note taking methods for research paper

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How to take Research Notes

How to take research notes.

Your research notebook is an important piece of information useful for future projects and presentations. Maintaining organized and legible notes allows your research notebook to be a valuable resource to you and your research group. It allows others and yourself to replicate experiments, and it also serves as a useful troubleshooting tool. Besides it being an important part of the research process, taking detailed notes of your research will help you stay organized and allow you to easily review your work.

Here are some common reasons to maintain organized notes:

• Keeps a record of your goals and thoughts during your research experiments.
• Keeps a record of what worked and what didn't in your research experiments.
• Enables others to use your notes as a guide for similar procedures and techniques.
• A helpful tool to reference when writing a paper, submitting a proposal, or giving a presentation.
• Assists you in answering experimental questions.
• Useful to efficiently share experimental approaches, data, and results with others.

Before taking notes:

• Ask your research professor what note-taking method they recommend or prefer.
• Consider what type of media you'll be using to take notes.
• Once you have decided on how you'll be taking notes, be sure to keep all of your notes in one place to remain organized.
• Plan on taking notes regularly (meetings, important dates, procedures, journal/manuscript revisions, etc.).
• This is useful when applying to programs or internships that ask about your research experience.

Note Taking Tips:

Taking notes by hand:.

• Research notebooks don’t belong to you so make sure your notes are legible for others.
• Use post-it notes or tabs to flag important sections.
• Start sorting your notes early so that you don't become backed up and disorganized.
• Only write with a pen as pencils aren’t permanent & sharpies can bleed through.
• Make it a habit to write in your notebook and not directly on sticky notes or paper towels. Rewriting notes can waste time and sometimes lead to inaccurate data or results.

Taking Notes Electronically

• Make sure your device is charged and backed up to store data.
• Invest in note-taking apps or E-Ink tablets
• Create shortcuts to your folders so you have easier access
• Create outlines.
• Keep your notes short and legible.

Note Taking Tips Continued:

Things to avoid.

• Avoid using pencils or markers that may bleed through.
• Avoid erasing entries. Instead, draw a straight line through any mistakes and write the date next to the crossed-out information.
• Avoid writing in cursive.
• Avoid delaying your entries so you don’t fall behind and forget information.

Formatting Tips

• Use bullet points to condense your notes to make them simpler to access or color-code them.
• Tracking your failures and mistakes can improve your work in the future.
• If possible, take notes as you’re experimenting or make time at the end of each workday to get it done.
• Record the date at the start of every day, including all dates spent on research.

Types of media to use when taking notes:

Traditional paper notebook.

• Pros: Able to take quick notes, convenient access to notes, cheaper option
• Cons: Requires a table of contents or tabs as it is not easily searchable, can get damaged easily, needs to be scanned if making a digital copy

Electronic notebook  

• Apple Notes  
• Pros: Easily searchable, note-taking apps available, easy to edit & customize
• Cons: Can be difficult to find notes if they are unorganized, not as easy to take quick notes, can be a more expensive option

Combination of both

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Smart Note-Taking for Research Paper Writing

How to organize research notes using the Zettelkasten Method when writing academic papers

With plenty of note-taking tips and apps available, online and in paper form, it’s become extremely easy to take note of information, ideas, or thoughts. As simple as it is to write down an idea or jot down a quote, the skill of academic research and writing for a thesis paper is on another level entirely. And keeping a record or an archive of all of the information you need can quickly require a very organized system.

The use of index cards seems old-fashioned considering that note-taking apps (psst! Hypernotes ) offer better functionality and are arguably more user-friendly. However, software is only there to help aid our individual workflow and thinking process. That’s why understanding and learning how to properly research, take notes and write academic papers is still a highly valuable skill.

Let’s Start Writing! But Where to Start…

Writing academic papers is a vital skill most students need to learn and practice. Academic papers are usually time-intensive pieces of written content that are a requirement throughout school or at University. Whether a topic is assigned or you have to choose your own, there’s little room for variation in how to begin.

Popular and purposeful in analyzing and evaluating the knowledge of the author as well as assessing if the learning objectives were met, research papers serve as information-packed content. Most of us may not end up working jobs in academic professions or be researchers at institutions, where writing research papers is also part of the job, but we often read such papers. 

Despite the fact that most research papers or dissertations aren’t often read in full, journalists, academics, and other professionals regularly use academic papers as a basis for further literary publications or blog articles. The standard of academic papers ensures the validity of the information and gives the content authority. 

There’s no-nonsense in research papers. To make sure to write convincing and correct content, the research stage is extremely important. And, naturally, when doing any kind of research, we take notes.

Why Take Notes?

There are particular standards defined for writing academic papers . In order to meet these standards, a specific amount of background information and researched literature is required. Taking notes helps keep track of read/consumed literary material as well as keeps a file of any information that may be of importance to the topic. 

The aim of writing isn’t merely to advertise fully formed opinions, but also serves the purpose of developing opinions worth sharing in the first place. 

What is Note-Taking?

Note-taking (sometimes written as notetaking or note-taking ) is the practice of recording information from different sources and platforms. For academic writing, note-taking is the process of obtaining and compiling information that answers and supports the research paper’s questions and topic. Notes can be in one of three forms: summary, paraphrase, or direct quotation.

Note-taking is an excellent process useful for anyone to turn individual thoughts and information into organized ideas ready to be communicated through writing. Notes are, however, only as valuable as the context. Since notes are also a byproduct of the information we consume daily, it’s important to categorize information, develop connections, and establish relationships between pieces of information. 

What Type of Notes Can I Take?

• Explanation of complex theories
• Background information on events or persons of interest
• Definitions of terms
• Quotations of significant value
• Illustrations or graphics

Note-Taking 101

Taking notes or doing research for academic papers shouldn’t be that difficult, considering we take notes all the time. Wrong. Note-taking for research papers isn’t the same as quickly noting down an interesting slogan or cool quote from a video, putting it on a sticky note, and slapping it onto your bedroom or office wall.

Note-taking for research papers requires focus and careful deliberation of which information is important to note down, keep on file, or use and reference in your own writing. Depending on the topic and requirements of your research paper from your University or institution, your notes might include explanations of complex theories, definitions, quotations, and graphics. 

Stages of Research Paper Writing

1. Preparation Stage

Before you start, it’s recommended to draft a plan or an outline of how you wish to begin preparing to write your research paper. Make note of the topic you will be writing on, as well as the stylistic and literary requirements for your paper.

2. Research Stage

In the research stage, finding good and useful literary material for background knowledge is vital. To find particular publications on a topic, you can use Google Scholar or access literary databases and institutions made available to you through your school, university, or institution. 

Make sure to write down the source location of the literary material you find. Always include the reference title, author, page number, and source destination. This saves you time when formatting your paper in the later stages and helps keep the information you collect organized and referenceable.

In the worst-case scenario, you’ll have to do a backward search to find the source of a quote you wrote down without reference to the original literary material. 

3. Writing Stage

When writing, an outline or paper structure is helpful to visually break up the piece into sections. Once you have defined the sections, you can begin writing and referencing the information you have collected in the research stage.

Clearly mark which text pieces and information where you relied on background knowledge, which texts are directly sourced, and which information you summarized or have written in your own words. This is where your paper starts to take shape.  

4. Draft Stage

After organizing all of your collected notes and starting to write your paper, you are already in the draft stage. In the draft stage, the background information collected and the text written in your own words come together. Every piece of information is structured by the subtopics and sections you defined in the previous stages. 

5. Final Stage

Success! Well… almost! In the final stage, you look over your whole paper and check for consistency and any irrelevancies. Read through the entire paper for clarity, grammatical errors , and peace of mind that you have included everything important. 

Make sure you use the correct formatting and referencing method requested by your University or institution for research papers. Don’t forget to save it and then send the paper on its way.

Best Practice Note-Taking Tips

• Find relevant and authoritative literary material through the search bar of literary databases and institutions.
• Practice citation repeatedly! Always keep a record of the reference book title, author, page number, and source location. At best, format the citation in the necessary format from the beginning. 
• Organize your notes according to topic or reference to easily find the information again when in the writing stage. Work invested in the early stages eases the writing and editing process of the later stages.
• Summarize research notes and write in your own words as much as possible. Cite direct quotes and clearly mark copied text in your notes to avoid plagiarism.  

Take Smart Notes

Taking smart notes isn’t as difficult as it seems. It’s simply a matter of principle, defined structure, and consistency. Whether you opt for a paper-based system or use a digital tool to write and organize your notes depends solely on your individual personality, needs, and workflow.

With various productivity apps promoting diverse techniques, a good note-taking system to take smart notes is the Zettelkasten Method . Invented by Niklas Luhmann, a german sociologist and researcher, the Zettelkasten Method is known as the smart note-taking method that popularized personalized knowledge management. 

As a strategic process for thinking and writing, the Zettelkasten Method helps you organize your knowledge while working, studying, or researching. Directly translated as a ‘note box’, Zettelkasten is simply a framework to help organize your ideas, thoughts, and information by relating pieces of knowledge and connecting pieces of information to each other.

Hypernotes is a note-taking app that can be used as a software-based Zettelkasten, with integrated features to make smart note-taking so much easier, such as auto-connecting related notes, and syncing to multiple devices. In each notebook, you can create an archive of your thoughts, ideas, and information. 

