scientific name for research paper

How to Write Scientific Names

#scribendiinc

Written by: Daniel Ruten

"The beginning of wisdom is to call things by their proper name." – Confucius

Table of contents

How to write scientific names.

• How to format scientific names 

Understanding the rules for writing a scientific name

Precise terminology is vital in scientific writing. Therefore, the current system of taxonomy ensures that authors use standard scientific terms.

While naming and categorizing plants and animals has been a common human practice for thousands of years, early attempts were not systematic, so they were sometimes a bit flawed. For instance, in Ancient Greece, Plato was renowned at one point for his definition of a man as a "featherless biped." His fellow philosopher Diogenes responded by bringing forth a plucked chicken and proclaiming it to be a man .

The creation of a universal system of scientific names is relatively recent, starting in the eighteenth century with the foundational work of naturalists such as Carl Linnaeus. The modern system of taxonomy ensures that, no matter a person's spoken language, they can be confident that they are referring to the exact same species or taxa as other scientists. This standard framework underpins the entire body of scientific research that seeks to understand the living things in our world and how they relate to each other.

Accordingly, learning and following the rules for writing a scientific name is essential for any scientific work. This post will provide a brief overview of the taxonomic system of living organisms and how to write the scientific name of any plant or animal.

The basics: What is binomial nomenclature?

The system of binomial nomenclature was first developed by Linnaeus and is still used today.

In it, each individual species of organism is given a Latin name consisting of two key elements:

• the genus and
• the species , in that order.

However, it is important to note that a scientific name can also contain a subspecies if additional information is necessary to correctly identify a specific animal.

All scientific names are standardized by international codes .

Example: What is the scientific name of a cat?

For instance, the scientific name of the domestic housecat is Felis catus (note that because scientific names are in Latin, they are always italicized when written, and the first word is always capitalized).

In this case, Felis denotes the genus and catus denotes the species . Together, these two pieces create the scientific name of a domestic cat.

To better understand the significance of these categories and how this furry little carnivore fits into the natural order of things, let’s briefly review the hierarchy of all seven classification levels of the domestic cat.

Classifying the domestic cat: All seven classification levels

While these classifications are useful and interesting, only genus, species, and (if applicable) subspecies are necessary to create a standard binomial scientific name.

Kingdom:   Animalia—this category encompasses all animals.

Phylum:  Chordata (subphylum Vertebrata)—this category includes all animals that have chordates or backbones.

Class:  Mammalia—this category includes all mammals (i.e., animals that have hair, three middle-ear bones, and mammary glands).

Order:  Carnivora—as you can probably guess from the name, this category includes all carnivores.

Family:  Felidae—this category encompasses both wild and domestic cats.

Genus:  Felis —this category encompasses cats that are smaller and/or cannot roar.

Species:  Catus —here, we’ve finally arrived at the particular brand of small cat that has become a friend (or master) of humans. This species includes between 40 and 50 breeds of cats.

Example: What is the scientific name of a dog?

Likewise, the scientific name for the domestic dog is Canis lupus familiaris . In this case, Canis denotes the genus ;  lupus, the species ; and familiaris, the subspecies .

Your friendly neighborhood Pomeranian is considered a subspecies of Canis lupus —the gray wolf!

How to format scientific names in academic writing

Italicization.

Publications and style guides may vary. However, the scientific name of any species of plants or animals should almost always be italicized.

Capitalization

In addition, the genus (the first component of the name) should always be capitalized, while the species and subspecies are kept in lowercase.

Categories above genus

As mentioned, binomial scientific names should always be italicized, but any category above the level of genus is typically written in roman (i.e., non-italicized) text. The exceptions are bacteria, fungi, and viruses; for these taxa, italics are also used at the family level.

Multiple appearances

Additionally, when writing a scientific name multiple times in a text, the genus is often abbreviated to include only the first letter after the first use of the name. For instance, one may write:

" Felis catus belongs to the order Carnivora. This means that F. catus subsists primarily on meat."

The subspecies is always formatted in the same way as the species—lowercase and italicized. If the subspecies name is the same as the species name (e.g., the tiger Panthera tigris tigris ), the species can be abbreviated to the first letter ( Panthera t. tigris ).

Unknown species

If a species is unknown, the abbreviation "sp." is used in place of the species name and is non-italicized. The abbreviation "spp." is similarly used to indicate a group of unknown species. The term "sp. novo" is used to indicate a species that is being described for the first time.

Discoverers' names

Sometimes, the abbreviated or full surname of the person who named the species is included after the scientific name (e.g., " Quercus alba L." or " Quercus alba Linnaeus"). This part of the scientific name is never italicized.

Parting advice: Ensuring consistency

Lastly, make sure that you use and format scientific names consistently throughout your paper, article, or thesis.

When working on a sizable document, making sure that scientific terms are consistently written and formatted throughout can be a labor-intensive and time-consuming task.

That's why it's always helpful to get a second set of eyes on your work before submitting your final draft. You can ask a friend or colleague to look over your work or use a professional editor . With that, you can rest easy in the knowledge that your reader will easily understand and appreciate your work without being put off by any errors or inconsistencies.

Image source: Rawpixel/elements.envato.com

Make Every Word Count with Professional Academic Proofreading

Try our academic proofreading service , or get a free sample, about the author.

Daniel Ruten is an in-house editor at Scribendi. He honed his academic writing and editing skills while attaining a BA and MA in History at the University of Saskatchewan, where he researched institutions and the experiences of mental patients in 18 th -century England. In his spare time, he enjoys producing music, reading books, drinking too much coffee, and wandering around nature.

Have You Read?

"The Complete Beginner's Guide to Academic Writing"

Related Posts

Five Habits to Avoid in Your Academic Writing

Quotation Marks: When to Use Single or Double Quotes

When to Spell Out Numbers in Writing: Guide and Examples

Upload your file(s) so we can calculate your word count, or enter your word count manually.

We will also recommend a service based on the file(s) you upload.

English is not my first language. I need English editing and proofreading so that I sound like a native speaker.

I need to have my journal article, dissertation, or term paper edited and proofread, or I need help with an admissions essay or proposal.

I have a novel, manuscript, play, or ebook. I need editing, copy editing, proofreading, a critique of my work, or a query package.

I need editing and proofreading for my white papers, reports, manuals, press releases, marketing materials, and other business documents.

I need to have my essay, project, assignment, or term paper edited and proofread.

I want to sound professional and to get hired. I have a resume, letter, email, or personal document that I need to have edited and proofread.

 Prices include your personal % discount.

 Prices include % sales tax ( ).

• Affiliate Program

• UNITED STATES
• 台灣 (TAIWAN)
• TÜRKIYE (TURKEY)
• Academic Editing Services
• - Research Paper
• - Journal Manuscript
• - Dissertation
• - College & University Assignments
• Admissions Editing Services
• - Application Essay
• - Personal Statement
• - Recommendation Letter
• - Cover Letter
• - CV/Resume
• Business Editing Services
• - Business Documents
• - Report & Brochure
• - Website & Blog
• Writer Editing Services
• - Script & Screenplay
• Our Editors
• Client Reviews
• Editing & Proofreading Prices
• Wordvice Points
• Partner Discount
• Plagiarism Checker
• APA Citation Generator
• MLA Citation Generator
• Chicago Citation Generator
• Vancouver Citation Generator
• - APA Style
• - MLA Style
• - Chicago Style
• - Vancouver Style
• Writing & Editing Guide
• Academic Resources
• Admissions Resources

How to Make a Research Paper Title with Examples

What is a research paper title and why does it matter?

A research paper title summarizes the aim and purpose of your research study. Making a title for your research is one of the most important decisions when writing an article to publish in journals. The research title is the first thing that journal editors and reviewers see when they look at your paper and the only piece of information that fellow researchers will see in a database or search engine query. Good titles that are concise and contain all the relevant terms have been shown to increase citation counts and Altmetric scores .

Therefore, when you title research work, make sure it captures all of the relevant aspects of your study, including the specific topic and problem being investigated. It also should present these elements in a way that is accessible and will captivate readers. Follow these steps to learn how to make a good research title for your work.

How to Make a Research Paper Title in 5 Steps

You might wonder how you are supposed to pick a title from all the content that your manuscript contains—how are you supposed to choose? What will make your research paper title come up in search engines and what will make the people in your field read it? 

In a nutshell, your research title should accurately capture what you have done, it should sound interesting to the people who work on the same or a similar topic, and it should contain the important title keywords that other researchers use when looking for literature in databases. To make the title writing process as simple as possible, we have broken it down into 5 simple steps.

Step 1: Answer some key questions about your research paper

What does your paper seek to answer and what does it accomplish? Try to answer these questions as briefly as possible. You can create these questions by going through each section of your paper and finding the MOST relevant information to make a research title.

Step 2: Identify research study keywords

Now that you have answers to your research questions, find the most important parts of these responses and make these your study keywords. Note that you should only choose the most important terms for your keywords–journals usually request anywhere from 3 to 8 keywords maximum.

Step 3: Research title writing: use these keywords

“We employed a case study of 60 liver transplant patients around the US aged 20-50 years to assess how waiting list volume affects the outcomes of liver transplantation in patients; results indicate a positive correlation between increased waiting list volume and negative prognosis after the transplant procedure.”

The sentence above is clearly much too long for a research paper title. This is why you will trim and polish your title in the next two steps.

Step 4: Create a working research paper title

To create a working title, remove elements that make it a complete “sentence” but keep everything that is important to what the study is about. Delete all unnecessary and redundant words that are not central to the study or that researchers would most likely not use in a database search.

“ We employed a case study of 60 liver transplant patients around the US aged 20-50 years to assess how the waiting list volume affects the outcome of liver transplantation in patients ; results indicate a positive correlation between increased waiting list volume and a negative prognosis after transplant procedure ”

Now shift some words around for proper syntax and rephrase it a bit to shorten the length and make it leaner and more natural. What you are left with is:

“A case study of 60 liver transplant patients around the US aged 20-50 years assessing the impact of waiting list volume on outcome of transplantation and showing a positive correlation between increased waiting list volume and a negative prognosis” (Word Count: 38)

This text is getting closer to what we want in a research title, which is just the most important information. But note that the word count for this working title is still 38 words, whereas the average length of published journal article titles is 16 words or fewer. Therefore, we should eliminate some words and phrases that are not essential to this title.

