problem solving strategies for stress

How to Cope With Stress: 10+ Strategies and Mechanisms

If so, you might be stressed.

Stress is an inevitable part of life, affecting individuals in different ways. Some people thrive under stress, whereas others struggle. Our thresholds for how much stress we can endure differ from one person to the next.

Learning how to cope with stress is essential to ensuring that individuals maintain their physical and mental health. It is improbable to have a life completely free of stress, so we must learn how to cope.

In this post, we explore how to cope with stress using stress coping techniques. We will start with the psychological theories about stress and, from there, look at several methods, informal and formal, that can be used. Our goal is that readers should have a solid understanding of stress-management techniques that can be easily implemented.

Before you continue, we thought you might like to download our three Stress & Burnout Prevention Exercises (PDF) for free . These science-based exercises will equip you and your clients with tools to better manage stress and find a healthier balance in your life.

This Article Contains

How to cope with stress according to psychology, healthy coping strategies and mechanisms: a list, 6+ techniques your clients can try, 5 activities, prompts, and worksheets, stress-management skills for work stress, 3 questionnaires, tests, and inventories, resources from positivepsychology.com, a take-home message.

There are various psychological theories about coping with stress, and it is essential to understand these theories to manage stress effectively.

4 Theories about coping with stress

One of the most popular and widely accepted theories is the transactional model of stress and coping, developed by Richard Lazarus and Susan Folkman (1984).

According to this model, stress results from an individual’s assessment of the stressor, its threat, and whether they have the necessary cognitive and behavioral resources to manage the stressor.

Based on this assessment, our coping mechanisms and psychological responses to stress are triggered. The model suggests that coping strategies can be either problem focused or emotion focused.

Problem-focused coping involves actively addressing the stressor, while emotion-focused coping involves managing the emotions associated with the stressor.

The transactional model of stress was expanded upon into the workplace, where it’s known as the job demand–control theory and the job demand–control–support theory (for a review, see Häusser et al., 2010; Goh et al., 2010).

In this theory, two dimensions influence the experience of stress: workload/job demands and the degree of control employees have over work tasks. The combination of high demand and low control increases the likelihood of high stress. Social support within the office has protective properties that moderate the relationship between demand and control.

The protective qualities of social support were recognized in the social support theory, another theory about coping with stress (Cohen & Wills, 1985). In this theory, social support is crucial for managing anxiety, because it helps ease feelings of anxiety and helps develop solutions to stressful environments. Social support is not limited to only immediate family and friends but includes colleagues and health care professionals.

The conservation of resources Theory (COR; Hobfoll, 1989) is another stress coping theory. This theory developed from the starting point that people feel stressed when they do not think they have the necessary resources to combat stress. However, in COR, additional emphasis is placed on the objective resources that are also available. These resources can be tangible (e.g., money, a house) or intangible (e.g., our relationships, self-worth), and individuals experience stress when their resources are threatened, depleted, or unattainable.

This theory is primarily used to explain workplace stress , and some researchers prefer it over the transactional model of stress because it:

• Is more practical and realistic
• Places less responsibility on the individual who experiences the stressor to change their mindset to combat stress
• Has predictive qualities (Hobfoll et al., 2018)

Why is stress management important?

Chronic stress can adversely affect an individual’s wellbeing and lead to mental health disorders like anxiety and depression (Hammen, 2005).

Therefore, developing good coping strategies has multiple beneficial outcomes (Cohen, 2004), including:

• Reducing the negative impact of stress
• Improving an individual’s overall quality of life by enhancing resilience
• Improving their social support network, allowing them to seek help and support from friends and family during stressful times

Here we provide a concise list of methods that can be used to cope with stress.

• Healthy coping strategies include exercise, relaxation techniques, social support, and Cognitive-Behavioral Therapies (CBT). Exercise has been shown to have numerous health benefits, including stress reduction, improved mood, and enhanced cognitive function (Sui et al., 2019).
• Relaxation techniques such as deep breathing, meditation, and yoga have also been shown to reduce stress and improve mental health outcomes (Pascoe et al., 2017).
• Social support, such as emotional and practical support from family and friends, can help individuals cope with stress (Cohen & Wills, 1985).
• CBT helps individuals recognize and change negative thought patterns and behaviors, improving mental health outcomes (Hofmann et al., 2012).
• Additional strategies that can improve mental and physical health are getting enough sleep, eating healthily, and avoiding alcohol (or consuming it in moderation). They do not impact stress directly, but they provide the scaffolding so individuals are better positioned to cope with stressful experiences effectively.

Besides these healthy coping strategies, there are several psychological techniques or mechanisms that individuals can use to manage stress.

• One mechanism is problem-focused coping, which involves addressing the stressor directly through problem-solving strategies (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984).
• Emotion-focused coping involves managing the emotional response to stress through strategies such as positive reappraisal or acceptance (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984).
• Meaning-focused coping involves finding meaning or purpose in the stressor or the experience of coping with it (Park, 2010).

These psychological techniques can be used alongside healthy coping strategies to manage stress more effectively and maintain overall wellbeing.

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Stress can have a significant impact on both our physical and mental wellbeing. Fortunately, there are several psychological techniques and physiological strategies that can alleviate stress.

• One such technique is mindfulness-based stress reduction ( MBSR ). MBSR has decreased perceived stress, anxiety, and depression in individuals who practice it regularly (Carmody & Baer, 2009).
• Similarly, practicing mindfulness meditation has been found to reduce stress levels and improve wellbeing (Hoge et al., 2013). Mindfulness exercises can include simple techniques, such as paying attention to one’s breath or body sensations, or more structured practices, such as body scans or mindful eating .
• Another technique is CBT , which helps individuals identify and challenge negative thoughts and beliefs contributing to stress (Beck, 2011).
• Additionally, relaxation techniques such as progressive muscle relaxation and deep- breathing exercises have been shown to reduce stress (Hennefeld & Battle, 2019).
• Another technique is visualization, which involves imagining a calm, peaceful place or scenario to reduce stress and promote relaxation (Chafin & Ollendick, 2001).

Move your body to improve your mood

Physical exercise and activity have also reduced stress levels and improved mood and overall wellbeing (Craft & Perna, 2004). Physical exercise reduces stress by releasing endorphins, improving mood, combating depression , and improving physical health (Belvederi Murri et al., 2019).

One simple yet effective activity is to take a walk in nature. A study conducted by Bratman et al. (2015) found that taking a 90-minute walk in a natural environment reduced neural activity in the sub-genual prefrontal cortex, a brain region associated with rumination and negative thought patterns.

Although exercise can be completed alone, consider doing it with friends or family or joining an exercise group or club. This way, you get double the benefits: exercise’s mood-boosting effects plus social support’s protective benefits.

Consider formal social support groups

Finally, joining a support group or taking part in group therapy can also help build a sense of community and reduce feelings of isolation.

Cohen et al. (2015) found that individuals who received social support had lower levels of stress hormones in response to stressors than those who did not receive social support.

The ABC sheet

One commonly used activity is the ABC sheet , which is based on CBT and helps patients understand the relationship between their thoughts, emotions, and behaviors.

The name is an initialism:

• Antecedent is the event or stimulus that activates thoughts.
• Belief represents the perception or evaluation of that event.
• Consequence is the emotional or behavioral reaction that follows.

With this sheet, patients learn to identify irrational thoughts, negative beliefs, and consequences.

Once patients learn how to recognize these beliefs and behaviors, they can also learn how to challenge them, resulting in more favorable emotional and behavioral outcomes.

The Core Values Worksheet

Another worksheet is the Core Values Worksheet . With this worksheet, the underlying premise is that if we behave in a way that is incongruent with our core values, then we will experience stress.

Therefore, to reduce stress, we must identify our core values and how to align our behaviors to achieve, preserve, and satisfy them. These behaviors should be incorporated into our daily lives, not just reserved for big, life-changing decisions.

In this worksheet, the client will list their top values and then identify specific actions aligned with them. In addition to helping clients identify primary values, the tool can also help them identify incongruous behaviors that can lead to stress.

Journal prompts

Journaling is a valuable method for reducing stress and identifying patterns of behaviors and thoughts. One of the most significant advantages of journaling is that it is easy to implement and cost effective. All you need is a pencil and a notebook.

Several journal prompts can be used for coping with stress. In fact, we suggest having a look at our gratitude journal article for ideas. However, to whet your appetite, here is a short list to start with:

• Gratitude journaling: Write about three things you are grateful for each day to increase positive emotions.
• Positive self-talk: Jot down some positive affirmations or statements about yourself. This can help combat negative self-talk and increase self-esteem.
• Reflection on achievements: Write about a recent accomplishment to improve your self-worth.

For most adults, work is a source of significant stress. Unfortunately, it is a common occurrence that can lead to substantial physical and mental health issues if not adequately managed.

Developing stress-management techniques for work will improve not only wellbeing, but also productivity. Stress-management strategies for work include time management, physical activity, and mindfulness meditation.

Effective time management is a critical stress-management skill, and it involves organizing and prioritizing tasks to optimize productivity and reduce stress. For example, employees who manage their time efficiently are less likely to experience work stress (Frost & Stimpson, 2020).

To do this, individuals should set realistic goals and establish a schedule that allows them to accomplish their tasks without feeling overwhelmed. Other methods within employees’ control are to avoid procrastination and work without distraction.

For example, do not accept all tasks or requests that come your way, learn to say no or delegate, do the most difficult task first, and use a time-management system. One example of an effective time-management system is the Pomodoro technique , where you work for 25 minutes, take a five-minute break, and then after three cycles, take a longer break.

If employees do not determine their deadlines or tasks, which can be unrealistic or untenable, they should discuss these challenges with their managers or team leaders.

Employers can also significantly reduce work stress by implementing policies promoting a healthy work–life balance and providing stress-management training and support resources.

Physical activity is another critical stress-management skill that can help employees cope with work stress. Regular physical activity has been shown to reduce stress, improve mood, and increase energy levels by reducing stress hormones in the body (i.e., cortisol and adrenaline) and promoting the release of endorphins, which are natural mood enhancers (Salmon, 2018).

Physical activity can also improve cognitive function and help individuals make better decisions, which can reduce work stress (Stults-Kolehmainen & Sinha, 2014).

Other simple physical techniques that may help combat work stress include getting enough sleep, eating healthily and regularly, and avoiding alcohol (or consuming it in moderation).

Mindfulness exercises, such as mindfulness meditation, may also protect against work stress. Mindfulness meditation is a stress-management technique focusing on the present moment without judgment.

This technique helps individuals reduce stress by promoting relaxation, improving cognitive function (Schmidt et al., 2019), and reducing feelings of anxiety even in the workplace (Biegel et al., 2009). Mindfulness meditation can be easily performed in the office or a quiet workplace.

These tools have good psychometric properties (i.e., internal consistency, test–retest reliability, and validity) and are often used in peer-reviewed research.

Perceived Stress Scale

The first questionnaire is the Perceived Stress Scale, a 10-item self-report questionnaire designed to measure an individual’s subjective perception of stress (Cohen et al., 1983).

Initially, it was designed as a generic tool to measure perceived stress in a smoking cessation study. The original version contained 14 items and can be found in the original paper.

It assesses how individuals perceive their life as unpredictable, uncontrollable, and overloaded. The Perceived Stress Scale , with scoring instructions, can be accessed via the link.

State–Trait Anxiety Inventory

A second, more general measure of anxiety and stress is the State–Trait Anxiety Inventory (Spielberger et al., 1983).

Originally, it was developed as two separate tools, each containing 20 questions; however, these are often administered together. This inventory is widely used, easy to administer, and freely available.

It is a 40-item self-report questionnaire that measures two types of anxiety: state and trait anxiety. State anxiety is the temporary emotional state characterized by subjective feelings of tension, apprehension, and nervousness. For example, when presented with an urgent deadline, we might feel acute but short-lived feelings of stress and worry.

In contrast, trait anxiety is a stable personality trait characterized by a tendency to experience anxiety across various situations. For example, some people tend to have higher anxiety in general that is not limited to a specific event.

Job Content Questionnaire (JCQ)

For professionals who work in industrial and organizational psychology, we recommend the JCQ (Karasek et al.,1998).

