improving recruitment of women into policing; it next utilized those findings to conduct a large-scale online experiment with both a general population sample and students to test those potential solutions; the final phase implemented those findings in a field study with two agencies to test some of the findings and strategies. The webinar discusses the research efforts, findings, and implications for practice, providing evidence-based examples of how law enforcement agencies can recruit and retain more women in policing careers.

Additional Details

Related topics, similar publications.

• Practitioner Perspectives on the Rehabilitation and Reintegration of Violent Extremists
• Law Enforcement Officers Safety and Wellness: A Multi-Level Study

Applied Sociology Research Paper

This sample sociology research paper on applied sociology features: 12300 words (approx. 40 pages) and a bibliography with 110 sources. Browse other research paper examples for more inspiration. If you need a thorough research paper written according to all the academic standards, you can always turn to our experienced writers for help. This is how your paper can get an A! Feel free to contact our writing service for professional assistance. We offer high-quality assignments for reasonable rates.

Applied sociology is the oldest and most general term for what Lester F. Ward (1903) identified more than 100 years ago as “the means and methods for the artificial improvement of social conditions on the part of man and society as conscious and intelligent agents” (p. vii). Applied sociology uses sociological knowledge and research skills to gain empirically based knowledge to inform decision makers, clients, and the general public about social problems, issues, processes, and conditions so that they might make informed choices and improve the quality of life (Rossi and Whyte 1983; Steele, Scarisbrick-Hauser, and Hauser 1999). In its broadest sense applied sociology encompasses evaluation research, needs assessment, market research, social indicators, and demographics. It would also include directed sociological research in medicine, mental health, complex organizations, work, education, and the military to mention but a few.

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Today, at the beginning of the twenty-first century, this concept of applied sociology fits nicely with the National Institutes of Health’s (Zerhouni 2003) and the National Institute of Mental Health’s (2000) new funding initiatives in translational research, which require that scientists tie their research to practical applications (Dingfelder 2005). Translational research aims at converting basic biological and behavioral science research into forms that can address pressing issues in health care diagnosis, treatment, and delivery. By extension, this means that applied sociological research will produce descriptions, analyses, and findings that can be translated into ideas and lessons learned from previous activities or programs to be used by action organizations, including citizens groups, foundations, business, labor, and government. It is likely that in the near future, more public and private funding will continue to shift from basic to translational or applied research and from researcher-initiated grants to funder-defined contracts as universities become more engaged in communitybased research and application (Petersen and Dukes 2004).

Early in the twentieth century, Ward (1906:9) separated applied sociology from civic and social reform. The relationship between applied sociology, on the one hand, and deliberate interventions based in sociological reasoning by social engineers and clinical sociologists, on the other, has been a source of contention ever since. This research paper will focus on the history and development of applied sociology as a research endeavor undertaken on behalf of clients or funding agencies in contrast to the more direct interventionist approach of clinical sociology.

This research paper divides the past 150 years into four periods: (1) from the origins of sociology through the end of World War I—1850 to 1920; (2) the struggle between academic sociology and applied sociology— 1920 to 1940; (3) the growth of federally sponsored research from World War II through the end of the War on Poverty—1940 to 1980; and (4) the emergence of a more independent and professional applied sociology since 1980.

Origins of Applied Sociology: 1850 to 1920

Auguste Comte (1798–1857), who created sociology, divided it into social statics, the study of the conditions and preconditions of social order, and social dynamics, the study of human progress and evolution. Comte ([1854, 1896] 1961) wrote that the statical view of society is the basis of sociology but that the dynamical view is not only the more interesting of the two but more philosophical, since social dynamics would study the laws of the rise and fall of societies and furnish the true theory of progress for political practice. Comte (Barnes 1948a:101) envisioned a corps of positivist priests trained as sociologists, who would not possess any temporal power but rather would influence through teaching and provide informed direction to public opinion. They would impart useful scientific knowledge and social advice on all aspects of civil life. They would suggest action to the civil authorities but would never undertake such action on their own responsibility or initiative. It appears that Comte’s applied sociologists would be neither basic researchers nor social activists/interventionists but rather occupy a translational role between the two.

In contrast, Herbert Spencer (1820–1903) argued against any form of artificial interference and that sociologists should convince the public that society must be free from the meddling of governments and reformers (Coser 1977:97–102). He was very skeptical of the possibility of generating progress through legislation since such legislation is not based on the widest possible knowledge of the sociological principles involved (Barnes 1948b:134). Spencer was a strong advocate of laissez-faire and coined the phrase “survival of the fittest” several years before Darwin wrote Origin of the Species. As a result, he is considered the founder of Social Darwinism. Spencer thought societies evolved from coercive militarism to peaceful industrialism in which individuals are free to move about and change their social relations without destroying social cohesion. The change from militarism to industrialism is an evolutionary process that depends on the rate of integration, and the slower the rate, the more complete and satisfactory the evolution (Giddings 1909, cited in Tilman 2001). Therefore, evolution is a wholly spontaneous process that artificial human interference could in no way hasten but might fatally obstruct or divert (Barnes 1948b:129).

Within academic circles, one of Spencer’s early supporters was William Graham Sumner (1840–1910). Sumner introduced the first serious course in sociology in the United States at Yale University in 1875, adopting Spencer’s The Study of Sociology as the text. Sumner promoted a sociology marked by conservative politics, descriptive accounts of societal evolution, and the nature of normative systems that define and control behavior (Perdue 1986). In “The Absurd Effort to Make the World Over,” Sumner ([1894] 1911) strongly supported the idea that social evolution was almost entirely an automatic, spontaneous process that cannot be extensively altered by social effort (Barnes 1948c:160). He favored laissez-faire policies and saw state activity as “ignorant social doctors” telling the Forgotten Man, that is, the hard working middle class, what to do to help those who had failed in the struggle for existence (Barnes 1948c:164).

Spencer was popularized in the United States through the efforts of Professor Edward Livingston Youmans, a chemist, educator, writer, and eventually an important agent and editor for D. Appleton and Company (Versen 2006). In 1860, after reading the prospectus for Principles of Psychology, Youmans arranged for the first American publication of Spencer’s works, and in 1872, became the founding editor of The Popular Science Monthly, which promoted science generally and evolution in particular. For Youmans (1872), science was not limited to natural and biological phenomena but included the intelligent observation of the characters of people, the scrutiny of evidence in regard to political theories, the tracing of cause and effect in the sequences of human conduct, and the strict inductive inquiry as to how society has come to be what it is.

