scaffolding critical thinking in the zone of proximal development

Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development and Scaffolding Theory

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

On This Page:

The zone of proximal development (ZPD) refers to the difference between what a learner can do without help and what he or she can achieve with guidance and encouragement from a skilled partner.

It represents tasks beyond the learner’s current abilities but are attainable with the help and guidance of the more knowledgeable other (MKO). The ZPD is the range of tasks a person can’t complete independently but can accomplish with support.

Thus, the term “proximal” refers to skills the learner is “close” to mastering. The ZPD ensures challenge is not too hard or too easy.

ZPD is the zone where instruction is the most beneficial, as it is when the task is just beyond the individual’s capabilities.

To learn, we must be presented with tasks just out of our ability range. Challenging tasks promote maximum cognitive growth.

The zone of proximal development was developed by Soviet psychologist and social constructivist Lev Vygotsky (1896 – 1934).

Vygotsky introduced the ZPD concept to criticize psychometric testing which only measured current abilities, not potential for development. He argued assessment should be collaborative to reveal emerging skills.

The zone of proximal development (ZPD) has been defined as:

“the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem-solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers” (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 86).

For teachers, the ZPD is the space between current teaching knowledge and potential new level with assistance. Willingness to learn enables ZPD progression.

Vygotsky believed that when a student is in the zone of proximal development for a particular task, providing the appropriate assistance will give the student enough of a “boost” to achieve the task.

To assist a person to move through the zone of proximal development, educators are encouraged to focus on three important components which aid the learning process:

• The presence of someone with knowledge and skills beyond that of the learner (a more knowledgeable other).
• Social interactions with a skillful tutor that allow the learner to observe and practice their skills.
• Scaffolding, or supportive activities provided by the educator, or more competent peer, to support the student as he or she is led through the ZPD.

Scaffolding Theory

The ZPD has become synonymous in the literature with the term scaffolding. However, it is important to note that Vygotsky never used this term in his writing, and it was introduced by Wood, Bruner, and Ross (1976).

Scaffolding consists of the activities provided by the educator, or more competent peer, to support the student as he or she is led through the zone of proximal development.

Support is tapered off (i.e., withdrawn) as it becomes unnecessary, much as a scaffold is removed from a building during construction. The student will then be able to complete the task again independently.

Wood et al. (1976, p. 90) define scaffolding as a process “that enables a child or novice to solve a task or achieve a goal that would be beyond his unassisted efforts.”

As they note, scaffolds require the adult to “controlling those elements of the task that are initially beyond the learner’s capability, thus permitting him to concentrate upon and complete only those elements that are within his range of competence” (p. 90).

It is important to note that the terms cooperative learning, scaffolding and guided learning all have the same meaning within the literature.

The following study provides empirical support both the concept of scaffolding and the ZPD.

Wood and Middleton (1975)

Procedure : 4-year-old children had to use a set of blocks and pegs to build a 3D model shown in a picture. Building the model was too difficult a task for a 4-year-old child to complete alone.

Wood and Middleton (1975) observed how mothers interacted with their children to build the 3D model. The type of support included:

• General encouragement e.g., ‘now you have a go.’ • Specific instructions e.g., ‘get four big blocks.’ • Direct demonstration, e.g., showing the child how to place one block on another.

The results of the study showed that no single strategy was best for helping the child to progress. Mothers whose assistance was most effective were those who varied their strategy according to how the child was doing.

When the child was doing well, they became less specific with their help. When the child started to struggle, they gave increasingly specific instructions until the child started to make progress again.

The study illustrates scaffolding and Vygotsky’s concept of the ZPD. Scaffolding (i.e., assistance) is most effective when the support is matched to the needs of the learner. This puts them in a position to achieve success in an activity that they would previously not have been able to do alone.

Wood et al. (1976) named certain processes that aid effective scaffolding:

• Gaining and maintaining the learner’s interest in the task.
• Making the task simple.
• Emphasizing certain aspects that will help with the solution.
• Control the child’s level of frustration.
• Demonstrate the task.

Intersubjectivity

Intersubjectivity is when two people (i.e., the child and helper) start a task together with different levels of skill and understanding, and both end up with a shared understanding.

As each member of the dyad adjusts to the perspective of the other, the helper has to translate their own insights in a ways that is within the grasp of the child, and the child develops a more complete understanding of the task.

It is essential that they work towards the same goal, otherwise there won’t be any collaboration. It is important that they negotiate, or compromise by always working for a shared view.

If you try to force someone to change their mind, then you”ll just get conflict. You need to stay within the boundaries of the other person’s zone of proximal development.

Example of Scaffolding

Vygotsky emphasized scaffolding, or providing support to learners to help them reach higher levels of understanding. This can be mapped to progressing through Bloom’s taxonomy , where educators scaffold tasks from basic understanding to more complex analysis and creation.

For example, a teacher might start by providing information (Remembering) and then ask questions that require understanding.

As students become more proficient, tasks can be scaffolded to require application, analysis, evaluation, and creation.

Example : In teaching a concept like photosynthesis:

• Remembering : The teacher provides the basic definition.
• Understanding : Students explain the process in their own words.
• Application : They might conduct an experiment on plants.
• Analysis : Dive deeper into how different variables affect the process.
• Evaluation : Debate the most critical components of photosynthesis.
• Creation : Design an optimal environment for plant growth.

Each step can be scaffolded, starting with substantial teacher support and gradually releasing responsibility to the students as they climb Bloom’s taxonomy, guiding students from foundational knowledge to higher-order thinking skills.

Scaffolding vs. Discovery Learning

Freund (1990) wanted to investigate if children learn more effectively via Piaget’s concept of discovery learning or guided learning via the ZPD.

She asked a group of children between the ages of three and five years to help a puppet decide which furniture should be placed in the various rooms of a doll’s house. First, Freund assessed what each child already understood about the placement of furniture (as a baseline measure).

Next, each child worked on a similar task, either alone (re: discovery-based learning) or with their mother (re: scaffolding / guided learning). To assess what each child had learned, they were each given a more complex, furniture sorting task.

The study’s results showed that children assisted by their mothers performed better at furniture sorting than the children who worked independently.

More Knowledgeable Other

The more knowledgeable other (MKO) refers to anyone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level in a particular task, process, or concept than the learner.