This is a 49-item self-report questionnaire that measures job stress in terms of its psychological demands, decision authority, skill discretion, and social support. Initially, it was designed for research on the relationship between job stress and cardiovascular disease.

A study by Kivimäki et al. (2012) found that high job strain (high psychological demands combined with low decision authority and low social support) was associated with an increased risk of coronary heart disease. The JCQ is in the manuscript’s appendix published by Karasek et al. (1998).

17 Exercises To Reduce Stress & Burnout

Help your clients prevent burnout, handle stressors, and achieve a healthy, sustainable work-life balance with these 17 Stress & Burnout Prevention Exercises [PDF].

Created by Experts. 100% Science-based.

For readers interested in journaling techniques and prompts, we suggest the following articles:

• Journaling for Mindfulness
• Journal prompts to improve self-esteem

For readers who want to read more about mindfulness meditation, especially in the workplace. this post is a good starting point and is quite exhaustive:

• Mindfulness at Work

In addition to our blog posts and free worksheets, we’d also like to share these three tools specifically related to stress and burnout. The Stress & Burnout Prevention Exercise Pack includes the following useful worksheets:

• Energy Management Audit
• The Stress-Related Growth Scale
• Strengthening the Work–Private Life Barrier

The worksheets are easy to administer and appropriate for clients experiencing stress in different domains of their lives. Two of these tools are designed for assessment and can help identify energy levels, the most effective ways to recharge, and how clients approach and reframe life events. The third tool is an exercise to help develop work–life boundaries.

Looking for even more tools? If you’re looking for more science-based ways to help others manage stress without spending hours on research and session prep, check out this collection of 17 validated stress-management tools for practitioners . Use them to help others cope with stress and create more balance in their lives.

Stress is a common experience that can have very serious negative consequences if left unmanaged. However, learning how to cope with stress is vital and will positively impact different spheres of life.

A large amount of stress is due to work demands. Finding a coping solution that works for you, especially one that can be incorporated into the work environment, is a great way to improve your mental health.

We encourage you to try these coping techniques to find the optimal one that will help you manage your stress levels.

Are there any stress coping methods you would recommend personally or that you have found highly effective in your practice? Please share them with us in the comments.

We hope you enjoyed reading this article. Don’t forget to download our three Stress & Burnout Prevention Exercises (PDF) for free .

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3 Stress Exercises Pack

Stress Management Techniques

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, Ph.D., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years experience of working in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

Stress arises when individuals perceive a discrepancy between a situation’s physical or psychological demands and the resources of their biological, psychological, or social systems (Sarafino, 2012).

There are many ways of coping with stress. Their effectiveness depends on the type of stressor, the particular individual, and the circumstances.

For example, if you think about the way your friends deal with stressors like exams, you will see a range of different coping responses. Some people will pace around or tell you how worried they are, and others will revise or pester their teachers for clues.

Lazarus and Folkman (1984) suggested there are two types of coping responses emotion focused and problem focused :

Emotion-focused Coping

Emotion-focused coping is stress management that attempts to reduce negative emotional responses associated with stress.

Negative emotions such as embarrassment, fear, anxiety, depression, excitement, and frustration are reduced or removed by the individual through various methods of coping.

Emotion-focused techniques might be the only realistic option when the source of stress is outside the person’s control.

Drug therapy can be seen as emotion-focused coping as it focuses on the arousal caused by stress, not the problem. Other emotion-focused coping techniques include:

• Distraction, e.g., keeping yourself busy to take your mind off the issue.
• Emotional disclosure. This involves expressing strong emotions by talking or writing about negative events which precipitated those emotions (Pennebaker, 1995)
• This is an important part of psychotherapy .
• Praying for guidance and strength.
• Meditation, e.g., mindfulness.
• Eating more, e.g., comfort food.
• Drinking alcohol.
• Using drugs.
• Journaling, e.g., writing a gratitude diary (Cheng, Tsui, & Lam, 2015).
• Cognitive reappraisal. This is a form of cognitive change that involves construing a potentially emotion-eliciting situation in a way that changes its emotional impact (Lazarus & Alfert, 1964).
• Suppressing (stopping/inhibiting) negative thoughts or emotions. Suppressing emotions over an extended period of time compromises immune competence and lead to poor physical health (Petrie, K. J., Booth, R. J., & Pennebaker, 1988).

Critical Evaluation

A meta-analysis revealed that emotion-focused strategies are often less effective than using problem-focused methods in relation to health outcomes(Penley, Tomaka, & Weibe, 2012).

In general, people who used emotion-focused strategies such as eating, drinking, and taking drugs reported poorer health outcomes.

Such strategies are ineffective as they ignore the root cause of the stress. The type of stressor and whether the impact was on physical or psychological health explained the strategies between coping strategies and health outcomes.

In addition, Epping-Jordan et al. (1994) found that patients with cancer who used avoidance strategies, e.g., denying they were very ill, deteriorated more quickly than those who faced up to their problems. The same pattern exists in relation to dental health and financial problems.

Emotion-focused coping does not provide a long-term solution and may have negative side effects as it delays the person dealing with the problem. However, they can be a good choice if the source of stress is outside the person’s control (e.g., a dental procedure).

Gender differences have also been reported: women tend to use more emotion-focused strategies than men (Billings & Moos, 1981).

Problem-focused Coping

Problem-focused coping targets the causes of stress in practical ways, which tackles the problem or stressful situation that is causing stress, consequently directly reducing the stress.

Problem-focused strategies aim to remove or reduce the cause of the stressor, including:

• Problem-solving.
• Time-management.
• Obtaining instrumental social support.

In general problem-focused coping is best, as it removes the stressor and deals with the root cause of the problem, providing a long-term solution.

Problem-focused strategies are successful in dealing with stressors such as discrimination (Pascoe & Richman, 2009), HIV infections (Moskowitz, Hult, Bussolari, & Acree, 2009), and diabetes (Duangdao & Roesch, 2008).

However, it is not always possible to use problem-focused strategies. For example, when someone dies, problem-focused strategies may not be very helpful for the bereaved. Dealing with the feeling of loss requires emotion-focused coping.

The problem-focused approach will not work in any situation where it is beyond the individual’s control to remove the source of stress. They work best when the person can control the source of stress (e.g., exams, work-based stressors, etc.).

It is not a productive method for all individuals. For example, not all people are able to take control of a situation or perceive a situation as controllable.

For example, optimistic people who tend to have positive expectations of the future are more likely to use problem-focused strategies. In contrast, pessimistic individuals are more inclined to use emotion-focused strategies (Nes & Segerstrom, 2006).

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Petrie, K. J., Booth, R. J., & Pennebaker, J. W. (1998). The immunological effects of thought suppression. Journal of personality and social psychology, 75(5) , 1264.

Sarafino, E. P. (2012). Health Psychology: Biopsychosocial Interactions. 7th Ed . Asia: Wiley.

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Stress Therapy Treatment

What is stress, stress management therapy, tips to reduce stress, finding a therapist.

Stress therapy, also known as stress management or stress management therapy, can help people learn to manage stressful situations or feelings. The therapy includes a group of techniques, strategies, or programs that are used to address stressful situations and your stress response to them.

It is common to experience stress throughout life, and many people go through phases of high or increased levels of stress. While short periods of slightly increased stress levels may be considered normal, it is important to address high levels of stress and extended periods of increased stress.

This article will discuss stress, types of stress therapy, and how to know if you need stress therapy. It also covers ways you can benefit from it and tips for finding a therapist who suits your needs.

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Stress is a feeling of overwhelm or doubt related to situations or things that happen to us. It can be physical, mental, or emotional. For example, stress can feel like an upset stomach , lots of thoughts racing through the mind, or self-doubt.

Stress can be caused by a wide variety of life events and transitions, positive and negative, including relationship changes, work or employment changes, moving to a new place, illness or death, and other life challenges.

It is important to understand that stressful situations or events are not limited to negative experiences. Stress can come from positive changes, too. The Social Readjustment Rating Scale (also known as the Life Events Rating Scale) was developed by Thomas Holmes and Richard Rahe, two American psychiatrists . This tool includes life events that may lead to stress, some that people generally consider to be positive and those considered negative.

Possible Causes of Stress

Many situations or events can cause stress, such as:

• Addition of a new family member
• Changes in personal habits, education, career, or relationship dynamics
• Changes in eating or sleeping habits
• Changes experienced by a spouse or partner
• Conflict at work or school, or with family or friends
• Death, injury, or illness of a friend or family member
• Divorce, separation, breakup, or reconciliation of a partnership, marriage, or relationship
• Financial status change, new loan or mortgage, or mortgage or loan default
• High personal achievement
• Holidays or vacations
• Injury or recovery or physical, mental, or emotional health challenges
• Legal challenges
• Life transitions such as pregnancy or retirement
• Living condition changes or a household member moving in or out
• Recreational or social activity changes
• Responsibility changes
• Sexual challenges
• Social relationship conflict

Stress management therapy is the use of techniques, strategies, or programs specifically to reduce stress levels, prevent stress, or cope with situations or events that could lead to increased stress levels. Two examples include psychotherapy ( talk therapy ) for stress and relaxation training.

Stress therapy can be beneficial when someone is:

• Experiencing stress for a long period
• Experiencing high levels of stress
• Going through life changes or transitions
• Anticipating future changes or transitions

Stress Therapy Benefits

There are many benefits of stress therapy, including reducing the risks associated with stress. Negative effects of stress include physical, mental, emotional, and social challenges, and compromised quality of life. Some examples of the negative effects of stress include:

• Increased anger
• Negative interactions with family, friends, or others
• Trouble sleeping
• Increased chance of getting sick

Stress negatively impacts every body system, including digestion, reproduction, bones and muscles, breathing, the heart and circulation, nerves, tissues, organs, and hormones. For example, people who are stressed are likely to have high blood pressure .

Stress therapy can help to reduce stress levels, prevent and address these negative effects, boost mood, and increase your quality of life.

Benefits of stress therapy include:

• Better digestion
• Better mood
• Better sleep
• Chronic disease management
• Increased productivity
• Improved immune system function
• Improved mental and emotional health
• Improved physical health
• Improved relationship interactions
• Lower blood pressure
• Reduced pain

Stress Therapy Types

There are different types of stress management therapy. Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT), and psychodynamic therapy are talk therapy methods that can focus specifically on stress.

Preventive stress management teaches how to recognize, prepare for, and respond to stressors, such as with coping strategies, and is provided before the stressful event takes place.

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

Cognitive behavioral therapy is a type of talk therapy commonly used for stress management. This method focuses on the connection between thoughts, feelings or emotions, and behaviors, and how making changes to one can change others, as well as their outcomes.

CBT focuses on identifying faulty thought patterns that impact emotions and behaviors. For example, it may include noticing how the thought of not being good at something can lead to a fear of trying.

There are CBT programs and treatments specifically for stress that can help people change their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors in ways that promote relaxation and reduce stress. CBT-based stress management has been found to reduce levels of stress and anxiety, improve psychological well-being, and increase confidence.

Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT)

Mindfulness focuses on awareness of internal thoughts and feelings, as well as external surroundings and environments. For example, it may include focusing on how the sun and breeze feel on your skin or noticing thoughts that pop into your mind.

Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy is a type of talk therapy that combines mindfulness practices such as meditation with cognitive behavioral therapy. This method can focus specifically on stress management.

Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR)

Mindfulness-based stress reduction combines mindfulness techniques with stress management techniques to prevent and address stress. It may include meditation, relaxation, yoga, body awareness, and other techniques. MBSR has been shown to reduce stress, anxiety, depression, and burnout, and to improve quality of life.

Psychodynamic Therapy

Psychodynamic therapy is a type of talk therapy that explores a person's past experiences, emotions, and beliefs and their connection to their current mindset. The goals of psychodynamic therapy are to increase a person's self-awareness and understanding of the influence of the past on present behavior.

This type of therapy may help people understand how their past is influencing their stress and the ways they cope with stress.

Who Needs Stress Therapy?

Stress therapy is not only for people with a diagnosis or mental health condition. It can be beneficial for anyone dealing with high levels of stress, experiencing any level of stress for a long period, or going through a challenging life event or transition.