Using the tag system to connect like-minded ideas and information to one another and letting Hypernotes do its thing with bi-directional linking, you’ll soon create a web of knowledge about anything you’ve ever taken note of. This feature is extremely helpful to navigate through the enormous amounts of information you’ve written down. Another benefit is that it assists you in categorizing and making connections between your ideas, thoughts, and saved information in a single notebook. Navigate through your notes, ideas, and knowledge easily.

Ready, Set, Go!

Writing academic papers is no simple task. Depending on the requirements, resources available, and your personal research and writing style, techniques, apps, or practice help keep you organized and increase your productivity. 

Whether you use a particular note-taking app like Hypernotes for your research paper writing or opt for a paper-based system, make sure you follow a particular structure. Repeat the steps that help you find the information you need quicker and allow you to reproduce or create knowledge naturally.

Images from NeONBRAND , hana_k and Surface via Unsplash 

A well-written piece is made up of authoritative sources and uses the art of connecting ideas, thoughts, and information together. Good luck to all students and professionals working on research paper writing! We hope these tips help you in organizing the information and aid your workflow in your writing process.

Cheers, Jessica and the Zenkit Team

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• Note-taking

Think about how you take notes during class. Do you use a specific system? Do you feel that system is working for you? What could be improved? How might taking notes during a lecture, section, or seminar be different online versus in the classroom? 

Adjust how you take notes during synchronous vs. asynchronous learning (slightly) . 

First, let’s distinguish between  synchronous  and  asynchronous  instruction. Synchronous classes are live with the instructor and students together, and asynchronous instruction is material recorded by the professor for viewing by students at another time. Sometimes asynchronous instruction may include a recording of a live Zoom session with the instructor and students. 

With this distinction in mind,  here are some tips on how to take notes during both types of instruction:

Taking notes during live classes (synchronous instruction).

Taking notes when watching recorded classes (asynchronous instruction)., check in with yourself., if available, annotate lecture slides during lecture., consider writing notes by hand., review your notes., write down questions..

Below are some common and effective note-taking techniques: 

Cornell Notes

If you are looking for help with using some of the tips and techniques described above, come to the ARC’s note-taking workshop, offered several times every semester.

Register for ARC Workshops

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How to Take Better Notes During Lectures, Discussions, and Interviews

Tried-and-True Methods and Tips From Expert Note-Takers

Horst Tappe / Hulton Archive / Getty Images

• An Introduction to Punctuation
• Ph.D., Rhetoric and English, University of Georgia
• M.A., Modern English and American Literature, University of Leicester
• B.A., English, State University of New York

Note-taking is the practice of writing down or otherwise recording key points of information. It's an important part of the research process. Notes taken on class lectures or discussions may serve as study aids, while notes taken during an interview may provide material for an essay , article , or book. "Taking notes doesn't simply mean scribbling down or marking up the things that strike your fancy," say Walter Pauk and Ross J.Q. Owens in their book, "How to Study in College." "It means using a proven system and then effectively recording information before tying everything together."

Cognitive Benefits of Note-Taking

Note-taking involves certain cognitive behavior; writing notes engages your brain in specific and beneficial ways that help you grasp and retain information. Note-taking can result in broader learning than simply mastering course content because it helps you to process information and make connections between ideas, allowing you to apply your new knowledge to novel contexts, according to Michael C. Friedman, in his paper, "Notes on Note-Taking: Review of Research and Insights for Students and Instructors," which is part of the Harvard Initiative for Learning and Teaching.

Shelley O'Hara, in her book, "Improving Your Study Skills: Study Smart, Study Less," agrees, stating:

"Taking notes involves  active listening , as well as connecting and relating information to ideas you already know. It also involves seeking answers to questions that arise from the material."

Taking notes forces you to actively engage your brain as you identify what's important in terms of what the speaker is saying and begin to organize that information into a comprehensible format to decipher later. That process, which is far more than simply scribbling what you hear, involves some heavy brainwork.

Most Popular Note-Taking Methods

Note-taking aids in reflection, mentally reviewing what you write. To that end, there are certain methods of note-taking that are among the most popular:

• The Cornell method involves dividing a piece of paper into three sections: a space on the left for writing the main topics, a larger space on the right to write your notes, and a space at the bottom to summarize your notes. Review and clarify your notes as soon as possible after class. Summarize what you've written on the bottom of the page, and finally, study your notes.
• Creating a mind map is a visual diagram that lets you organize your notes in a two-dimensional structure, says  Focus . You create a mind map by writing the subject or headline in the center of the page, then add your notes in the form of branches that radiate outward from the center.
• Outlining  is similar to creating an outline that you might use for a research paper.
• Charting  allows you to break up information into such categories as similarities and differences; dates, events, and impact; and pros and cons, according to  East Carolina University .
• The  sentence method is when you record every new thought, fact, or topic on a separate line. "All information is recorded, but it lacks [the] clarification of major and minor topics. Immediate review and editing are required to determine how information should be organized," per East Carolina University.

Two-Column Method and Lists

There are, of course, other variations on the previously described note-taking methods, such as the two-column method, says Kathleen T. McWhorter, in her book, "Successful College Writing," who explains that to use this method:

"Draw a vertical line from the top of a piece of paper to the bottom. The left-hand column should be about half as wide as the right-hand column. In the wider, right-hand column, record ideas and facts as they are presented in a lecture or discussion. In the narrower, left-hand column, note your own questions as they arise during the class."

Making a list  can also be effective, say John N. Gardner and Betsy O. Barefoot in "Step by Step to College and Career Success." "Once you have decided on a format for taking notes, you may also want to develop your own system of abbreviations ," they suggest.

Note-Taking Tips

Among other tips offered by note-taking experts:

• Leave a space between entries so that you can fill in any missing information.
• Use a laptop and download information to add to your notes either during or after the lecture.
• Understand that there is a difference between taking notes on what you read and what you hear (in a lecture). If you're unsure what that might be, visit a teacher or professor during office hours and ask them to elaborate.

If none of these methods suit you, read the words of author Paul Theroux in his article "A World Duly Noted" published in The Wall Street Journal in 2013:

"I write down everything and never assume that I will remember something because it seemed vivid at the time."

And once you read these words, don't forget to jot them down in your preferred method of note-taking so that you won't forget them.

Brandner, Raphaela. “How to Take Effective Notes Using Mind Maps.” Focus.

East Carolina University.

Friedman, Michael C. "Notes on Note-Taking: Review of Research and Insights for Students and Instructors." Harvard Initiative for Learning and Teachi ng, 2014.

Gardner, John N. and Betsy O. Barefoot. Step by Step to College and Career Success . 2 nd ed., Thomson, 2008.

McWhorter, Kathleen T. Successful College Writing . 4 th ed, Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2010.

O'Hara, Shelley. Improving Your Study Skills: Study Smart, Study Less . Wiley, 2005.

Pauk, Walter and Ross J.Q. Owens . How to Study in College . 11 th ed, Wadsworth/Cengage Learning, 2004.

Theroux, Paul. "A World Duly Noted." The Wall Street Journal , 3 May 2013.

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13.5 Research Process: Making Notes, Synthesizing Information, and Keeping a Research Log

Learning outcomes.

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Employ the methods and technologies commonly used for research and communication within various fields.
• Practice and apply strategies such as interpretation, synthesis, response, and critique to compose texts that integrate the writer’s ideas with those from appropriate sources.
• Analyze and make informed decisions about intellectual property based on the concepts that motivate them.
• Apply citation conventions systematically.

As you conduct research, you will work with a range of “texts” in various forms, including sources and documents from online databases as well as images, audio, and video files from the Internet. You may also work with archival materials and with transcribed and analyzed primary data. Additionally, you will be taking notes and recording quotations from secondary sources as you find materials that shape your understanding of your topic and, at the same time, provide you with facts and perspectives. You also may download articles as PDFs that you then annotate. Like many other students, you may find it challenging to keep so much material organized, accessible, and easy to work with while you write a major research paper. As it does for many of those students, a research log for your ideas and sources will help you keep track of the scope, purpose, and possibilities of any research project.

A research log is essentially a journal in which you collect information, ask questions, and monitor the results. Even if you are completing the annotated bibliography for Writing Process: Informing and Analyzing , keeping a research log is an effective organizational tool. Like Lily Tran’s research log entry, most entries have three parts: a part for notes on secondary sources, a part for connections to the thesis or main points, and a part for your own notes or questions. Record source notes by date, and allow room to add cross-references to other entries.

Summary of Assignment: Research Log

Your assignment is to create a research log similar to the student model. You will use it for the argumentative research project assigned in Writing Process: Integrating Research to record all secondary source information: your notes, complete publication data, relation to thesis, and other information as indicated in the right-hand column of the sample entry.

Another Lens. A somewhat different approach to maintaining a research log is to customize it to your needs or preferences. You can apply shading or color coding to headers, rows, and/or columns in the three-column format (for colors and shading). Or you can add columns to accommodate more information, analysis, synthesis, or commentary, formatting them as you wish. Consider adding a column for questions only or one for connections to other sources. Finally, consider a different visual format , such as one without columns. Another possibility is to record some of your comments and questions so that you have an aural rather than a written record of these.

Writing Center

At this point, or at any other point during the research and writing process, you may find that your school’s writing center can provide extensive assistance. If you are unfamiliar with the writing center, now is a good time to pay your first visit. Writing centers provide free peer tutoring for all types and phases of writing. Discussing your research with a trained writing center tutor can help you clarify, analyze, and connect ideas as well as provide feedback on works in progress.