Spencer’s ideas on evolution, antimilitarism, and peaceful industrialism became the focus of some adult education courses in the Second Unitarian Church in Brooklyn, New York. Youmans was acquainted with its minister, John White Chadwick. This group eventually formed the Brooklyn Ethical Association, and one of its objectives was “the scientific study of ethics, politics, economics, sociology, religion and philosophy, and also of physics and biology as related thereto” (Brooklyn Ethical Association, Certificate of Incorporation, cited in Versen 2004:9; Skilton 2005:4). The Association devoted its 1881–82 sessions to Spencer’s The Study of Sociology. Within 10 years, the Association created a class of Honorary Corresponding Members, which included Herbert Spencer himself; Thomas H. Huxley ([1893] 2004), President of the British Royal Society, who argued that humans created an ethical process that deviated from, and worked counter to, the natural course of evolution; Minot J. Savage (1886), Unitarian minister in Chicago and Boston and author of Social Problems; Andrew Dickson White, historian and first president of Cornell University; Eliza A. Youmans, a pioneer in the field of botany and sister of Edward Youmans; and Joseph Le Conte, geologist, President of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1891, and author of “Race Problems in the South” (1892), published in the Association’s Man and the State.

In 1892, the Brooklyn Ethical Association published Man and the State: Studies in Applied Sociology and in 1893, Factors in American Civilization: Studies in Applied Sociology. This may be the first use of the term applied sociology in the title of a book. The association considered sociology to be the science of social evolution and sought to apply “evolutionary philosophy and ethics to the study and discussion of the pressing problems of politics and statesmanship to come before the people of the United States” (Skilton 2005:4).

The preface to Man and State (Brooklyn 1892:v–vi) reaffirmed Spencer’s views that societies grew in a regular and orderly way according to inherent laws that were not mechanically imposed. It noted that while a priori schemes of social reformers can stimulate thought, promote altruistic endeavor, and educate the individual, enacting these schemes into legislation would not abolish poverty or crime, or speed the renovation of society. The preface saw the role of sociology as a safer and wiser way of individual enlightenment and moral education. Sociology would subject the schemes of social reformers to the operations of the principle of natural selection, identify what is instructive and good in each, propose practical forward steps, and substitute the method of evolution for that of violent and spasmodic change, thereby, slowly promoting the permanent welfare of societies and individuals.

Lester F. Ward (1841–1913), who brought the term applied sociology into the discipline, spent most of his career as a paleontologist with the United States Geological Survey, joining the Sociology Department of Brown University in 1906 when he was 65. His early work focused on the relation of fossil plants to geological location in strata and this undoubtedly reflected an interest in evolution. In 1876, he published “The Local Distribution of Plants and the Theory of Adaptation” in Popular Science Monthly, which brought him to the attention of its editor, Edward Youmans. In addition, Ward’s mentor, the noted geologist and explorer John Wesley Powell, wrote to Youmans in support of Dynamic Sociology or Applied Social Science, which was published in 1883 (Ward 1883:iii–v; Scott 1976:29).

Dynamic Sociology was the first major American work on sociology and although not intended as a text, was on the reading lists of early sociology courses. Ward differed sharply from Spencer and Sumner on laissez-faire individualism, and he argued for the efficacy of government as an agent of social reform, if it could be put on a scientific basis and purged of its corruption and stupidity (Barnes 1948d:182). As a career government scientist with a legal background, Ward understandably took up Comte’s idea of sociocrats, believing that government can directly improve the conditions of society in a conscious or “telic” manner if the legislators will only become social scientists or have gained knowledge of the nature and means of controlling the social forces and be willing to apply this knowledge (Barnes 1948d:183 citing Dynamics ). Scientific lawmaking would be based on a greater use of social statistics (Ward 1877), with sociology as the chief source of information that is essential for any extensive development of scientific government (Barnes 1948d:185).

On the other hand, Ward (1906:10) was very skeptical about the efforts of utopian social reform and socialist movements that favored radical and abrupt changes in social structures. He was a “meliorist” who thought that much could be accomplished through education of both the public and government leaders. Ward (1906) wrote,

Applied sociology is not government or politics, nor civic or social reform. It does not itself apply sociological principles; it only seeks to show how they might be. The most that it claims to do is to lay down certain general principles as guides to social and political action. (Pp. 9–10)

He added, “A sociologist, who takes sides on current events and the burning questions of the hour, abandons his science and becomes a politician.” Ward came to this mainly as a reaction to Spencer’s writing, which Ward thought was prejudiced, not scientific, and not in harmony with Spencer’s system as a whole and well before Max Weber ([1913] 1978) called for value-free sociology.

Youmans was disappointed with the initial sales of Dynamic Sociology or Applied Social Science and suspected that the title, which was drawn directly from Comte’s classification, was too close to Spencer’s Descriptive Sociology, which in turn derived from Comte’s social statics (Ward 1897:v). Ward, who would become the first president of the American Sociological Society (later renamed American Sociological Association, or ASA), was a participant in many intellectual and scientific societies (Odum 1951), including the Philosophical Society and Cosmos Club in Washington, D.C. (Scott 1976) and the Metaphysical Club (Menand 2001:301). He may have come across the term applied sociology as a result of attending a meeting of the Ethical Association, at which Dr. Felix Adler, professor of Hebrew and Oriental Literature at Cornell University and founder of the ethical culture movement, among others, dealt with different methods of relieving human suffering and promoting human welfare. Ward (1906:28) wrote that this congress (possibly of all the ethical societies in America that was held in St. Louis in 1896) talked applied sociology from first to last. He was familiar with the new ethics that inquired into social conditions and sought to introduce modifications that would prevent existing evils and render their recurrence impossible (Ward 1906:29).

This may have included the Brooklyn Ethical Association’s two volumes of Studies in Applied Sociology. By the early 1890s, Ward (1903:vii, viii, 6) also knew that several European sociologists were using the term pure sociology. He may have first used the terms pure and applied sociology in the titles of two summer school courses at the University of Chicago in 1897, which he repeated at the University of West Virginia in 1898 and then at Stanford University in 1899. He published Pure Sociology in 1903 and Applied Sociology in 1906.