Those who anticipate a future stressful life event or transition can benefit from preventive stress management therapy.

In addition to stress therapy, there are many things people can do to prevent and cope with stress. This can be anything that promotes relaxation, such as:

• Taking a walk
• Reading a book
• Enjoying a personal hobby
• Getting physical activity, such as bike riding, hiking, or swimming
• Volunteering
• Spending time in nature

Some other practices that can help you prevent and manage stress include the following:

• Avoid drugs and alcohol
• Create, communicate, and hold boundaries
• Connect with loved ones
• Eat a well-balanced diet
• Exercise regularly
• Follow a routine or keep a daily practice
• Help others and volunteer
• Manage your expectations for yourself
• Make time for hobbies
• Practice relaxation techniques
• Prioritize self-care

The relaxation response is the opposite of stress and happens by calming the mind and body using relaxation techniques. There are many relaxation techniques that can help to reduce—and even prevent—stress. These can be used alone, combined with other relaxation techniques, or along with stress therapy.

Examples of relaxation techniques include:

• Art therapy and music therapy
• Body awareness that focuses on breathing and muscle relaxation
• Mantras and prayer
• Meditation and visualization
• Tai chi or yoga

Breathing Techniques

Breathing techniques can promote relaxation and reduce stress. There are many different breathing techniques that work in different ways. For example, ujjayi breathing, or ocean breathing, is a yoga breathing technique that has been shown to have a relaxing effect and reduce stress.

Breathing techniques for relaxation and stress reduction include:

• Abdominal breathing (also called diaphragmatic breathing or belly breathing) : A breathing technique that involves breathing in through the nose and out through the mouth, and focusing on pulling the air into the diaphragm and expanding the abdomen
• Ujjayi breathing or ocean breathing : A yoga breathing technique that involves breathing in and out through the nose, with inhaling and exhaling of the same duration
• 4-4-4 breathing technique : A count-based breathing technique that involves inhaling for a count of four, holding the air in for a count of four, exhaling for a count of four, allowing the lungs to remain empty for a count of four, and then repeating the process

The first step to getting support with stress therapy is finding a therapist or other mental health professional who practices stress therapy. Primary care providers may be able to give recommendations. Insurance companies can often provide a list of professionals who are covered by the plan.

Psychologists and psychotherapists commonly help people with behavioral changes in response to stress, but other mental health professionals can also help address stress, including:

• Psychiatrist: A doctor who specializes in mental health and can also prescribe mental health medications.
• Group counselor: A licensed professional who specializes in working with a small group of people who have similar challenges.
• Play therapists: A professional trained to work with younger children using play as a form of therapy to help them express themselves.
• School counselors: A person trained to help students of all ages with personal challenges, including stress.

It is a good idea to make sure the provider works with people to address stress before scheduling an appointment. This information may be available on the provider's website if they have one, and you can ask when scheduling an appointment.

Mental Health Hotline

If you or a loved one is struggling with stress, contact the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) National Helpline at 800-662-4357 for information on support and treatment facilities in your area.

For more mental health resources, see our National Helpline Database .

Stress is the response of the mind and body to external events, situations, and pressures that can feel overwhelming. It can be caused by life changes and transitions, both positive and negative.

Stress therapy is a group of talk therapy methods, techniques, strategies, or programs to prevent and treat stress. The benefits of stress therapy go beyond stress prevention and reduction and include improved physical, mental, and emotional health and quality of life. Cognitive behavioral therapy, mindfulness-based cognitive therapy, mindfulness-based stress reduction, and psychodynamic therapy are examples of stress therapy methods.

American Psychological Association. Stress management .

Mental Health Foundation. Stress .

American Psychological Association. Life events rating scale.

American Psychological Association. Stress effects on the body .

Sarkar A, Roy D, Chauhan MM, et al. A lay epidemiological study on coexistent stress in hypertension: Its prevalence, risk factors, and implications in patients' lives . J Family Med Prim Care. 2019 Mar;8(3):966-971. doi: 10.4103/jfmpc.jfmpc_60_19

Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion. Manage stress . Health.gov.

American Psychological Association. Preventive stress management .

American Psychological Association. Cognitive therapy .

Jafar HM, Salabifard S, Mousavi SM, Sobhani Z. The effectiveness of group training of cbt-based stress management on anxiety, psychological hardiness and general self-efficacy among university students .  Glob J Health Sci . 2016;8(6):47-54. doi:10.5539/gjhs.v8n6p47

American Psychological Association. Mindfulness .

Brown School of Public Health. What is mindfulness based cognitive therapy? .

Khoury B, Sharma M, Rush SE, Fournier C. Mindfulness-based stress reduction for healthy individuals: A meta-analysis .  Journal of Psychosomatic Research . 2015;78(6):519-528. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2015.03.009

National Health Service. 10 stress busters .

American Heart Association. Spending time in nature to reduce stress and anxiety .

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Coping with stress .

Harvard Medical School. Six relaxation techniques to reduce stress .

Epe J, Stark R, Ott U. Different effects of four yogic breathing techniques on mindfulness, stress, and well-being .  OBM Integrative and Complementary Medicine . 2021;6(3):1-1. doi:10.21926/obm.icm.2103031

American Psychological Association. How do I find a good therapist? .

By Ashley Olivine, Ph.D., MPH Dr. Ashley Olivine is a health psychologist and public health professional with over a decade of experience serving clients in the clinical setting and private practice. She has also researched a wide variety psychology and public health topics such as the management of health risk factors, chronic illness, maternal and child wellbeing, and child development.

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Yoga poses, such as the warrior seen here, involve precise alignment of the arms, legs and torso. The balance of poses and breathing help achieve stress management and relaxation.

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Stress management offers a range of ways to help you better deal with stress and difficulty, also called adversity, in your life. Managing stress can help you lead a more balanced, healthier life.

Stress is an automatic physical, mental and emotional response to a difficult event. It's a common part of everyone's life. When used positively, stress can lead to growth, action and change. But negative, long-term stress can lessen your quality of life.

Stress management approaches include:

• Learning skills such as problem-solving, focusing on important tasks first and managing your time.
• Improving your ability to cope with difficult events that happen in life. For example, you may learn how to improve your emotional awareness and reactions. You also may learn how to increase your sense of control. And you may find greater meaning and purpose in life and have more gratitude and optimism.
• Practicing relaxation techniques such as deep breathing, yoga, meditation, tai chi, exercise and prayer.
• Improving your personal relationships.

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• 11 healthy ways to handle life's stressors. American Psychological Association. https:// www.apa.org/topics/stress/tips. Accessed March 13, 2023.
• I'm so stressed out! Fact sheet. National Institute of Mental Health. https:// www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/so-stressed-out-fact-sheet. Accessed March 13, 2023.
• Relaxation techniques for health. National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. https:// www.nccih.nih.gov/health/relaxation-techniques-what-you-need-to-know. Accessed March 13, 2023.
• Rakel D, et al., eds. Relaxation techniques. In: Integrative Medicine. 5th ed. Elsevier; 2023. https://www.clinicalkey.com. Accessed March 15, 2023.
• Bystritsky A. Complementary and alternative treatments for anxiety symptoms and disorders: Physical, cognitive, and spiritual interventions. https://www.uptodate.com/index.html. Accessed March 15, 2023.
• Pizzorono JE, et al., eds. Stress management. In: Textbook of Natural Medicine. 5th ed. Elsevier; 2021. https://www.clinicalkey.com. Accessed March 15, 2023.
• Libby P, et al., eds. Integrative approaches to the management of patients with heart disease. In: Braunwald's Heart Disease: A Textbook of Cardiovascular Medicine. 12th ed. Elsevier; 2022. https://www.clinicalkey.com. Accessed March 15, 2023.
• Bauer BA (expert opinion). Mayo Clinic. March 23, 2023.
• Massage therapy: What you need to know. National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/massage-therapy-what-you-need-to-know. Accessed March 20, 2023.
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Problem solving involves strategies that can help you cope with problems in a productive way. Use the 5 step outline below to help you solve a challenge you are currently dealing with.

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Self-Affirmation Improves Problem-Solving under Stress

J. david creswell.

1 Department of Psychology, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America

Janine M. Dutcher

2 Department of Psychology, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America

William M. P. Klein

3 Division of Cancer Control and Population Sciences, NCI, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America

Peter R. Harris

4 Department of Psychology, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom

John M. Levine

5 Department of Psychology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America

Conceived and designed the experiments: JDC JMD WMPK PRH JML. Performed the experiments: JMD. Analyzed the data: JDC JMD. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: JDC. Wrote the paper: JDC JMD WMPK PRH JML.

Associated Data

High levels of acute and chronic stress are known to impair problem-solving and creativity on a broad range of tasks. Despite this evidence, we know little about protective factors for mitigating the deleterious effects of stress on problem-solving. Building on previous research showing that self-affirmation can buffer stress, we tested whether an experimental manipulation of self-affirmation improves problem-solving performance in chronically stressed participants. Eighty undergraduates indicated their perceived chronic stress over the previous month and were randomly assigned to either a self-affirmation or control condition. They then completed 30 difficult remote associate problem-solving items under time pressure in front of an evaluator. Results showed that self-affirmation improved problem-solving performance in underperforming chronically stressed individuals. This research suggests a novel means for boosting problem-solving under stress and may have important implications for understanding how self-affirmation boosts academic achievement in school settings.

Introduction

Acute and chronic stress have been shown to disrupt problem-solving and creativity [1] . For example, acutely stressful contexts, such as completing problem-solving tasks under negative social evaluation, have been shown to impair performance on a variety of tasks, such as anagrams and remote associate problems [2] , [3] . Feeling chronically stressed produces similar performance impairments. For example, Liston and colleagues found that participants who reported high levels of stress over the previous month demonstrated impaired attention-shifting performance compared to participants who reported low levels of stress [4] , [5] . Moreover, these stress-induced performance impairments were reversed when the high-stress participants completed the tasks after a one-month low stress period [4] . Although this body of research provides supportive evidence indicating that acute and chronic stressors can impair problem solving, little is currently known about stress management approaches for mitigating the effects of stress on problem solving.

An emerging body of research suggests that self-affirmation may be one such effective stress management approach. Self-affirmation theory posits that the goal of the self is to protect one’s self-image when threatened and that one way to do this is through affirmation of valued sources of self-worth [6] , [7] . In order to manipulate self-affirmation, experimental studies commonly have participants rank-order personal values (e.g., politics, relations with friends/family), and then participants in the self-affirmation condition are asked to respond to questions or complete a short essay on why their #1 ranked value is important (control participants complete a similar activity about why a lower ranked value might be important to someone else) [8] . As a result, participants in the self-affirmation condition have an opportunity to affirm a valued self-domain or characteristic [6] , [8] . Studies using this experimental approach have found that self-affirmation can buffer threats to the self in variety of domains [6] , with several recent studies showing that self-affirmation can buffer stress responses to laboratory stressors [9] , [10] and naturalistic academic stressors [11] . Collectively, this work suggests that if self-affirmation can reduce stress, it may also promote problem-solving performance under high stress conditions, although no previous studies have tested the effects of self-affirmation manipulations on actual problem-solving performance [12] – [16] .

In the present study, we test whether a brief self-affirmation can buffer the negative impacts of chronic stress on problem-solving. Specifically, we used a well-known measure of problem-solving and creativity (the Remote Associates Task (RAT)) [17] – [20] to test three hypotheses. First, we tested whether chronic stress is related to poorer problem-solving performance. Second, we tested whether self-affirmation improves problem-solving. Third, we tested whether these two main effects are qualified by a chronic stress × self-affirmation interaction, such that self-affirmation will improve problem-solving in chronically stressed participants, whom are likely to have impaired problem-solving, compared to participants who are low in chronic stress.

Ethics Statement

This research was approved by the Carnegie Mellon University Institutional Review Board.