Quick Launch: Beginning Questions

You may begin your research log with some open pages in which you freewrite, exploring answers to the following questions. Although you generally would do this at the beginning, it is a process to which you likely will return as you find more information about your topic and as your focus changes, as it may during the course of your research.

• What information have I found so far?
• What do I still need to find?
• Where am I most likely to find it?

These are beginning questions. Like Lily Tran, however, you will come across general questions or issues that a quick note or freewrite may help you resolve. The key to this section is to revisit it regularly. Written answers to these and other self-generated questions in your log clarify your tasks as you go along, helping you articulate ideas and examine supporting evidence critically. As you move further into the process, consider answering the following questions in your freewrite:

• What evidence looks as though it best supports my thesis?
• What evidence challenges my working thesis?
• How is my thesis changing from where it started?

Creating the Research Log

As you gather source material for your argumentative research paper, keep in mind that the research is intended to support original thinking. That is, you are not writing an informational report in which you simply supply facts to readers. Instead, you are writing to support a thesis that shows original thinking, and you are collecting and incorporating research into your paper to support that thinking. Therefore, a research log, whether digital or handwritten, is a great way to keep track of your thinking as well as your notes and bibliographic information.

In the model below, Lily Tran records the correct MLA bibliographic citation for the source. Then, she records a note and includes the in-text citation here to avoid having to retrieve this information later. Perhaps most important, Tran records why she noted this information—how it supports her thesis: The human race must turn to sustainable food systems that provide healthy diets with minimal environmental impact, starting now . Finally, she makes a note to herself about an additional visual to include in the final paper to reinforce the point regarding the current pressure on food systems. And she connects the information to other information she finds, thus cross-referencing and establishing a possible synthesis. Use a format similar to that in Table 13.4 to begin your own research log.

Types of Research Notes

Taking good notes will make the research process easier by enabling you to locate and remember sources and use them effectively. While some research projects requiring only a few sources may seem easily tracked, research projects requiring more than a few sources are more effectively managed when you take good bibliographic and informational notes. As you gather evidence for your argumentative research paper, follow the descriptions and the electronic model to record your notes. You can combine these with your research log, or you can use the research log for secondary sources and your own note-taking system for primary sources if a division of this kind is helpful. Either way, be sure to include all necessary information.

Bibliographic Notes

These identify the source you are using. When you locate a useful source, record the information necessary to find that source again. It is important to do this as you find each source, even before taking notes from it. If you create bibliographic notes as you go along, then you can easily arrange them in alphabetical order later to prepare the reference list required at the end of formal academic papers. If your instructor requires you to use MLA formatting for your essay, be sure to record the following information:

• Title of source
• Title of container (larger work in which source is included)
• Other contributors
• Publication date

When using MLA style with online sources, also record the following information:

• Date of original publication
• Date of access
• DOI (A DOI, or digital object identifier, is a series of digits and letters that leads to the location of an online source. Articles in journals are often assigned DOIs to ensure that the source can be located, even if the URL changes. If your source is listed with a DOI, use that instead of a URL.)

It is important to understand which documentation style your instructor will require you to use. Check the Handbook for MLA Documentation and Format and APA Documentation and Format styles . In addition, you can check the style guide information provided by the Purdue Online Writing Lab .

Informational Notes

These notes record the relevant information found in your sources. When writing your essay, you will work from these notes, so be sure they contain all the information you need from every source you intend to use. Also try to focus your notes on your research question so that their relevance is clear when you read them later. To avoid confusion, work with separate entries for each piece of information recorded. At the top of each entry, identify the source through brief bibliographic identification (author and title), and note the page numbers on which the information appears. Also helpful is to add personal notes, including ideas for possible use of the information or cross-references to other information. As noted in Writing Process: Integrating Research , you will be using a variety of formats when borrowing from sources. Below is a quick review of these formats in terms of note-taking processes. By clarifying whether you are quoting directly, paraphrasing, or summarizing during these stages, you can record information accurately and thus take steps to avoid plagiarism.

Direct Quotations, Paraphrases, and Summaries

A direct quotation is an exact duplication of the author’s words as they appear in the original source. In your notes, put quotation marks around direct quotations so that you remember these words are the author’s, not yours. One advantage of copying exact quotations is that it allows you to decide later whether to include a quotation, paraphrase, or summary. ln general, though, use direct quotations only when the author’s words are particularly lively or persuasive.

A paraphrase is a restatement of the author’s words in your own words. Paraphrase to simplify or clarify the original author’s point. In your notes, use paraphrases when you need to record details but not exact words.

A summary is a brief condensation or distillation of the main point and most important details of the original source. Write a summary in your own words, with facts and ideas accurately represented. A summary is useful when specific details in the source are unimportant or irrelevant to your research question. You may find you can summarize several paragraphs or even an entire article or chapter in just a few sentences without losing useful information. It is a good idea to note when your entry contains a summary to remind you later that it omits detailed information. See Writing Process Integrating Research for more detailed information and examples of quotations, paraphrases, and summaries and when to use them.

Other Systems for Organizing Research Logs and Digital Note-Taking

Students often become frustrated and at times overwhelmed by the quantity of materials to be managed in the research process. If this is your first time working with both primary and secondary sources, finding ways to keep all of the information in one place and well organized is essential.

Because gathering primary evidence may be a relatively new practice, this section is designed to help you navigate the process. As mentioned earlier, information gathered in fieldwork is not cataloged, organized, indexed, or shelved for your convenience. Obtaining it requires diligence, energy, and planning. Online resources can assist you with keeping a research log. Your college library may have subscriptions to tools such as Todoist or EndNote. Consult with a librarian to find out whether you have access to any of these. If not, use something like the template shown in Figure 13.8 , or another like it, as a template for creating your own research notes and organizational tool. You will need to have a record of all field research data as well as the research log for all secondary sources.

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Note-taking for Research

As you determine which sources you will rely on most, it is important to establish a system for keeping track of your sources and taking notes. There are several ways to go about it, and no one system is necessarily superior. What matters is that you keep materials in order; record bibliographical information you will need later; and take detailed, organized notes.

Keeping Track of Your Sources

As you conduct research, taking time to keep track of source information and to organize that information now will help ensure that you are not scrambling to find it at the last minute, which easily leads to problems ranging from incomplete essays to plagiarism. Throughout your research, record bibliographical information for each source as soon as you begin using it. Maintaining an electronic list (even by copying and pasting information) can be quick and efficient, but you may instead feel more in control of the information you’ve collected by using pen-and-paper methods, such as a notebook or note cards.

The table below shows the kinds of details you should record for commonly used source types. Use these details to develop a working bibliography —a preliminary list of sources that you will later use to develop the final Works Cited page of your essay.

Details for Commonly Used Source Types

Your research may involve less common types of sources not listed above. For additional information on citing different sources, see the chapter MLA Format and Citation.

Taking Notes Efficiently

Good researchers stay focused and organized as they gather information from sources. Before you begin taking notes, take a moment to step back and think about your goal as a researcher—to find information that will help you answer your research question. When you write your essay, you will present your conclusions about the subject supported by your research. That goal will determine what information you record and how you organize it.

Writers sometimes get caught up in taking extensive notes, so much so that they lose sight of how their notes relate to the questions and ideas they started out with. Remember that you do not need to write down every detail from your reading. Focus on finding and recording details that will help you answer your research questions. The following strategies will help you take notes efficiently.

Use Headings to Organize Ideas

Whether you use old-fashioned index cards or organize your notes using word-processing software, such as MS Word or Google Docs, record just one major point from each source at a time, and use a heading to summarize the information covered. Keep all your notes in one file, digital or otherwise. Doing so will help you identify connections among different pieces of information. It will also help you make connections between your notes and the research questions and subtopics you identified earlier.

Know When to Summarize, Paraphrase, or Directly Quote a Source

Your notes will fall under three categories—summary notes, paraphrased information, and direct quotations from your sources. Effective researchers make choices about which type of notes is most appropriate for their purpose.

• Summary notes give an overview of the main ideas in a source in a few sentences or a short paragraph. A summary is considerably shorter than the original text and captures only the major ideas. Use summary notes when you do not need to record specific details but you intend to refer to broad concepts the author discusses.
• Paraphrased notes restate a fact or idea from a source using your own words and sentence structure, particularly in a way that better suits your purpose and audience than the way the original source said it.
• Direct quotations use the exact wording used by the original source and enclose the quoted material in quotation marks. It is a good strategy to copy direct quotations when an author expresses an idea in an especially lively or memorable way. However, do not rely exclusively on direct quotations in your note taking.

Most of your notes should be paraphrased from the original source. Paraphrasing as you take notes is usually a better strategy than copying direct quotations, because it forces you to think through the information in your source and understand it well enough to restate it. In short, it helps you stay engaged with the material instead of simply copying and pasting. For more information on this, see the section Summary, Paraphrasis, and Quotation.

Maintain Complete, Accurate Notes

Regardless of the format used, any notes you take should include enough information to help you organize ideas and locate them instantly in the original text if you need to review them. Make sure your notes include the vital bibliographic information noted above.

Throughout the process of taking notes, be scrupulous about making sure you have correctly attributed each idea to its source. Always include source information so you know exactly which ideas came from which sources. Use quotation marks to set off any words for phrases taken directly from the original text. If you add your own responses and ideas, make sure they are distinct from ideas you quoted or paraphrased.