Ward himself did not do any sociological fieldwork or empirical research. Reformers at Hull House in Chicago did the earliest applied research in the United States. Despite his dislike for social reformers, Ward would probably have been pleased that it was done primarily by a group of women since he was a strong advocate of gender equality (Odum 1951). Like Ward, Jane Addams was critical of socialism and abstract theories that impeded social learning by their inflexibility and tendency to divide people. She also thought that science could guide social reform through the patient accumulation of facts about the lives of the working poor.

The key activist researcher was Florence Kelley (1859–1932), the daughter of a U.S. congressman, who studied at Cornell University and the University of Zurich and, in 1887, translated Engel’s The Conditions of the Working Class in England. She came to Chicago in 1891 with her three children and became a resident of Hull House. Kelley, Addams, and the other Hull House activists were convinced that once the overwhelming suffering of the poor was documented and publicized, meaningful reforms would be quickly put into place (Brown 2001).

In 1892, the Illinois Bureau of Labor Statistics hired Kelley to investigate the “sweating” system in the Chicago garment industry. Then, in 1893, when the U.S. Congress commissioned a nationwide survey to investigate the slums of great cities and assess the extent of poverty in urban areas, she was selected to lead the survey effort in Chicago. Kelley and others conducted a door-to-door survey in the Hull House district and, following the lead of Charles Booth’s maps of poverty in London, created maps showing the nationality, wages, and employment history of each resident. Published in 1895, The Hull-House Maps and Papers offered no explanation for the causes of poverty and social disorder.

For Addams, practice was a priority over theory (Schram 2002). In the preface, she claimed that this was not a sociological investigation to test or build theory but a constructive work that could help push the progressive agenda to address the injustices of poverty. As such, it simply recorded certain phases of neighborhood life and presented detailed information that might prompt a humanitarian response from the government (Brown 2001). Kelley authored two chapters, one on the sweating system and another with Alzina P. Stevens on wageearning children. Interestingly, the authors of two other chapters, Charles Zeublin, “The Chicago Ghetto” and Josefa Humpal Zeman, “The Bohemian People in Chicago,” were forerunners of the Chicago School of Sociology of the 1920s. Zeublin joined the faculty of the University of Chicago Sociology Department a few years later.

Kelley earned a law degree from Northwestern University and in 1899 moved to New York City to head the National Consumer’s League (NCL) where she worked with Josephine Goldmark, director of research at NCL, to prepare the successful “Brandeis brief” defense of 10-hour workday legislation for women in Muller v. Oregon (1908), which like the Brown v. Board of Education (1954) school desegregation case almost 50 years later, used sociological evidence to support its case (Sklar 1985; Deegan 1986).

Jane Addams (1860–1935) followed her own applied and activist track in Chicago. Throughout her career, she maintained a tenuous relationship with academic sociology. In 1892, she taught a summer course on applied philanthropy and ethics with sociologist Franklin Giddings, and, in 1893, presided over a two-day conference at the Chicago World’s Fair sponsored by the International Parliament of Sociology. She declined at least two offers to join the Sociology Department at Chicago, apparently over concerns about the limits on speech and political activism associated with university settings. Addams, however, did become a charter member of the American Sociological Society, was an invited speaker at several meetings, and published in the American Journal of Sociology ( AJS ) as well as other scholarly and popular journals. Two of her books (Adams [1902] 1964, [1916] 2002) received favorable reviews in the AJS (Deegan 1986).

But by 1920, a combination of backlash against social activism, the development of social theory to explain the causes as well as the effects of social problems, and gender discrimination marginalized Addams and other women sociologists from regular academic departments into what would become schools of social work (Deegan 1986).

If Addams and other social workers charted an independent course, Seba Eldridge (1885–1953) worked in social services before discovering sociology. Initially trained as a civil engineer, he came to New York City around 1907. He held a part-time position with the Bureau of Advice and Information of the New York Charity Organization Society investigating and appraising civic and social agencies appealing for aid. He occasionally resided at various East Side settlement houses, becoming familiar with the conditions of the people in the neighborhoods (Ream 1923; Clark 1953; McCluggage 1955). Eldridge knew of the work of Felix Adler and the Ethical Culture movement. In 1911, he began graduate study at Columbia University in social philosophy and finished his dissertation under John Dewey in 1925. But he also studied with both Franklin Giddings and William F. Ogburn and learned of their interests in scientific sociology, quantitative methods, and objectivity. From 1913 to1915, he served as secretary of the Department of Social Betterment of the Brooklyn Bureau of Charities.

Eldridge (1915) wrote Problems of Community Life; an Outline of Applied Sociology in which he classified New York’s social problems according to the attention given them by reformers and the general public along with the general plans that various philanthropies, social reform groups, and municipal agencies put forward for the better organization of reform activities in the city. His suggestions for reform were few and emerged from the logic of the situations under analysis rather than from partisan interests (he was politically active on the side of antiTammany forces). In 1921, Eldridge joined the sociology faculty at the University of Kansas where he remained for the rest of his life. Much of his subsequent work focused on methods of improving the quality of citizenship, and he was well ahead of his time in advocating that social science departments should give students actual practice in the skills of citizenship through participation in community activities.

Not only was sociology being applied in social welfare and social policy, but it also gained an early toehold in industry. In January 1914, Henry Ford created a “profit sharing” plan that would pay workers up to $5 a day, when the average wage for an unskilled automobile worker was $2.40. The “profit sharing” was not a Taylorist scientific management bonus for additional quality work and was not directly tied to Ford Motor Company profits. Rather, it depended on workers maintaining good habits and taking care of their families and dependants. This was a radical concept and challenged the general belief that a sharp increase in the wages would have a bad effect because the workers would spend the additional money on drinking and gambling. Ford, however, wanted every worker to have a comfortable home and be able to own a Ford automobile. To select workers for the program and monitor their behavior as well as test this “theory,” he created a “Sociology Department” within Ford Motor Company (Loizides and Sonnad 2004).