Participants

Eighty students from two urban universities in Pittsburgh participated for course credit or $20. We excluded seven participants who did not follow instructions (N = 5) or who did not rate academic performance as important to them (N = 2). The sample thus consisted of 73 students (34 females; 39 males) who ranged in age from 18 to 34, with an average age of 21 (SD = 2.4). Given this broad age range and the marginally significantly association between age and overall RAT performance ( r  = −.21, p  = .07), we controlled for age in all analyses. The ethnic composition of the sample was predominantly Caucasian (55%), followed by Asian-American (16.5%), Other (12%), African-American (9.5%), mixed-race (5.5%), and Latino/Hispanic (1.5%). The sample had similar levels of chronic stress ( M =  16.6, SD  = 7.1, Range = 1–34) to normed US samples of individuals under 25 years of age (M = 16.8) [21] . Ethnicity (Caucasian vs. all others) and gender (male vs. female) did not moderate any of the primary study results (see Tables 1 and ​ and2 2 ).

Participants provided written informed consent and then completed an experiment ostensibly about intelligence and performance. Participants were informed that a trained evaluator would administer the performance task. Prior to completing the RAT and while the evaluator was ostensibly preparing to administer the test, participants were asked if they would be willing to complete a questionnaire and writing activity that was being piloted for an unrelated experiment on personal values (all agreed). Participants were randomly assigned either to the self-affirmation or control condition. In both cases, they rated 11 values (i.e., art, business, friends/family) in order of personal importance. Next, they wrote about their first ranked value and why it was important to them (self-affirmation condition) or their ninth ranked value and why it might be important to others (control condition) [12] . Following the self-affirmation writing task, as a manipulation check, participants were asked to respond to two items assessing how important the value they wrote about was, using a 6-point response scale (1 = Strongly Disagree to 6 = Strongly Agree). Items were, “This value has influenced my life” and “This value is an important part of who I am” (study α = .96). Participants then completed a state mood adjective checklist assessing state positive mood (5 items: proud, content, joyful, love, and grateful; study α = .84) and state negative mood (3 items: sad, angry, scared; study α = .65) (PANAS-X; [22] , [23] ).

Participants’ heart rate and mean arterial pressure were measured at 2-minute intervals using an automatic sphygmomanometer and inflatable cuff on their left arm (Dinamap Carescape V100, General Electric Company, Finland) during three different periods: an eight-minute baseline period, followed by the RAT (about 9 minutes), and a five-minute recovery period. All readings in each period were averaged. Heart rate was included because it is a useful indirect marker for task engagement [24] , [25] , which may be affected by our self-affirmation manipulation. Mean arterial blood pressure was collected to measure cardiovascular reactivity to the laboratory challenge task.

The experimenter was blind to participant condition, and a separate RAT evaluator (also blind to condition) administered the 30-item RAT performance task. 144 RAT items have been normed for difficulty [17] , and pilot testing indicated that our undergraduate sample population can solve all easy RAT items. We thus selected 30 challenging RAT items ranging in difficulty from moderately to extremely difficult (the items are available in Table S1 ). For each RAT item, participants saw three words on a computer screen (e.g., flake, mobile, cone) and were asked to generate a fourth word (e.g., snow) that when combined with each of the three stimulus words results in a common word pair used in everyday English language (e.g., snowflake, snow mobile, snow cone). They were given 12 seconds to provide an answer verbally. The evaluator provided veridical verbal performance feedback (incorrect, correct) after each response and recorded each response. In order to create performance pressure, the evaluator provided evaluative feedback three times during the 30 RAT trials (“I need you to try harder”).

After completing the performance task, the evaluator left the room and the experimenter re-entered and indicated that the participant was to rest quietly (5 minute recovery period). Participants then completed individual difference measures, including the 10-item Perceived Stress Scale [26] to assess perceived stress over the last month (all items were summed to form a composite index of chronic stress, study α = .87). To reduce potential confounding effects, we administered these measures at the end of the experimental session because previous studies indicate that completing individual difference measures at the beginning of an experimental session may act as an affirmation manipulation (i.e., they have carry-over effects) [27] . We had no reason to expect that the experimental task would bias participants’ responses when self-reporting their chronic stress levels over the past month, and a one-way ANCOVA indicated that the self-affirmation manipulation did not affect perceived stress over the last month ( F (1, 72) = .95, p  = .22, η 2  = .01). After completing individual difference measures, participants were debriefed, compensated, and excused.

Data Analysis

All descriptive statistics, ANCOVA, and multiple regression analyses were conducted using SPSS 19.0 (IBM, Armonk, New York). All predictor variables were mean-centered prior to being entered in multiple regression equations. Our experimental manipulation of self-affirmation was dummy coded (self-affirmation = 1, control = 0). Correct responses on the RAT were summed across the 30 trials to form an overall composite RAT problem-solving performance score. As described above, age was included as a covariate in all analyses (except the preliminary chi-square analyses described below).

Preliminary Analyses

It is possible that there may have been significant differences in how participants ranked their #1 value across study conditions, which could indicate a failure of randomization. To test whether there were differences in the selected #1 ranked value between study conditions, chi-square analyses were conducted to test for condition differences (self-affirmation vs. control, low vs. high chronic stress) on which value participants’ ranked #1 ( Table 3 provides frequencies of #1 ranked values across conditions). Consistent with previous studies [28] , approximately 50% of participants selected “Relations with Friends and Family” as their #1 ranked value. Importantly, there was no main effect for either self-affirmation condition (χ 2 (8) = 6.36, p =  .61) or chronic stress level (χ 2 (8) = 6.50, p  = .59) on the #1 ranked value. Moreover, the self-affirmation × chronic stress interaction for the #1 ranked value was not significant (χ 2 (8) = 3.03, p  = .93). In sum, there was no evidence that self-affirmation condition or chronic stress level affected participants’ selection of their top-ranked value.

As expected, self-affirmation and control participants wrote about different values during the writing activity (χ 2 (10) = 33.7, p<.001; see Table 4 ), such that participants in the control condition wrote about a ninth-ranked value that was different from the first-ranked value in the self-affirmation condition. As shown in Table 4 and noted above, approximately half the self-affirmation condition participants wrote about relations with friends and family, whereas control condition participants wrote about a heterogeneous set of values. We had no reason to believe that chronic stress would influence choice of value. Consistent with this expectation, there was not a main effect for either chronic stress level (χ 2 (10) = 11.08, p  = .35) nor a self-affirmation condition × stress level interaction (χ 2 (10) = 10.6, p =  .39).

As a manipulation check, we compared the ratings that participants in different conditions made about their value writing activity immediately after completing the writing activity. A one-way ANCOVA confirmed that the self-affirmation group ( M  = 22.97, SD  = 1.38) rated the value as significantly more important than did the control group ( M =  15.13, SD  = 3.69), F (1, 71) = 142.6, p <.001, η 2  = .671, indicating success of the value-affirmation manipulation.

We also conducted an ANCOVA comparing the total number of words written in the affirmation and control essays to determine if self-affirmation participants were more engaged in the writing task and thus wrote longer essays. Although self-affirmation condition participants wrote somewhat longer essays on average ( M  = 68.79 words, SD  = 25.9) than did control condition participants ( M  = 60.34, SD  = 26.9), this difference was not statistically significant ( F (1,72) = 1.63, p  = .21). Moreover, chronic stress level was not associated with the number of words written in the self-affirmation essays ( F (1, 72) = 1.13, p  = .35). There was also no interaction between self-affirmation condition and chronic stress level on number of words written ( F (1,72) = 1.30, p  = .26). It is also worth noting that word count was not correlated with RAT problem-solving performance ( r  = .14, p  = .23), and including word count as a covariate did not appreciably change our primary problem-solving results (word count was not further pursued as a variable of interest).

Self-Affirmation, Stress, and Problem-Solving Performance

To test our primary hypotheses, we conducted a multiple regression analysis with condition (self-affirmation vs. control), perceived stress over the last month, and their interaction predicting RAT score. Consistent with hypotheses, we observed a significant main effect of chronic stress on RAT performance ( β  = −.45, t (72) = −2.75, p  = .008), such that participants with higher stress in the last month had lower problem-solving performance. Moreover, we observed a significant main effect for self-affirmation condition, ( β  = .31, t (72) = 2.88, p  = .005), such that affirmed participants performed significantly better on the RAT task than control participants ( Figure 1 ). Consistent with our self-affirmation stress buffering hypothesis, these main effects were qualified by a significant chronic stress × self-affirmation interaction on RAT problem-solving performance ( β  = .35, t (72) = 2.09, p  = .041). As shown in Figure 1 , self-affirmation (compared to the control condition) improved the RAT problem solving performance of underperforming high chronic stress individuals, but had a minimal impact on the performance of participants low in chronic stress. Moreover, as depicted in Figure 1 , this stress buffering effect of self-affirmation improved the problem-solving performance of high stress individuals to a level comparable to individuals low in stress.

Low and high stress groups (as measured by the Perceived Stress Scale) were determined by median split for visual presentation. Error bars reflect standard errors of the mean.

Testing the Positive Affect and Task Engagement Accounts of Problem-Solving

Previous studies indicate that positive affect boosts problem-solving performance [29] , [30] , so we tested the possibility that the self-affirmation activity was a positive affect induction, and that positive affect engendered by self-affirmation explained the problem-solving effects. Consistent with other reports [28] , we found that the self-affirmation group had higher state positive affect compared to the control group (as determined by multiple regression controlling for age: β = . 51, t (69) = 4.79, p <.001.) We also tested negative affect using the same approach, but there was not a significant main effect for self-affirmation condition ( β  = −.12, t (71) = −1.06, p  = .29) or a stress × self-affirmation interaction ( β  = −.02, t (71) = −.90, p  = .37) on state negative affect. However, there was not a self-affirmation × chronic stress interaction on positive affect ( β  = .19, t (69) = 1.19, p  = .24). Given that self-affirmation increased state positive affect, we conducted mediation analyses (following procedure described in [31] ) testing whether state positive affect mediated the impact of self-affirmation on problem-solving. In the first step of the mediation analysis, self-affirmation increased positive affect (as described above). The second step in testing mediation consists of evaluating whether the mediating variable (positive affect) predicts the outcome variable (problem-solving performance) when entered simultaneously with the predictor variable (self-affirmation condition). This second analysis revealed that positive affect was not a significant predictor of RAT performance when it was entered as a simultaneous predictor variable with the self-affirmation condition variable ( β  = −.07, t (71) = −.54, p  = .59). Thus we did not find supporting evidence for positive affect as a mediator for the self-affirmation main effect or the chronic stress × self-affirmation interaction on problem-solving performance.

As noted earlier, previous research suggests that heart rate is a useful indirect marker for task engagement [24] , [25] . To test whether there was differential task engagement in the self-affirmation and control conditions using this physiological measure, we conducted a repeated measures ANCOVA to assess change in heart rate over time between conditions (In order to run a parallel ANCOVA analyses as our primary analysis, the heart rate and mean arterial pressure analyses were run with the chronic stress variable entered as a two-level between subjects variable (low vs. high stress), as determined by median split). Although participants showed an overall significant heart rate increase from baseline ( M  = 68.50, SE  = 1.03) to the RAT problem solving period ( M  = 76.44, SE  = 1.31) ( paired-samples t (69) = −9.26, p  = <.001), there were no significant main effect or interactive effects of conditions on heart rate change. Specifically, we did not observe a significant main effect for self-affirmation condition ( F (1, 67) = .36 p  = .55, η 2  = .01) or chronic stress ( F (1,66) = .09, p  = .77, η 2  = .001). Notably, we also did not observe a significant self-affirmation condition × time interaction ( F (2, 67) = .43 p  = .65, η 2  = .01) or a condition × time × chronic stress interaction ( F (2, 67) = 1.15 p  = .32, η 2  = .03) ( Figure 2 ), indicating that there were no differential effects of self-affirmation (or the self-affirmation × chronic stress interaction) on heart rate. Collectively, these findings do not provide support for a differential task engagement explanation of our performance findings. Instead, our data indicate that participants across conditions were similarly engaged in the problem-solving task.

Panel A depicts the results for participants low in chronic stress, and Panel B depicts the results for participants high in chronic stress, as determined by median split. Error bars reflect standard errors of the mean.