Finally, make sure your notes accurately reflect the content of the original text. Make sure quoted material is copied verbatim. If you omit words from a quotation, use ellipses to show the omission and make sure the omission does not change the author’s meaning. Paraphrase ideas carefully, and check your paraphrased notes against the original text to make sure that you have restated the author’s ideas accurately in your own words. For more information on this, see the section Summary, Paraphrasis, and Quotation.

Use a System That Works for You

There are several formats you can use to take notes. No technique is necessarily better than the others—it is more important to choose a format you are comfortable using. Choosing the format that works best for you will ensure your notes are organized, complete, and accurate. Consider implementing one of these formats when you begin taking notes:

• Use index cards. This traditional format involves writing each note on a separate index card. It takes more time than copying and pasting into an electronic document, which encourages you to be selective in choosing which ideas to record. Recording notes on separate cards makes it easy to later organize your notes according to major topics. Some writers color-code their cards to make them still more organized.
• Use note-taking software. Word-processing and office software packages often include different types of note-taking software. Although you may need to set aside some time to learn the software, this method combines the speed of typing with the same degree of organization associated with handwritten note cards.
• Maintain a research notebook. Instead of using index cards or electronic note cards, you may wish to keep a notebook or electronic folder, allotting a few pages (or one file) for each of your sources. This method makes it easy to create a separate column or section of the document where you add your responses to the information you encounter in your research.
• Annotate your sources. This method involves making handwritten notes in the margins of sources that you have printed or photocopied. If using electronic sources, you can make comments within the source document. For example, you might add comment boxes to a PDF version of an article. This method works best for experienced researchers who have already thought a great deal about the topic because it can be difficult to organize your notes later when starting your draft.

Choose one of the methods from the list to use for taking notes. Continue gathering sources and taking notes. In the next section, you will learn strategies for organizing and synthesizing the information you have found.

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Study Skills

Research skills.

• Searching the literature
• Note making for dissertations
• Research Data Management
• Copyright and licenses
• Publishing in journals
• Publishing academic books
• Depositing your thesis
• Research metrics
• Build your online profile
• Finding support

Note making for dissertations: First steps into writing

Note making (as opposed to note taking) is an active practice of recording relevant parts of reading for your research as well as your reflections and critiques of those studies. Note making, therefore, is a pre-writing exercise that helps you to organise your thoughts prior to writing. In this module, we will cover:

• The difference between note taking and note making
• Seven tips for good note making
• Strategies for structuring your notes and asking critical questions
• Different styles of note making

To complete this section, you will need:

• Approximately 20-30 minutes.
• Access to the internet. All the resources used here are available freely.
• Some equipment for jotting down your thoughts, a pen and paper will do, or your phone or another electronic device.

Note taking v note making

When you think about note taking, what comes to mind? Perhaps trying to record everything said in a lecture? Perhaps trying to write down everything included in readings required for a course?

• Note taking is a passive process. When you take notes, you are often trying to record everything that you are reading or listening to. However, you may have noticed that this takes a lot of effort and often results in too many notes to be useful.  
• Note making , on the other hand, is an active practice, based on the needs and priorities of your project. Note making is an opportunity for you to ask critical questions of your readings and to synthesise ideas as they pertain to your research questions. Making notes is a pre-writing exercise that develops your academic voice and makes writing significantly easier.

Seven tips for effective note making

Note making is an active process based on the needs of your research. This video contains seven tips to help you make brilliant notes from articles and books to make the most of the time you spend reading and writing.

• Transcript of Seven Tips for Effective Notemaking

Question prompts for strategic note making

You might consider structuring your notes to answer the following questions. Remember that note making is based on your needs, so not all of these questions will apply in all cases. You might try answering these questions using the note making styles discussed in the next section.

• Question prompts for strategic note making
• Background question prompts
• Critical question prompts
• Synthesis question prompts

Answer these six questions to frame your reading and provide context.

• What is the context in which the text was written? What came before it? Are there competing ideas?
• Who is the intended audience?
• What is the author’s purpose?
• How is the writing organised?
• What are the author’s methods?
• What is the author’s key argument and conclusions?

Answer these six questions to determine your critical perspectivess and develop your academic voice.

• What are the most interesting/compelling ideas (to you) in this study?
• Why do you find them interesting? How do they relate to your study?
• What questions do you have about the study?
• What could it cover better? How could it have defended its research better?
• What are the implications of the study? (Look not just to the conclusions but also to definitions and models)
• Are there any gaps in the study? (Look not just at conclusions but definitions, literature review, methodology)

Answer these five questions to compare aspects of various studies (such as for a literature review. 

• What are the similarities and differences in the literature?
• Critically analyse the strengths, limitations, debates and themes that emerg from the literature.
• What would you suggest for future research or practice?
• Where are the gaps in the literature? What is missing? Why?
• What new questions should be asked in this area of study?

Styles of note making

• Linear notes . Great for recording thoughts about your readings. [video]
• Mind mapping : Great for thinking through complex topics. [video]

Further sites that discuss techniques for note making:

• Note-taking techniques
• Common note-taking methods
• Strategies for effective note making  

Did you know?

How did you find this Research Skills module

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• Next: Research Data Management >>
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How to Do Research: A Step-By-Step Guide: 4a. Take Notes

• Get Started
• 1a. Select a Topic
• 1b. Develop Research Questions
• 1c. Identify Keywords
• 1d. Find Background Information
• 1e. Refine a Topic
• 2a. Search Strategies
• 2d. Articles
• 2e. Videos & Images
• 2f. Databases
• 2g. Websites
• 2h. Grey Literature
• 2i. Open Access Materials
• 3a. Evaluate Sources
• 3b. Primary vs. Secondary
• 3c. Types of Periodicals
• 4a. Take Notes
• 4b. Outline the Paper
• 4c. Incorporate Source Material
• 5a. Avoid Plagiarism
• 5b. Zotero & MyBib
• 5c. MLA Formatting
• 5d. MLA Citation Examples
• 5e. APA Formatting
• 5f. APA Citation Examples
• 5g. Annotated Bibliographies

Note Taking in Bibliographic Management Tools

We encourage students to use bibliographic citation management tools (such as Zotero, EasyBib and RefWorks) to keep track of their research citations. Each service includes a note-taking function. Find more information about citation management tools here . Whether or not you're using one of these, the tips below will help you.

Tips for Taking Notes Electronically

• Try using a bibliographic citation management tool to keep track of your sources and to take notes.
• As you add sources, put them in the format you're using (MLA, APA, Chicago, etc.).
• Group sources by publication type (i.e., book, article, website).
• Number each source within the publication type group.
• For websites, include the URL information and the date you accessed each site.
• Next to each idea, include the source number from the Works Cited file and the page number from the source. See the examples below. Note that #A5 and #B2 refer to article source 5 and book source 2 from the Works Cited file.

#A5 p.35: 76.69% of the hyperlinks selected from homepage are for articles and the catalog #B2 p.76: online library guides evolved from the paper pathfinders of the 1960s

• When done taking notes, assign keywords or sub-topic headings to each idea, quote or summary.
• Use the copy and paste feature to group keywords or sub-topic ideas together.
• Back up your master list and note files frequently!

Tips for Taking Notes by Hand

• Use index cards to keep notes and track sources used in your paper.
• Include the citation (i.e., author, title, publisher, date, page numbers, etc.) in the format you're using. It will be easier to organize the sources alphabetically when creating the Works Cited page.
• Number the source cards.
• Use only one side to record a single idea, fact or quote from one source. It will be easier to rearrange them later when it comes time to organize your paper.
• Include a heading or key words at the top of the card. 
• Include the Work Cited source card number.
• Include the page number where you found the information.
• Use abbreviations, acronyms, or incomplete sentences to record information to speed up the notetaking process.
• Write down only the information that answers your research questions.
• Use symbols, diagrams, charts or drawings to simplify and visualize ideas.

Forms of Notetaking

Use one of these notetaking forms to capture information:

• Summarize : Capture the main ideas of the source succinctly by restating them in your own words.
• Paraphrase : Restate the author's ideas in your own words.
• Quote : Copy the quotation exactly as it appears in the original source. Put quotation marks around the text and note the name of the person you are quoting.

Example of a Work Cited Card

Example notecard.

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Graduate Research: Note-Taking and Organization

• Getting Organized

Taking Notes

• Reference Managers

Taking Notes for Research Papers

How to Take Notes

First of all, make sure that you record all necessary and appropriate information: author, title, publisher, place of publication, volume, the span of pages, date. It's probably easiest to keep this basic information about each source on individual 3x5 or 4x6 notecards. This way when you come to creating the "Works Cited" or "References" at the end of your paper, you can easily alphabetize your cards to create the list. Also, keep a running list of page numbers as you take notes so that you can identify the exact location of each piece of noted information. Remember, you will have to refer to these sources accurately, sometimes using page numbers within your paper and, depending on the type of source, using page numbers as part of your list of sources at the end of the paper.

Many people recommend taking all your notes on notecards. The advantage of notecards is that if you write very specific notes or only one idea on one side of the card, you can then spread them out on a table and rearrange them as you are structuring your paper. They're also small and neat and can help you stay organized.

Some people find notecards too small and frustrating to work with when taking notes and use a notebook instead. They leave plenty of space between notes and only write on one side of the page. Later, they either cut up their notes and arrange them as they would the cards, or they color code their notes to help them arrange information for sections or paragraphs of their paper.

What to Put into Notes

When you take notes, your job is not to write everything down, nor is it a good idea to give in to the temptation of photocopying pages or articles.