It’s essential to note that the MKO isn’t necessarily an adult or a teacher. It could be a peer, a younger person, or even technology or media, as long as they provide the learner with the knowledge or scaffolding needed to perform a task.

Often, a child’s peers or an adult’s children may be the individuals with more knowledge or experience.

The relationship between the MKO and the ZPD is vital to Vygotsky’s theory. The MKO assists or scaffolds the learning experience to help the learner function within their ZPD.

Through this guidance, the learner can tackle and master tasks they couldn’t accomplish independently.

Over time, as the learner internalizes this support and becomes more capable, the scaffolding can be reduced, and the learner can perform the task without assistance. The ZPD moves as learners acquire new skills and knowledge with the help of the MKO.

In educational settings, the concepts of MKO and ZPD have inspired practices like cooperative learning, differentiated instruction, and scaffolded learning experiences.

Teachers aim to identify each student’s ZPD and then act as the MKO, or facilitate interactions with other MKOs, to provide the right level of support, allowing students to achieve and learn effectively.

Educational Applications

Vygotsky believes the role of education is to provide children with experiences which are in their ZPD, thereby encouraging and advancing their individual learning. (Berk, & Winsler, (1995).

“From a Vygotskian perspective, the teacher’s role is mediating the child’s learning activity as they share knowledge through social interaction” (Dixon-Krauss, 1996, p. 18).

Cooperative Learning

According to Vygotsky (1978), much important learning by the child occurs through social interaction with a skillful tutor. The tutor may model behaviors and/or provide verbal instructions for the child.

Vygotsky refers to this as cooperative or collaborative dialogue.

The child seeks to understand the actions or instructions provided by the tutor (often the parent or teacher) and then internalizes the information, using it to guide or regulate their own performance.

Lev Vygotsky views interaction with peers as an effective way of developing skills and strategies. He suggests that teachers use cooperative learning exercises where less competent children develop with help from more skillful peers – within the zone of proximal development.

Scaffolding is a key feature of effective teaching, where the adult continually adjusts the level of his or her help in response to the learner’s level of performance.

In the classroom, scaffolding can include modeling a skill, providing hints or cues, and adapting material or activity (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009).

Consider these guidelines for scaffolding instruction (Silver, 2011).

• Assess the learner’s current knowledge and experience with the academic content.
• Relate content to what students already understand or can do.
• Break a task into small, more manageable tasks with opportunities for intermittent feedback.
• Use verbal cues and prompts to assist students.

Scaffolding not only produces immediate results, but also instills the skills necessary for independent problem-solving in the future.

A contemporary application of Vygotsky’s theories is “reciprocal teaching,” used to improve students” ability to learn from text.

In this method, teachers and students collaborate in learning and practicing four key skills: summarizing, questioning, clarifying, and predicting. The teacher’s role in the process is reduced over time.

Vygotsky’s theories also feed into current interest in collaborative learning, suggesting that group members should have different levels of ability so more advanced peers can help less advanced members operate within their zone of proximal development.

Examples of ZPD

Maria just entered college this semester and decided to take an introductory tennis course.  Her class spends each week learning and practicing a different shot.  Weeks go by, and they learn how to properly serve and hit a backhand.

During the week of learning the forehand, the instructor noticed that Maria was very frustrated because she kept hitting her forehand shots either into the net or far past the baseline.

He examines her preparation and swing.  He notices that her stance is perfect, she prepares early, she turns her torso appropriately, and she hits the ball at precisely the right height.

However, he notices that she is still gripping her racquet the same way she hits her backhand, so he goes over to her and shows her how to reposition her hand to hit a proper forehand, stressing that she should keep her index finger parallel to the racquet.

He models a good forehand for her, and then assists her in changing her grip. With a little practice, Maria’s forehand turns into a formidable weapon for her!

In this case, Maria was in the zone of proximal development for successfully hitting a forehand shot.  She was doing everything else correctly, but just needed a little coaching and scaffolding from a “More Knowledgeable Other” to help her succeed in this task.

When that assistance was given, she was able to achieve her goal. Provided with appropriate support at the right moments, students in classrooms will be able to achieve tasks that would otherwise be too difficult for them.

Clinical psychology trainees at the Center for Children and Families at Florida International University are trained using approaches aligned with Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development (Hong & del Busto, 2020).

• Trainees are paired with more senior trainees (e.g., a first-year student with a second or third-year student) for co-therapy sessions. The senior trainee scaffolds the junior trainee’s learning by initially taking the lead and modeling skills, then gradually encouraging the junior trainee to become more independent in leading sessions as they demonstrate competence.
• This allows trainees to be involved in clinical care early in their training, with support and coaching from a more experienced peer. It meets them in their zone of proximal development – what they can do with guidance vs what they cannot yet do independently.
• Supervisors assign trainees different roles based on experience level. More senior trainees are given opportunities to develop supervisory skills by training junior peers. Junior trainees are supported in gaining clinical skills.
• The zone of proximal development concept is applied not just for patients in case conceptualization but also for trainees’ own professional development. Supervisors provide individualized support and scaffolding to help each trainee progress.

Social interaction, aided by cultural tools, supports teachers in developing new aspects of their practice and identity. The interpersonal activity facilitates the transformation of their teaching expertise.

This demonstrates the value of mediation through the ZPD (Shabani et al., 2010).

• Collaborative peers and mentors : Observing and discussing teaching practices with experienced colleagues helps teachers learn new instructional approaches and strategies. This social exchange facilitates development within their ZPD.
• Action research : By studying their own teaching through classroom inquiry, teachers can gain insights into improving their methods. The self-reflection shifts their ZPD forward.
• Diaries : Writing reflectively about teaching experiences enables teachers to analyze their development and assumptions. This metacognition expands their ZPD.
• Technology : Using digital tools and platforms introduces teachers to innovative teaching techniques. The technology mediates new pedagogical capabilities.
• TESOL discourse : Engaging with academic research and theory opens teachers to alternative perspectives on teaching and learning. This discourse stretches their ZPD.
• Coursework : Formal professional development courses scaffold teachers’ learning of new knowledge and competencies. The instruction targets their ZPD.
• Student data : Responses and achievement metrics provide feedback to teachers on areas needing growth. This evidence shifts teachers’ self-perception.

Berk, L., & Winsler, A. (1995). Scaffolding children’s learning: Vygotsky and early childhood learning. Washington, DC: National Association for Education of Young Children.