The Department was headed by John R. Lee who was asked to identify which workers were qualified to participate in the “profit sharing” and then help the others to become qualified. This meant gathering information from the workers, and occasionally friends or neighbors, on their background, family situation, financial state, and personal habits through informal, semistructured interviews. Recorded data included basic demographics; financial information, including life insurance and bank name, location and balance; and health information, including family doctor and habits such as smoking or drinking. In early 1914, investigators and interpreters, selected from among existing Ford employees, were highly visible as they drove Ford automobiles to the homes of the workers who were to be interviewed. The result was that 60 percent of the workers qualified for the “profit sharing” (Loizides and Sonnad 2004).

However, the investigators were aggressive and some questions were intrusive. In addition, many non-English speaking workers did not qualify, possibly because of translation difficulties, and they and their families were angry. (The cause of these negative reactions would be recalled in the mid-1930s when Ford adamantly opposed unionization.) Lee then conducted a second phase, in the spring of 1914, to verify the initial findings and use betterprepared translators. He told the investigators not to go into a home in a way that they would not want someone to come into theirs and cautioned them about delving into strictly personal matters. At the end of this phase, 69 percent of the workers were eligible. The company then began to Americanize its immigrant work force. In May 1914, it opened the Ford Language School, which taught English to workers after the first shift. Classes also stressed American ways and customs, encouraged thriftiness, and good personal and work habits. By the end of 1914, 87 percent of the workers qualified for the “profit sharing” (Loizides and Sonnad 2004).

In 1916, Lee left Ford to develop the field of personnel management. Lee (1916) wrote a paper on the Ford profitsharing system for the Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences. About 10 years later, Shenton (1927:198) noted in his Practical Application of Sociology that “certain businessmen have already made beginnings in sociological research and a number are conducting experiments under the observation of trained sociologists.”

Academic Versus Applied Sociology: 1920 to 1940

In 1916, sociology students at the University of Southern California started a journal, Studies in Sociology, but in October 1921, they changed its name to Journal of Applied Sociology. Alice Fesler (1921) explained that the name was taken from Ward’s threefold classification of pure sociology, applied sociology, and social reform. The journal carried short pieces by students and well-known sociologists. A 1924 issue included “The Major Ills of the Social Survey” by Seba Eldridge, “A Race Relations Survey” by Robert E. Park, and “Social Psychology of Fads” by Emory Bogardus. But in 1927, the JAS was combined with the Bulletin of Social Research to become Sociology and Social Research. An editorial note explained that since productive research was the very basis of applied sociology, the journal would now publish significant pieces of research, although descriptions and analyses of social problems and the process, whereby they are reduced and solved, would still be printed. The journal would combine research and practice (Lucas 1927).

World War I marked the beginning of the end for the Progressive Era of social reforms to improve the lives of workers and immigrants, to conserve natural resources, and to make government more effective and less corrupt. In the social sciences, the acceptance of statistical thinking and quantification spurred the emergence of scientific methods, which in turn supported a growing dominance of the academic discipline over practical sociology and social activism. Social work was considered to be a technique and an art, not a science (Shenton 1927). In contrast, applied sociology was a science that could contribute to the development of an objective description of social problems and an understanding of their causes (Bossard 1932) and could be used to guide social planning and social engineering (Odum 1934). Applied sociology would attempt to keep on an even keel of objective, value-free, social research amidst cross-currents of political ideology and social activism.

In 1916, U.S. President Woodrow Wilson, a former Princeton professor of political science, supported a request by the National Academy of Sciences to create a National Research Council (NRC) to organize research and secure the cooperation of military and civilian agencies as a measure of national preparedness (Cochrane 1978). In 1918, after the United States entered the war, Wilson (1918) issued an executive order under which the NRC was

to stimulate research in the mathematical, physical and biological sciences, and in the application of these sciences to engineering, agriculture, medicine and other useful arts, with the object of increasing knowledge, of strengthening the national defense, and of contributing in other ways to the public welfare.

(Social sciences would not be explicitly added until George H. Bush did so in a January 1993 executive order.)

In 1921, Congress passed the national origins immigration Quota Act that discouraged immigration from eastern and southern Europe. The next year, the NRC asked for social science representation on a study of human migration (Rhoades 1981). The sociologist member of the Committee on the Scientific Problems of Human Migration was Mary Abby van Kleeck, the director of the Russell Sage Foundation’s Department of Industrial Studies. Van Kleeck was a pioneer in industrial sociology, having conducted studies of unorganized workers and sweatshop labor. Other sociologists who attended a sponsored conference on migration, included Edith Abbott, Henry Fairchild, William Ogburn, and Robert Park (Wissler 1929).

On taking office in 1929, President Herbert Hoover established the President’s Research Committee on Social Trends in the hope that social issues and problems could be scrutinized in the rational manner that had characterized his earlier efforts that reduced domestic consumption of food by 15 percent without rationing during World War I and his organization of flood relief work and health improvement in 1927 (Odum 1933; Volti 2004; Hoover Archives 2005). The Rockefeller Foundation funded it for three years at $560,000, and William F. Ogburn (1886–1950), who coined the phrase “cultural lag,” was named study director (Rhoades 1981). He would also serve as director of the Consumers Advisory Board of the National Recovery Administration (NRA).

In his 1929 ASS Presidential address, Ogburn (1930) declared that “sociology as a science is not interested in making the world a better place in which to live.” On the surface this appears to be a rejection of Ward’s amelioration and a revival of Sumner’s laissez-faire position. But Ogburn’s main purpose was to ensure that scientific methods would be the basis for applied research and to distance it from ethics, religion, journalism, and propaganda. Like Ward, he did not believe that the sociologist as scientist should hold office or lead movements. Ogburn encouraged sociologists to be wherever data on significant social problems were to be found: on the staff of the courts, in factories, at political party headquarters, and in community centers. He wanted the sociologist to be there to discover new knowledge and relationships rather than as an executive, leader, or social worker who puts to use the information which the scientific sociologist furnishes. He even predicted that a great deal of research would be done outside of universities by government, trade unions, employers’ associations, civic bodies, political parties, and social service organizations. Ogburn recognized that this research would be done for a specific purpose to prove a particular hypothesis or to gain a desired end. He asserted that to do this, the researchers should be free to follow the evidence and that they therefore must be sharply distinguished from the executives or policymakers.