Step 5: Remove any nonessential words and phrases from your title

Because the number of patients studied and the exact outcome are not the most essential parts of this paper, remove these elements first:

 “A case study of 60 liver transplant patients around the US aged 20-50 years assessing the impact of waiting list volume on outcomes of transplantation and showing a positive correlation between increased waiting list volume and a negative prognosis” (Word Count: 19)

In addition, the methods used in a study are not usually the most searched-for keywords in databases and represent additional details that you may want to remove to make your title leaner. So what is left is:

“Assessing the impact of waiting list volume on outcome and prognosis in liver transplantation patients” (Word Count: 15)

In this final version of the title, one can immediately recognize the subject and what objectives the study aims to achieve. Note that the most important terms appear at the beginning and end of the title: “Assessing,” which is the main action of the study, is placed at the beginning; and “liver transplantation patients,” the specific subject of the study, is placed at the end.

This will aid significantly in your research paper title being found in search engines and database queries, which means that a lot more researchers will be able to locate your article once it is published. In fact, a 2014 review of more than 150,000 papers submitted to the UK’s Research Excellence Framework (REF) database found the style of a paper’s title impacted the number of citations it would typically receive. In most disciplines, articles with shorter, more concise titles yielded more citations.

Adding a Research Paper Subtitle

If your title might require a subtitle to provide more immediate details about your methodology or sample, you can do this by adding this information after a colon:

“ : a case study of US adult patients ages 20-25”

If we abide strictly by our word count rule this may not be necessary or recommended. But every journal has its own standard formatting and style guidelines for research paper titles, so it is a good idea to be aware of the specific journal author instructions , not just when you write the manuscript but also to decide how to create a good title for it.

Research Paper Title Examples

The title examples in the following table illustrate how a title can be interesting but incomplete, complete by uninteresting, complete and interesting but too informal in tone, or some other combination of these. A good research paper title should meet all the requirements in the four columns below.

Tips on Formulating a Good Research Paper Title

In addition to the steps given above, there are a few other important things you want to keep in mind when it comes to how to write a research paper title, regarding formatting, word count, and content:

• Write the title after you’ve written your paper and abstract
• Include all of the essential terms in your paper
• Keep it short and to the point (~16 words or fewer)
• Avoid unnecessary jargon and abbreviations
• Use keywords that capture the content of your paper
• Never include a period at the end—your title is NOT a sentence

Research Paper Writing Resources

We hope this article has been helpful in teaching you how to craft your research paper title. But you might still want to dig deeper into different journal title formats and categories that might be more suitable for specific article types or need help with writing a cover letter for your manuscript submission.

In addition to getting English proofreading services , including paper editing services , before submission to journals, be sure to visit our academic resources papers. Here you can find dozens of articles on manuscript writing, from drafting an outline to finding a target journal to submit to.

• Research Guides

BSCI 1510L Literature and Stats Guide: 3.1 Specific details regarding scientific writing

• 1 What is a scientific paper?
• 2 Referencing and accessing papers
• 2.1 Literature Cited
• 2.2 Accessing Scientific Papers
• 2.3 Traversing the web of citations
• 2.4 Keyword Searches
• 3 Style of scientific writing
• 3.1 Specific details regarding scientific writing
• 3.2 Components of a scientific paper
• 4 For further information
• Appendix A: Calculation Final Concentrations
• 1 Formulas in Excel
• 2 Basic operations in Excel
• 3 Measurement and Variation
• 3.1 Describing Quantities and Their Variation
• 3.2 Samples Versus Populations
• 3.3 Calculating Descriptive Statistics using Excel
• 4 Variation and differences
• 5 Differences in Experimental Science
• 5.1 Aside: Commuting to Nashville
• 5.2 P and Detecting Differences in Variable Quantities
• 5.3 Statistical significance
• 5.4 A test for differences of sample means: 95% Confidence Intervals
• 5.5 Error bars in figures
• 5.6 Discussing statistics in your scientific writing
• 6 Scatter plot, trendline, and linear regression
• 7 The t-test of Means
• 8 Paired t-test
• 9 Two-Tailed and One-Tailed Tests
• 10 Variation on t-tests: ANOVA
• 11 Reporting the Results of a Statistical Test
• 12 Summary of statistical tests
• 1 Objectives
• 2 Project timeline
• 3 Background
• 4 Previous work in the BSCI 111 class
• 5 General notes about the project
• 6 About the paper
• 7 References

3.1.1 Scientific names

In scientific writing (and in science in general), common names are rarely used.  The Latin binomial (i.e. "scientific name") is used instead.  There are several important rules regarding the use of scientific names.  Failure to follow these rules in your writing flags you immediately as an amateur scientist, so make it a practice to follow them.

1. Scientific names are always italicized.  When hand-writing text, you can underline them instead, but there is no excuse not to italicize when using a word processor.  Example: use Bos taurus , not Bos taurus.

2. The genus is always capitalized.

3. The species is never capitalized, even when it refers to the name of a place or person.  Be careful because word processors will often "auto-correct" a species name and incorrectly capitalize it or change the spelling.  Example: Juniperus virginiana , not Juniperus Virginia .

4. In its first use within a particular document, the genus is always written in full.  In subsequent uses, the genus can be abbreviated using the first initial and a period.  In the case where two species from different genera have the same abbreviation for their genus, prevent confusion by writing out the full genus.  Example: on first use, write Escherichia coli and reserve E. coli for subsequent references. 

5. A species name is never used without a genus or genus abbreviation.  Example: write Tribolium confusum or T. confusum but never just confusum .  It is OK to use the genus by itself if you mean to refer to multiple species within the genus.  Example: "There are many species of Drosophila that are affected by exposure to alcohol."

6. If you must use a common name, first define it in terms of the scientific name.  For example, " Pan troglodytes (chimpanzee)".

In this course, incorrect formatting of scientific names may result in a point deduction.

The word "data" is plural.  Say "the data were …" not "the data was …".

3.1.3 Citing References in the Text

Each time a scientific paper makes reference to the work of others, it is expected that the paper's authors cite that work.  The exact method of citation varies depending on the journal.  In most biomedical journals and in very high-impact journals such as Science and Nature, citations are made through endnote reference numbers that are placed in the text as superscripts, or within parentheses or square brackets.  Although this format is more compact within the text, it is somewhat less convenient because it requires renumbering during the editing phase and requires the reader to go to the endnote to know anything about the citation.  We will use the more traditional method which is to cite the author or author's names, followed by the publication year.

3.1.3.1 General citation/reference patterns

Here is an example of a citation from the methods section of a paper:

            The following culture media were used for this method (Tsuzuki 1991): …

Sometimes a page, figure, or table number is also given if a specific part of the paper is being referenced rather than the paper in general, or if the work is a book rather than an article.  If there are two authors, their names are both listed.  If there are three or more authors, the name of the first author is listed, followed by "et al."

If the author's name is already being used in the text, the citation simply lists the date in parentheses, e.g.

            Dan and Hontela (2011) reported that triclosan was detected in breast milk, urine and plasma …

Each citation in the text of the article must be accompanied by a corresponding reference in the references section at the end of the paper (Section 2.1).  They are listed in alphabetical order by last name of the first author, then by publication year if more than one paper by that author is cited.  Here are the listings that would be added to the reference section for the example citations above:

Dan, A. B. and A. Hontela. 2011. Triclosan: environmental exposure, toxicity and mechanisms of action. Journal of Applied Toxicology 31:285-311. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jat.1660

Tsuzuki, M. 1991. Manual on Sterilization and Disinfection, Ishiyaku Publishers, Tokyo, 177–181.

3.1.3.2 Additional citation examples from Steingraber et al. (1985)

1. Both the name and date can go inside parentheses if the name is not actually part of your sentence. Not all journals include the comma between author and year. For example:

Enzymes are inhibited by cyanide (Grubb 1977).

Because enzymes are inhibited by cyanide (Grubb 1977), I expect to find....

Notice that the parenthesis is placed at the end of the sentence of clause containing the reference and that punctuation FOLLOWS the citation.

2. Another way to cite a study is to make the last name of the researcher the subject or object of the sentence or clause and follow it immediately with the date of the study in parentheses:

Grubb (1977) found that cyanide inhibits enzymes.

Because Grubb (1977) found that cyanide inhibits enzymes....

These data support the conclusions of Grubb (1977).

3. If you wish to emphasize the date of the cited study, you can omit the parentheses:

As early as 1977, Grubb observed the inhibitory effect of cyanide on enzyme action.

This strategy is often effective for presenting an historical perspective of the problem (i.e., useful in Introduction).

4. It is INCORRECT to separate the date of publication from the author’s name:

Incorrect: Grubb found that cyanide inhibits enzyme action (1977).

5. If you wish to cite more than one study per reference, i.e., if more than one author has reached the same conclusion or worked on the same problem independently, you may list them together in the same parentheses and separate their names by semicolons:

Cyanide has been found to inhibit enzyme action (Grubb 1977, Smith 1980, Taylor 1983).

By convention, these citations are listed in chronological order.

6. In the case of more than three authors, you may use et al. (from "et alii", Latin for "and others"; although et al. is a Latin term it is in such common use that it is not italicized) after the first author’s name:

Cyanide has been found to inhibit enzyme action (Jones et al., 1985).

3.1.4 Grammar for scientific reports

Lab manuals are often written as imperatives (also known as directives), a grammatical mood where the author gives directions to an implied audience. For example, your lab manual may say:

“Pipette 15 mL of sterile solution and vortex to mix.”

However, this form should not be used in a research paper’s methods section, which should avoid the use of first person or the directive.

In narrative writing, such as the kind used in fiction, active voice is often preferred because it is more illustrative. However, in scientific writing (particularly in a methods section) passive voice has traditionally been employed because it emphasizes the actions of the procedure over the person who completed the task. The “I” or “we” who is incubating the cultures should be irrelevant to the action performed.

In active voice, the subject of a sentence performs the action described by the verb.

Example: We incubated bacteria cultures at 30°C.

In passive voice, the subject is the recipient of the action of the verb.