Copple, C., & Bredekamp, S. (2009). Developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood programs . Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Dixon-Krauss, L. (1996). Vygotsky in the classroom. Mediated literacy instruction and assessment. White Plains, NY: Longman Publishers.

Freund, L. S. (1990). Maternal Regulation of Children’s Problem-solving behavior and Its Impact on Children’s Performance. Child Development , 61, 113-126.

Hong, N., & del Busto, C. T. (2020). Collaboration, scaffolding, and successive approximations: A developmental science approach to training in clinical psychology.  Training and Education in Professional Psychology ,  14 (3), 228.

Shabani, K., Khatib, M., & Ebadi, S. (2010). Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development: Instructional implications and teachers’ professional development.  English Language Teaching ,  3 (4), 237-248.

Silver, D. (2011). Using the ‘Zone’Help Reach Every Learner. Kappa Delta Pi Record, 47(sup1) , 28-31.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Wass, R., & Golding, C. (2014). Sharpening a tool for teaching: the zone of proximal development.  Teaching in Higher Education ,  19 (6), 671-684.

Wood, D., Bruner, J., & Ross, G. (1976). The role of tutoring in problem solving. Journal of Child Psychology and Child Psychiatry , 17, 89−100.

Wood, D., & Middleton, D. (1975). A study of assisted problem-solving. British Journal of Psychology , 66(2), 181−191.

Further Reading

• Educational implications of Vygotsky’s ZPD
• Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development: Instructional Implications and Teachers” Professional Development
• Scaffolds for Learning: The Key to Guided Instruction

Choose Your Test

Sat / act prep online guides and tips, vygotsky scaffolding: what it is and how to use it.

General Education

If you're an educator or have a student in school, you may have heard of the concept Vygotsky scaffolding. It may sound like a construction term, but Vygotsky scaffolding and the related concept of the zone of proximal development are teaching methods that can help students learn much more information much more quickly than they would with traditional instruction.

However, Vygotsky scaffolding is only effective if you know how to properly implement it; otherwise it can actually hinder a student's learning. Read this guide to learn what scaffolding and the zone of proximal development are, what the scaffolding psychology is, if studies have found these teaching methods to be effective, and how you can use these methods in the classroom to promote learning.

What Is Instructional Scaffolding?

Instructional scaffolding, also known as "Vygotsky scaffolding" or just "scaffolding," is a teaching method that helps students learn more by working with a teacher or a more advanced student to achieve their learning goals.

The theory behind instructional scaffolding is that, compared to learning independently, students learn more when collaborating with others who have a wider range of skills and knowledge than the student currently does. These instructors or peers are the "scaffolding" who help the student expand her learning boundaries and learn more than she would be able to on her own.

Vygotsky scaffolding is part of the education concept "zone of proximal development" or ZPD. The ZPD is the set of skills or knowledge a student can't do on her own but can do with the help or guidance of someone else. It's the skill level just above where the student currently is.

ZPD is often depicted as a series of concentric circles. The smallest circle is the set of skills a student can learn on her own, without any help. Next is the ZPD, or skills a student wouldn't be able to do on her own, but can do with a teacher or peer helping her. Beyond that are skills the student can't do yet, even with help.

For example, say there is a kindergartner who is learning how to read and write. He knows all the letters of the alphabet, but he can't yet read or write words. No matter how much guidance he was given, he could never read a novel on his own at this point, but with a teacher's help, he can learn how to read and write short words like "at," "boy" and "dog" because this skill is within is ZPD. It would have taken him much longer to learn this skill on his own, but it's still simple enough that he can understand it if he has someone to explain it to him. The student's ZPD is reading and writing short words, and the teacher who helps him learn them is the scaffolding.

Proponents of ZPD and instructional scaffolding believe they are highly effective ways to maximize a student's learning. Scaffolding can be used to help a person of any age learn something new, but in the classroom it is most often used with younger students (preschool and elementary school) since they are learning new skills and concepts they haven't been exposed to before most frequently.

What's the History Behind Vygotsky Scaffolding?

Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) was a Soviet psychologist who coined the term "zone of proximal development" and conducted many studies that led to instructional scaffolding. This is why the concept is often referred to as "Vygotsky scaffolding."

Vygotsky focused his work on developmental psychology, and it was in the 1920s and early 1930s, towards the end of his career, that he developed the concept of ZPD. Vygotsky believed that educators should help students learn within their ZPD so that they can increase their skills and knowledge without becoming frustrated by things that are currently too difficult for them to accomplish.

Vygotsky came up with the idea of ZPD after extensive studying of how young children learn and the effectiveness of different teaching methods. He found that individual knowledge-based tests are often an inaccurate way to measure a young student's intelligence since children need to interact with others who are more intelligent than they currently are in order to learn. He cited many examples of cultures where young children are taught new skills and knowledge passed down by older generations.

For example, when infants are learning how to walk, they often start by holding onto the clothes or hands of an adult or older child, who guides them. The infant will continue to do this until they have enough skills and strength to walk on their own. This way they're able to learn to walk much faster than if they were expected to learn without being able to hold onto anything.

Vygotsky instead believed that the proper way to test young students was to test their ability to solve problems both independently and with the help of an adult. Dr. Maria Montessori, who established the Montessori education philosophy, also published similar research several decades before Vygotsky. Vygotsky died in 1934, less than a decade after he introduced the idea of ZPD, and after his death research on his ideas greatly decreased.

In the 1960s, Vygotsky's work was revived by a new group of psychologists studying developmental psychology. Dr. Jerome Bruner coined the term "scaffolding" and connected it to Vygotsky's work. Dr. Bruner and other psychologists began studying the use of ZPD in different educational contexts, and they found that encouraging students to tackle the most difficult tasks within their ZPD leads to the most learning.

Today scaffolding continues to be studied and used in schools, and much recent research has focused on how to use scaffolding to make classes (including online classes) more effective.

Does Vygotsky Scaffolding Work?

Over the past several decades, numerous studies have been conducted to study the effectiveness of using ZPD and scaffolding as teaching methods. Overall, research has shown that these methods can often help students learn more than they would compared to traditional teaching methods, but they require the instructor to have a good grasp of the student's ZPD so they can adapt the teaching method to them.