This was already happening. The most well-known private sector applied research began in April 1927 at the Western Electric Plant in Hawthorne, Illinois. It would culminate with the publication of Management and the Worker (Roethlisberger and Dixon 1939), which described worker behaviors and interactions in the experimental Relay Assembly Test Room and the Bank Wiring Observation Room. A few years later in 1933, J. L. Moreno, in collaboration with Helen Hall Jennings, began consulting at the New York State Training School for Girls in Hudson, New York, where he developed his sociometric system and began the Sociometric Review, which was renamed Sociometry.

Ogburn also drew an interesting distinction between sociologists who are research scientists and social engineers who, like physicians, are not scientists but who apply reliable scientific procedures and relatively exact knowledge. The concept of social engineering was developed by William Tolman ([1909] 2005), who thought that industrialists should assume more social responsibility for their workers and should hire social engineers to be the primary intermediary between the industrialist and the employees. Andrew Carnegie liked the idea and wrote an introduction to the book. Tolman also advocated that employers become involved with the workers and their families through programs for social insurance, profit sharing, and savings (Östlund 2003). These ideas may have led Henry Ford to set up the “Sociology Department” to support his “profit sharing” plan and John Lee to leave Ford and start personnel management.

But the term social engineering was about to take on an ominous and decidedly negative connotation. In 1928, Stalin introduced the first Soviet five-year plan, and the Third Reich would soon adopt social engineering and use applied urban and rural sociology in their plans for the reorganization of an expanded Germany and the expulsion and annihilation of the populations of conquered territories (Klingemann 1992). These developments were noted by several American sociologists, including Robert K. Merton (1936), who advocated that scientists repudiate the application of utilitarian norms and quipped that “an economy of social engineers is no more conceivable or practicable than an economy of laundrymen” (p. 900).

In 1934, Social Forces asked 23 prominent sociologists to contribute to a Round Table Symposium to address questions such as “What is the role of sociology in current social reconstruction?” Arthur E. Wood (1934) recounted that Charles Cooley said that in his early days he had the greatest difficulty in trying to tell his colleagues the difference between sociology and socialism. Borrowing terms from William James, Wood then identified three types of sociologists: (1) the tough minded who are all for objectivity but sit on the sidelines when it comes to the hard contests over practical issues; (2) the tender minded or welfare sociologists who come from a background of religion or social work and tinker around the edges without much knowledge or insight into the nature of the structure which they would change; and (3) the radicals, that is, those active in partisan or revolutionary movements, who have an analysis of the social order and a blue print of what should be done but whose strength lies in their dogmatism which does not qualify them as social scientists. Without using the term applied sociology, Wood concluded that sociology could use descriptive analysis of social structures and processes involving critical evaluations to guide the tendencies of social change in the interest of reform.

The issue of the relationship between academic sociology and applied sociology in its various forms was part of a five-year struggle within the American Sociological Society over what Marklund (2005) calls the scientific detachment versus political involvement dilemma or as Stuart A. Queen (1934), who worked for the American Red Cross and the Detroit Community Fund as well as teaching sociology at Kansas and Washington University, put it, “How to steer between the Scylla of academic isolation and the Charybdis of partisan activity” (pp. 207–208).

At the 1931 annual meeting of the American Sociological Society, Maurice Parmelee, an early behaviorist and criminologist, Robert MacIver, and Pitirim Sorokin among others, distributed a memorandum in which they claimed that the programs and publications of the Society were devoted in considerable part to practical rather than to scientific problems, that as a result the public has the impression that the Society is a religious, moral, and social reform organization rather than a scientific society, and that the Society has become in large part a society of applied sociology. To remedy this, they proposed that voting members have a higher university degree in sociology and be engaged in sociological research, writing, and teaching and that the Society assume control of the official journal, at the time the American Journal of Sociology controlled by the Chicago Sociology Department (Rhoades 1981).

Martindale (1976) interpreted this as a conflict between the more populist and progressive midwestern departments that were receptive to Ward’s Comtean view of science as social reconstruction and the more academically conservative eastern departments linked to Sumner and Social Darwinism.

In 1934, the Society’s Committee on Scope of Research reported that New Deal and other social welfare agencies were using sociological research for the solution of practical problems. It recommended a closer integration of sociologists with the sociological work of government, a more complete and discriminating canvass of research in progress and an emphasis on the region as the unit of research because of developments in social planning. Two years later, in 1936, the Committee on Opportunities for Trained Sociologists recommended the creation of a new permanent committee for the promotion of the professional (as opposed to the disciplinary) interests of sociologists. The new committee would get sociological training and field experience recognized as a qualification or substitute qualification for certain Federal and state civil service positions, expand graduate training in sociology to meet the need for equipping students for technical positions, and involve sociology in state planning commissions and the reorganization of state welfare systems, as well as publicize sociology (Rhoades 1981). The Society, however, did not take up these recommendations. Applied sociology was set adrift in stormy seas as the academics opted for a narrower disciplinary and scientific learned society and the reformers moved into administrative positions in New Deal agencies.

Federal Funding for Applied Sociology: 1940 to 1980

Applied sociology received a substantial boost from World War II and then the War on Poverty. In both cases, research and observations collected in natural settings for applied purposes would generate new knowledge and contribute to sociological theories and concepts, as had been called for by Ogburn (1930) in his Society presidential address. Fifty years later, Peter Rossi (1980) in his ASA presidential address noted that many pieces of client-initiated applied work would, over time, be presented in the sociological literature as primarily basic research.

In November 1941, the War Department established a Research Branch in the Information and Education Division to provide the army command quickly and accurately with facts about the attitudes of soldiers. Samuel Stouffer (1900–1960) became the director of the Troop Attitude Program and with the assistance of more than 100 sociologists, seven of whom would serve as presidents of the ASA, conducted more than 200 surveys during the war years with more than half a million soldiers. Topics covered included practices associated with trench foot, what articles were read in Yank Magazine, determining attitudes toward promotion and job assignments in the military, the attitudes of Negro soldiers, and the point system for personnel demobilization after the war (Bowers 1967).

In December 1942, a compendium of troop-attitude studies was published for limited army staff distribution, but each succeeding issue was more widely distributed, eventually down to the company level. Stouffer saw the research branch as doing an engineering job, not a scientific one. The reports not only emphasized that problems could be treated at the local command level but also that they were of value in planning and policy activities, for example, estimates of the number of veterans who would go to college if federal aid were provided led to the GI Bill and accurately predicted the actual postwar experience. Nevertheless Stouffer noted that the channels of communication between the policymakers and the actual study directors in the Branch were often very unsatisfactory and the potential effectiveness in policy making of some of the research was lost (Bowers 1967).