Example: Bacterial cultures were incubated at 30°C.

While some scientific journals have begun to allow the use of active voice, it is challenging to do so while also maintaining a scientific style and minimizing the use of first person. Until you have reached a mastery of scientific writing sufficient to know when this is appropriate, the best rule of thumb is to avoid first person and active voice all together in methods.  If the journal that you are writing for has a policy on active vs. passive voice, you should follow it.  Usually such policies are described in an "Instructions for authors" page on the journal's website.

3.1.5 Notes on formatting specific to this class

The best way to get a feel for the general patterns in formatting of journal articles is to examine recent papers in well-established scientific journals.  The exact format of a paper depends on the guidelines established by the publishing journal.  All journals publish "Instructions to Authors" which are available on the journal's website.  In this class, we will use the format of Ecology, a publication of the Ecological Society of America.  The format of Ecology is fairly typical for non-biomedical journals.  The primary difference is in the method of citation as discussed in Section 3.1.3 .  In this class we will use the author (year) form of citation primarily because it makes revising the paper easier since footnotes do not need to be renumbered with each edit. 

The form of a submitted paper is often different than its appearance when published in the journal.  For example, the article may be required to be submitted double-spaced with all of the figures and tables at the end, whereas in the published article it will probably be single-spaced with two columns per page and figures interspersed throughout the article at appropriate places.  For the paper you will write in this class, please follow these guidelines:

1. Pages should be numbered.

2. It is not necessary to have a running head at the top of the page.

3. Text may be single-spaced unless your TA specifically requests double-spacing.

4. Although it is common practice in journals to place text in two columns per page, that is neither necessary nor recommended in this assignment.

3.1.6 Discussing statistics and results of statistical tests

Please refer to Section 5.6 of the Excel Reference and Statistics Guide for information on appropriately discussing statistics in your paper.

• << Previous: 3 Style of scientific writing
• Next: 3.2 Components of a scientific paper >>
• Last Updated: Apr 19, 2023 2:37 PM
• URL: https://researchguides.library.vanderbilt.edu/bsci1510L

• PRO Courses Guides New Tech Help Pro Expert Videos About wikiHow Pro Upgrade Sign In
• EDIT Edit this Article
• EXPLORE Tech Help Pro About Us Random Article Quizzes Request a New Article Community Dashboard This Or That Game Popular Categories Arts and Entertainment Artwork Books Movies Computers and Electronics Computers Phone Skills Technology Hacks Health Men's Health Mental Health Women's Health Relationships Dating Love Relationship Issues Hobbies and Crafts Crafts Drawing Games Education & Communication Communication Skills Personal Development Studying Personal Care and Style Fashion Hair Care Personal Hygiene Youth Personal Care School Stuff Dating All Categories Arts and Entertainment Finance and Business Home and Garden Relationship Quizzes Cars & Other Vehicles Food and Entertaining Personal Care and Style Sports and Fitness Computers and Electronics Health Pets and Animals Travel Education & Communication Hobbies and Crafts Philosophy and Religion Work World Family Life Holidays and Traditions Relationships Youth
• Browse Articles
• Learn Something New
• Quizzes Hot
• This Or That Game New
• Train Your Brain
• Explore More
• Support wikiHow
• About wikiHow
• Log in / Sign up
• Education and Communications

How to Write a Scientific Name

Last Updated: April 8, 2024 Fact Checked

This article was co-authored by Bess Ruff, MA . Bess Ruff is a Geography PhD student at Florida State University. She received her MA in Environmental Science and Management from the University of California, Santa Barbara in 2016. She has conducted survey work for marine spatial planning projects in the Caribbean and provided research support as a graduate fellow for the Sustainable Fisheries Group. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 68,550 times.

Scientific names are formal Latin names that are used to classify all organisms, both living and extinct. This formal name differs from the everyday names we use because it provides information about the organism’s genus and species. By writing and using a scientific name properly, you can communicate clearly about a specific organism.

Formatting a Name for Most Organisms

• For example, let’s say you were writing the scientific name of the snake plant, a tropical plant native to West Africa. The genus name would be written Sansevieria or Sansevieria .
• Using the common name of your organism in an online search will yield the proper scientific name.

• The specific epithet of the snake plant would be written trifasciata or trifasciata .

• For example, our snake plant’s full scientific name could be written Sansevieria trifasciata or Sansevieriatrifasciata .

• For example, the scientific name of the Golden Hahnii snake plant, a new cultivar of the snake plant, would be written Sansevieria trifasciata ‘Golden Hahnii.’
• The scientific name of the striped snake plant, a variety of the snake plant, would be written Sansevieria trifasciata var. Laurentii . The Laurentii is capitalized because it is a proper noun (a last name) in honor of the person who discovered the plant.
• Varieties are mutations that occur in nature, while cultivars are man-made mutations. For example, a new variety of a species might occur in a unique natural environment, such as a rainforest. On the other hand, a cultivar might develop in a greenhouse where humans are only breeding certain types of plants.

Using Scientific Names Properly

• You can italicize or underline the name as normal or not, it’s up to you.

• For example, Sansevieria trifasciata would become S. trifasciata on future references.
• Most generic names are abbreviated with a capitalized first letter then a period. Search an online scientific name finder, such as SciName Finder, to confirm the abbreviation of your generic name. Several universities also have online databases to assist with scientific abbreviations.

• So rather than saying, “sansevieria trifasciata” in your talk to a Boy Scout troop, say, “snake plant.”

Expert Q&A

You Might Also Like

• ↑ http://www.sciname.info/ThisSite.asp
• ↑ https://generalhorticulture.tamu.edu/h202/labs/lab3/sciname.html
• ↑ https://oregonstate.edu/dept/ldplants/sci-names.htm
• ↑ http://www.journal.au.edu/au_techno/2001/oct2001/howto.pdf
• ↑ https://researchguides.library.vanderbilt.edu/c.php?g=69346&p=831719
• ↑ https://libanswers.nybg.org/faq/223266

About This Article

To write a scientific name, start by writing the genus name, which you should underline or italicize and capitalize the first letter. Next, write the specific epithet, or the species' name, after the genus name. If your organism has a special variety or cultivar, add those names as well. For example, you would write the scientific name for Golden Hahnii snake plant as Sansevieria trifasciata 'Golden Hahnii.' To learn how to use scientific names properly, keep reading! Did this summary help you? Yes No

• Send fan mail to authors

Reader Success Stories

Mar 12, 2022

Did this article help you?

Featured Articles

Trending Articles

Watch Articles

• Terms of Use
• Privacy Policy
• Do Not Sell or Share My Info
• Not Selling Info

wikiHow Tech Help Pro:

Level up your tech skills and stay ahead of the curve

How to Write Scientific Names of Plants and Animals

Scientific names, or taxonomic names, are the unique nomenclature used in biology to refer to specific species. The purpose of these names is to standardize species names across regions, languages, and cultures to avoid confusion and ambiguity.

Updated on September 15, 2022

While these Latin names may seem intimidating (they even confuse journal editors), they become easy to use once you understand where they come from and how to use the formatting, notations, and abbreviations associated with them.

What is scientific/binomial nomenclature?

In the 1750s, Carl Linnaeus developed the system of binomial nomenclature (a two-part naming system) that we use today to name and classify living things. Species names consist of two parts: the first part is the generic name (genus name), while the second is the specific epithet (species name).

Species with the same generic name are closely related species grouped into the same genus. The specific epithet by itself is meaningless, almost like an adjective without a noun. Unrelated species can have the same specific epithet, such as Melilotus albus (white sweetclover) and Procnias albus (white bellbird). Albus means white.

Some animals have species names where the specific epithet repeats the genus name, such as Gorilla (Western gorilla). This is called a tautonym. While often used in animal names, tautonyms aren’t allowed in plant, fungi and algae names according to the International Code of Nomenclature for Algae, Fungi, and Plants  guidelines .

Some examples of common and scientific animal names:

Some examples of common and scientific plant names:

Rules for writing scientific names of plants and animals

Scientific names are made up of Latin, or latinized, words. The scientific name often describes some aspect of the organism. For example, the blue jay’s scientific name is Cyanocitta cristata, which means chattering, crested blue bird.

Sometimes, species are named after a person (e.g., a black-eyed satyr butterfly, Euptchia attenboroughi, was named after David Attenborough), or the place where it occurs (e.g., the Arabian gazelle is called Gazella arabica).

How to format scientific names

Scientific names are in Latin, so, similar to other words from foreign languages, they’re always written in italics. The generic name is always capitalized, while the species epithet is never capitalized.

If the species name appears in a sentence where the text is already italicized, such as in a heading or figure legend, the species name can be unitalicized to distinguish it from the rest of the text. If written by hand, the name should be underlined.

How to abbreviate scientific names

If a species name is repeated multiple times in a written piece, such as a research paper, it can be abbreviated after the first time the name is written out in full. For example, the mosquito Anopheles stephensi can subsequently be abbreviated as A. stephensi. In the same written piece, you can also refer to another species from the same genus in the same way, such as A. funestus. In some journals, this must be done in both the abstract and main text of the paper.

If there are two genus names in the text that start with the same letter, the genus name can be abbreviated using its first two letters.

For example, if you also mention Aedes vexans mosquitoes in your text, you can abbreviate the two species as An. stephensi and Ae. vexans.

However, as with all abbreviations, these abbreviations should be used sparingly and only if there is no possibility for confusion. Only use an abbreviation if you use the term multiple times in your text. The general guideline is three or more times, but this will depend on the length of your text, so use your own judgement.

Always keep your reader in mind. If there are genera with similar names, rather write them out in full. If you only have one species name in your text that you use repeatedly, abbreviating it is not a problem, but if you mention 10 different species, abbreviations could confuse and frustrate your reader.

When referring to an unknown species in a genus, you can write the generic name followed by the abbreviation “sp.” The plural form is “spp.” The abbreviation “sp. novo” indicates a species that hasn’t been described yet.

For example: “During their bat survey in Guinea, they caught a Myotis sp. in one of their traps. Its distinctive coloring set it apart from other Myotis spp. and they knew it had to be a new species. The discovery of Myotis sp. novo highlights the importance of these surveys.”