We also assessed the impact of our self-affirmation manipulation on mean arterial blood pressure responses during the RAT problem-solving period. Like heart rate, participants showed an overall significant mean arterial pressure increase from baseline ( M  = 79.71, SE  = .86) to the RAT problem solving period ( M  = 89.05, SE  = 1.08) ( paired-samples t (69) = −12.12, p <.001), but we did not observe significant main effects of self-affirmation ( F (1,67) = 2.21, p  = .14, η 2  = .03) or chronic stress ( F (1,66) = .32, p  = .57, η 2  = .01). Similarly, the self-affirmation condition × time ( F (2, 64) = .13, p  = .88, η 2  = .004) and condition × time × chronic stress ( F (2, 64) = 1.53 p  = .23, η 2  = .05) interactions were not significant ( Figure 3 ). These heart rate and mean arterial blood pressure results are in accord with our previous work showing that self-affirmation does not appreciably alter heart rate or blood pressure responses to acute stress-challenge tasks [9] . Importantly, the changes in heart rate and blood pressure reaffirm that the RAT task was stressful for participants.

The present study provides the first evidence that self-affirmation can protect against the deleterious effects of stress on problem-solving performance. Specifically, we show that chronically stressed individuals have impaired problem-solving performance and that self-affirmation can boost problem-solving performance under pressure. Notably, these effects were qualified by a significant chronic stress by self-affirmation interaction, such that self-affirmation improved problem-solving performance in underperforming chronically stressed individuals. These findings have important implications for self-affirmation research and educational interventions. First, although we have shown in several studies that self-affirmation can reduce acute stress experiences [9] – [11] , previous research has not tested whether self-affirmation can be protective in the context of chronic (or ongoing) stressors. Moreover, until now it has been unclear whether the stress buffering benefits of self-affirmation translate into improved performance outcomes on actual problem solving tasks. Our present study suggests that a brief self-affirmation activity is sufficient to buffer the negative effects of chronic stress on task performance and can improve the ability to problem solve in a flexible manner during high stress periods [3] , [32] . It is important to note that the task used in the present study (RAT) is a common measure of creativity performance and insight [18] , [33] , and hence our study suggests that self-affirmation may increase creativity and insight in stressed individuals [16] , [34] .

Second, our study suggests that self-affirmation may be effective at boosting performance in academic tasks requiring associative processing and creativity, particularly for students who experience stress on such tasks [34] . Thus, our findings identify a potential mechanism by which a self-affirmation intervention at the beginning of a school term can improve at-risk students’ academic achievement, reducing achievement disparities between African Americans and European Americans and between women and men in science [12] – [15] .

Finally, two limitations of our study should be mentioned. It is possible that the stress buffering effects of self-affirmation on problem-solving performance that we obtained are specific to evaluative performance settings, since all of our participants completed difficult RAT items under time pressure in front of a critical evaluator. (We note that the problem-solving task we used produced significant cardiovascular stress reactivity (see Figures 2 & 3 ), comparable to other well-known psychosocial stress-challenge tasks [35] .) Future studies should therefore experimentally test whether social evaluation is a necessary condition for self-affirmation problem-solving effects. Another limitation of our study is that we measured chronic stress using a self-report measure, and this measure was collected at the end of our study session (although there were no experimental (self-affirmation manipulation) effects on chronic stress scores). We elected to use this procedure given that completing individual difference measures may have carry-over effects if completed immediately prior to self-affirmation activities [27] . Future studies using other measures for assessing chronic stress (e.g., selecting chronically stressed vs. matched control groups) [4] would therefore be useful.

The present research contributes to a broader effort at understanding how stress management approaches can facilitate problem-solving performance under stress. Despite many studies showing that acute and chronic stressors can impair problem-solving [1] , [2] , [4] , we know little about stress management and coping approaches for buffering stress during problem-solving [36] . Our work suggests that self-affirmation may be a relatively easy-to-use strategy for mitigating stress and improving problem-solving performance in evaluative settings. It will be important for future studies to consider the mechanisms linking self-affirmation with improved problem solving. We show here that our self-affirmation effects are unlikely to be explained by changes in positive affect or task engagement. The fact that we did not see any differential effects of self-affirmation on a physiological measure of task engagement (heart rate) also suggests that these effects are not driven by changes in persistence or motivation [32] . A more likely possibility, to be tested by future research, is that self-affirmation facilitates a more open and flexible attentional stance (e.g., [16] ), which increases working memory availability [37] , [38] for problem-solving in evaluative contexts.

Conclusions

The present study builds on previous research showing that self-affirmation has stress protective effects in performance settings [9] , [12] , [13] , [15] , providing an initial indication that self-affirmation can buffer the effects of chronic stress on actual problem-solving in performance settings.

Supporting Information

Remote Associate items used in the present study.

Acknowledgments

This dataset is available upon request ( ude.umc@llewserc ).

Funding Statement

This research was supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant #924387 and the Pittsburgh Life Sciences Greenhouse Opportunity Fund. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Depression, anxiety, and stress symptoms and coping strategies in the context of the sudden course modality shift in the Spring 2020 semester

• Published: 13 April 2023

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• Jerry L. Mize 1  

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The COVID-19 pandemic created a host of difficulties for college students. There is research noting the unique vulnerability of this population’s DASS symptoms and further connections of coping strategies. The current study aims to provide a snapshot of this unique time in higher education by examining the relationship between perceived difficulty, retrospectively, in the Spring 2020 semester and DASS symptoms in the Fall 2020 semester, and moderators of coping strategies in a sample of USA university students ( n  = 248; M age = 21.08, SD = 4.63; 79.3% = Female). The results yielded a clear predictor relationship between perceived difficulty and symptoms of DASS. However, only problem-solving coping strategy proved a significant moderator for stress; surprisingly, problem-solving coping appeared to exacerbate the relationship. Implications for clinicians and higher education are discussed.

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The COVID-19 pandemic presented several obstacles for society at large. Major health outbreaks, such as pandemics, are known to have both physical and psychological impacts on individuals regardless of contracting a disease (Luo et al., 2021 ; Mak et al., 2009 ; Ren et al., 2021 ; Xiao et al., 2020 ). In particular, scholars anticipate mental health impacts that would be pervasive and widespread (Galea et al., 2020 ; Park et al., 2021 ). Adjustment related symptoms, such as depression, anxiety, and stress, are of particular concern (Kibbey et al., 2021 ; Pappa et al., 2020 ; Park et al., 2021 ), and how one responds to and experiences stress prior to the pandemic was already of concern (Bell et al., 2017 ; Othman et al., 2019 ; Starcke & Brand, 2016 ). Thus, the cumulative impact of stressors during the pandemic (Di Renzo et al., 2020 ; Hamzah et al., 2019 ; Kramer & Kramer, 2020 ; López-Castro et al., 2021 ; Park et al., 2021 ; Xia et al., 2021 ) warrant investigation.

The abrupt shift to online learning in Spring 2020

As cases of COVID-19 rose in early 2020 and the World Health Organization (WHO) declared COVID-19 a global pandemic (Islam et al., 2020 ), Universities across the globe subsequently transitioned to online learning, creating a disruption in various domains of higher education, including social, academic, and business settings (López-Castro et al., 2021 ; Samuels et al., 2021 ). Online students have been reported to feel lonely and out of touch with academic learning (Rovai & Wighting, 2005 ). One report suggests that more than a quarter of the worldwide learner population are enrolled in at least one online course (DAAD, 2020 ; El Said, 2021 ). Another study has shown that higher feelings of belongingness were related to lower levels of stress related to the pandemic, and higher levels of pandemic-related stress were associated with lower academic motivation in a sample of undergraduate (Marler et al., 2021 ). Further, it is important to emphasize that students with no interest with online learning in the past, had to switch to an online learning setting regardless of their preference. As such, it is fair to infer the online shift was at least frustrating to many students.

It is important to emphasize that this framework is not to advise against online learning. In fact, several studies report little to no difference in grade performance of students in online vs. in-person course modalities (Cavanaugh & Stephen, 2015 ; El Said, 2021 ; Lorenzo-Alvarez, et al., 2019 Soesmanto & Bonner, 2019 ; Tan, 2019 ). However, a quick shift to an online format presents a different scenario. For example, Nyer ( 2019 ) conducted a study, prior to the pandemic, at a university in California to see effective ways of quickly offering online components to a traditional face-to-face course. The study revealed that there was lower engagement in the course when materials were quickly created, leaving some inferences to the importance of quality course instruction in an online setting. In another study, at the onset of the pandemic (Bozkurt et al., 2020 ), educational settings across multiple countries reported difficulties related to digital access, alternative methods of evaluation, and difficulty with the sudden online switch. Further, similar barriers were reported for mental health resources provided by universities (Folk et al., 2022 ), which suggest a potential increase in mental health difficulties, in particular mental health symptoms.

Adjustment symptoms among college students

Symptoms of adjustment refer to distress related to life events that can manifest as emotional disturbance (e.g., anxiety or depressed mood), but not necessarily to the point of clinical diagnosis (American Psychiatric Association, 2022 ; Reichenberg & Seligman, 2016 ). These symptoms can include stress, anxiety, and depression (Park et al., 2021 ). University students are already in a stage of transition developmentally and socially. Moving to a new, sometimes unfamiliar location, learning the new expectations in a post-secondary educational setting, and navigating new social relationships can be stressful (Garriott & Nisle, 2018 ; Hamzah et al., 2019 ; Kulig & Persky, 2017 ; Peleg et al., 2016 ). Further, it is not unheard of for college students to experience depression, anxiety, and stress symptoms (Broglia et al., 2017 ; Hamzah et al., 2019 ; Mustaffa et al., 2014 ; Zivin et al., 2009 ). In fact, Zivin et al. ( 2009 ) reported persistent stress and mental health struggles across two years in a sample of college students in a longitudinal analysis, concluding that a large number of individuals are aware of their struggles, but do not receive treatment. This emphasizes the need for emphasizing sources of stress and implementing early intervention.

Age and gender also appear to be a specific indicator to distress for some individuals (AlHadi et al., 2021 ; Bell et al., 2017 ; Kibbey et al., 2021 ; López-Castro et al., 2021 ; Park et al., 2021 ). Park et al. ( 2021 ) suggested that younger individuals, and women, might be more vulnerable to symptoms of depression, anxiety, and stress in the context of the pandemic. Kibbey et al. ( 2021 ) also reported that vulnerability of college students and the compounding impacts from the pandemic that could occur in their unique life situation (e.g., displacement from the university, social network removal, abrupt and uncertain changes in their academic environment). Although, Islam et al. ( 2020 ) only saw this vulnerability among female participants but found the opposite with regard to age. López-Castro et al. ( 2021 ) found pandemic related stressors to be related to greater levels of poor mental health, particularly among females which makes up the majority of the current study’s sample of New York City college students.

These symptoms of adjustment have a renewed focus in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, particularly at the beginning of lockdowns. Arënliu et al. ( 2021 ) noted pandemic related stressors including knowing someone infected, worries of financial fall out from various shutdowns, and overload of pandemic related information, were significant predictors of anxiety and depression in a sample of 904 university students in Kosovo. This was also the case in other studies conducted at this time (Elmer et al., 2020 ; Odriozola-González, et al., 2020 ; Passavanti et al., 2021 ; Ren et al., 2021 ; Serafim et al., 2021 ), establishing a pattern of pandemic related stress, particularly among university students. Further, the American Psychological Association ( 2020 ) released a statement reporting potential generational specific amplification of distress during the pandemic among young adults. There is also evidence suggesting the pandemic to exacerbate psychological distress (Marler et al., 2021 ). A daily diary study conducted during the onset of the pandemic (Xia et al., 2021 ), the association between daily stressors related to COVID-19 and emotional variability (i.e., shifts between positive and negative emotional states) was greater when the stress was greater. Thus, there is a clear need for comprehensive studies on the unique impacts the pandemic has had on the college student population.