Stouffer’s applied research efforts, however, would make an impact on sociological theory and methods, initially in the four volumes of The American Soldier, and then in extensive secondary analyses published in Continuities in Social Research: Studies in the Scope and Methods of “The American Soldier” (Merton and Lazarsfeld 1950). Chapters by Hans Speier, Edward Shils, Robert Merton, and Alice Kitt (Rossi) supported and developed theories and understandings of primary groups, reference groups, and military organization. Also working for the Research Branch was Louis Guttman who made significant contributions to attitude research, particularly the technique, which bears his name, for demonstrating the unidimensionality of scales based on a small number of items. Further study of its properties by Lazarsfeld led to latent content analysis. Finally, a number of sociologists, including John Useem, George C. Homans, Ralph Turner, Morris Janowitz, and Edward Shils used their military experiences in their sociological writings (Bowers 1967).

Applied research was also conducted on the home front. In the fall of 1941, an Office of Facts and Figures was created in the Office of War Information (OWI) to collect survey data on public attitudes and behavior concerning a broad range of war-related problems, including civilian morale and the effects of wartime regulations. The OWI needed a contractor and asked George Gallup who recommended Harry H. Field who had worked for him when they were both in the market research department of the advertising firm of Young and Rubicam (Marklund 2005). Through Gallup, Field was introduced to Hadley Cantril, Paul Lazarsfeld, and Samuel Stouffer who helped him establish the National Opinion Research Center (NORC) at the University of Denver in the fall of 1941 (NORC would move to the University of Chicago in 1947). NORC got the contract for the civilian surveys and established a New York office in the building used by OWI. Early in 1942, Paul B. Sheatsley, who was working for Gallup at the time, headed the survey research efforts. Many of the OWI surveys were simply fact-finding endeavors (how people disposed of their waste fats or how they were using their ration coupons), but others were pioneering efforts such as the first national measurement of racial attitudes (NORC 2005).

The OWI employed Paul Lazarsfeld (1901–1976) among others. Lazarsfeld had come to the United States as a Fellow of the Rockefeller Foundation and served as director of the Foundation’s Office of Radio Research, which moved to Columbia University in 1939 and became the Bureau of Applied Social Research (BASR) in 1944 (now the Lazarsfeld Center for the Social Sciences in the Institute for Social and Economic Research and Policy). Over the years, Lazarsfeld and his students would conduct applied research for clients that would later contribute to modern market research, mathematical sociology, and mass communications research (BASR 2005). His work on personal influence (Katz and Lazarsfeld 1955) stemmed from applied work financed by a magazine publisher to convince would be advertisers that placing ads in the magazine would reach opinion leaders, and a BASR study for a pharmaceutical company on the adoption of a new drug revealed the roles played by professional and social ties among physicians (Coleman, Katz, and Menzel 1966). In 1983, three of Lazarsfeld’s former students would be the directors of social research for the three major networks: CBS, ABC, and NBC (Sills 1987).

Just before the war, the U.S. Department of Agriculture appointed Rensis Likert (1903–1981) director of the Division of Program Surveys in Bureau of Agricultural Economics. Likert had already developed his five-point scale and taught at New York University before becoming director of research for the Life Insurance Agency in Hartford, Connecticut, in 1935, where he conducted studies on the effectiveness of different styles of supervision. During the war, Likert and his colleagues conducted surveys of farmer’s experiences and opinions. At the end of the war, Likert contacted Theodore M. Newcomb, who had worked with him during the war. Together they formed the Survey Research Center (SRC) at the University of Michigan to conduct publishable studies for businesses, foundations, governmental and other agencies on all kinds of economic, social, and business problems.

To complement the survey focus, Likert suggested that the Research Center for Group Dynamics (RCGD), then at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, join SRC to form the Institute for Social Research (ISR) in 1948. The RCGD was founded by Kurt Lewin (1890–1947) and then headed by Dorwin Cartwright who had worked with Likert in the Division of Program Surveys. Likert had served on the Committee on Food Habits of the National Research Council, which funded Lewin’s experiments demonstrating that food shoppers were more likely to change their buying habits as a result of a discussion followed by a public commitment than after a lecture by an expert. This led to his field theory involving food channels and the concept of gatekeepers (Wansink 2002). Lewin used the term action research and intended his research to result in guiding the actions needed to solve social problems, reducing the gap between social science knowledge and the use of that knowledge.

Early SRC research included an objective evaluation of a program to encourage acceptance of minority groups within the United Autoworkers Union and a study of morale at a telephone company that led to improved productivity and job satisfaction. RCGD and the Tavistock Institute in London jointly published the journal Human Relations. In New Patterns of Management, Likert (1961) summarized the principles and practices used by highest producing managers and proposed a more effective system of management.

By 1960, these and other university-based social research centers were producing empirical findings that had a considerable impact on sociological theories, methods, and concepts. In 1961, the Society for the Study of Social Problems, under the leadership of Alvin Gouldner, focused its meeting on the topic of applied social science and major papers were published in Applied Sociology: Opportunities and Problems (Gouldner and Miller 1965).

The papers explored practitioner-client relations and case studies in a variety of areas, including law, family, community, race relations, and delinquency. Years later, coeditor S. M. Miller (2001) revealed that he regretted the use of the term applied sociology because it was highly ambiguous—did it refer to sociologists employed outside academia, to academic sociologists who did studies for nonprofit and voluntary organizations whether paid for or not, to social activists or to public policy critics and intellectuals?—and because he saw little linkage between applied work and sociological study.

When Paul Lazarsfeld was elected ASA president, he proposed that the theme for the 1962 meetings be “Sociology in Action” or “Applied Sociology” to highlight the contribution of applied and case studies to theoretical and methodological advances. The ASA Executive Council, however, changed it to “Uses of Sociology,” which also became the title of an edited volume of 31 invited papers. The term uses went beyond applied sociology to encompass where and to what extent sociological findings and perspectives were used by professionals, businesses, voluntary agencies, the military, schools, and public bodies. Authors were asked to address the difficulties of translating practical issues into research problems and to discuss the intellectual gaps between research findings and advice for action (Lazarsfeld, Sewell, and Wilensky 1967:x). According to Gollin (1983:444), most authors had problems doing the latter—that is, identifying concrete applications of sociological ideas or findings.