How to add the taxonomic authority of a scientific name

Sometimes, the taxonomic authority is added to the scientific name. The taxonomic authority is the surname of the person who first described the species.

In plant names, the taxonomic authority is abbreviated (e.g., Panicum virgatum L., where the L is the abbreviation for Linnaeus). In animals, the surname is written out in full followed by the date when it was first described (e.g., Balaena mysticetus Linnaeus, 1758). A name following in brackets means that the name has been amended subsequent to first descriptions (e.g., Pulchrapolia gracilis (Dyke and Cooper).

How to indicate subgenus, subspecies, form, and variety

Other information that can be added include subgenus, subspecies, forms, and varieties. Subgenus is a classification level below genus, but above species level. If a subgenus is included in the scientific name, it’s placed in parentheses between the generic and specific name, with the first letter capitalized, for example Nereis (Hediste) diversicolor.

A subspecies is a further division of a species into groups of individuals that are distinguishable, but not different enough to be classified as a separate species. In animal names, the subspecies name is written after the species name, in lowercase italics. For example, the Bengal tiger is Panthera tigris and the Sumatran tiger is Panthera tigris sondaica. The Bengal tiger is found in India, while the Sumatran tiger is only found on the island of Sumatra and is much smaller than the Bengal tiger. Despite the differences in their distribution and appearance, they can interbreed, making them subspecies and not different species.

In plant names, the abbreviation subsp. is added between the species and subspecies name. For example, Cornus sericea subsp. sericea.

A variety is a population of individuals with distinct, inheritable differences and are indicated with the abbreviation var., for example Gleditsia triacanthos var. inermis refers to the thornless variety of the thorny honeylocust. Form refers to occasional variations in individuals, such as variation in flower color. For example, Cornus florida f. rubra refers to individuals of the flowering dogwood with pink flowers instead of the usual white.

How to write the name of a hybrid

Hybrids are indicated with an “x”. Hybrids that have been named are written with the x between the genus and species name. For example, Solanum x procurrens is the hybrid between S. nigrum and S. physalifolium. If a hybrid hasn’t been named, or if you want to specify the parentage, the same hybrid can be written as S. nigrum x S. physalifolium.

How to write the name of a cultivar

Cultivar names are written inside quotations, capitalized, and not italicized. If the cultivar was bred from a single species, the cultivar name follows the specific epithet; for example Zea mays “Wisconsin 153.” If the cultivar was bred by hybridizing several species, the cultivar name replaces the specific epithet, for example, Rosa “Iceberg” is a cultivar derived from crosses between Rosa chinensis, Rosa multiflora, Rosa gigantea, and several other Rosa spp.

Can two species have the same scientific name?

When two genera from the same kingdom have the same name, this is called a homonym. This is similar to homonyms in grammar, which refers to words with the same spelling but different meanings. While homonyms aren’t allowed in scientific nomenclature, errors sometimes slip through as shown in this  online list of homonyms . For example, Colobus is a genus of beetles and a genus of primates.

When two genus names from different kingdoms have the same name, this is called a hemihomonym. For example, Ficus is a genus of plants and a genus of snails.

Hemihomonyms are allowed since the scientific names of different kingdoms are governed by different regulatory bodies. The  International Code of Nomenclature  (ICN) governs the naming of algae, fungi, and plants, while the  International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature  (ICZN) regulates the naming of animals. A  recent publication highlighted the problem with and extent of this phenomenon and compiled an online list of hemihomonyms .

It can happen that two species from generic hemihomonyms also have the same specific epithet, resulting in identical scientific names. In the previous example of the hemihomonym, Ficus, there’s both a  sea snail  and a fig named Ficus variegata. Another example is Orestias elegans, which is the scientific name of both an  orchid  and a  fish .

Resources for finding scientific nomenclature

The  Integrated Taxonomic Information System  (ITIS) and  The Catalogue of Life  are online data bases where you can find the scientific name of any life form by searching either the common name or the scientific name. They provide the full taxonomic classification, from kingdom to species level, the taxonomic authority, and references to the publications where these species were described.

The  IUCN Redlist  is another trusted source and provides a list of animal, plant, and fungi species with their taxonomic information and conservation status details, including population numbers, distribution, and current threats.

However, species names can change when new taxonomic information becomes available. Keeping track of the taxonomic changes of all organisms is a huge task. While the above-mentioned lists are a good starting point to finding a species name, do some further research to be sure you have the latest accepted scientific name.

A scientific name in a database might have been correct at the time it was last updated, but it could be outdated. For example, the name of the sweet thorn tree was changed to Vachellia karroo as described by  Banfi and Galasso in 2008 . However, in the ITIS database, Acacia karroo is still listed as the correct name, while the IUCN Redlist and The Catalogue of Life have the correct accepted name, with Acacia karroo listed as the synonym.

Region- or taxon-specific resources such as recent, regional field guides or online databases are often better resources. For example, a good reference for bird species would be the  Birdlife International website . The  World Register of Marine Species  (or WORMS) is a database of marine organisms. However, the gold standard would be the most recent taxonomic publications on the species.

If you really want to be sure you’ve got your taxonomy right…

AJE offers editing by experts who know these subjects inside and out. While they polish your English to a level fit for publication, they’ll also fix up your scientific and technical terminology. Check out  AJE Editing services here .

The AJE Team

See our "Privacy Policy"

Put a stop to deadline pressure, and have your homework done by an expert.

How to Write Scientific Names: Best Guide For Students

Many students don’t know how to write scientific names in academic papers and essays. Unfortunately, this affects their grades negatively. What’s more, experts have internationally acknowledged the method of writing scientific names. Most people use common names to refer to animals and plants. However, you should use scientific naming when writing a science paper.

Common names refer to the names that people use locally and they differ from place to place. Scientific names for animals and plants, on the other hand, are the ones used by the scientific community. These names are unique because they precisely identify specific animals and plants. Some people also call them scientific nomenclature and their basis is their specific study fields.

Why Students Should Learn How to Write Scientific Names Correctly

Scientific nomenclature forms the basis for scientific animal names. Scientific nomenclature comprises various codes that taxonomists created and are updated regularly and widely used by consensus. Carl Linnaeus, a Swedish botanist, introduced the scientific nomenclature in the 1700s. Linnaeus invented a system called the binomial nomenclature. According to this system, every organism should have two names. These are the genus name and the species name.

Scientists expanded this system in the mid-1800s to include the International Code for Nomenclature for algae, plants, and fungi, International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, International Code for Phytosociological Nomenclature, International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants, and International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria.

When writing a science research paper, a student should use the universal standard to reduce confusion because common names for animals and plants differ from one region to another. What’s more, this naming standard enhances consistency. That’s why educators encourage students to learn to write these names before they write a scientific paper.

How to Write Scientific Names in a Paper

Before you learn how to write scientific names, take your time to understand the taxonomic hierarchy. This hierarchy includes species groups whose identification depends on their phylogenic and genetic qualities. The highest level in this hierarchy is the kingdom and it comprises categories like Bacteria, Animalia, Protozoa, Archaea, Fungi, Plantae, and Chromista. The other classifications include Phylum, Class, Order, Suborder, Family, Genus, Species, and Subspecies.

How to Write Scientific Names of Animals

When writing in a scientific paper format, students should avoid common names of animals. Instead, they should follow these steps to write the names of different animals scientifically.

Include the genus name of the animal and its specific epithet. Write the genus name first followed by its specific epithet. Capitalize the first letter in the genus name. Don’t capitalize the first letter in the epithet name. Underline or italicize the entire name Here are examples of scientific animal names: Scientific names for spiders: Araneae Scientific names for butterflies: Rhopalocera Ladybug scientific names: Coccinellidae Penguins scientific names: Spheniscidae

How to Write Scientific Names of Plants

If you want to name plants scientifically in your paper, keep these things in your mind:

The basis for the standard approach for naming plants scientifically is the binomial nomenclature that Linnaeus invented. When using this nomenclature, you identify the generic or genus name of a plant first and then find its species name or the specific epithet. You should write the genus name first followed and capitalize the first letter. Write the specific epithet name after the genus name without capitalizing it. That’s the standard how to write plant scientific names. Underline both the genus and the specific epithet names or italicize them. Here are examples of scientific plant names: Pine tree scientific names: Pinus Scientific snake plant name: Sansevieria trifasciata

In addition to scientific animal and plant names, some educators require students to write according to natural science.

The easiest definition of natural science is the information whose basis is natural laws. This is a broad term that scientists use to refer to different scientific areas. Its concern is matter and energy, reaction, as well as, their transformation. This science has several aspects although the major categories are chemistry, biology, and physics. What’s more, each of these categories has subareas.

Tips for Writing in Science Paper Format

When pursuing most courses, students get to a point of writing scientific papers. When handling this task for the first time, the experience can be quite overwhelming. However, it can also be exciting. Nevertheless, you have to research your science research paper topic extensively and analyze information.

The first and crucial step is to select the topic wisely. Ideally, pick an interesting scientific topic. Once you’ve done that, focus on ensuring clarity, accuracy, and simplicity in your paper. Here’s how you can achieve this.

• Clarity: Ensure that your science paper has explicit work. That means you have to avoid the inclusion of unnecessary conjectures or details. Always use shorter sentences and paragraphs. That way, you will enable your readers to quickly understand the concepts that you feature in your paper. Make your expressions and sentences clear to ensure that your readers do not waste time reading and reading your paragraphs or sentences before understanding.
• Accuracy: Take your time to research the data or information that you include in your paper. Ensure that the references and figures that you include in your paper are accurate. Also, use information that your readers can verify if they want to read further in your sources.
• Simplicity: The format of your science paper can be both creative and simple. And you can achieve this by matching paragraphs and your sentence structure to ensure easy understanding for your readers. Ideally, your readers shouldn’t struggle to follow the ideas you express in your paper.

Get Assistance With Writing Scientific Names

When asked to write a science paper by their educators, many learners panic because they don’t know the scientific plants and animal names. Precise termination is crucial in any form of scientific writing. As such, students should use scientific plant and animal names. Learning how to write these names following the current taxonomy system enables learners to use standard and universal names for plants and animals in their work. And this eliminates confusion while enhancing consistency.