An early study from 1975 found that four-year-olds whose mother's interacted with them and gave them advice were able to build significantly more complicated block towers than those who worked alone. The children who were most successful were those whose mothers adapted their strategy based on how well their child was completing the task. They made different comments based on whether the child was doing well or was struggling. A 1990 study found similar results when children were asked to put dollhouse furniture into the correct room. Children whose mothers gave them guidance were significantly more successful than those who completed the task on their own.

A study published in 2000 that focused on a teacher using ZPD and scaffolding to teach a Farsi speaker English found that these methods can be an effective way to teach someone a new language. As the student improved his English skills, his teacher went from teaching individual words and phrases, to asking yes/no questions, to asking questions that required more in-depth responses. This gradual increase in difficulty helped the student improve his English skills while reducing feelings of frustration from attempting language skills beyond his current level.

A similar scaffolding psychology study published in 2014 found that, in a group of 30 Australian language students, those who had tutors that used scaffolding techniques made significantly more progress in their writing quality and strategy application.

Two studies, one from 2003 and one from 2010 , found that ZPD and scaffolding can be effective, but if the instructor doesn't know how to implement them correctly, she is at risk of helping students too much which turns them into passive learners and hinders their growth.

Tips for Using Vygotsky Scaffolding in the Classroom

From the studies discussed above, we know that instructional scaffolding can be an effective teaching tool, but only if the instructor understands how to use it. Below are four tips for using scaffolding in the classroom.

Know Each Student's ZPD

In order to use ZPD and scaffolding techniques successfully, it's critical to know your students' current level of knowledge. Without this information, you won't be able to teach them in their ZPD or provide effective scaffolding support.

Before you begin a lesson with ZPD or Vygotsky scaffolding, find their baseline knowledge by giving a short quiz or having an introductory discussion on the topic where you ask students questions to figure out what they already know.

Also remember that each student will have a different ZPD for each topic you teach. If a class has widely varying ZPDs for a specific topic, it can be more effective to have them work in groups or individually while you walk around the classroom and provide guidance so that you can tailor your techniques to each student's ZPD.

Encourage Group Work

Group work can be a very effective way of using scaffolding principles in the classroom because students can learn from each other while working together on a project. More advanced students can help others learn while improving their own skills by explaining their thought process. Try to create groups that contain students with different skill sets and learning levels to maximize the amount students learn from each other.

Make sure each student in the group is actively participating. If you see one student doing most of the work, have her ask the other students for their opinions, and emphasize the importance of everyone contributing.

Don't Offer Too Much Help

A potential drawback of Vygotsky scaffolding is the possibility of providing too much help. This causes the student to be a passive, instead of active, learner and actually reduces the amount the student learns.

If you're using scaffolding techniques, don't jump in right away and start offering advice. Let each student work on their own first. When they begin to struggle, first start by asking them questions about what they've done and what they think they should do next. As much as possible, ask open-ended questions that encourage them to find a solution on their own, as opposed to just telling them the next step.

For example, if a student is trying to build a block tower, it's much more helpful to say things like "How do you think you can make this tower stronger?" or "Why do you think the tower fell down?" than "You need to make the base bigger."

If after you've had the student think through the problem, then you can begin offering concrete advice for what to do next, but be sure to continue to ask questions to help increase the student's understanding. For example, after giving advice on how to improve the block tower, you can ask "Why do you think making the base bigger helps the tower stay up?"

Have Students Think Aloud

Having students discuss their thought process is one of the best ways to figure out where their current skills are (and thus determine their ZPD) and make sure they're actively learning. As a student is working on a project, have her talk about why she's making certain decisions, what she thinks she should do next, and what she's unsure about. When you give advice, make sure you also explain your own thought process so students can understand why you're making the decisions you did.

Summary: Vygotsky Scaffolding and the Zone of Proximal Development

Vygotsky scaffolding is a teaching method that uses instructors and more advanced peers to help students learn. The Vygotsky theory of cognitive development states that students will learn more when they receive guidance from someone with more skills in the subject they're learning than they would if they were tackling the subject on their own.

Vygotsky scaffolding is part of the education theory the zone of proximal development. The zone of proximal development states that each student, for each subject, has three levels of learning: things the student can accomplish on her own, things she can accomplish with help from someone else (the zone of proximal development) and things she can't accomplish no matter how much help she has. The ZPD and Vygotsky scaffolding theory is that students learn the most when they're in their ZPD.

Soviet psychologist Lev Vygotsky developed the ZPD and the Vygotsky theory of cognitive development, while Jerome Bruner developed scaffolding psychology several decades later. Studies have shown that scaffolding can be a very effective teaching method, as long as the teacher understands the concepts behind it and doesn't provide too much guidance.

If using scaffolding and the zone of proximal development in the classroom, remember to know each student's ZPD, encourage group work, don't offer too much help, and have students explain their thought process out loud.

What's Next?

Are you a teacher writing recommendations for your students? Read all about how to write an outstanding recommendation letter for your students , along with what not to include.

When do colleges start looking at a student's grades? Do colleges look at middle school grades? Read our guide to learn how middle school grades are important for college admissions.

Writing a research paper for school but not sure what to write about? Our guide to research paper topics has over 100 topics in ten categories so you can be sure to find the perfect topic for you.

Need more help with this topic? Check out Tutorbase!

Our vetted tutor database includes a range of experienced educators who can help you polish an essay for English or explain how derivatives work for Calculus. You can use dozens of filters and search criteria to find the perfect person for your needs.

Christine graduated from Michigan State University with degrees in Environmental Biology and Geography and received her Master's from Duke University. In high school she scored in the 99th percentile on the SAT and was named a National Merit Finalist. She has taught English and biology in several countries.

Student and Parent Forum

Our new student and parent forum, at ExpertHub.PrepScholar.com , allow you to interact with your peers and the PrepScholar staff. See how other students and parents are navigating high school, college, and the college admissions process. Ask questions; get answers.

Ask a Question Below

Have any questions about this article or other topics? Ask below and we'll reply!

Improve With Our Famous Guides

• For All Students

The 5 Strategies You Must Be Using to Improve 160+ SAT Points

How to Get a Perfect 1600, by a Perfect Scorer

Series: How to Get 800 on Each SAT Section:

Score 800 on SAT Math

Score 800 on SAT Reading

Score 800 on SAT Writing

Series: How to Get to 600 on Each SAT Section:

Score 600 on SAT Math

Score 600 on SAT Reading

Score 600 on SAT Writing

Free Complete Official SAT Practice Tests

What SAT Target Score Should You Be Aiming For?