Coping strategies and stress

Indeed, research has demonstrated the relations between coping strategies and stress and the current literature points to positive psychological outcomes especially when active coping strategies (e.g., approach oriented using cognition and behavior; Choi et al., 2012 ) are utilized (AlHadi et al., 2021 ; Eisenbarth, 2012 ; Folkman, 2008 ; Kavčič et al., 2022 ). The transactional stress or coping model (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984 ) notion that how we are affected by distress is dependent on our overall resources such as coping strategies and psychosocial protections (Aldwin, 2007 ; Park et al., 2008 , 2021 ) supports this. Thus, perhaps it is that stress is lesser among those with greater coping skill sets. This was supported in a latent profile analysis study of Slovenian adults (Kavčič et al., 2022 ). Specifically, depression anxiety and stress was the lowest among participants who were actively engaged in active rather than passive coping (e.g., indirect attempts to reduce or avoid a stressful situation; Choi et al., 2012 ). In a study of Chinese university students during the pandemic, Huang et al. ( 2021 ) found active coping to be associated with lower depression, anxiety, and stress symptoms, which contrasted with passive coping which was associated with higher depression, anxiety, and stress symptoms. Another example of this can be found in Vintila et al. ( 2022 ) which found maladaptive strategies to positively mediate the relationship between health anxiety and COVID-19 anxiety. Taken together, perhaps style of coping can have a robust protection or risk during times of stress in multiple scenarios and contexts.

The current study

Indeed, Kavčič et al. ( 2022 ) answers many questions with regard to coping strategies and adjustment. However, the researchers make a point in their interpretations to emphasize the contextual and circumstantial nature of their results. While their results do address a snapshot in the time of the pandemic onset while measuring stress and coping strategies in adults, their results are not capturing the important factor of college student experiences. This is what the current study aims to do. To the author’s knowledge, it does not appear that the relationship between how college students’ perception of the abrupt change to online learning in the middle of the semester in Spring 2020 related to adjustment symptoms like stress, anxiety, and depression and how this differed based on coping strategies. The current study aims to add to this void in the literature and in turn provide insight to academics and clinicians. The following research questions and hypotheses are proposed:

RQ-1: How does the retrospective perceived difficulty during the Spring 2020 semester relate to depression, anxiety, and stress symptoms?

RQ-1 Hypothesis: Given that the literature supports the COVID-19 pandemic as a pervasive stressor, it is expected that stress, depression, and anxiety symptoms will be predicted significantly by student’s perception difficulty during the transition to online in the Spring 2020 semester.

RQ-2: How do the relations between retrospective perceived difficulty of the Spring 2020 transition and depression, anxiety, stress symptoms differ based on coping strategies of the participants?

RQ-2 Hypothesis: Based on the current literature and Lazarus and Folkman’s ( 1984 ) theory, it is expected that active coping strategies (e.g., problem solving and affective), will yield a significant moderation of the relationship between perceived difficulty and depression, anxiety, stress symptoms, more so than avoidant or passive strategies (e.g., fantasy, minimization of threat, and existential growth coping).

Transparency and openness

Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval was obtained for data examined in this manuscript. This study involved secondary analysis of existing data that the author felt answered the target research question. While the data are not pre-registered or available to the public, a data codebook can be provided upon request to the corresponding author.

Procedures and participants

The study utilizes data from a larger study (Student Experiences Amid COVID-19 Project) conducted at a large public University in the District of Columbia, Maryland, and Virginia (DMV) region in the Fall 2020 semester. The Project aimed to examine college student well-being and mental health in the context of the immediate semesters surrounding the COVID-19 Pandemic. The data were collected via self-report survey in SONA systems which is open to all students at the institution. Some courses, particularly introductory psychology, require student participation in SONA studies. The survey took participants approximately 15–25 min to respond. Data cleaning commenced before analyses, including withdrawing inconsistent responses to control questions that indicated dishonesty.

Study participants ( n  = 248) were university students in a large public university in the DMV region of the Eastern United States who were enrolled in a course during the Spring and Fall semesters of the year 2020. On average, participants were age 21 ( SD  = 4.63) and predominantly reported their biological sex as female (79.3%). Reported gender identity of the participants indicated that the sample was fully cis-gendered. Participants were also racially diverse and predominantly living with family and disclosed “student only” as their employment status. Table  1 summarizes this information.

Perceived difficulty in Spring 2020

Items were composed for study participants to retrospectively self-report difficulty with access to course materials, ease of transition, and overall stress in the Spring 2020 semester when the major shift to online occurred. “Perceived Difficulty in Spring 2020” variable (α = 0.675). Items were significantly, positively correlated ( r  < .4; p  > .001). For the item asking, “How difficult was it for you to access course materials required for success after the transition to online during the 2020 semester?” participants answered along a scale of 1 (Much more difficult than expected) to 5 (Much easier than expected). This item was reverse coded for data analysis so that higher values reflected greater difficulty, as was the next time asking, “How would you rate the overall ease of transition from face-to-face to online during the Spring 2020 Semester?” participants answered along a scale of 1 (extremely poor and difficult transition) to 6 (Extremely pleasant and seamless transition). Finally, for the item “How would you rate your stress during the Spring 2020 semester after the transition to online?” participants answered along a scale of 1 (very little stress, if at all) to 6 (Extremely Stressful). The mean score of the 3 items was calculated, after reverse coding one of them, to create the final variable. The finalized construct for this variable is for higher scores to indicate higher perceived stress, and lower scores to indicate lower perceived stress.

• Coping strategies

The Coping Strategies Inventory (CSI, Quayhagen & Quayhagen, 1982 ) was utilized to examine levels of various coping strategies among study participants. Participants were presented the prompt, “How likely are you to partake in the following behaviors” and then asked to rate items on a scale of 1 = “not at all likely” to 4 = “very likely,” meaning higher scores indicate that they are more likely to engage in that particular coping strategy. Six domains were yielded in the measures debut, showing construct validity (Quayhagen & Quayhagen, 1982 ). Five of the CSI Subscales were used in this study. The Affectivity subscale (α = 0.696) was used to measure emotional affect and reactivity with 8 items such as “Express worry about the situation” and “express pleasure over happenings.” The Existential Growth subscale (α = 0.837) examined positive and mindful outlook with 8 items such as “find new faith or truth about life” or “try and find fair compromise.” The Fantasy subscale (α = 0.829) consisted of 5 items that included “convince self-things will be different” and “wish things would go away.” The Problem-Solving (α = 0.742) subscale was also 5 items that included “mentally rehearse plan to handle problem” and “make alternate plans for situation.” Finally, Minimization of Threat (α = 0.467) included 4 items such as “express happiness over the situation” and “go out to forget the problem.

Depression, anxiety, and stress

The Depression Anxiety Stress Scale (DASS-21; Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995 ) was utilized to assess adjustment symptoms among study participants. Reliability and validity for the DASS-21 has been established in multiple populations including non-clinical, college students, and cross-culturally (Bibi et al., 2020 ; Henry & Crawford, 2005 ; Osman et al., 2012 ). The inventory consists of 3 sub-scales, Stress, Depression, and Anxiety, each consisting of 7 items in which participants respond along a scale of 0 = “Does not apply to me at all,” 1 = “Applied to me to some degree, or some of the time,” 2 = Applied to me a considerable degree, or a good part of the time,” and 3 = “Applied to me very much, or most of the time,” meaning that higher scores indicate that this form of stress applies to them more often. The Stress subscale (α = 0.774) included 7 items, including “I found it difficult to relax” and “I felt I was using a lot of nervous energy.” The Depression Subscale also included 7 items such as “I felt that I had nothing to look forward to” and “I felt that I wasn’t worth much as a person.” Finally, the Anxiety subscale (α = 0.882) included 7 items such as “I felt I was close to panic” and “I felt scared without any good reason.”

Data analysis

Intercorrelations and descriptive summaries between study variables, including Means, Standard Deviations, and Cronbach’s Alphas (α) can be found in Table  2 . Demographic variables were included as covariates in the study to account for variance that is explained by biological sex, age, and race/ethnicity.

Hierarchical Multiple Regression (see Table  3 ) was utilized to examine first the predictive value of the perceived difficulty in Spring 2020 and subsequently the moderating variables and interaction terms on depression, anxiety, stress symptoms (DASS, Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995 ). Age, race, and biological sex were first entered as covariates before entering perceived difficulty of the spring 2020 semester as a predictor. The individual coping strategies from the CSI (Quayhagen & Quayhagen, 1982 ) was then entered into the third step to see predictive power. The final step included the interaction terms for each coping strategy and perceived difficulty in the spring 2020 semester. Because of the nature of these analyses, all predictor and moderator variables were mean centered before creating interaction terms.

Descriptive statistics and intercorrelations can be found in Tables  1 and 2 . Of note, the perceived difficulty in spring 2020 was significantly correlated with stress ( r  = .14, p  < .05), depressive ( r  = .20, p  < .01), and anxiety ( r  = .20, p  < .01) symptoms. Multicollinearity was not of concern, however it should be noted that zero-order correlations are relatively small in magnitude (See Table  2 ).

Table  3 summarizes the hierarchical multiple regression results. The first step of the equation only examined the covaries (biological sex, racial identity, and age). None of the models in this step were significant, nor did they uniquely yield a significant association with the outcome variables (stress, depression, anxiety). Answering Research Question 1, the second step examined the perceived difficulty in Spring 2020 as the predictor variable, while controlling for biological sex, racial identity, and age and its association with stress ( R 2  = 0.03, F (4, 247) = 1.87, p  > .05), depression ( R 2  = 0.56, F (4, 247) = 3.63, p  < .001), and anxiety ( R 2  = 0.51, F (4, 247) = 3.29, p  < .05). In this context, perceived difficulty in spring 2020 was significantly associated with stress ( β  = 0.127, p  < .01), depression ( β  = 0.178, p  < .01), and anxiety ( β  = 0.188, p  < .01) such that for those who perceived difficulty in spring 2020 greater, there was also a greater a prevalence of depression, anxiety, stress symptoms. This was in line with the hypothesis for research question 1 and past research.

The third step of the hierarchical multiple regression (Table  3 ) added the moderating variables to the equation for stress ( R 2  = 0.33, F (9, 247) = 12.88, p  < .001), depression ( R 2  = 0.42, F (9, 247) = 19.16, p  < .001), and anxiety ( R 2  = 0.35, F (9, 247) = 14.02, p  < .001), to see how the variance changes in predicting the outcome variables. Across all 3 outcomes, perceived difficulty in spring 2020 still significantly predicted stress ( β  = 0.13, p  < .01), depression ( β  = 0.15, p  < .01), and anxiety ( β  = 0.17, p  < .01) with coping strategies included in the equation. Further, some coping strategies in this equation yielded a significant association with the outcome variables. In the model predicting stress for step 3, affective coping ( β  = 0.38, p  < .001) and fantasy coping ( β  = 0.17, p  < .05) were positively associated with stress symptoms, while existential growth ( β = − 0.26, p  < .001) coping was negatively associated with stress symptoms. In the models predicting depression for step 3, affective coping ( β  = 0.40, p  < .001), fantasy coping ( β  = 0.20, p  < .001), and problem-solving coping ( β  = 0.18, p  < .01) were positively associated with depressive symptoms, whereas existential growth coping ( β = − 0.27, p  < .001) was negatively associated with depressive symptoms. Finally, in the model predicting anxiety for this step, affective coping ( β  = 0.32, p  < .001), existential growth coping ( β  = 0.20, p  < .001), fantasy coping ( β  = 0.24, p  < .001), problem solving coping ( β  = 0.17, p  < .05) were all positively associated with anxiety symptoms.

The fourth and final step answers research question 2. An interaction term was included for each coping strategy variable in the study with perceived difficulty in spring 2020 to test moderation with stress ( R 2  = 0.36, F (14, 247) = 9.41, p  < .001), depression ( R 2  = 0.44, F (14, 247) = 13.27, p  < .001), and anxiety ( R 2  = 0.38, F (14, 247) = 10.18, p  < .001). All interaction terms were included in the equation for the three outcomes. Although each model in this step was significant, only one interaction yielded significance, only partially confirming the hypothesis for this research question. Specifically, the interaction of perceived difficulty in spring 2020 and problem-solving coping ( β  = 0.169, p  < .05). Figure  1 shows the plot for this interaction. There was a significant interaction in that problem solving coping moderated the relationship between perceived spring 2020 difficulty and stress symptoms. Specifically, higher levels of problem-solving coping were associated with more positive relationship between spring perceived 2020 difficulty and stress symptoms.