Get on top of your homework.

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

• Langson Library
• Science Library
• Grunigen Medical Library
• Law Library
• Connect From Off-Campus
• Accessibility
• Gateway Study Center

Email this link

Writing a scientific paper.

• Writing a lab report

What is a "good" title?

"title checklist" from: how to write a good scientific paper. chris a. mack. spie. 2018., other hints for writing a title.

• INTRODUCTION
• LITERATURE CITED
• Bibliography of guides to scientific writing and presenting
• Peer Review
• Presentations
• Lab Report Writing Guides on the Web

The title will be read by many people. Only a few will read the entire paper, therefore all words in the title should be chosen with care. Too short a title is not helpful to the potential reader. However too long a title can sometimes be even less meaningful. Remember a title is not an abstract. Also a title is not a sentence.

Goals: • Fewest possible words that describe the contents of the paper. • Avoid waste words like "Studies on", or "Investigations on" • Use specific terms rather than general • Watch your word order and syntax • Avoid abbreviations and jargon

 The title should be clear and informative, and should reflect the aim and approach of the work.

 The title should be as specific as possible while still describing the full range of the work. Does the title, seen in isolation, give a full yet concise and specific indication of the work reported?

 Do not mention results or conclusions in the title.

 Avoid: overly clever or punny titles that will not fare well with search engines or international audiences; titles that are too short to be descriptive or too long to be read; jargon, acronyms, or trademarked terms. 

• Whenever possible, use a declarative rather than a neutral title
• Don't end your title with a question mark?
• Begin with the keywords
• Use verbs instead of abstract nouns
• Avoid abbrev. in the title

From: How to Write and Illustrate a Scientific Paper (2008)

• << Previous: Writing a lab report
• Next: ABSTRACT >>
• Last Updated: Aug 4, 2023 9:33 AM
• URL: https://guides.lib.uci.edu/scientificwriting

Off-campus? Please use the Software VPN and choose the group UCIFull to access licensed content. For more information, please Click here

Software VPN is not available for guests, so they may not have access to some content when connecting from off-campus.

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, generate accurate citations for free.

• Knowledge Base
• Research paper

Writing a Research Paper Introduction | Step-by-Step Guide

Published on September 24, 2022 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on March 27, 2023.

The introduction to a research paper is where you set up your topic and approach for the reader. It has several key goals:

• Present your topic and get the reader interested
• Provide background or summarize existing research
• Position your own approach
• Detail your specific research problem and problem statement
• Give an overview of the paper’s structure

The introduction looks slightly different depending on whether your paper presents the results of original empirical research or constructs an argument by engaging with a variety of sources.

Instantly correct all language mistakes in your text

Upload your document to correct all your mistakes in minutes

Table of contents

Step 1: introduce your topic, step 2: describe the background, step 3: establish your research problem, step 4: specify your objective(s), step 5: map out your paper, research paper introduction examples, frequently asked questions about the research paper introduction.

The first job of the introduction is to tell the reader what your topic is and why it’s interesting or important. This is generally accomplished with a strong opening hook.

The hook is a striking opening sentence that clearly conveys the relevance of your topic. Think of an interesting fact or statistic, a strong statement, a question, or a brief anecdote that will get the reader wondering about your topic.

For example, the following could be an effective hook for an argumentative paper about the environmental impact of cattle farming:

A more empirical paper investigating the relationship of Instagram use with body image issues in adolescent girls might use the following hook:

Don’t feel that your hook necessarily has to be deeply impressive or creative. Clarity and relevance are still more important than catchiness. The key thing is to guide the reader into your topic and situate your ideas.

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

This part of the introduction differs depending on what approach your paper is taking.

In a more argumentative paper, you’ll explore some general background here. In a more empirical paper, this is the place to review previous research and establish how yours fits in.

Argumentative paper: Background information

After you’ve caught your reader’s attention, specify a bit more, providing context and narrowing down your topic.

Provide only the most relevant background information. The introduction isn’t the place to get too in-depth; if more background is essential to your paper, it can appear in the body .

Empirical paper: Describing previous research

For a paper describing original research, you’ll instead provide an overview of the most relevant research that has already been conducted. This is a sort of miniature literature review —a sketch of the current state of research into your topic, boiled down to a few sentences.

This should be informed by genuine engagement with the literature. Your search can be less extensive than in a full literature review, but a clear sense of the relevant research is crucial to inform your own work.

Begin by establishing the kinds of research that have been done, and end with limitations or gaps in the research that you intend to respond to.

The next step is to clarify how your own research fits in and what problem it addresses.

Argumentative paper: Emphasize importance

In an argumentative research paper, you can simply state the problem you intend to discuss, and what is original or important about your argument.

Empirical paper: Relate to the literature

In an empirical research paper, try to lead into the problem on the basis of your discussion of the literature. Think in terms of these questions:

• What research gap is your work intended to fill?
• What limitations in previous work does it address?
• What contribution to knowledge does it make?

You can make the connection between your problem and the existing research using phrases like the following.

Now you’ll get into the specifics of what you intend to find out or express in your research paper.

The way you frame your research objectives varies. An argumentative paper presents a thesis statement, while an empirical paper generally poses a research question (sometimes with a hypothesis as to the answer).

Argumentative paper: Thesis statement

The thesis statement expresses the position that the rest of the paper will present evidence and arguments for. It can be presented in one or two sentences, and should state your position clearly and directly, without providing specific arguments for it at this point.

Empirical paper: Research question and hypothesis

The research question is the question you want to answer in an empirical research paper.

Present your research question clearly and directly, with a minimum of discussion at this point. The rest of the paper will be taken up with discussing and investigating this question; here you just need to express it.

A research question can be framed either directly or indirectly.

• This study set out to answer the following question: What effects does daily use of Instagram have on the prevalence of body image issues among adolescent girls?
• We investigated the effects of daily Instagram use on the prevalence of body image issues among adolescent girls.

If your research involved testing hypotheses , these should be stated along with your research question. They are usually presented in the past tense, since the hypothesis will already have been tested by the time you are writing up your paper.

For example, the following hypothesis might respond to the research question above:

The only proofreading tool specialized in correcting academic writing - try for free!

The academic proofreading tool has been trained on 1000s of academic texts and by native English editors. Making it the most accurate and reliable proofreading tool for students.

Try for free

The final part of the introduction is often dedicated to a brief overview of the rest of the paper.

In a paper structured using the standard scientific “introduction, methods, results, discussion” format, this isn’t always necessary. But if your paper is structured in a less predictable way, it’s important to describe the shape of it for the reader.

If included, the overview should be concise, direct, and written in the present tense.

• This paper will first discuss several examples of survey-based research into adolescent social media use, then will go on to …
• This paper first discusses several examples of survey-based research into adolescent social media use, then goes on to …

Full examples of research paper introductions are shown in the tabs below: one for an argumentative paper, the other for an empirical paper.

• Argumentative paper
• Empirical paper

Are cows responsible for climate change? A recent study (RIVM, 2019) shows that cattle farmers account for two thirds of agricultural nitrogen emissions in the Netherlands. These emissions result from nitrogen in manure, which can degrade into ammonia and enter the atmosphere. The study’s calculations show that agriculture is the main source of nitrogen pollution, accounting for 46% of the country’s total emissions. By comparison, road traffic and households are responsible for 6.1% each, the industrial sector for 1%. While efforts are being made to mitigate these emissions, policymakers are reluctant to reckon with the scale of the problem. The approach presented here is a radical one, but commensurate with the issue. This paper argues that the Dutch government must stimulate and subsidize livestock farmers, especially cattle farmers, to transition to sustainable vegetable farming. It first establishes the inadequacy of current mitigation measures, then discusses the various advantages of the results proposed, and finally addresses potential objections to the plan on economic grounds.

The rise of social media has been accompanied by a sharp increase in the prevalence of body image issues among women and girls. This correlation has received significant academic attention: Various empirical studies have been conducted into Facebook usage among adolescent girls (Tiggermann & Slater, 2013; Meier & Gray, 2014). These studies have consistently found that the visual and interactive aspects of the platform have the greatest influence on body image issues. Despite this, highly visual social media (HVSM) such as Instagram have yet to be robustly researched. This paper sets out to address this research gap. We investigated the effects of daily Instagram use on the prevalence of body image issues among adolescent girls. It was hypothesized that daily Instagram use would be associated with an increase in body image concerns and a decrease in self-esteem ratings.

The introduction of a research paper includes several key elements:

• A hook to catch the reader’s interest
• Relevant background on the topic
• Details of your research problem

and your problem statement

• A thesis statement or research question
• Sometimes an overview of the paper

Don’t feel that you have to write the introduction first. The introduction is often one of the last parts of the research paper you’ll write, along with the conclusion.

This is because it can be easier to introduce your paper once you’ve already written the body ; you may not have the clearest idea of your arguments until you’ve written them, and things can change during the writing process .

The way you present your research problem in your introduction varies depending on the nature of your research paper . A research paper that presents a sustained argument will usually encapsulate this argument in a thesis statement .

A research paper designed to present the results of empirical research tends to present a research question that it seeks to answer. It may also include a hypothesis —a prediction that will be confirmed or disproved by your research.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

Caulfield, J. (2023, March 27). Writing a Research Paper Introduction | Step-by-Step Guide. Scribbr. Retrieved April 8, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/research-paper/research-paper-introduction/

Is this article helpful?

Jack Caulfield

Other students also liked, writing strong research questions | criteria & examples, writing a research paper conclusion | step-by-step guide, research paper format | apa, mla, & chicago templates, what is your plagiarism score.

• Privacy Policy

Buy Me a Coffee

Home » Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Research Paper

Definition:

Research Paper is a written document that presents the author’s original research, analysis, and interpretation of a specific topic or issue.

It is typically based on Empirical Evidence, and may involve qualitative or quantitative research methods, or a combination of both. The purpose of a research paper is to contribute new knowledge or insights to a particular field of study, and to demonstrate the author’s understanding of the existing literature and theories related to the topic.

Structure of Research Paper

The structure of a research paper typically follows a standard format, consisting of several sections that convey specific information about the research study. The following is a detailed explanation of the structure of a research paper:

The title page contains the title of the paper, the name(s) of the author(s), and the affiliation(s) of the author(s). It also includes the date of submission and possibly, the name of the journal or conference where the paper is to be published.