Notetaking is the process of extracting only the information that answers your research question or supports your working thesis directly. Notes can be in one of three forms: summary, paraphrase, or direct quotation. (It's a good idea to come up with a system-- you might simply label each card or note "s" "p" or "q"--as a way of keeping track of the kind of notes you took from a source.) Also, a direct quotation reproduces the source's words and punctuation exactly, so you add quotation marks around the sentence(s) to show this. Remember it is essential to record the exact page numbers of the specific notes since you will need them later for your documentation.

Work carefully to make sure you have recorded the source of your notes and the basic information you will need when citing your source, to save yourself a great deal of time and frustration--otherwise you will have to make extra trips to the library when writing your final draft.

How to Use Idea Cards

While doing your research, you will be making connections and synthesizing what you are learning. Some people find it useful to make "idea cards" or notes in which they write out the ideas and perceptions they are developing about their topic.

How to Work with Notes

• After you take notes, re-read them.
• Then re-organize them by putting similar information together. Working with your notes involves re-grouping them by topic instead of by source. Re-group your notes by re-shuffling your index cards or by color-coding or using symbols to code notes in a notebook.
• Review the topics of your newly-grouped notes. If the topics do not answer your research question or support your working thesis directly, you may need to do additional research or re-think your original research.
• During this process, you may find that you have taken notes that do not answer your research question or support your working thesis directly. Don't be afraid to throw them away.

It may have struck you that you just read a lot of "re" words: re-read, re-organize, re-group, re-shuffle, re-think. That's right; working with your notes essentially means going back and reviewing how this "new" information fits with your thoughts about the topic or issue of the research.

Grouping your notes should enable you to outline the major sections and then the paragraph of your research paper.

Credit: Online Writing Center, SUNY Empire State College

Organize Your Notes

• After you take notes, re-read them. 
• Working with your notes involves re-grouping them by topic instead of by source. Re-group your notes by re-shuffling your index cards or by color-coding or using symbols to code notes in a notebook. 
• Review the topics of your newly-grouped notes. If the topics do not answer your research question or support your working thesis directly, you may need to do additional research or re-think your original research. 
• During this process, you may find that you have taken notes that do not answer your research question or support your working thesis directly. Don't be afraid to throw them away. 

Working with your notes involves a lot of repetition: re-reading, re-organizing, re-grouping, and even re-thinking how "new" information fits with your thoughts about the topic or issue of the research. Ultimately, grouping your notes will allow you to outline the major sections and paragraphs of your research paper.

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• Next: Reference Managers >>
• Last Updated: Jan 10, 2022 3:14 PM
• URL: https://selu.libguides.com/Notetaking

W.R.E. Consulting Services

Writing, Research, and Editing Since 2008

Research Note-Taking Methods Part 1: Taking Notes on Paper

It is vital, when writing, to document any material you used during the research phase. Developing a system for taking and making notes is key. Being able to report quotations and paraphrases accurately depends upon careful research note-taking methods. Here are classic paper-based note-taking methods that work well for any research project.

Note: This post contains affiliate or associate links. If you click on a link and make a purchase, I will receive a small commission at no extra cost. I take great care only to recommend products or services I’ve used and found helpful.

Index Cards – The Classic Notetaking Method

One paper notetaking method for research projects involves using index cards. First, you obtain an index card box, dividers you’ll label corresponding to the topics you will cover, and index cards. We can use this method in two ways.

The classic way to use index cards for research notetaking is to use a single index card for each new piece of information. First, record the bibliographic information at the top of each card. This information typically includes the author(s), title, city, state, publisher, and publication date. Second, record the paraphrase or the quotation you wish to use for your paper and the page on which you found this information. Double-check the card for accuracy.

Alternate Index Cards Method

A second way to use index cards for research notetaking , especially if you plan to use multiple sources or have multiple cards for one source, is to have a key with the bibliographic information on it and use abbreviations. To do this, create a notebook page for all bibliographic material. Give each source a distinct code. Record this code at the top of each index card associated with that source.

IMPORTANT: If you use this method, ensure that the code on your index card matches the code on the key. As with the classic method, keep information to one paraphrase or quote per index card. This makes the information easily manipulated when it comes time to write. In addition, quotes from the same book may be used in different places within your paper. By keeping one bit of information per index card, you can organize quotations and paraphrases by sections.

Notebook Based Note-Taking Methods

Another method of taking notes for your research project involves using a notebook. Create a page in the notebook for each new source material. As you did with the index card method, ensure bibliographic information is at the top of the page. Then, list your notes & page numbers for citations down the page. For some, this may be a better method than the index card method, but the weakness lies in the idea that you won’t be able to shift quotes around when you’re making your outline physically.

Using a Binder for Taking Notes While Researching

The same strategy works whether you use a notebook or a binder. The advantage of using a binder over a notebook is that you can move notes around and categorize them under different dividers. This may come in handy if you’re working on a large project with many different categories of information you might want to take or make notes on. For example, if you’re writing a thesis, you may wish to categorize your notes broadly by which section of your thesis you will be using those notes for. This is my personal favorite of the paper-based note-taking methods.

The Note-taking Process

Before you do your research, it is helpful to have a preliminary outline so you can be more focused on your research. If you have an outline you’re working with, you can use sections of the outline to organize your notes, whether using an index card method, a binder, or a notebook with dividers. Whichever of the note-taking methods you choose, it’s important to be consistent.

When taking notes, not only is it essential to be accurate in copying down your bibliographic information, but it’s essential to know when looking at your notes whether that note is a direct quote, a paraphrase, or your thoughts about the passage you’ve just read. Copy the quote accurately for direct quotes, with quotations and the page number or other citation information (line number, paragraph number) you took the note from.

When I take notes, I assume anything without quotes and lacking an asterisk or other mark I’ve made to denote my thoughts is a paraphrase. With paraphrasing, you’ll also want to note down the page number or section you paraphrased from, just as you would do with a quote. Regarding my responses to notes I’ve taken or my note-making, I denote them by using three asterisks, writing my thoughts, and then closing them with three asterisks. That way, when I write using my research, I know where to cite something vs. what I am thinking.

See Part II: Electronic Note-taking Methods

While some people prefer using pen and paper to take notes, others prefer electronic methods for note-taking and note-making. To learn about digital notetaking methods, you’ll want to read Part 2: Electronic Notetaking Methods.

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Researching and Writing a Paper: Outline Note-Taking

Outline note-taking.

• Summarizing
• Bibliography / Annotated Bibliography
• Thesis Sentences
• Ideas for Topics
• The Big List of Databases and Resource Sources
• Keywords and Controlled Vocabulary
• Full Text Advice
• Database Searching Videos!
• How to Read a Scholarly Article.
• Citation Styles
• Citation Videos!
• Citation Tips & Tricks
• Videos about Evaluating Sources!
• Unreliable Sources and 'Fake News'
• An Outline for Writing!
• Formatting your paper!

Focusing on effective study skills is more important to academic success than “intellectual giftedness” and the Outlining approach to note-taking is a very effective study skill. Outlining is a methodical, self-paced, categorizing of the information you find in the book or article you are reading. Outlining helps you to organize the information in a logical way that helps you with both understanding and writing. Outlining the topics and subtopics (supporting information/context, etc.) helps you make connections between the information in both your mind and your paper. Outlining also helps you to identify your questions and often (once you’ve researched enough) their answers. The outline method indents information; the main topics or points of the article are written on the left side of your notes document; the subtopics/supporting information/contexts are indented to the right of the main topics; additional supporting ideas or facts are indented to the right of the subtopics. (This leaves room for additional comments, questions, and supporting facts.) This structure means information on the far-left side is quite important for the argument that you are making in the paper. If a note is on the far-right side, it helps explain or provide context for the important information on the left side. You can use bullet points, dashes, numbers, or other symbols to help you further describe how particular information is important. This results in information-rich notes that are easy to review as you write your paper (and easy to use to create an outline for your paper).

STEP 1: Any paper (or Word document, Google Doc, etc.) will do for taking notes, use whatever your prefer (some people use both). Use a separate sheet of paper or digital document for each book, or article, you read. Make sure that you keep your notes in order and clearly labeled. A comfortable and quiet working space, with minimal distractions, is a must for most people. (Note: Several citation tools – including NoodleTools – are also excellent for taking notes and for making annotated bibliographies.) STEP 2: The first thing you always do is write out the proper citation for the article or book that you are reading (this is where NoodleTools or other citation tools are very useful). Then outline the main topics or points of the article or book (chapter or section headings are often useful here). Write these main topics on the left side of the document without any indentation, leaving plenty of room for the subtopics. You may have a small number of main topics (one main topic often happens). Deciding what is a 'main topic' and what is a 'subtopic' is the first of many information organization decisions you’ll be making – your understanding of your organization is more important than ‘being correct’ about whether something is a ‘topic’ or ‘subtopic’, etc. The Outline Note-Taking Approach is for you to use in your way . The main topics are relatively broad in context and the article or book often identifies its main topics, subtopics are generally more specific, often consisting of supporting facts. Try to keep the main topics to ‘a minimum’, something which will be different for each article or book. Leave enough room to be able to add subtopics, supporting information, contexts, your comments, questions, and thoughts. (Be very clear which words/ideas are from the text you are reading and which are your own.) STEP 3: List the subtopics/supporting information/contexts. These should be written below the main topics and indented to the right (and with some room between each subtopic so you can insert supporting arguments, questions, etc. later). Including page numbers in your notes is important! Letters, numbers, bullet points, color-coding, etc., are often used to be clear about the information/comment's placement within the outline organization. STEP 4: Insert supporting thoughts and facts, as well as quotes and paraphrases – make sure to include the page number of each quote or paraphrase and that each one is clearly labeled as a quote or paraphrase. Continue adding further thoughts, facts, features, and categories into the subtopics – always with an indentation to the right. In an academic setting you do not equate thoughts and facts, but both thoughts and facts are perfectly viable notes (as long as it is clear which is which). Analyzing your thoughts and noting them often helps you understand the ‘dry facts written by someone else’. STEP 5: Now, add any final supporting details to the notes. Cover all the information you need without writing massive paragraphs (a short note about where to look in the book or article is good). STEP 6: Review your notes and at least look through the article or book again (ideally read it again). This is where your effort to make the outlines well-structured and easy to follow pays off bigly. Congratulations! You’ve now completed the entire outline note-taking process. The notes you have taken have helped you to understand the article, to be more aware of what you don't know, and helped you think about how you are going to organize your paper - all just by doing one step at a time. Do this with a few more articles and/or books and you will soon be ready to start writing your paper.