In a provocative essay, Robert C. Angell (1967:737) raised some ethical issues concerning applied research. He worried that since such research is used to further the practical ends of business, voluntary associations, or government, it would take only a slight distortion in the sampling procedure or in the phrasing of questions to obtain findings desired by the client. Because they do not have the high calling of developing abstract scientific knowledge, he argued that the applied researcher cannot claim the special privileges that are sometimes enjoyed by those who do. For example, while it may be sometimes ethical to deceive subjects for the purpose of obtaining important new scientific knowledge, provided they are later debriefed, this justification cannot, in Angell’s opinion, be used for applied research because the ends are not scientific ones.

These edited volumes on applied sociology written from the perspective of disciplinary sociology, however, failed to take the wind out of the sails. In fact, in his ASA presidential address, Rossi (1980) noted that from 1960 to 1980 applied social research enjoyed a boom period in which sociology, as a discipline, had not really shared. Essentially the War on Poverty generated large-scale applied research involving needs assessments for program planning, demonstration and pilot services, and program evaluations, which were risky, controversial, and could not easily be translated into academic publications. Dentler (2002) estimated that, from 1960 to 1975, approximately 100 social science research and development firms were established, a third of which were located in the Washington, D.C., suburbs. Finally several specialized applied social research centers were created, such as the Disaster Research Center at the Ohio State University in 1963, now at the University of Delaware.

In 1964, the U.S. Office of Education commissioned James S. Coleman to determine how educational opportunity, defined as condition of school buildings, trained teachers, and curricula, were distributed by race and ethnicity. The Report, Equality of Educational Opportunity (Coleman et al. 1966), which studied all 3rd-, 6th-, 9th-, and 12th-grade students in 4,000 schools, not only documented the pervasiveness of segregation in the schools but went beyond the rather narrow Congressional mandate to explore how parental education and social status as well as peer pressures effected student achievement (Rossi 1980; Rossi and Whyte 1983; Dentler 2002). If the findings were controversial, the subsequent implementation of mandated bussing and the flight of white families from city schools were even more so. Coleman (1976), who originally supported school integration, changed his mind in the 1970s when he concluded that the policies that focused wholly on within-district bussing actually increased rather than reduced school segregation.

The Coleman Report (Coleman et al. 1966) belies the argument that doing applied research for government agencies substantially limits intellectual and political independence and that applied researchers are at the beck and call of decision makers and policy implementers (Dentler 2002). Rossi (1980) pointed out that the applied researcher could negotiate and in some cases broaden the scope of the study to include sociological variables and factors. On the other hand, it also illustrates Rossi’s points that applied social research may be used in policy formation and become embroiled in rancorous controversy in which the work is attacked, misused, or misapplied, and that sociologists are ordinarily not directly involved in decision making, policy formation, or program implementation. Like Ward and Ogburn before him, Rossi warned that applied social research is not for would-be philosopher kings.

During this time, studies continued to bridge the gap between pure and applied research. For example, Benjamin Bloom’s (1964) work on stability of IQ during early childhood later provided Head Start with data on where best to intervene with compensatory preschool educational programs, William Sewell’s study (Sewell, Hauser, and Featherman 1976) on status attainment began as a state-sponsored survey of Wisconsin high school seniors, and Rosabeth Moss Kanter (1977, 1983) published her own research on corporations for a broader audience.

Professionalism and Training in Applied Sociology: 1980 to Present

The late 1970s witnessed an increase in the production of M.A. and Ph.D. sociologists at a time when sociology departments were not hiring (Koppel 1993). A large number of new sociologists took positions outside academia in professional schools and in research units in government agencies, nonprofit organizations, and private consulting firms. Many wanted to present and publish their findings in sociological venues.

In the late 1960s, Alex Boros (1931–1996) established what is believed to be the first graduate program in applied sociology at Kent State University. In 1978, a dinner conversation about the lack of applied sessions at the North Central Sociological Association (NCSA) meetings led to the formation of the Society for Applied Sociology (SAS; Steele and Iutcovich 1997). In 1979, SAS held sessions in conjunction with the NCSA. SAS was formally incorporated in 1984 with Boros as the first president, and it began publishing the Journal of Applied Sociology. In 1994, SAS approved a code of ethics for Applied Sociologists. Over the years, the presidency of SAS has been fairly evenly divided between applied sociologists who worked in academic institutions and those who either owned their own consulting firms or were employed by governmental, nonprofit, or business entities.

The late 1970s also saw the creation of the Clinical Sociological Association (renamed Sociological Practice Association) and the ASA Section on Sociological Practice. Then, in 1980, Peter Rossi became ASA president followed the next year by William Foote Whyte, both of whom considered themselves applied sociologists. An ASA Committee on Professional Opportunities in Applied Sociology, chaired by Howard Freeman, held a workshop in December 1981 titled “Directions in Applied Sociology.” The papers presented were published in Applied Sociology (Freeman et al. 1983) and explored the then current status of applied sociology, the range of applied sociology roles in diverse settings, and the academic training of applied sociologists (Rosich 2005).

ASA also started a journal, the Sociological Practice Review, to provide a discipline sponsored publication for applied, clinical, and practicing sociologists, and to disseminate knowledge on how sociology can be applied to practical problems. Reviewed in 1992 during its third year, it was found to have had difficulty attracting sufficient manuscripts along with falling subscriptions. Despite opposition by the majority of editors of other ASA journals, the publications committee, by one vote, recommended that it be supported for another three years. The Executive Office and Budget Committee, however, recommended discontinuance and the ASA Council agreed (Dentler 1992; K. G. Edwards, personal communication from ASA Director of Publications, June 28, 2005).

In 1991, ASA was awarded funds to establish the Sydney S. Spivak Program in Applied Social Research and Social Policy with the purpose of enhancing the visibility, prestige, and centrality of applied social research and the application of sociological knowledge to social policy. The Program supported a Congressional Fellowship and policy briefings by sociologists on topics such as HIV/AIDS, youth violence, immigrants, and reactions to terrorism. It also offered Community Action Fellowships of up to $2,500 to cover direct costs of sociologists working with community groups to conduct needs assessments, evaluation studies, and empirical research of community activities and planning, or to produce an analytical literature review to address the community group’s goals (Rosich 2005).