The abstract is a brief summary of the research paper, typically ranging from 100 to 250 words. It should include the research question, the methods used, the key findings, and the implications of the results. The abstract should be written in a concise and clear manner to allow readers to quickly grasp the essence of the research.

Introduction

The introduction section of a research paper provides background information about the research problem, the research question, and the research objectives. It also outlines the significance of the research, the research gap that it aims to fill, and the approach taken to address the research question. Finally, the introduction section ends with a clear statement of the research hypothesis or research question.

Literature Review

The literature review section of a research paper provides an overview of the existing literature on the topic of study. It includes a critical analysis and synthesis of the literature, highlighting the key concepts, themes, and debates. The literature review should also demonstrate the research gap and how the current study seeks to address it.

The methods section of a research paper describes the research design, the sample selection, the data collection and analysis procedures, and the statistical methods used to analyze the data. This section should provide sufficient detail for other researchers to replicate the study.

The results section presents the findings of the research, using tables, graphs, and figures to illustrate the data. The findings should be presented in a clear and concise manner, with reference to the research question and hypothesis.

The discussion section of a research paper interprets the findings and discusses their implications for the research question, the literature review, and the field of study. It should also address the limitations of the study and suggest future research directions.

The conclusion section summarizes the main findings of the study, restates the research question and hypothesis, and provides a final reflection on the significance of the research.

The references section provides a list of all the sources cited in the paper, following a specific citation style such as APA, MLA or Chicago.

How to Write Research Paper

You can write Research Paper by the following guide:

• Choose a Topic: The first step is to select a topic that interests you and is relevant to your field of study. Brainstorm ideas and narrow down to a research question that is specific and researchable.
• Conduct a Literature Review: The literature review helps you identify the gap in the existing research and provides a basis for your research question. It also helps you to develop a theoretical framework and research hypothesis.
• Develop a Thesis Statement : The thesis statement is the main argument of your research paper. It should be clear, concise and specific to your research question.
• Plan your Research: Develop a research plan that outlines the methods, data sources, and data analysis procedures. This will help you to collect and analyze data effectively.
• Collect and Analyze Data: Collect data using various methods such as surveys, interviews, observations, or experiments. Analyze data using statistical tools or other qualitative methods.
• Organize your Paper : Organize your paper into sections such as Introduction, Literature Review, Methods, Results, Discussion, and Conclusion. Ensure that each section is coherent and follows a logical flow.
• Write your Paper : Start by writing the introduction, followed by the literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. Ensure that your writing is clear, concise, and follows the required formatting and citation styles.
• Edit and Proofread your Paper: Review your paper for grammar and spelling errors, and ensure that it is well-structured and easy to read. Ask someone else to review your paper to get feedback and suggestions for improvement.
• Cite your Sources: Ensure that you properly cite all sources used in your research paper. This is essential for giving credit to the original authors and avoiding plagiarism.

Research Paper Example

Note : The below example research paper is for illustrative purposes only and is not an actual research paper. Actual research papers may have different structures, contents, and formats depending on the field of study, research question, data collection and analysis methods, and other factors. Students should always consult with their professors or supervisors for specific guidelines and expectations for their research papers.

Research Paper Example sample for Students:

Title: The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health among Young Adults

Abstract: This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults. A literature review was conducted to examine the existing research on the topic. A survey was then administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO (Fear of Missing Out) are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Introduction: Social media has become an integral part of modern life, particularly among young adults. While social media has many benefits, including increased communication and social connectivity, it has also been associated with negative outcomes, such as addiction, cyberbullying, and mental health problems. This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults.

Literature Review: The literature review highlights the existing research on the impact of social media use on mental health. The review shows that social media use is associated with depression, anxiety, stress, and other mental health problems. The review also identifies the factors that contribute to the negative impact of social media, including social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Methods : A survey was administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The survey included questions on social media use, mental health status (measured using the DASS-21), and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and regression analysis.

Results : The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Discussion : The study’s findings suggest that social media use has a negative impact on the mental health of young adults. The study highlights the need for interventions that address the factors contributing to the negative impact of social media, such as social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Conclusion : In conclusion, social media use has a significant impact on the mental health of young adults. The study’s findings underscore the need for interventions that promote healthy social media use and address the negative outcomes associated with social media use. Future research can explore the effectiveness of interventions aimed at reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health. Additionally, longitudinal studies can investigate the long-term effects of social media use on mental health.

Limitations : The study has some limitations, including the use of self-report measures and a cross-sectional design. The use of self-report measures may result in biased responses, and a cross-sectional design limits the ability to establish causality.

Implications: The study’s findings have implications for mental health professionals, educators, and policymakers. Mental health professionals can use the findings to develop interventions that address the negative impact of social media use on mental health. Educators can incorporate social media literacy into their curriculum to promote healthy social media use among young adults. Policymakers can use the findings to develop policies that protect young adults from the negative outcomes associated with social media use.

References :

• Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K. (2019). Associations between screen time and lower psychological well-being among children and adolescents: Evidence from a population-based study. Preventive medicine reports, 15, 100918.
• Primack, B. A., Shensa, A., Escobar-Viera, C. G., Barrett, E. L., Sidani, J. E., Colditz, J. B., … & James, A. E. (2017). Use of multiple social media platforms and symptoms of depression and anxiety: A nationally-representative study among US young adults. Computers in Human Behavior, 69, 1-9.
• Van der Meer, T. G., & Verhoeven, J. W. (2017). Social media and its impact on academic performance of students. Journal of Information Technology Education: Research, 16, 383-398.

Appendix : The survey used in this study is provided below.

Social Media and Mental Health Survey

• How often do you use social media per day?
• Less than 30 minutes
• 30 minutes to 1 hour
• 1 to 2 hours
• 2 to 4 hours
• More than 4 hours
• Which social media platforms do you use?
• Others (Please specify)
• How often do you experience the following on social media?
• Social comparison (comparing yourself to others)
• Cyberbullying
• Fear of Missing Out (FOMO)
• Have you ever experienced any of the following mental health problems in the past month?
• Do you think social media use has a positive or negative impact on your mental health?
• Very positive
• Somewhat positive
• Somewhat negative
• Very negative
• In your opinion, which factors contribute to the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Social comparison
• In your opinion, what interventions could be effective in reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Education on healthy social media use
• Counseling for mental health problems caused by social media
• Social media detox programs
• Regulation of social media use

Thank you for your participation!

Applications of Research Paper

Research papers have several applications in various fields, including:

• Advancing knowledge: Research papers contribute to the advancement of knowledge by generating new insights, theories, and findings that can inform future research and practice. They help to answer important questions, clarify existing knowledge, and identify areas that require further investigation.
• Informing policy: Research papers can inform policy decisions by providing evidence-based recommendations for policymakers. They can help to identify gaps in current policies, evaluate the effectiveness of interventions, and inform the development of new policies and regulations.
• Improving practice: Research papers can improve practice by providing evidence-based guidance for professionals in various fields, including medicine, education, business, and psychology. They can inform the development of best practices, guidelines, and standards of care that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• Educating students : Research papers are often used as teaching tools in universities and colleges to educate students about research methods, data analysis, and academic writing. They help students to develop critical thinking skills, research skills, and communication skills that are essential for success in many careers.
• Fostering collaboration: Research papers can foster collaboration among researchers, practitioners, and policymakers by providing a platform for sharing knowledge and ideas. They can facilitate interdisciplinary collaborations and partnerships that can lead to innovative solutions to complex problems.

When to Write Research Paper

Research papers are typically written when a person has completed a research project or when they have conducted a study and have obtained data or findings that they want to share with the academic or professional community. Research papers are usually written in academic settings, such as universities, but they can also be written in professional settings, such as research organizations, government agencies, or private companies.

Here are some common situations where a person might need to write a research paper:

• For academic purposes: Students in universities and colleges are often required to write research papers as part of their coursework, particularly in the social sciences, natural sciences, and humanities. Writing research papers helps students to develop research skills, critical thinking skills, and academic writing skills.
• For publication: Researchers often write research papers to publish their findings in academic journals or to present their work at academic conferences. Publishing research papers is an important way to disseminate research findings to the academic community and to establish oneself as an expert in a particular field.
• To inform policy or practice : Researchers may write research papers to inform policy decisions or to improve practice in various fields. Research findings can be used to inform the development of policies, guidelines, and best practices that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• To share new insights or ideas: Researchers may write research papers to share new insights or ideas with the academic or professional community. They may present new theories, propose new research methods, or challenge existing paradigms in their field.

Purpose of Research Paper

The purpose of a research paper is to present the results of a study or investigation in a clear, concise, and structured manner. Research papers are written to communicate new knowledge, ideas, or findings to a specific audience, such as researchers, scholars, practitioners, or policymakers. The primary purposes of a research paper are:

• To contribute to the body of knowledge : Research papers aim to add new knowledge or insights to a particular field or discipline. They do this by reporting the results of empirical studies, reviewing and synthesizing existing literature, proposing new theories, or providing new perspectives on a topic.
• To inform or persuade: Research papers are written to inform or persuade the reader about a particular issue, topic, or phenomenon. They present evidence and arguments to support their claims and seek to persuade the reader of the validity of their findings or recommendations.
• To advance the field: Research papers seek to advance the field or discipline by identifying gaps in knowledge, proposing new research questions or approaches, or challenging existing assumptions or paradigms. They aim to contribute to ongoing debates and discussions within a field and to stimulate further research and inquiry.
• To demonstrate research skills: Research papers demonstrate the author’s research skills, including their ability to design and conduct a study, collect and analyze data, and interpret and communicate findings. They also demonstrate the author’s ability to critically evaluate existing literature, synthesize information from multiple sources, and write in a clear and structured manner.