15 Strategies to Improve Your SAT Essay

The 5 Strategies You Must Be Using to Improve 4+ ACT Points

How to Get a Perfect 36 ACT, by a Perfect Scorer

Series: How to Get 36 on Each ACT Section:

36 on ACT English

36 on ACT Math

36 on ACT Reading

36 on ACT Science

Series: How to Get to 24 on Each ACT Section:

24 on ACT English

24 on ACT Math

24 on ACT Reading

24 on ACT Science

What ACT target score should you be aiming for?

ACT Vocabulary You Must Know

ACT Writing: 15 Tips to Raise Your Essay Score

How to Get Into Harvard and the Ivy League

How to Get a Perfect 4.0 GPA

How to Write an Amazing College Essay

What Exactly Are Colleges Looking For?

Is the ACT easier than the SAT? A Comprehensive Guide

Should you retake your SAT or ACT?

When should you take the SAT or ACT?

Stay Informed

Get the latest articles and test prep tips!

Looking for Graduate School Test Prep?

Check out our top-rated graduate blogs here:

GRE Online Prep Blog

GMAT Online Prep Blog

TOEFL Online Prep Blog

Holly R. "I am absolutely overjoyed and cannot thank you enough for helping me!”

Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development and Scaffolding

Vygotsky created the concept of the zone of proximal development, often abbreviated as ZPD, which came to be a central part of his theory. Language is the way that a child communicates with others after they are born and they continue to learn by interacting with those around them. Building on his idea of social interaction as the basis for learning, he broached the value of a mentor or teacher in the life of a student.

See also: Andragogy Theory – Malcolm Knowles

Vygotsky declared some controversial statements that went against prominent educational research at the time. He dismissed the idea that there was no ideal age for learning and instead introduced ideal stages for learning, a similar opinion as Piaget. He also explained that the cognitive growth increased less for students with a higher intelligence than a lower intelligence when they entered school. He coined this term relative achievement, a method that highlights the departure point of student learning and not just the end result. This led Vygotsky into the idea of the ‘zone of proximal development,’ as it assessed the change in cognitive development of students and not just the final outcome. Students benefit directly from the social interactions in class, and ideally, reach their learning potential with the help of their teacher.

Vygotsky consistently defines the zone of proximal development as the difference between the current level of cognitive development and the potential level of cognitive development. He maintains that a student is able to reach their learning goal by completing problem-solving tasks with their teacher or engaging with more competent peers. Vygotsky believed that a student would not be able to reach the same level of learning by working alone. As a student leaves his zone of current development, he travels through the zone of proximal development towards his learning goal.

The zone of proximal development consists of two important components: the student’s potential development and the role of interaction with others. Learning occurs in the zone of proximal development after the identification of current knowledge. The potential development is simply what the student is capable of learning.

See also: Problem-Based Learning (PBL)

Scaffolding

To help learners achieve independence, Vygotsky outlined scaffolding as a tool for growth. Learners complete small, manageable steps in order to reach the goal. Working in collaboration with a skilled instructor or more knowledgeable peers help students make connections between concepts.

As learners grow within their zone of proximal development and become more confident, they practice new tasks with the social support that surrounds them. Vygotsky maintains that learning occurs through purposeful, meaningful interactions with others.

How Vygotsky Impacts Learning

Many psychologists, including Piaget and Bandura , have assessed the cultural influences on learning, however, only Vygotsky claims that they are inherently woven together. He felt that studies should be analyzing the individual within the society and not the individual itself. Only then could you observe the level of growth, as it is social interaction itself that promotes mental development. While morals, values, and thoughts are believed to be influenced by society, the process of learning is not seen as something that is mimicked. Vygotsky outlined that interactions with others created growth by making connections between concepts. To summarize, Vygotsky’s views on cognitive development can be grouped into four main points, outlined as follows:

• the relationship between the student and the teacher is central to learning;
• society and culture influence the attitudes and beliefs of a student towards learning and education;
• language is the primary tool used in the development of learning in children, including the transfer of sociocultural influences; and
• students benefit greatly in programs that are student-led, as they can use the social interaction to grow towards their potential level of development.

Curriculum – Learning goals and curriculum outlines should be designed around social interaction between students and tasks.

Instruction – The idea of scaffolding is the basis of instruction. Students can achieve their learning potential with guided instruction from their teacher. The teacher constantly reassesses the levels of achievement of the student and creates the next task as a building block to the goal. As an added benefit, the student also learns problem-solving skills from performing leveled tasks on their own.

Assessment – Evaluations are catered to each student based on their zone of proximal development. As teachers strive to see the potential level of cognitive development in all students, assessments must cover a range of abilities. Some students may achieve a higher level with support from their teacher than others.

See also: Inclusive Teaching Strategies

On a more practical note, many wonder how this type of learning can be implemented in schools. Scaffolding seems to be a cycle – the teacher is constantly evaluating the progress of a student throughout a learning activity and consistently responding according to their needs. This means that the teacher adjusts the difficulty of the tasks and learning goals in order for the student to meet the expectations. The zone of proximal development indicates the level of task that the student can accomplish independently, which, in turn, demonstrates the actual activity that can be accomplished with guided support from the teacher. As they create learning goals, teachers must keep in mind the fact that each student will have unique personality traits that will affect their zones.

To summarize, students require many opportunities to demonstrate their point of learning in order for the teacher to create the next steps and support each need. The gradual release of responsibility, which we know as scaffolding, allows students to gain independence in learning tasks as they reach their goals. The teacher begins by offering a strong presence and close guidance; this may include demonstrations, facilitating activities, or explicit teaching of ideas. As the student moves through the zone of proximal development towards the goal, the teacher gradually releases control to the student as they approach their level of potential learning. The tasks become progressively more difficult as the student gains more knowledge and comes closer to reaching their potential level of cognitive development. Some suggest that all tasks should be on the higher end towards the optimal level of the zone of proximal development in order to main the interest of the student. Scaffolding is used as a tool to achieve the potential learning outcomes of a student.

The question remains then: is the theoretical idea of zones of proximal development really that different from what experienced teachers do in the classroom? Vygotsky’s theory is centered on the idea that social interaction is critical to cognitive development. With the exception of some large classes, students actively engage with their teacher and with each other. Collaborating with peers is encouraged but cannot be over-used, as it may actually cause stagnant growth in some cases. Additionally, the teacher is the most educated on the learning process, automatically assessing many factors related to the student’s potential growth.