The introduction to the Uses of Sociology (Lazarsfeld et al. 1967:xxii) noted that a Ph.D. in sociology did not really train students for employment outside academia. It asked what type of professional training would be needed, what role university research bureaus, centers and institutes would play, and whether sociologists should create programs within departments or separate schools of social research. Freeman and Rossi (1984) proposed that some departments having appropriately trained and motivated faculty, add applied training as an option for their graduate and undergraduate students. Such a program would provide a solid general grounding in the history, current trends, theories, and range of research methods in sociology, with additional practical and pragmatic skills of how to administer sample surveys and field research, how to select and work with a survey research organization or train others to collect data, and how to write a response to a request for proposals as opposed to a journal article.

In her SAS Presidential address, Jeanne Ballantine (1991) reported on a study of where sociology majors were employed after graduation, what employers were seeking, and what undergraduate applied programs were providing. She found a variety of efforts ranging from one or two courses, to an internship or field experience, to a complete track or concentration. The demand for training generated a set of texts and supplements by Sullivan (1992), Steele, Scarisbrick-Hauser, and Hauser (1999), Du Bois and Wright (2001), Dentler (2002), Straus (2002), Steele and Price (2003), and Dukes, Petersen, and Van Valey (2004).

SAS president Stephen Steele conducted a needs assessment survey of SAS members in 1992 and found an interest in strengthening training programs at the graduate and undergraduate levels. He appointed Harry Perlstadt to pursue this. In 1995, with the support of Joyce Iutcovich, SAS President and David Kallen, president of the Sociological Practice Association (SPA), they formed the Commission on Applied and Clinical Sociology (Perlstadt 1995, 1998). The commission created standards for undergraduate and graduate programs (CACS 2005) and, by 2005, had accredited three undergraduate programs (St. Cloud State, Minnesota; Our Lady of the Lake, Texas; and Valdosta State, Georgia) and two masters level graduate programs (Humboldt State, California and Valdosta State, Georgia). Accreditation standards help programs provide quality training with adequate resources and the Commission itself serves as a clearinghouse for the programs.

In August 2000, SAS and SPA met together in Washington, D.C., with the theme Unity 2000. Both recognized they were small and could benefit from combining their resources and efforts. As the result of hard work by, among others, Ross Koppel and Joan Biddle of SPA and Augie Diana and Jay Weinstein of SAS, the two groups merged in 2005 to become the Association for Applied and Clinical Sociology (AACS), with a combined journal.

Since 1970, many Ph.D. sociologists have conducted applied research in a variety of settings. A 1995 National Science Foundation survey of Ph.D. sociologists found that less than half (45.8 percent) of all sociologists taught sociology at the postsecondary level and 27.1 percent of all Ph.D. sociologists were employed outside educational institutions (Dotzler and Koppel 1999). Unfortunately, only a few Ph.D. sociologists can be mentioned here. Michael Quinn Patton, one of the leading experts in evaluation research, wrote Utilization-Focused Evaluation (Patton 1997) and was president of the American Evaluation Association. Terence C. Halliday is a Senior Research Fellow at the American Bar Foundation and President of the National Institute for Social Science Information. He helped found and was chair of the ASA Sociology of Law section and served as editor of the interdisciplinary journal Law and Social Inquiry. Lola Jean Kozak, with the job title of health statistician/senior health researcher in the National Center for Health Statistics, Centers of Disease Control, has done applied research on avoidable hospitalizations that has affected the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (Kozak, Hall, and Owings 2001). Sociologist William W. Darrow was the sole nonmedical scientist on the CDC Task Force in the early 1980s that did the initial investigations of what would be identified as the HIV/AIDS epidemic (Darrow et al. 1987; Lui, Darrow, and Rutherford 1988).

Applied Sociology in the 21st Century

Over the years, applied sociology has bridged sociological theory and sociological practice, bringing theory and ideas to professional practitioners and decision makers while, in return, contributing to the knowledge base of sociology as a science and discipline. To some extent, the history of applied sociology has been embroiled in what Andrew Abbott (1988) would identify as clarifications and disputes over jurisdictions between the academic discipline and the practice of the profession. Applied sociology has tried to steer clear of entanglements with social philosophy and ethics, on the one hand, and social engineering, reform, and activism on the other. But the very nature of applied sociology, and the interests of those who choose to do it, will mean that such jurisdictional tensions will continue well into the twenty-first century as they have for the past 150 years.

But the demand for applied sociology is not likely to slacken. The U.S. government has been commissioning social surveys and studies for over a century, and at the beginning of the twenty-first century, the NIH and NIMH road maps for research continue to look to and fund the applied side of the social and behavioral sciences. As Ogburn (1930) predicted, business, labor, community, and nonprofit service organizations all have a need for reliable and accurate data, needs assessments, and evaluations that applied sociology can provide. Evidence-based decision making and accountability will continue to be stressed as a rational necessity. Of course, decision makers and administrators will highlight those findings that meet their ends and ignore those that do not. In a few instances, applied findings will, unfortunately, be used for nefarious purposes as they were by the Soviets and Nazis.

Although the primary focus of ASA will remain on basic research and academic positions, applied sociology will continue to be recognized as a specialty/derivative field. The newly formed Association for Applied and Clinical Sociology may professionalize sociology by bringing more practitioners into contact with disciplinary sociology, thereby following a pattern that already exists in economics, psychology, and political science. This may be strengthened as more departments develop applied research and sociological practice training programs at the undergraduate and graduate levels in response to societal demands. This would be accelerated if these departments consciously pursued their common educational interests through the Commission on Applied and Clinical Sociology.

Applied sociology is very resilient. The term has survived for more than a hundred years despite vague definitions and attempts to ignore or replace it. While sociology as a discipline and perspective may have increasing difficulties being appreciated in a culture of expanding individualism, personal liberty, and self-actualization, people, and especially social organizations and government agencies, will need to choose wisely on the basis of evidence. The heart of applied sociology is social research, and as long as decision makers want to know the social facts and people are trained to provide them, applied sociology will flourish.

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