Characteristics of Research Paper

Research papers have several characteristics that distinguish them from other forms of academic or professional writing. Here are some common characteristics of research papers:

• Evidence-based: Research papers are based on empirical evidence, which is collected through rigorous research methods such as experiments, surveys, observations, or interviews. They rely on objective data and facts to support their claims and conclusions.
• Structured and organized: Research papers have a clear and logical structure, with sections such as introduction, literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. They are organized in a way that helps the reader to follow the argument and understand the findings.
• Formal and objective: Research papers are written in a formal and objective tone, with an emphasis on clarity, precision, and accuracy. They avoid subjective language or personal opinions and instead rely on objective data and analysis to support their arguments.
• Citations and references: Research papers include citations and references to acknowledge the sources of information and ideas used in the paper. They use a specific citation style, such as APA, MLA, or Chicago, to ensure consistency and accuracy.
• Peer-reviewed: Research papers are often peer-reviewed, which means they are evaluated by other experts in the field before they are published. Peer-review ensures that the research is of high quality, meets ethical standards, and contributes to the advancement of knowledge in the field.
• Objective and unbiased: Research papers strive to be objective and unbiased in their presentation of the findings. They avoid personal biases or preconceptions and instead rely on the data and analysis to draw conclusions.

Advantages of Research Paper

Research papers have many advantages, both for the individual researcher and for the broader academic and professional community. Here are some advantages of research papers:

• Contribution to knowledge: Research papers contribute to the body of knowledge in a particular field or discipline. They add new information, insights, and perspectives to existing literature and help advance the understanding of a particular phenomenon or issue.
• Opportunity for intellectual growth: Research papers provide an opportunity for intellectual growth for the researcher. They require critical thinking, problem-solving, and creativity, which can help develop the researcher’s skills and knowledge.
• Career advancement: Research papers can help advance the researcher’s career by demonstrating their expertise and contributions to the field. They can also lead to new research opportunities, collaborations, and funding.
• Academic recognition: Research papers can lead to academic recognition in the form of awards, grants, or invitations to speak at conferences or events. They can also contribute to the researcher’s reputation and standing in the field.
• Impact on policy and practice: Research papers can have a significant impact on policy and practice. They can inform policy decisions, guide practice, and lead to changes in laws, regulations, or procedures.
• Advancement of society: Research papers can contribute to the advancement of society by addressing important issues, identifying solutions to problems, and promoting social justice and equality.

Limitations of Research Paper

Research papers also have some limitations that should be considered when interpreting their findings or implications. Here are some common limitations of research papers:

• Limited generalizability: Research findings may not be generalizable to other populations, settings, or contexts. Studies often use specific samples or conditions that may not reflect the broader population or real-world situations.
• Potential for bias : Research papers may be biased due to factors such as sample selection, measurement errors, or researcher biases. It is important to evaluate the quality of the research design and methods used to ensure that the findings are valid and reliable.
• Ethical concerns: Research papers may raise ethical concerns, such as the use of vulnerable populations or invasive procedures. Researchers must adhere to ethical guidelines and obtain informed consent from participants to ensure that the research is conducted in a responsible and respectful manner.
• Limitations of methodology: Research papers may be limited by the methodology used to collect and analyze data. For example, certain research methods may not capture the complexity or nuance of a particular phenomenon, or may not be appropriate for certain research questions.
• Publication bias: Research papers may be subject to publication bias, where positive or significant findings are more likely to be published than negative or non-significant findings. This can skew the overall findings of a particular area of research.
• Time and resource constraints: Research papers may be limited by time and resource constraints, which can affect the quality and scope of the research. Researchers may not have access to certain data or resources, or may be unable to conduct long-term studies due to practical limitations.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

You may also like

How to Cite Research Paper – All Formats and...

Data Collection – Methods Types and Examples

Delimitations in Research – Types, Examples and...

Research Paper Format – Types, Examples and...

Research Process – Steps, Examples and Tips

Research Design – Types, Methods and Examples

• Translators
• Graphic Designers
• Editing Services
• Academic Editing Services
• Admissions Editing Services
• Admissions Essay Editing Services
• AI Content Editing Services
• APA Style Editing Services
• Application Essay Editing Services
• Book Editing Services
• Business Editing Services
• Capstone Paper Editing Services
• Children's Book Editing Services
• College Application Editing Services
• College Essay Editing Services
• Copy Editing Services
• Developmental Editing Services
• Dissertation Editing Services
• eBook Editing Services
• English Editing Services
• Horror Story Editing Services
• Legal Editing Services
• Line Editing Services
• Manuscript Editing Services
• MLA Style Editing Services
• Novel Editing Services
• Paper Editing Services
• Personal Statement Editing Services
• Research Paper Editing Services
• Résumé Editing Services
• Scientific Editing Services
• Short Story Editing Services
• Statement of Purpose Editing Services
• Substantive Editing Services
• Thesis Editing Services

Proofreading

• Proofreading Services
• Admissions Essay Proofreading Services
• Children's Book Proofreading Services
• Legal Proofreading Services
• Novel Proofreading Services
• Personal Statement Proofreading Services
• Research Proposal Proofreading Services
• Statement of Purpose Proofreading Services

Translation

• Translation Services

Graphic Design

• Graphic Design Services
• Dungeons & Dragons Design Services
• Sticker Design Services
• Writing Services

Please enter the email address you used for your account. Your sign in information will be sent to your email address after it has been verified.

How to Order and Format Author Names in Scientific Papers

As the world becomes more interconnected, the production of knowledge increasingly relies on collaboration. Scientific papers, the primary medium through which researchers communicate their findings, often feature multiple authors. However, authorship isn't merely a reflection of those who contributed to a study but often denotes prestige, recognition, and responsibility. In academic papers, the order of authors is not arbitrary. It can symbolize the level of contribution and the role played by each author in the research process. Deciding on the author order can sometimes be a complex and sensitive issue, making it crucial to understand the different roles and conventions of authorship in scientific research. This article will explore the various types of authors found in scientific papers, guide you on how to correctly order and format author names, and offer insights to help you navigate this critical aspect of academic publishing.

The first author

The first author listed in a scientific paper is typically the person who has made the most substantial intellectual contribution to the work. This role is often filled by a junior researcher such as a Ph.D. student or postdoctoral fellow, who has been intimately involved in almost every aspect of the project.

The first author usually plays a pivotal role in designing and implementing the research, including the formation of hypotheses, experimental design, data collection, data analysis, and interpretation of the findings. They also commonly take the lead in manuscript preparation, writing substantial portions of the paper, including the often-challenging task of turning raw data into a compelling narrative.

In academia, first authorship is a significant achievement, a clear demonstration of a researcher's capabilities and dedication. It indicates that the researcher possesses the skills and tenacity to carry a project from inception to completion. This position can dramatically impact a researcher's career trajectory, playing a critical role in evaluations for promotions, grants, and future academic positions.

However, being the first author is not just about prestige or professional advancement. It carries a weight of responsibility. The first author is generally expected to ensure the integrity and accuracy of the data presented in the paper. They are often the person who responds to reviewers' comments during the peer-review process and makes necessary revisions to the manuscript.

Also, as the first author, it is typically their duty to address any questions or critiques that may arise post-publication, often having to defend the work publicly, even years after publication.

Thus, first authorship is a role that offers significant rewards but also requires a strong commitment to uphold the principles of scientific integrity and transparency. While it's a coveted position that can be a steppingstone to career progression, the associated responsibilities and expectations mean that it should not be undertaken lightly.

The middle authors

The middle authors listed on a scientific paper occupy an essential, albeit sometimes ambiguous, role in the research project. They are typically those who have made significant contributions to the project, but not to the extent of the first author. This group often includes a mix of junior and senior researchers who have provided key input, assistance, or resources to the project.

The roles of middle authors can be quite diverse. Some might be involved in specific aspects of data collection or analysis. Others may bring specialized knowledge or technical skills essential to the project, providing expertise in a particular methodology, statistical analysis, or experimental technique. There might also be middle authors who have contributed vital resources to the project, such as unique reagents or access to a particular patient population.

In some fields, the order of middle authors reflects the degree of their contribution. The closer a middle author is to the first position, the greater their involvement, with the second author often having made the next largest contribution after the first author. This order may be negotiated among the authors, requiring clear communication and consensus.

However, in other disciplines, particularly those where large collaborative projects are common, the order of middle authors may not necessarily reflect their level of contribution. In such cases, authors might be listed alphabetically, or by some other agreed-upon convention. Therefore, it's crucial to be aware of the norms in your specific field when deciding the order of middle authors.

Being a middle author in a scientific paper carries less prestige and responsibility than being a first or last author, but it is by no means a minor role. Middle authors play a crucial part in the scientific endeavor, contributing essential expertise and resources. They are integral members of the research team whose collective efforts underpin the progress and achievements of the project. Without their diverse contributions, the scope and impact of scientific research would be significantly diminished.

The last author

In the listing of authors on a scientific paper, the final position carries a unique significance. It is typically occupied by the senior researcher, often the head of the laboratory or the principal investigator who has supervised the project. While they might not be involved in the day-to-day aspects of the work, they provide overarching guidance, mentorship, and often the resources necessary for the project's fruition.

The last author's role is multidimensional, often balancing the responsibilities of project management, funding acquisition, and mentorship. They guide the research's direction, help troubleshoot problems, and provide intellectual input to the project's design and interpretation of results. Additionally, they usually play a key role in the drafting and revision of the manuscript, providing critical feedback and shaping the narrative.

In academia, the last author position is a symbol of leadership and scientific maturity. It indicates that the researcher has progressed from being a hands-on contributor to someone who can guide a team, secure funding, and deliver significant research projects. Being the last author can have substantial implications for a researcher's career, signaling their ability to oversee successful projects and mentor the next generation of scientists.

However, along with prestige comes significant responsibility. The last author is often seen as the guarantor of the work. They are held accountable for the overall integrity of the study, and in cases where errors or issues arise, they are expected to take the lead in addressing them.

The convention of the last author as the senior researcher is common in many scientific disciplines, especially in the life and biomedical sciences. However, it's important to note that this is not a universal standard. In some fields, authors may be listed purely in the order of contribution or alphabetically. Therefore, an understanding of the specific norms and expectations of your scientific field is essential when considering author order.

In sum, the position of the last author, much like that of the first author, holds both honor and responsibility, reflecting a leadership role that goes beyond mere intellectual contribution to include mentorship, management, and accountability.