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Note-taking and Handouts in The Digital Age

Most educators consider note-taking a critical component of formal classroom learning. Advancements in technology such as tablet computers, mobile applications, and recorded lectures are altering classroom dynamics and affecting the way students compose and review class notes. These tools may improve a student’s ability to take notes, but they also may hinder learning. In an era of dynamic technology developments, it is important for educators to routinely examine and evaluate influences on formal and informal learning environments. This paper discusses key background literature on student note-taking, identifies recent trends and potential implications of mobile technologies on classroom note-taking and student learning, and discusses future directions for note-taking in the context of digitally enabled lifelong learning.

INTRODUCTION

Note-taking is an important aspect of formal classroom learning, 1 and students who take more course lecture notes in general are higher achievers. 2,3 However, a number of confounding variables affect student note-taking and, hence, student learning. These include instructional variables such as lecture structure, knowledge of forthcoming tests, perceived relevance of the lecture, and existence of and/or types of handouts provided. 4-6 Because of these variables, research is mixed with regard to the best types of note-taking and whether the “process” of taking notes is actually the critical factor. 3,5-7 Note-taking is a personalized task, and when individual differences with regard to note-taking ability also are considered, interpretation of the literature becomes even more complex. 8-10

In addition to these historically studied variables, emerging factors also affect student note-taking. The introduction of tablet computers, note-taking applications (apps), and other education technology in the classroom are altering the way students take notes and consume and process information during class. These technological advances add to the perplexity of how to best guide faculty members and students about note-taking.

In this paper, we briefly discuss key background literature on student note-taking, introduce recent trends and potential implications of mobile technologies on classroom note-taking and student learning, and offer alternative perspectives on handouts and note-taking.

NOTE-TAKING VARIABLES

The study of student note-taking spans years, covering a range of variables and perspectives. The ultimate goal of research on note-taking is to provide insight into what best aids and predicts student learning. Unfortunately, variables involved with note-taking and student learning prevents strong conclusions. In this section, we present primary variables pertaining to student note-taking, with an emphasis on factors relevant to today’s contemporary digital environments.

Presentation Styles

Considerable debate exists regarding which types of lecture presentation styles are best for student learning. While PowerPoint is one of the easiest, most ubiquitous presentation applications, not all academics agree it is best for classroom communication. 11 Some faculty members still prefer the “chalk-and-talk” method or today’s contemporary version (eg, document cameras and smart boards), in which important information is written in front of the classroom and ideas are expanded on verbally. This lecture format is touted as improving communication and encouraging good note-taking skills. 12 Each teaching platform has its own positives and negatives, with student format preference differing . 12-14 Each format alters how students take notes, and affects the speed and pace of doing so. Regardless of the format, students perceive handouts to follow in class and to use as a reference as beneficial. 14

Handout Styles

Handouts are useful aids for student note-taking and learning. 15 Thus, a key question educators struggle with is not whether to provide handouts, but how much information they should contain and in what format they should be. Some of the debate revolves around whether students learn better by transcribing lectures in their own words or by having instructor-prepared handouts so they can concentrate more on what is actually being said.

Concerns pertaining to instructor-provided notes as handouts primarily focus on issues of decreased student attendance and a reliance on external aids for learning. A student’s ability to translate classroom information and reproduce it in personally meaningful written notes is a critical part of the learning process. 16 Kiewra et al showed that students who recorded information during class performed better on examinations and had improved retention of information compared to those who did not. 17

When assessing different teaching modalities with pharmacy students learning cardio-pulmonary resuscitation (CPR), Khan at al found that students who performed best on a post-lecture quiz were those who were told they would not be given handouts and as a result, took their own notes (they were then presented with PowerPoint lecture notes after the lecture). The authors concluded the process of taking notes contributed to the learning process, helping those specific students perform better than their peers. 18 These studies mirror others in which the active process of taking notes appears to aid student learning. 12,17,19

The opposing viewpoint to providing limited handouts is that lecture note-taking is cognitively demanding and students may have difficulty recording all vital information points and/or may record them inaccurately. This may be a reflection of student note-taking ability and/or instructor presentation of material, such as inaudible or fast-paced speech. The issue is one of cognitive load, 20 in which student working memory may be insufficient at effectively listening to the lecture, processing the information, and then encoding it into a notes format, particularly if the pace is too fast or the material is too complex. 9

For instructional decisions regarding handouts, instructors must balance the value of students transcribing their own notes with the inherent limitations of cognitive load. One strategy is to provide students with only an outline of the lecture material as opposed to the entire set of instructor slides and/or notes. In this format, students are provided cognitive scaffolding from which they can engage in the process of listening and distill only the details. Moreover, students provided with outlines of notes outperform students taking notes on their own. 15,16

Prescribed Note-taking Methods

Although slightly beyond the scope of this paper, in addition to the effect of instructor presentation and handout styles on note-taking, there is a body of research regarding specific standardized student note-taking strategies. While more popular decades ago when lectures were the dominant form of content delivery, when instructor handouts were less prevalent, and when information memorization was emphasized, a number of note-taking methods have been developed in order to guide students toward the most effective ways of recording lecture material. These methods provide specific instructions on how to record lecture notes and include the Formal Outline Procedure, the Cornell Method, the Bartush Active Method, and the Verbatim Split Method. 21,22

Training students in systematic note-taking approaches can be helpful to students in encoding and studying large amounts of learning content. Despite their success, these methods are largely ignored as perspectives regarding content delivery are shifting and classroom dynamics changing. Little research has been conducted on these methods in recent years, but may once again have potential merit in the context of flipped classroom formats, in which students may need to take notes on out-of-class recorded lectures in preparation for active-learning-based, in-class activities. 23

DIGITAL NOTE-TAKING

The introduction of mobile computing devices in classrooms ushered in a new set of note-taking issues. Speed, legibility, and searchability are 3 positive attributes of digital note-taking. 8 Because of these advantages, some students may prefer digital note-taking vs traditional handwritten notes. However, changes wrought from these advances in technology are not all positive.

Possibly the biggest concern with student use of laptops in class is computer-aided distraction. 24 The lure of multi-tasking on those devices can significantly hinder student comprehension of classroom lectures. Other concerns arise in the efficacy of typed notes. Muller and Oppenheimer concluded that students who took notes on a laptop did not remember conceptual material as well as those who took handwritten notes, though they performed equally well when questioned about factual information. 25 One hypothesis for this difference is the inclination for those who type their notes on a laptop to include longer notes and to take down information verbatim rather than through rephrasing. Other studies support these findings; Piolat et al showed students taking handwritten notes demonstrated better performance than students who typed digital notes on both factual and conceptual questions. 20 As a result, Fink reported banning all forms of digital note-taking, citing that, without the digital devices, students remained attentive and performed well in the course. 26

Introduction of Tablet Computers

Tablet computers have further hastened the transition toward digital note-taking. One benefit of tablets for note-taking is the ability to hand write notes, add drawings, and highlight text while still retaining the digital format. Given the complex and diagram-driven content of courses in the pharmacy curriculum, a digital format that allows typing and drawing can be advantageous. In addition, tablet computers may reduce or eliminate the cost of printing, reduce the amount of paper one has to carry, decrease the need to transport a heavier and more cumbersome laptop, and support the organization of notes. 27

Although little research exists on student use of tablets for learning, Mang and Wardley indicated that students using tablets are much less likely to access distractions such as e-mail, Facebook, messengers, or YouTube during class compared to those using a laptop. 27 Tablet computers are also appealing from an institutional perspective because they provide a relatively inexpensive way to incorporate digital-based learning. Several universities, most notably Notre Dame, Pepperdine, and Stanford, have started programmatic efforts designed specifically to encourage iPad use in classrooms. 28

Note-taking applications

Coinciding with the introduction of tablets and smartphones was the development of mobile applications (apps), which provide easy access to a variety of functions. Literature concerning the use of mobile or tablet application in the classroom is sparse. Most information available comes from technology-centered magazines or online app reviews. The mobile app market changes rapidly, and Internet searches for note-taking/study apps reveal considerable options in functionality and price.