Interaction of Spring 2020 perceived difficulty and problem-solving coping on stress symptoms

The current study sought to examine connections between retrospective perceived difficulty in the abrupt spring 2020 transition and fall 2020 adjustment symptoms in a sample of college students and see how coping strategies might have been associated with this relationship. The hypotheses were partially confirmed, finding that perceived difficulties were associated with higher rates of depression, anxiety, stress symptoms. This association was found to hold even when accounting for active (i.e., affective and problem-solving coping) and passive (i.e., existential growth and fantasy coping) coping strategies among college students. Further, it was, albeit surprisingly, noted that in the study sample, those who were high in problem solving coping strategies experienced a greater link between higher rates of spring 2020 difficulty and stress symptoms than those who were low in problem solving coping strategies.

Of note, it was quite surprising to see the different directional relationships between coping strategies and the other study variables. In the significant interaction of problem solving coping with perceived stress and DASS symptoms, it was surprising that problem solving coping appeared to be associated with increased symptoms, rather than a helpful strategy. One possible explanation for this could be allostatic load (Barthas et al., 2020 ; Kietzman & Gourley, 2020 ; Mayer et al., 2019 ) and that using more tangible resources were more taxing. It was also surprising to see a negative association between existential growth and depression and stress symptoms, but a positive association in anxiety symptoms in the pre-moderation analyses. One particular explanation for this could be that some participants were experiencing existential anxiety, the anthesis of existential growth such that individuals experience anxiety over situations related to mortality, meaninglessness, or guilt and regret (Tomaszek & Muchacka-Cymerman, 2020 ). Perhaps a feeling of directionlessness exacerbates anxiety symptoms in this sample.

Implications

The current study, although not causal linking, provides data that should be headed by educators, administrators of higher education, and clinicians. Perhaps one of the most important takeaways from this study is the time frame in which it focuses. The literature notes a cumulative impact that stress can have psychologically and physiologically. Direct and indirect connections have been drawn between cumulative stress and HPA axis activation and depressive symptoms (Shapero et al., 2018 ), which in turn could have maladaptive implications on social interactions (Barthas et al., 2020 ). At a chromosomal level, cumulative stress from childhood across the lifespan has also been connected to shortened telomeres (Mayer et al., 2019 ). As Kietzman and Gourley ( 2020 ) describe, indeed, minor stress is dealt with by our own internal mechanisms to be alleviated, however prolonged use with little reprieve potentially risks a habitual stress phenomenon that taxes out our resources – also known as allostatic load (Barthas et al., 2020 ; Kietzman & Gourley, 2020 ; Mayer et al., 2019 ). This can also occur at the child level such that resources to deal with stress used up at an early age (Kanner et al., 1991 ; Mize & Kliewer, 2017 ) may create difficulties later. In the context of the pandemic, educators, administrators, and clinicians alike, should be prepared for students and clients in the future whose allostatic load was built heavily during the pandemic and thus may require additional support in the future, consistent with concerns by the American Psychological Association ( 2020 ). We still do not know the long-ranging effects of the COVID-19 pandemic that is still ongoing as this study is written.

Educators may also find the results in the study helpful when considering supports they provide for their students. COVID-19 timeframe research has found instructor’s preparation, organization, and respectful environment was related to student learning support for online students (Samuels et al., 2021 ). Reducing obstacles and challenges within their limits of power, theoretically would reduce the foundational stressors’ impact. This is particularly important to keep in mind for students from underprivileged backgrounds. Through scholarships, student loans, and personal savings, students from underprivileged and low-income backgrounds have been able to have the privilege of receiving a college education (Frost et al., 2020 ). As students have received their education, they have gained access to library services and physical space, high quality internet provided with their student status, and in turn the ability to communicate with their instructors through email and office hours and learn with their peers. All of these resources disappeared with the emergency transition to online learning due to COVID-19. Yet, the expectation to perform to a passing level and receive credit was still present. With what we know now, perhaps a takeaway from this study if for educators to increase their flexibility.

Clinicians may find it useful to focus on identifying the direct contributors to stress symptoms. Although the interaction showed problem solving strategies to be a hindrance, this does not mean emotional affectivity, or some passive strategies are not potentially helpful or that active coping strategies are without merit. Indeed, it was at one point a question as to whether coping strategies served as a mediator in the relationship between perceived difficulty in spring 2020 and depression, anxiety, stress symptoms. This would in fact be consistent with Ara et al. ( 2017 ) who found problem focused and emotion focused coping to mediate the path between relationship quality and depressive symptoms. However, it was determined that the target research question was about context (Eisenbarth, 2012 ; Folkman, 2008 ; Kavčič et al., 2022 ), not mechanistic. Ara et al. ( 2017 ) were indeed similar variables to some COVID-19 related stressors (López-Castro et al., 2021 ; Marler et al., 2021 ). Because the current study did not collect relationship qualities, coping strategies not considered statistically significant in this study should still be considered in future research – Again, prior to the moderation analyses, passive coping strategies, in particular fantasy coping and existential growth coping appeared to have just as strong of a connection to depression, anxiety, stress symptoms as active coping, further supporting the usefulness of both active and passive strategies in managing mental health symptoms. It is likely, that problem solving coping held so strongly in the moderation because of the tangible nature of improving or maintain academically during the 2020 semester. But again, it is possible that this was overwhelming with the many demands students were experiencing at the time.

Again, the literature shows evidence of healthy coping strategies and their associations with lower rates of adjustment (AlHadi et al., 2021 ; Eisenbarth, 2012 ; Folkman, 2008 ; Kavčič et al., 2022 ; Park et al., 2008 , 2021 ). Clinicians should continue their work in providing clients with a toolbox of strategies to help alleviate stress both in the short-term and long-term. Educators can also be of assistance by being mindful of potential stressors and providing reasonable flexibility and support to reduce contributions to academic related stressors.

Limitations

It is important to highlight the study’s limitations. First, there is always a risk of participants being dishonest when using self-report survey data. Efforts were made to minimize this by including control questions in the survey, and data cleaning procedures were conducted in anticipation of this limitation. Further, the data are correlational and cross-sectional, and not experimental nor longitudinal. Thus, participants had to retrospectively report their difficulty from Spring 2020. It would not be ethical to set up an experimental study for these research questions. However, perhaps the study would have benefited from asking specific questions at the time of COVID-19 pandemic onset and followed up the next semester and investigated social support and employment as covariates as both can have impacts on adjustment. Yet, the data still provide an interesting snapshot in the context of the pandemic. It should also be noted that the examined symptoms of stress, anxiety, and depression are only symptoms of adjustment and not indicative of clinical diagnoses of depression or anxiety as defined in the DSM-5TR (APA, 2022 ; Park et al., 2021 ; Reichenberg & Seligman).

It is also important to acknowledge uninvestigated variables for this study. Factors such as health anxiety were not gathered at data collection and in turn not controlled for in the analyses. It is possible examined symptoms were affiliated in part by worries of contracting the virus and uncertainty of next stages of the pandemic (Kibbey et al., 2021 ). Additionally, several studies on depression, anxiety, stress, and adjustment report gender influences, however, being that the sample was more than three quarters female and covariate analyses revealed no association with biological sex, this was not investigated. It is also possible that results would have been stronger had the data been collected in a different region or across multiple regions. Since the study was collected in the District of Columbia, Maryland, Virginia (DMV) region, perhaps participants were experiencing less difficulty and distress than in other regions that would be considered “hotspots” as described by Park et al. ( 2021 ) and Maroko et al. ( 2020 ). It would have been interesting to see how symptoms such as this and coping strategies would have persisted. Finally, attrition and number of enrolled credits across the 2020 would have been useful as the data only reflects students who remained and did not have to drop out of school.

Despite these limitations, this study is consistent with prior stress research (e.g., Hamzah et al., 2019 ; Kulig & Persky, 2017 ; Park et al., 2021 ; Peleg et al., 2016 ; Zivin et al., 2009 ) and expands on the literature, providing insight to a unique point in time that has been of interests to scholars (e.g., Galea et al., 2020 ; López-Castro et al., 2021 ; Park et al., 2008 , 2021 ; Xia et al., 2021 ) and adding to the breadth knowledge of how coping skills relate to stress in times of global strife.

Although these data are correlational, they capture an important snapshot during a unique time that clinicians and administrators can learn from. Clinicians should be prepared to work with individuals needing to process what has been lost in the last couple of years. The findings in this study provide insight into potential coping strategies that may or may not be useful in the context of the pandemic stress. Further, Colleges and Universities should be prepared for a continual shift in online flexibility. As it stands, perhaps students have adapted favorably to online learning, finding in person learning less desirable. Higher education should consider implementing policies in their institutions that could help mitigate negative impact from abrupt changes. Indeed, higher education would be more prepared now than in the time of the study. However, working to ease the uncertainty of what would happen could go a long way for student success and student mental health alike.

Data availability

Datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are not publicly available due to study protocol and confidentiality. However, codebooks and syntax for the data are available upon request to the corresponding author.

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Problem-Solving Strategies and Obstacles

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Sean is a fact-checker and researcher with experience in sociology, field research, and data analytics.

JGI / Jamie Grill / Getty Images

• Application
• Improvement

From deciding what to eat for dinner to considering whether it's the right time to buy a house, problem-solving is a large part of our daily lives. Learn some of the problem-solving strategies that exist and how to use them in real life, along with ways to overcome obstacles that are making it harder to resolve the issues you face.

What Is Problem-Solving?

In cognitive psychology , the term 'problem-solving' refers to the mental process that people go through to discover, analyze, and solve problems.

A problem exists when there is a goal that we want to achieve but the process by which we will achieve it is not obvious to us. Put another way, there is something that we want to occur in our life, yet we are not immediately certain how to make it happen.

Maybe you want a better relationship with your spouse or another family member but you're not sure how to improve it. Or you want to start a business but are unsure what steps to take. Problem-solving helps you figure out how to achieve these desires.

The problem-solving process involves:

• Discovery of the problem
• Deciding to tackle the issue
• Seeking to understand the problem more fully
• Researching available options or solutions
• Taking action to resolve the issue

Before problem-solving can occur, it is important to first understand the exact nature of the problem itself. If your understanding of the issue is faulty, your attempts to resolve it will also be incorrect or flawed.

Problem-Solving Mental Processes

Several mental processes are at work during problem-solving. Among them are:

• Perceptually recognizing the problem
• Representing the problem in memory
• Considering relevant information that applies to the problem
• Identifying different aspects of the problem
• Labeling and describing the problem

Problem-Solving Strategies

There are many ways to go about solving a problem. Some of these strategies might be used on their own, or you may decide to employ multiple approaches when working to figure out and fix a problem.

An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure that, by following certain "rules" produces a solution. Algorithms are commonly used in mathematics to solve division or multiplication problems. But they can be used in other fields as well.

In psychology, algorithms can be used to help identify individuals with a greater risk of mental health issues. For instance, research suggests that certain algorithms might help us recognize children with an elevated risk of suicide or self-harm.

One benefit of algorithms is that they guarantee an accurate answer. However, they aren't always the best approach to problem-solving, in part because detecting patterns can be incredibly time-consuming.

There are also concerns when machine learning is involved—also known as artificial intelligence (AI)—such as whether they can accurately predict human behaviors.

Heuristics are shortcut strategies that people can use to solve a problem at hand. These "rule of thumb" approaches allow you to simplify complex problems, reducing the total number of possible solutions to a more manageable set.

If you find yourself sitting in a traffic jam, for example, you may quickly consider other routes, taking one to get moving once again. When shopping for a new car, you might think back to a prior experience when negotiating got you a lower price, then employ the same tactics.

While heuristics may be helpful when facing smaller issues, major decisions shouldn't necessarily be made using a shortcut approach. Heuristics also don't guarantee an effective solution, such as when trying to drive around a traffic jam only to find yourself on an equally crowded route.

Trial and Error

A trial-and-error approach to problem-solving involves trying a number of potential solutions to a particular issue, then ruling out those that do not work. If you're not sure whether to buy a shirt in blue or green, for instance, you may try on each before deciding which one to purchase.