Language tasks in education are still the best indicator in cognitive development. Such activities allow chain reactions to occur that begin with solid communication skills, lead to clarification of inner speech and continues with growth in thought patterns. However, one must not view language activities as exclusive: it does not mean that a student possesses a low level of cognitive ability if they are unable to orally express themselves. Language is complex, and some do not grasp the subtle meanings present in communication. Other types of intelligence, such a musical and bodily-kinesthetic, are not necessarily compatible with learning-centered on language. It is important to note, however, that early development of language offers an advantage to children in our society, as it offers favoritism towards other educational skills.

Currently, the value of educational software has been inconsistent in relation to Vygotsky’s theory. As there is such a broad variance in computer-based programs available, it is challenging to evaluate its effect on learning. Social interaction looks different when on a computer; now students may be interacting with a human-like software program. Some artificial intelligence systems offer great responses to questions and misunderstandings, but others are not as advanced. There is great hope that a sophisticated program could assess a student’s zone of proximal development and respond appropriately, but for now, the wide range of programs available are too unpredictable.

Vygotsky made it his mission to analyze the effects of socialization of cognitive development. We can see how language is the central approach of his theory, and how the cultural and societal relationships affect learning. In real-life applications, we discussed the utilization of the zone of proximal development by the teacher, which also emphasizes the need for student-directed learning in the educational system. As we move towards remote learning and computer-based applications, we need to evaluate the impact of the social world and the attention required for students.

See also:  Using Bloom’s Taxonomy to Write Effective Learning Objectives: The ABCD Approach

I am a professor of Educational Technology. I have worked at several elite universities. I hold a PhD degree from the University of Illinois and a master's degree from Purdue University.

Similar Posts

Assure: instructional design model.

ASSURE is an instructional design model that has the goal of producing more effective teaching and learning. “ASSURE” is an acronym that stands for the various steps in the model. The following is…

Jean Piaget and His Theory & Stages of Cognitive Development

One of the most popular theories of cognitive development was created by Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist who believed that cognitive growth occurred in stages. Piaget studied children through to their teens in…

The Gerlach and Ely Design Model

The effectiveness of the Gerlach & Ely model of instruction, first introduced in 1971, has proven its value in the intervening decades. Designed by Vernom S. Gerlach and Donald P. Ely, this model…

TPACK: Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge Framework

What is TPACK? Technology has become an increasingly important part of students’ lives beyond school, and even within the classroom it can also help increase their understanding of complex concepts or encourage collaboration…

Instructional Design Models and Theories

An instructional design model provides guidelines to organize appropriate pedagogical scenarios to achieve instructional goals. Instructional design can be defined as the practice of creating instructional experiences to help facilitate learning most effectively. Driscoll & Carliner (2005) states that “…

Self-Regulated Learning: What It Is, Why It Is Important and Strategies for Implementing It

Self-regulated learning (SRL) is a respected educational approach which encourages students to take control of their own unique learning journey. In this approach, students are guided through the process of effectively planning, monitoring,…

• Bipolar Disorder
• Therapy Center
• When To See a Therapist
• Types of Therapy
• Best Online Therapy
• Best Couples Therapy
• Best Family Therapy
• Managing Stress
• Sleep and Dreaming
• Understanding Emotions
• Self-Improvement
• Healthy Relationships
• Student Resources
• Personality Types
• Verywell Mind Insights
• 2023 Verywell Mind 25
• Mental Health in the Classroom
• Editorial Process
• Meet Our Review Board
• Crisis Support

How Vygotsky Defined the Zone of Proximal Development

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Aaron Johnson is a fact checker and expert on qualitative research design and methodology. 

Betsie Van Der Meer / Taxi / Getty Images

• Key Components
• Applications
• Potential Challenges

The zone of proximal development (ZPD), or zone of potential development, refers to the range of abilities an individual can perform with the guidance of an expert, but cannot yet perform on their own.

Developed by psychologist Lev Vygotsky , this learning theory may be observed in a classroom setting or anywhere else where an individual has the opportunity to develop new skills.

Vygotsky is known for his sociocultural theory , which suggests that cognitive development is a result of social interactions and these interactions can differ from one culture to the next.

Stages of the Zone of Proximal Development

There are three distinct categories where a learner may fall in terms of their skill set. For learning to take place, it's critical that the expert understands the learner's specific ZPD stage.

Tasks a Learner Cannot Accomplish With Assistance

Tasks that are outside of the learner's ZPD are those that are unable to be completed even with the help of an expert.

If the task isn't within the learner's ZPD, the expert may look to decrease the level of difficulty and find tasks that are more appropriate given the learner's skill level.

Tasks a Learner Can Accomplish With Assistance

When a learner is close to mastering a skill set required to complete a task but still needs the guidance of an expert to do so, they are considered to be in their zone of proximal development.

In this situation, an expert may use various techniques to help the learner better understand the concepts and skills required to perform a task on their own.

Tasks a Learner Can Accomplish Without Assistance

In this phase, the learner is able to complete tasks independently and has mastered the skill set required to do so. The learner does not need the help of an expert .

When a learner has reached this stage, the expert may increase the task difficulty level in order to find the learner's next ZPD and encourage further learning .

Key Components of the Zone of Proximal Development

There are several core concepts developed by Vygotsky and expanded upon by others following him that have helped round out this learning theory.

The success of this learning process involves these key components:

• The presence of someone with the knowledge and skills to guide the learner
• Supportive activities, known as scaffolding, provided by the expert that help guide the learner
• Social interactions that allow the learner to work on their skills and abilities

The "More Knowledgeable Other"

The "more knowledgeable other" is someone who has a higher level of knowledge than the learner and is able to provide them with instruction during their learning process.

While a child might not yet be capable of doing something on their own, they are able to perform the task with the assistance of a skilled instructor, which may include a parent, a teacher, another adult, or a peer.

Scaffolding

When a child is in their ZPD, an expert will provide them with appropriate assistance to help them accomplish a new task or skill . Activities, instructions, tools, and resources that are used to aid in this learning process are known as scaffolding.