Informal discussions with students revealed that personal choices for app use and/or selection depend largely on classmate recommendations. Recommendations of mobile apps to aid in student success have also been presented at pharmacy student forums. Recommendations, based on student utility and reviews, included StudyBlue Flashcards (a flashcard application for studying), Evernote Peek (a note-taking and flashcard style app), Dropbox (an application used for document storage and collaboration) and note-taking applications Evernote, Notability, and Penultimate. 29

Based on research regarding cognitive functions of note-taking, a variety of factors make note-taking apps appealing. In order for learning apps to be effective, they must accommodate an active note-taking process and enable efficient review of those notes. 30 An application that simply allows students to copy and paste prewritten notes without including their own definitions or elaborations is much less effective than one that encourages personally written language. While verbatim notes may be more accurate, the benefit of “process” is absent, and therefore, lessens the effects of the learning experience. Apps that permit students to draw upon, edit, summarize, and highlight handouts in a manner that allows cognitive involvement in the note-taking process are most beneficial to learning. 30

Formal use of apps for note-taking and learning is in its infancy. One example of an app-based initiative comes from Abilene Christian Academy, which issues each of its students an iPod Touch or iPhone to use during their education. 31 The primary focus of using these devices are the apps available to enhance student learning. Chemistry professors find apps particularly useful, as they allow students to visualize complex molecules and identify chemicals and their names. 31 In addition to an enhanced visual and tactile learning process, apps also can improve note-taking by allowing more complex images and other media to be integrated into students’ written guides. Use of these devices in the classroom helps train students to use a variety of applications and tools crucial for careers in the digital age. Moreover, tablet and smartphone apps are now common in the clinical environment, 32 with some large medical centers advocating the use of apps and supplying facility-owned iPads so its staff can securely view electronic health records. 33 Studies of medical providers show that up to 85% of its study population (surgeons, fellows, and residents) own and use a smartphone in practice; more than half of those studied use applications in their daily practice. 34 Use of such apps has vastly improved the ability for health care providers to access credible information, view patient charts, and complete all functions in a timely manner. 32 Some apps have been evaluated and recommended for use in practice; the scope of these apps range from providing information about medications (eg, PEPID, Lexicomp, Epocrates), to time management and productivity (eg, Wunderlist, Dropbox, GoodReader). 35

Most faculty members establish their own philosophies regarding handouts and note-taking. However, it may be time to consider new student-centered approaches that provide learners with the best and most efficient way of learning while in the classroom and after they graduate. Delivery style and methods can affect how students receive, process, and record notes. Our use of technology in the classroom (ie, PowerPoint slides) may be below its potential, and faculty members may want to consider uses of instructional technology beyond efficient content delivery.

Observations of students in classrooms reveal varyious note-taking strategies, some of which involve students serving their own learning needs by modifying what faculty members give them. There is much to learn about student note-taking behaviors. The caveat is that instructors should not rely solely on learner preferences pertaining to handouts and/or note-taking to guide decision-making. Considerable research in the area of metacognition revealed that some individuals are unable to accurately assess their own level of comprehension or skill guiding their preferences. While these individuals may perceive a certain style or method as best for them, in reality those may be false perceptions because of an incorrect assessment of their own abilities. 36

As educators continue to migrate away from traditional content-delivery modalities in classrooms toward more student-centered approaches of using face-to-face time for in-depth thinking, engaging, and applying information, classroom note-taking may change. Student accountability for managing their own learning processes may increase, thereby altering student approaches to studying. Lecture transcription may become less of an issue as instructors utilize technology to create offline lessons, recorded lectures, e-learning materials, etc.

Because digital learning materials are available at will, the need to further document them will be reduced. Some students may choose to forego notes altogether, perceiving that e-learning materials replace any need for taking notes. However, those students may need instruction regarding the cognitive benefits of note-taking, which extend beyond mere access to information for study purposes. Other students may continue recording notes as they always have, believing (correctly or incorrectly) that approach benefits them. Still others may adopt different technology-enabled methods. In courses utilizing a flipped classroom approach or in ones that emphasize active learning, it is likely that students will discover new apps and platforms that accommodate their needs before faculty members do. Educators, however, have a leadership role in shaping student practices that lead to their development as a professional. The difficult question is, thus, how educators can guide students regarding note-taking.

Existing research on student note-taking does provide a foundation, but this is an age in which some aspects of the former paradigm no longer apply. Student note-taking is evolving because a myriad of technological advances are triggering an information explosion, changing how information is managed and, to some degree, changing teaching practices. Therefore, the evolution toward a new, evidence-based comprehension of student note-taking in digital and mobile environments is important. Without an understanding of these tools and the socio-cognitive processes associated with them, we risk underutilizing powerful tools and/or making recommendations that students may not follow. One consideration is whether there are specific digital tools that aid student note-taking and learning and, if so, how instructors can best accommodate those tools. In a rapidly changing, mobile-technology environment, this question requires constant vigilance.

Another consideration is how an approach to handouts affects student note-taking, attention and, ultimately, learning retention. This instructional consideration often is unintentionally ignored. Anecdotally, some instructors comment that students do not pay attention in class and resort to memorizing copies of the PowerPoint slides. Conversely, if instructors do not provide handouts, students then complain about the lack of handouts and spend the entire class transcribing everything. In each of these cases, instructor decisions may strongly influence respective student actions. Variables such as teaching methods, assessment methods, instructor persona, and student culture contribute to these student behaviors, but a broad-based discussion of these is beyond the scope of this paper.

If handouts are the lone variable, however, one consideration consistent with research is to furnish “skeletal” notes/outlines. This type of handout provides students with a cognitive scaffolding, alleviating the need to transcribe everything, yet still forcing them to pay attention and engage in the process of note-taking. An additional consideration, referring back to our need for research on digital note-taking tools, is to provide notes in a format conducive to student manipulation on digital devices.

The handout format types most likely used by faculty members (eg, PowerPoint slides, Microsoft Word documents, and pdf formats) all have different advantages and limitations, which may indirectly contribute to different note-taking styles and methods. The style, breadth, depth, and visual layout of student notes may vary depending on whether students use paper, laptops, or tablets. This is one of the reasons new research is essential, particularly in light of recent findings regarding cognitive differences between typing and handwriting. 25

Finally, as digital environments increasingly affect higher education, we should consider the evolving interplay between note-taking, information management, and lifelong learning. The first decades of the digital age has introduced society to a variety of paradigm shifts including how we view the concepts of information storage and retrieval. Educators may need to rethink what it means to take notes and how those notes carry forward into future careers.

In a paper-based society, it was challenging, but not impossible, for students to carry all their notes with them. In addition, this made it potentially more challenging to sort through notes to review a particular concept. Now, not only can learning materials be stored on a phone or tablet, but students can find a phrase or concept in seconds. Cognitive and conceptual links can be made within and across courses. Admittedly, this is a drastic shift in thinking, but new ways of teaching (eg, flipped classrooms), new focal points for learning (eg, personal lifelong learning), and new ways of storing and accessing information (eg, mobile computing devices and apps) provide a foundation from which we can explore different models for note-taking and handouts.

Although handouts and notes are a seemingly minor point in the teaching process, we must still take an evidence-based approach to guide teaching and learning practices in this regard. While neither faculty members nor students appear to prefer one format over another, the best handouts allow ample space for students to reformat information into their own words and may even be somewhat “sparse” to encourage active listening and note-taking. Yet, the purpose of and types of note-taking may be evolving. Note-taking should not become an art lost to the ages of recorded class lectures and pre-filled handouts. Without the valuable skills of listening and recording, students might fail to become “competent practitioners (who are able to) listen, read, organize, integrate, and utilize information in the care of their patients.” 37 Students should use the note-taking medium that best engages their willingness and ability to learn. 38 Learners must discover the delicate balance of practical use, ease, and efficacy for their note-taking strategies. In this technology-literate society and rapidly-changing learning environments, faculty members need to guide students toward managing their current and future learning needs. Research regarding learning outcomes with today’s digital note-taking tools is needed, particularly as the possible existence of a physio-cognitive connection between writing and learning is considered. This research could help provide evidence-based recommendations to students and instructors regarding which formats and techniques work best for learning.

The Outline Note-Taking Method: A Beginner’s Guide

Follow this step-by-step guide to master the outline method of note-taking as a complete beginner.

• By Sander Tamm
• Jan 12, 2022

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• The outline method is consistently ranked as one of the best note-taking methods by researchers and students worldwide.
• Outlining is a method that’s remarkably well-suited for online learning as it benefits from methodical, self-paced categorization of information.
• Taking notes with the outline method involves six simple steps, all of which will be explained in this guide.

The outline note-taking method is an indispensable part of many high-achieving students’ skill sets. High-achieving students don’t rely on their “intellectual giftedness.” Instead, they focus on developing effective study skills that enable them to succeed every time, including relying on the benefits of taking notes .

This system of taking notes is one of the simplest yet most effective methods. As long as you follow the simple steps in this guide, you’ll be well on your way to mastering the method and taking the most effective notes  possible.

Here’s everything you’ll learn in this article.

The Outline Method

What is the outline method of note-taking.

The outline method is one of college students’ most popular note-taking methods. Through outlining, students organize their lecture information in a structured and logical manner, creating a comprehensive profile of the lecture subject.

The outline note-taking method, similar to the Cornell method , has been around for decades. While the outlining method does not revolutionize the act of taking notes, it has been proven to be more optimized than conventional methods.

The method is considered well-rounded and suitable for most subjects. But, it’s less suited for some STEM subjects such as physics or math . Outlining also requires you to identify a clear, informational structure to the information. That is why the method does not always work well with fast-paced and unstructured lectures. Keep this in mind when planning your outlining.

What do researchers say about outlining?