This can be a good strategy to use if you have a limited number of solutions available. But if there are many different choices available, narrowing down the possible options using another problem-solving technique can be helpful before attempting trial and error.

In some cases, the solution to a problem can appear as a sudden insight. You are facing an issue in a relationship or your career when, out of nowhere, the solution appears in your mind and you know exactly what to do.

Insight can occur when the problem in front of you is similar to an issue that you've dealt with in the past. Although, you may not recognize what is occurring since the underlying mental processes that lead to insight often happen outside of conscious awareness .

Research indicates that insight is most likely to occur during times when you are alone—such as when going on a walk by yourself, when you're in the shower, or when lying in bed after waking up.

How to Apply Problem-Solving Strategies in Real Life

If you're facing a problem, you can implement one or more of these strategies to find a potential solution. Here's how to use them in real life:

• Create a flow chart . If you have time, you can take advantage of the algorithm approach to problem-solving by sitting down and making a flow chart of each potential solution, its consequences, and what happens next.
• Recall your past experiences . When a problem needs to be solved fairly quickly, heuristics may be a better approach. Think back to when you faced a similar issue, then use your knowledge and experience to choose the best option possible.
• Start trying potential solutions . If your options are limited, start trying them one by one to see which solution is best for achieving your desired goal. If a particular solution doesn't work, move on to the next.
• Take some time alone . Since insight is often achieved when you're alone, carve out time to be by yourself for a while. The answer to your problem may come to you, seemingly out of the blue, if you spend some time away from others.

Obstacles to Problem-Solving

Problem-solving is not a flawless process as there are a number of obstacles that can interfere with our ability to solve a problem quickly and efficiently. These obstacles include:

• Assumptions: When dealing with a problem, people can make assumptions about the constraints and obstacles that prevent certain solutions. Thus, they may not even try some potential options.
• Functional fixedness : This term refers to the tendency to view problems only in their customary manner. Functional fixedness prevents people from fully seeing all of the different options that might be available to find a solution.
• Irrelevant or misleading information: When trying to solve a problem, it's important to distinguish between information that is relevant to the issue and irrelevant data that can lead to faulty solutions. The more complex the problem, the easier it is to focus on misleading or irrelevant information.
• Mental set: A mental set is a tendency to only use solutions that have worked in the past rather than looking for alternative ideas. A mental set can work as a heuristic, making it a useful problem-solving tool. However, mental sets can also lead to inflexibility, making it more difficult to find effective solutions.

How to Improve Your Problem-Solving Skills

In the end, if your goal is to become a better problem-solver, it's helpful to remember that this is a process. Thus, if you want to improve your problem-solving skills, following these steps can help lead you to your solution:

• Recognize that a problem exists . If you are facing a problem, there are generally signs. For instance, if you have a mental illness , you may experience excessive fear or sadness, mood changes, and changes in sleeping or eating habits. Recognizing these signs can help you realize that an issue exists.
• Decide to solve the problem . Make a conscious decision to solve the issue at hand. Commit to yourself that you will go through the steps necessary to find a solution.
• Seek to fully understand the issue . Analyze the problem you face, looking at it from all sides. If your problem is relationship-related, for instance, ask yourself how the other person may be interpreting the issue. You might also consider how your actions might be contributing to the situation.
• Research potential options . Using the problem-solving strategies mentioned, research potential solutions. Make a list of options, then consider each one individually. What are some pros and cons of taking the available routes? What would you need to do to make them happen?
• Take action . Select the best solution possible and take action. Action is one of the steps required for change . So, go through the motions needed to resolve the issue.
• Try another option, if needed . If the solution you chose didn't work, don't give up. Either go through the problem-solving process again or simply try another option.

You can find a way to solve your problems as long as you keep working toward this goal—even if the best solution is simply to let go because no other good solution exists.

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By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

20 Smart Answers to ‘How Do You Handle Stress?’ in a Job Interview

By Status.net Editorial Team on March 5, 2024 — 7 minutes to read

Handling stress effectively is a critical skill that you need in the modern workplace. Interviewers often ask about stress management to gauge how candidates might perform in challenging situations. Your answer can provide a glimpse into your problem-solving abilities and emotional resilience. A strong response shows that you understand the dynamics of stress in a work context and that you have strategies in place to handle it.

Answering the Question

When discussing how you handle stress during a job interview, it’s important to mention specific strategies that help manage your stress effectively. These strategies can set you apart as a candidate who is well-equipped to handle workplace challenges.

Prioritization and Organization

Organizing your tasks and responsibilities plays a significant role in stress management. When you prioritize your workload, you ensure that the most critical tasks are completed first. This means assessing your to-dos and arranging them according to deadlines and importance. For example, you might create a to-do list every morning or use a digital planner to keep track of your priorities.

Mindfulness and Relaxation Techniques

Mindfulness and relaxation techniques can significantly reduce stress by centering your thoughts and calming your mind. Practices such as deep breathing exercises, meditation, or progressive muscle relaxation can help you remain calm during stressful situations. For instance, you might take a few minutes to meditate before a big meeting to clear your mind and focus.

Physical Activity and Health

Regular physical activity is a powerful stress reliever. Whether it’s a brisk walk during lunch, a morning run, or a yoga class after work, exercise releases endorphins, which act as natural painkillers and mood elevators. Maintaining a healthy diet can also contribute to your overall stress levels; eating balanced meals gives you the energy you need to tackle your day with confidence.

Using ‘I’ Statements

To articulate how you handle stress, using ‘I’ statements can help you take ownership of your actions and feelings. For example, you might say, “I schedule short breaks throughout my day to recharge and maintain focus.” By phrasing your response with ‘I’ statements, you’re demonstrating self-awareness and responsibility.

Describing Stress Management Techniques

A good strategy is to describe specific techniques that you use to manage stress. For instance, you might explain, “I keep a detailed planner to stay organized, which helps me manage workloads effectively, minimizing stress.” Another method is mindfulness, so you could add, “I practice mindfulness to stay calm and collected in high-pressure situations.” Listing these tactics conveys to the interviewer that you have a concrete and proactive approach to handling stress.

20 Smart Answers to ‘How Do You Handle Stress?’

• 1. “I prioritize my tasks and set realistic deadlines to manage my workload effectively, which helps me stay calm and focused under pressure.”
• 2. “I incorporate regular physical activity into my routine, like yoga or running, which helps me maintain a clear mind and reduce stress.”
• 3. “I practice mindfulness and deep-breathing exercises to remain centered and composed when faced with stressful situations.”
• 4. “I make sure to maintain a healthy work-life balance, dedicating time to unwind and enjoy hobbies that help me recharge.”
• 5. “I use time-management tools and techniques such as the Pomodoro Technique to break my work into manageable intervals, keeping stress at bay.”
• 6. “I communicate openly with my team and supervisors to ensure expectations are clear and support is available when needed.”
• 7. “I focus on what I can control and develop contingency plans for potential stressors, which prepares me to handle them more effectively.”
• 8. “I keep a positive attitude and view challenges as opportunities to learn and grow, which helps me handle stress constructively.”
• 9. “I regularly reflect on my accomplishments and learn from my experiences, which boosts my confidence in handling future stress.”
• 10. “I ensure I get adequate sleep and nutrition, as taking care of my physical health is crucial for managing stress.”
• 11. “I seek feedback and use it to improve my performance, which helps me feel more in control and less stressed about my work.”
• 12. “I set aside time for relaxation and activities that I enjoy, such as reading or spending time with family, to decompress after a stressful day.”
• 13. “I maintain an organized workspace and keep a to-do list, which helps me stay focused and reduces the anxiety of a cluttered environment.”
• 14. “I use problem-solving strategies to address stressors head-on, breaking them down into smaller, more manageable parts.”
• 15. “I rely on a strong support network of colleagues and mentors who provide advice and perspective when I’m facing stressful situations.”
• 16. “I stay adaptable, knowing that change is a constant in the workplace, and being flexible helps me manage stress effectively.”
• 17. “I take short breaks throughout the day to clear my mind, which helps me return to my tasks with renewed focus and energy.”
• 18. “I practice gratitude by acknowledging the positive aspects of my job and life, which helps me keep everyday stresses in perspective.”
• 19. “I continually enhance my skills and knowledge, which gives me the confidence to tackle stressful situations with competence.”
• 20. “I avoid multitasking and give my full attention to one task at a time, which increases my efficiency and lowers my stress levels.”

Additional Common Questions and Sample Answers

“can you describe your approach to managing stress in the workplace”.

Your approach to managing stress is as unique as you are, but one effective method is to prioritize your tasks and set realistic deadlines. For instance, you might say, “When I’m feeling overwhelmed, I like to break my workload into a prioritized list and take short breaks after completing each task.”

“What strategies do you use to deal with high-pressure situations?”

In high-pressure situations, maintaining a level head is key. You could answer, “I stay calm under pressure by focusing on one task at a time and reminding myself of past successes in similar situations to boost my confidence.”

“How have you handled a particularly stressful situation in your previous job?”

When asked about a past experience, offer a concrete example. You might respond, “In my previous job, I faced a tight deadline for a client project. I organized a team meeting to delegate tasks effectively, ensuring we met the deadline without compromising on quality.”

“What techniques do you find most effective for handling stress during critical projects?”

Effective stress management techniques vary, but staying organized and maintaining open communication can be particularly helpful. For example, say, “I create a detailed project timeline and check in with my team regularly. This keeps everyone aligned and minimizes stress.”

“In what ways do you maintain composure when faced with unexpected challenges at work?”

Maintaining composure is often about perspective and adaptive problem-solving. A good example might be, “When unexpected challenges arise, I take a step back to assess the situation, then address it methodically, focusing on what I can control.”

“What is your method for ensuring stress does not impact your job performance?”

Your method could include proactive self-care and mindfulness techniques. You might share, “I ensure high stress does not affect my performance by practicing mindfulness exercises and making sure to balance work with physical activity.”

Examples and Scenarios

When you’re asked in an interview how you handle stress, it can be helpful to think of times when you’ve successfully managed stress in the past. For example:

• Prioritization: Imagine you’re working on a tight deadline, and your supervisor hands you another urgent task. You could say, “I assess which tasks have the highest priority. For instance, once when faced with two critical deadlines, I organized my tasks by due date and potential impact, which allowed me to address the most pressing project first while setting clear expectations for the second.”
• Time Management: If you’re juggling multiple projects at the same time, you can mention a strategy like, “I use time management techniques to stay on top of my workload. I break down tasks into smaller chunks and set mini-deadlines for myself. For example, while preparing for a product launch, I created a detailed schedule that allocated time each day for specific tasks, preventing last-minute stress.”
• Physical Activity: You might handle stress by physical means, so you could describe that by saying, “To manage stress, I make time for regular physical activity. Jogging after work helps me clear my mind. A particularly stressful week last quarter drove me to increase my running, which improved my focus and productivity at work.”
• Mindfulness Techniques: If mindfulness helps you, you could explain, “I practice mindfulness to stay calm under pressure. One time, during a major system outage at work, I used deep breathing exercises to stay focused and helped coordinate a response plan calmly.”

When you’re asked about stress in a job interview, it’s important to acknowledge that stress is a natural part of any job. What interviewers are looking for is evidence that you can maintain productivity and clarity of thought under pressure. They want to see that you’re equipped with practical methods for coping with stress that go beyond cliché advice. Sharing personal examples can make your answer more convincing.

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Coping, problem solving and stress: a framework for intervention strategies

Affiliation.

• 1 Management Centre, University of Bradford, UK.
• PMID: 2043501
• DOI: 10.1111/j.2044-8341.1991.tb01638.x

This article outlines a problem-solving approach to stress and coping. Beginning with a discussion of these concepts a model is then proposed to describe some of the key psychological processes involved when a person appraises and reacts to a potentially stressful situation. These concepts and the model are then used to provide a framework which illustrates the different ways in which interventions might be made by a psychotherapist to help people improve their coping behaviour when confronted with such situations.

Publication types

• Adaptation, Psychological*
• Cognitive Behavioral Therapy / methods
• Individuality
• Life Change Events
• Problem Solving*
• Psychotherapy / methods*
• Stress, Psychological / complications*
• Stress, Psychological / psychology