Examples of scaffolding that educators may use include:

• Asking a student what they think should be done next, what their thought process was, or if there are other ways the problem can be solved
• Modeling how to solve a similar problem or complete a similar task
• Putting students in small groups and having them discuss a new concept before engaging in it
• Using visual aids to help students conceptualize a task prior to engaging in it
• Asking students to use prior knowledge to better understand more complex topics
• Using meta-cognitive online tools such as self-assessment of material and self-correcting to help students learn concepts

Eventually, scaffolding can be removed and the student will be able to complete the task independently.

While scaffolding is most often associated with the zone of proximal development, it is not a concept that was initially introduced by Vygotsky. Instead, this term has been put forth by other researchers who have expanded on his original theories.

Social Interaction

For learning to take place, Vygotsky believed that social interaction between a more knowledgeable other and the learner was critical. While the expert may be an adult, Vygotsky also emphasized the power of peer learning.

For instance, when kids are learning a new concept, social interaction between the adult expert and all of the children is initially crucial. But, if some children grasp the concept, while others are still in their ZPD, peer interaction may create the most conducive environment for learning.

Zone of Proximal Development Applications in the Classroom

The zone of proximal development is a moving target. By giving children tasks that they cannot quite do easily on their own and providing the guidance they need to accomplish them, educators can progressively advance the learning process.

Here are some examples of how the zone of proximal development is used in the classroom:

• A teacher in an experimental psychology course might initially provide scaffolding for students by coaching them through their experiments. Next, the teacher slowly removes the scaffolding by only providing brief descriptions of how to proceed. Finally, students would be expected to develop and carry out their experiments independently.
• A teacher may provide traceable worksheets to students learning how to write the alphabet. The teacher may also use a whiteboard to model the steps it takes to write letters. If some students get stuck, the teacher may have them practice on the whiteboard together until the skill is mastered.
• For children learning another language, a teacher may write a sentence on the board, read it aloud, then encourage the students to take turns reading it aloud themselves. The teacher may then split the children into groups to practice reading together before assigning reading homework to do independently.

Potential Challenges of the Zone of Proximal Development

While scaffolding can be incredibly helpful for students learning a new concept or skill, if the teacher is unaware of each student's unique ZPD, these learning techniques may not be effective.

According to research, other difficulties educators may encounter include:

• Not having enough time and/or resources to understand each student's ZPD
• Having too many students to properly understand each one's ever-changing ZPD
• Not fully understanding the concept of ZPD and/or scaffolding
• Struggling to maintain enough cognitive flexibility to carry out scaffolding
• Not being organized enough to follow through with scaffolding

The zone of proximal development is an important concept in the fields of both education and psychology. By understanding how the ZPD works, educators and experts can be better prepared to create instruction and learning programs that maximize the tools and resources available to students.

Eun B. The zone of proximal development as an overarching concept: A framework for synthesizing Vygotsky’s theories . Educational Philosophy and Theory . 2017;51(1):18-30. doi:10.1080/00131857.2017.1421941

Lake R. Vygotsky on Education Primer . Peter Lang; 2012.

Abtahi Y. Pupils, tools and the Zone of Proximal Development . Research in Mathematics Education . 2017;20(1):1-13. doi:10.1080/14794802.2017.1390691

Doo MY, Bonk C, Heo H. A meta-analysis of scaffolding effects in online learning in higher education .  IRRODL . 2020;21(3). doi:10.19173/irrodl.v21i3.4638

Shvarts A, Bakker A. The early history of the scaffolding metaphor: Bernstein, Luria, Vygotsky, and before . Mind Cult Act. 2019;26(1):4-23. doi:10.1080/10749039.2019.1574306

Petosa RL, Smith LH. Peer mentoring for health behavior change: A systematic review . American Journal of Health Education. 2014;45(6):351-357. doi:10.1080/19325037.2014.945670

Bardack S, Obradović J. Observing teachers’ displays and scaffolding of executive functioning in the classroom context .  J Appl Dev Psychol . 2019;62:205-219. doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2018.12.004

Crain W. Theories of Development: Concepts and Applications. 6th ed. Essex: Pearson Education Limited; 2014.

Vygotsky, L.S. Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes . Harvard University Press; 1978.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Observing complex systems thinking in the zone of proximal development

• Published: 08 September 2016
• Volume 45 , pages 5–24, ( 2017 )

Cite this article

• Joshua Danish   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5119-5897 1 ,
• Asmalina Saleh 1 ,
• Alejandro Andrade 1 &
• Branden Bryan 2  

4508 Accesses

19 Citations

6 Altmetric

Explore all metrics

Our paper builds on the construct of the zone of proximal development (ZPD) (Vygotsky in Mind in society: the development of higher psychological processes, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1978 ) to analyze the relationship between students’ answers and the help they receive as they construct them. We report on a secondary analysis of classroom and interview data that was collected with 1st and 2nd grade students completing a short scaffolded inquiry project designed to help them learn about how honeybees collect nectar. We explore how the progression of questions reveal students’ understanding of complex systems by examining how students’ progression through the questions tended to become more sophisticated as we increased support. We further compare two complex-systems perspectives, Component-Mechanism-Phenomena and agent-based approaches, to see how each would categorize students’ explanations. Findings demonstrate the value of the ZPD as an analytic framework in exploring students’ systems understanding in terms of the nature of questions (e.g., sequencing, type of question) and multiple conceptual models (e.g., component-mechanisms-phenomenon, single agent or aggregate behaviors), and how this might impact students’ groupings according to their ability and subsequent instructional support.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price includes VAT (Russian Federation)

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Rent this article via DeepDyve

Institutional subscriptions

Assaraf, O. B.-Z., & Orion, N. (2005). Development of system thinking skills in the context of earth system education. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 42 (5), 518–560.

Article   Google Scholar  

Assaraf, O. B.-Z., & Orion, N. (2009). System thinking skills at the elementary school level. Journal of Research in Science Teaching . doi: 10.1002/tea.20351 .

Google Scholar  

Boblett, N. (2012). Scaffolding: Defining the Metaphor. Teachers College, Columbia University Working Papers in TESOL & Applied Linguistics, 12 (2), 1–16.

Brown, A. L., & Campione, J. (1996). Psychological theory and the design of innovative learning environments: on procedures, principles, and systems. In L. Schauble & R. Glaser (Eds.), Innovations in learning: new environments for education (pp. 289–325). Mahwah: Erlbaum.

Cazden, C. (1981). Performance before competence: Assistance to child discourse in the zone of proximal development. Quarterly Newsletter of the Laboratory of Comparative Human Cognition, 3 (1), 5–8.