Educational psychologist Kenneth A. Kiewra from the University of Nebraska is perhaps the best researcher to listen to when analyzing the outline method of note-taking. Between 1984 and 1995, he wrote over 20 research papers on note-taking, many of which used the outline method as a central point.

In his 1995 study , he described the two most significant benefits of outline note-taking – I’ll be paraphrasing here, but hopefully, I’ll get the gist of his points across.

The first benefit of outlining is that the outline structure makes superordinate-subordinate relations within topics apparent. This, in turn, facilitates local coherence.

The second advantage of the outline method is that the act of outlining your topics and subtopics makes information retrieval easier and helps you build internal connections. This helps with global coherence and knowledge retention as all your notes are systematized into topics.

Kiewra was also one of the first researchers to discover that simply handing out detailed notes to students post-lecture can achieve remarkable results . But that’s a topic for another time (if you want more of Kiewra’s thinking, he builds on these ideas in his recent book on studying in college ).

What makes the outlining system so effective?

What’s unique about the outline method is that it’s hierarchical by nature. This means that besides recording lecture content, the outlining system also allows students to record the relationships between bits of information.

Having a clear outline format for your notes helps you to:

• Identify all clustering points;
• Turn the main points of the content into study questions;
• Reduce your notes without having to rewrite them;

It has been shown through research that outline note-takers record significantly more information from online lectures than conventional note-takers. While conventional note-takers manage to record up to 30% of lecture materials, outline and matrix note-takers can record approximately 40% .

This shows that unlike the Cornell note-taking method (for which research results have been mixed), the outline method of note-taking is an effective and science-backed method of taking notes. It’s a system that can sometimes be outshined by the matrix note-taking method, but both methods have their rightful place among the best.

As a fully online learner, I use a variation of the outline method myself on a daily basis. However, instead of taking my notes in longhand (with a physical pen and paper), I take mine in a digital format. I am aware of the vast benefits of writing longhand – but I have my own personalized system that works wonders for me. Outlining is a major component of the system I use, and I’ll be covering this personal note-taking system in a future article.

How does the outline method work?

Through indentation and space relationships, outlining provides students with a clear hierarchy of information.

Put simply, the outline method works with the following key characteristics:

• The main topics are recorded on the left side of the document;
• The subtopics are added with an indent to the right of the main topics;
• Any supporting thoughts or facts are added with another indent to the right of the subtopics;
• All further details are added with more indentation.

Developing content outlines like this creates a logical structure for the notes where the level of information importance is demonstrated by its horizontal positioning in the document. If it’s on the far-right side, it’s a smaller subtopic or fact. On the other hand, if it’s on the far-left side, it’s a major topic of importance with many smaller components.

The indents are usually created with bullet points, dashes, numbers, or arrows. Strategic use of these symbols helps reduce the content even further, thus resulting in short but information-rich notes that are easy to review before an exam.

How to take outline notes

To take notes with the outline method, follow these six steps:

Gather note-taking materials

Outline the main topics, outline the subtopics, insert supporting thoughts and facts, add further details and examples, review and recite your notes.

The outline method does not require an expensive set of tools; chances are you already have all the materials you need. But here’s a quick rundown, just in case.

To use the outline note-taking method, you’ll need the following:

Notebook . Any notebook or notebook paper will do. Personally, I find spiral notebooks to be the most comfortable to use (if you’re looking for one, Mead’s spiral notebooks are affordable and high quality). If you use individual notebook papers for your notes, get a ring binder to hold all the papers together.

Pen or pencil . Once again, any pen or pencil will do the job just fine (although, personally, I’m picky about pencils and prefer the  Blackwing 602 ).

Working area . If you’re taking notes during a lecture, you don’t have much choice in this regard. However, if you’re taking outline notes for an online course, you have more options. Try to find a comfortable and quiet working space and free yourself from distractions. Deep focus requires the right study space – try your best to create and maintain the right environment for yourself.

Now, it’s time to put these materials to use. 

To start, you’ll need to outline the main topics from the material. These main topics will be written on the left side of the document without any indentation.

Ideally, you’ll have a small number of main topics – even just a single main topic is okay. This is the first of many information organization decisions you’ll be making. And due to the space indentation system of the outline format, these first steps can be some of the most critical.

The main topics should be relatively broad in context but specific enough to develop clear subtopics. It all depends on the material you’re working with. Try not to outline too many main topics, as the format loses effectiveness if it’s too thinly spread out from the beginning. You should leave enough room to be able to drill deep down into a particular main topic.

In the example we’ll be using, retrieved from research by Robinson and Katayama , the main topic of the lecture is “Parasomnias.” It’s a good example of a main topic as it’s suitable for the logical development of subtopics and supporting information.

Now, it’s time to outline the subtopics. These subtopics are written below the main topics with an indentation to the right and with some space between each subtopic to allow the insertion of supporting arguments. Numbers, letters, bullet points, and dashes are commonly used for subtopics to further illustrate their placement within the outline organization.

You’ll likely end up with quite many subtopics in your outlines, and if you’re taking notes during a lecture, you’ll always be adding new subtopics as you go.

Continuing with the example we chose in the previous step, the outlined subtopics for “Parasomnias” were identified as sleep terrors, sleepwalking, and nightmares. They were indented through lettering to the right, resulting in a clear, logical structure to the notes.

At this stage, the outlined notes should look something like this:

Now that you’ve outlined your main topics and subtopics, the only thing left is to start filling in the blanks. This means adding further thoughts, facts, features, and categories into the subtopics – always with an indentation to the right.

Normally, in an academic setting, you should not equate thoughts and facts, but both thoughts and facts are perfectly viable supporting notes in this case. Analyzing your thoughts and noting them is often much better than copying dry facts written by someone else.

Using the same example as above, supporting information on the subtopics (specific forms of parasomnias) could be categorized into seven parts. These seven sections were then added below the subtopics with a numbered indentation to the right.

By now, the outline notes are already starting to take shape and look like this:

At this point, it’s also worth pointing out that this example would also be well-suited for the charting method of note-taking . That is because the seven supporting categories are the same for all subtopics, and information in this form works well in a table format.

Now’s the time to add any final supporting details to the notes. Try to cover all the information you need without writing massive paragraphs. In some cases, where the information does not require different levels of details (in terms of space relationships), this step can be mixed into the previous step. After all, if the supporting thoughts and facts are enough to cover everything, there is no need for further details or examples.

If you do need further details, however, instead of copying lengthy paragraphs word-by-word, try to:

• write short telegraphic sentences;
• draw illustrations;
• cover real-life examples.

Here’s what a completed outline note looks like with all details added to it:

Pay attention to the short sentences used here. By using short sentences, abbreviations, and symbols, you can reduce your notes. This will be very helpful to you during the note review process.

By now, you have finished the note-taking process. But, ain’t no rest for the wicked.

Due to the  Ebbinghaus forgetting curve , it’s always best to start the reciting and reviewing stage as soon as possible. Studies have shown that reviewing your notes within the 24-hour point achieves the best results. If you neglect your notes for a whole week after taking them, you’ll lose out on a lot of retention and memorization.

Start this step by reviewing and reciting any information in your notes. Any effort to make the outlines well-structured and easy to follow will pay off tenfold in this step. This stage is also a chance to develop your outlining skills further. If you find that your notes were poorly outlined, you can keep that in mind and make improvements for the next time.

And once you’re done with this step – you’re all done! Congratulations! You’ve now completed the entire outline note-taking process.

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• Utility Menu

User Research Center

User research note taking guide, by meg mcmahon.

Taking notes is a vital part of the User Research process. It helps all of the researchers gain a shared understanding of the interviews during the analysis phase of the project.

As a note taker, you need to decide what is important to include to inform the tasks or questions asked in the interview and what information could help answer the research questions or further the goals of the study. Note taking is not creating a transcript (if you need a transcript, we can use dictation software).

Before Taking Notes

• Become familiar with the following documents and aspects of the project: the project plan, script, and any important background information on the project.
• Use a shared notes grid with a column for each participant and rows for each task or question.
• Use a notes doc template; each participant has their own document that includes the participant details and the questions.
• Use Dovetail , a web-based note taking tool or a different web-based tool.
• Check the moderator notes field for context for this specific interview. (This is found at the bottom of a shared notes grid, at the top of a participant notes doc, or at the top of a Dovetail participant area.)

Note Taking

It is the note takers job to note anything that actually happened in the meeting. This may include things that were said as well as sounds or body language that may indicate feelings. In capturing notes pay attention to the following:

• Frustrations
• “Wow” or positive moments
• Gaps in knowledge, moments when a participant doesn’t have the necessary knowledge in relation to the task or question.

Do’s and Don’ts of Notetaking

Use the word “participant”.

At the URC we refer to all the individuals who participate in our studies as “participant” not user, interviewee, or by their name.

Add timestamp of the insight

Timestamps are helpful to have for reference, especially if video clips are needed for the report.

Don’t make assumptions in the notes, stay true to the facts

When taking notes, state what happens opposed to assuming behavior of the participant or making generalizations about the system.

Keep a consistent format

Be sure to stay in the chosen format for the notes.

Use quotations when it makes an impact

If a participant says something that is directly related to a theme you find during analysis, it is helpful to record the quote as a record of that theme within the research.

Paraphrase when appropriate

If a participant’s quote is long and includes pieces of information that are not directly related to the key finding with the phrase, shorten the phrase.

Look for unspoken body language or emotions

Add notes about what body language a participant is using when speaking or trying to accomplish a task.

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