Chaiklin, S. (2003). The Zone of Proximal Development in Vygotsky’s Analysis of Learning and Instruction. In A. Kozulin, B. Gindis, V. S. Ageyev, & S. M. Miller (Eds.), Vygotsky’s educational theory in cultural context . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Danish, J. A. (2014). Applying an activity theory lens to designing instruction for learning about the structure, behavior, and function of a honeybee system. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 23 (2):100–148.

Danish, J. A., Peppler, K., Phelps, D., & Washington, D. (2011). Life in the hive: Supporting inquiry into complexity within the zone of proximal development. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 20 (5):454–467.

Danish, J. A., Saleh, A., & Andrade, A. (2014). Software scaffolds for supporting teacher-led inquiry into complex systems concepts. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Philadelphia, PA.

Engeström, Y. (1987). Learning by expanding: An activity–theoretical approach to developmental research . Helsinki: Orienta-Konsultit Oy.

Goldstone, R. L., & Gureckis, T. M. (2009). Collective behavior. Topics in cognitive science, 1 (3), 412–438. doi: 10.1111/j.1756-8765.2009.01038.x .

Goldstone, R. L., & Janssen, M. A. (2005). Computational models of collective behavior. Trends in cognitive sciences, 9 (9), 424–430.

Goldstone, R. L., & Wilensky, U. (2008). Promoting transfer by grounding complex systems principles. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 17 (4), 465–516.

Greeno, J. G. (2011). A situative perspective on cognition and learning in interaction. Theories of learning and studies of instructional practice (pp. 41–71). New York: Springer.

Book   Google Scholar  

Greeno, J. G. (2015). Commentary: Some prospects for connecting concepts and methods of individual cognition and of situativity. Educational Psychologist, 50 (3), 248–251. doi: 10.1080/00461520.2015.1077708 .

Griffin, P., & Cole, M. (1984). Current activity for the future: The Zo-ped. New Directions for Child Development, 23 , 45–64.

Hmelo-Silver, C. E., & Azevedo, R. (2006). Understanding complex systems: Some core challenges. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 15 (1), 53–62.

Hmelo-Silver, C. E., & Pfeffer, M. G. (2004). Comparing expert and novice understanding of a complex system from the perspective of structures, behaviors, and functions. Cognitive Science, 28 (1), 127–138.

Hmelo-Silver, C. E., Marathe, S., & Liu, L. (2007). Fish swim, rocks sit, and lungs breathe: Expert-Novice understanding of complex systems. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 16 (3), 307–331. doi: 10.1080/10508400701413401 .

Holland, J. H. (1992). Complex adaptive systems. Daedalus, 121 (1), 17–30.

Karaboga, D., & Akay, B. (2009). A survey: algorithms simulating bee swarm intelligence. Artificial Intelligence Review, 31 (1–4), 61–85. doi: 10.1007/s10462-009-9127-4 .

Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Lemke, J. L. (1990). Talking science: Language, learning, and values . Norwood: Ablex.

NRC. (2013). Next generation science standards . National Academy Press: Washington DC.

Quintana, C., Reiser, B. J., Davis, E. A., Krajcik, J., Fretz, E., Duncan, R. G.,… Soloway, E. (2004). A scaffolding design framework for software to support science inquiry. Journal of the Learning Sciences , 337–386.

Roth, W.-M., Lee, Y. J., & Hsu, P. L. (2009). A tool for changing the world: possibilities of cultural-historical activity theory to reinvigorate science education. Studies in Science Education, 45 (2), 131–167. doi: 10.1080/03057260903142269 .

Russ, R. S., Scherr, R. E., Hammer, D., & Mikeska, J. (2007). Recognizing mechanistic reasoning in student scientific inquiry: A framework for discourse analysis developed from philosophy of science. Science Education, 92 (3), 499–525.

Sinha, S., Gray, S., Hmelo-Silver, C. E., Jordan, R., Eberbach, C., Goel, A., et al. (2013a). Conceptual representations for transfer: A case study tracing back and looking forward. Frontline Learning Research, 1 (1), 3–23.

Sinha, S., Hmelo-Silver, C. E., Eberbach, C., Jordan, R., Brooks, W. R., Yu, Y., & Damsa, C. (2013b). Charting mechanistic reasoning across aquatic ecosystems . Paper presented at the National Association for Research in Science Teaching, Rio Grande, Puerto Rico

Stevens, R., & Hall, R. (1998). Disciplined perception: Learning to see in technoscience. In M. Lampert & M. L. Blunk (Eds.), Talking mathematics in school: Studies of teaching and learning (pp. 107–149). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Chapter   Google Scholar  

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: the development of higher psychological processes . Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Wells, G. (1999). Dialogic inquiry: Towards a sociocultural practice and theory of education . New York: Cambridge University Press.

Wells, G. (2002). The role of dialogue in activity theory. Mind, Culture, and Activity, 9 (1), 43–66.

Wilensky, U., & Reisman, K. (2006). thinking like a wolf, a sheep, or a firefly: learning biology through constructing and testing computational theories—An embodied modeling approach. Cognition and Instruction, 24 (2), 171–209.

Wilensky, U., & Resnick, M. (1999). Thinking in levels: A dynamic systems perspective to making sense of the world. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 8 (1), 3–19.

Wilensky, U., & Stroup, W. (2000). Networked Gridlock: Students Enacting Complex Dynamic Phenomena with the HubNet Architecture. Paper presented at the The Fourth Annual International Conference of the Learning Sciences, Ann Arbor, MI.

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

School of Education, Indiana University, 201 N. Rose Avenue, Bloomington, IN, 47405-1006, USA

Joshua Danish, Asmalina Saleh & Alejandro Andrade

Cognitive Science Program, Indiana University, 819 Eigenmann, 1900 E. 10th St., Bloomington, IN, 47406-7512, USA

Branden Bryan

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Joshua Danish .

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Danish, J., Saleh, A., Andrade, A. et al. Observing complex systems thinking in the zone of proximal development. Instr Sci 45 , 5–24 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11251-016-9391-z

Download citation

Received : 20 April 2015

Accepted : 31 August 2016

Published : 08 September 2016

Issue Date : February 2017

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s11251-016-9391-z

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Zone of proximal development
• Complex systems
• Early elementary
• Student performance
• Find a journal
• Publish with us
• Track your research