Formatting author names

When it comes to scientific publishing, details matter, and one such detail is the correct formatting of author names. While it may seem like a minor concern compared to the intellectual challenges of research, the proper formatting of author names is crucial for several reasons. It ensures correct attribution of work, facilitates accurate citation, and helps avoid confusion among researchers in the same field. This section will delve deeper into the conventions for formatting author names, offering guidance to ensure clarity and consistency in your scientific papers.

Typically, each author's full first name, middle initial(s), and last name are listed. It's crucial that the author's name is presented consistently across all their publications to ensure their work is correctly attributed and easily discoverable.

Here is a basic example following a common convention:

• Standard convention: John D. Smith

However, conventions can vary depending on cultural naming practices. In many Western cultures, the first name is the given name, followed by the middle initial(s), and then the family name. On the other hand, in many East Asian cultures, the family name is listed first.

Here is an example following this convention:

• Asian convention: Wang Xiao Long

When there are multiple authors, their names are separated by commas. The word "and" usually precedes the final author's name.

Here's how this would look:

• John D. Smith, Jane A. Doe, and Richard K. Jones

However, author name formatting can differ among journals. Some may require initials instead of full first names, or they might have specific guidelines for handling hyphenated surnames or surnames with particles (e.g., "de," "van," "bin"). Therefore, it's always important to check the specific submission guidelines of the journal to which you're submitting your paper.

Moreover, the formatting should respect each author's preferred presentation of their name, especially if it deviates from conventional Western naming patterns. As the scientific community becomes increasingly diverse and global, it's essential to ensure that each author's identity is accurately represented.

In conclusion, the proper formatting of author names is a vital detail in scientific publishing, ensuring correct attribution and respect for each author's identity. It may seem a minor point in the grand scheme of a research project, but getting it right is an essential part of good academic practice.

The concept of authorship in scientific papers goes well beyond just listing the names of those involved in a research project. It carries critical implications for recognition, responsibility, and career progression, reflecting a complex nexus of contribution, collaboration, and intellectual leadership. Understanding the different roles, correctly ordering the authors, and appropriately formatting the names are essential elements of academic practice that ensure the rightful attribution of credit and uphold the integrity of scientific research.

Navigating the terrain of authorship involves managing both objective and subjective elements, spanning from the universally acknowledged conventions to the nuances particular to different scientific disciplines. Whether it's acknowledging the pivotal role of the first author who carried the project from the ground up, recognizing the valuable contributions of middle authors who provided key expertise, or highlighting the mentorship and leadership role of the last author, each position is an integral piece in the mosaic of scientific authorship.

Furthermore, beyond the order of authors, the meticulous task of correctly formatting the author names should not be underestimated. This practice is an exercise in precision, respect for individual identity, and acknowledgement of cultural diversity, reflecting the global and inclusive nature of contemporary scientific research.

As scientific exploration continues to move forward as a collective endeavor, clear and equitable authorship practices will remain crucial. These practices serve not only to ensure that credit is assigned where it's due but also to foster an environment of respect and transparency. Therefore, each member of the scientific community, from fledgling researchers to seasoned scientists, would do well to master the art and science of authorship in academic publishing. After all, it is through this collective recognition and collaboration that we continue to expand the frontiers of knowledge.

Header image by Jon Tyson .

Related Posts

The Five Best Note-Taking Systems for College Students

Need to Make Your Essay Longer? Here's How

• Academic Writing Advice
• All Blog Posts
• Writing Advice
• Admissions Writing Advice
• Book Writing Advice
• Short Story Advice
• Employment Writing Advice
• Business Writing Advice
• Web Content Advice
• Article Writing Advice
• Magazine Writing Advice
• Grammar Advice
• Dialect Advice
• Editing Advice
• Freelance Advice
• Legal Writing Advice
• Poetry Advice
• Graphic Design Advice
• Logo Design Advice
• Translation Advice
• Blog Reviews
• Short Story Award Winners
• Scholarship Winners

Advance your scientific manuscript with expert editing

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• Plants (Basel)

Citrus limon (Lemon) Phenomenon—A Review of the Chemistry, Pharmacological Properties, Applications in the Modern Pharmaceutical, Food, and Cosmetics Industries, and Biotechnological Studies

This review presents important botanical, chemical and pharmacological characteristics of Citrus limon (lemon)—a species with valuable pharmaceutical, cosmetic and culinary (healthy food) properties. A short description of the genus Citrus is followed by information on the chemical composition, metabolomic studies and biological activities of the main raw materials obtained from C. limon (fruit extract, juice, essential oil). The valuable biological activity of C. limon is determined by its high content of phenolic compounds, mainly flavonoids (e.g., diosmin, hesperidin, limocitrin) and phenolic acids (e.g., ferulic, synapic, p-hydroxybenzoic acids). The essential oil is rich in bioactive monoterpenoids such as D-limonene, β-pinene, γ-terpinene. Recently scientifically proven therapeutic activities of C. limon include anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, anticancer and antiparasitic activities. The review pays particular attention, with references to published scientific research, to the use of C. limon in the food industry and cosmetology. It also addresses the safety of use and potential phototoxicity of the raw materials. Lastly, the review emphasizes the significance of biotechnological studies on C. limon .

1. Introduction

Citrus limon (L.) Burm. f. is a tree with evergreen leaves and yellow edible fruits from the family Rutaceae . In some languages, C. limon is known as lemon (English), Zitrone (German), le citron (French), limón (Spanish), and níngméng, 檸檬 (Chinese).

The main raw material of C. limon is the fruit, particularly the essential oil and juice obtained from it. The C. limon fruit stands out as having well-known nutritional properties, but it is worth remarking that its valuable biological activities are underestimated in modern phytotherapy and cosmetology [ 1 ].

C. limon fruit juice (lemon juice) has traditionally been used as a remedy for scurvy before the discovery of vitamin C [ 2 ]. This common use of C. limon , known since ancient times, has nowadays been supported by numerous scientific studies. Other uses for lemon juice, known from traditional medicine, include treatment of high blood pressure, the common cold, and irregular menstruation. Moreover, the essential oil of C. limon is a known remedy for coughs [ 3 , 4 , 5 ].

In Romanian traditional medicine, C. limon essential oil was administered on sugar for suppressing coughs [ 3 ]. Aside from being rich in vitamin C, which assists in warding off infections, the juice is traditionally used to treat scurvy, sore throats, fevers, rheumatism, high blood pressure, and chest pain [ 6 ].

In Trinidad, a mixture of lemon juice with alcohol or coconut oil has been used to treat fever, coughs in the common cold, and high blood pressure. Moreover, the juice or grated skin, mixed with molasses, has been used to remove excess water from the body, and the juice mixed with olive oil has been administered for womb infection and kidney stones [ 4 ]. According to Indian traditional medicine, C. limon juice can induce menstruation; the recommended dose for this is two teaspoons consumed twice a day [ 5 ].

Currently, valuable scientific publications focus on the ever wider pharmacological actions of C. limon fruit extract, juice and essential oil. They include studies of, for example, antibacterial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, hepatoregenerating and cardioprotective activities [ 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 ].

The pharmacological potential of C. limon is determined by its rich chemical composition. The most important group of secondary metabolites in the fruit includes flavonoids and also other compounds, such as phenolic acids, coumarins, carboxylic acids, aminoacids and vitamins. The main compounds of essential oil are monoterpenoids, especially D-limonene. These valuable chemical components are the reason for the important position of C. limon in the food and cosmetics industries [ 12 , 13 , 14 ].

The aim of this overview is a systematic review of scientific works and in-depth analyses of the latest investigations and promotions related to C. limon as a valuable plant species, important in pharmacy, cosmetology and the food industry. Additionally, relevant biotechnological investigations are presented.

2. The Genus Citrus

The genus Citrus is one of the most important taxonomic subunits of the family Rutaceae . Fruits produced by the species belonging to this genus are called ‘citrus’ in colloquial language, or citrus fruits. Citrus fruits are commonly known for their valuable nutritional, pharmaceutical and cosmetic properties. The genus Citrus includes evergreen plants, shrubs or trees (from 3 to 15 m tall). Their leaves are leathery, ovoid or elliptical in shape. Some of them have spikes. The flowers grow individually in leaf axils. Each flower has five petals, white or reddish. The fruit is a hesperidium berry. The species belonging to the genus Citrus occurs naturally in areas with a warm and mild climate, mainly in the Mediterranean region. They are usually sensitive to frost [ 2 ].

One of the best known and most used species of the genus Citrus is the lemon— Citrus limon (L.) Burm. f. (Latin synonyms: C. × limonia , C. limonum ). Other important species included in this taxonomic unit are: Citrus aurantium ssp. aurantium —bitter orange, Citrus sinensis —Chinese orange, Citrus reticulata —mandarin, Citrus paradise —grapefruit, Citrus bergamia —bergamot orange, Citrus medica —citron, and many others. A team of scientists from the University of California (Oakland, California, USA) [ 15 ] analyzed the origin of several species of the genus Citrus , including C. limon . They found that C. limon was a plant that had formed as a result of the combination of two species— C. aurantium and C. medica . In the studies of scientists from Southwest University of China (Chongqing, China), the metabolite profiles of C. limon, C. aurantium and C. medica were evaluated using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and the partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) score plot [ 16 ]. They proved that C. limon has a smaller distance between C. aurantium and C. medica in comparison with other Citrus species. These studies demonstrated that C. limon was likely a hybrid of C. medica and C. aurantium, as previously suspected [ 16 ].

Botanical classification of the species of the genus Citrus is very difficult due to the frequent formation of hybrids and the introduction of numerous cultivars through cross-pollination. Hybrids are produced to obtain fruit with valuable organoleptic and industrial properties, including seedless fruit, high juiciness, and the required taste. For older varieties, hybrids and cultivars, the latest molecular techniques are often needed to identify them. C. limon , like many other prolific citrus species, gives rise to numerous varieties, cultivars and hybrids, which are presented in Table 1 and Table 2 acc. to [ 17 ].

C. limon cultivars.

Hybrids of C. limon .

One of the oldest preserved botanical sources describing species of the genus Citrus is the “Monograph on the Oranges of Wên-chou” (in Chinese: 記 嘉 桔 錄, “Citrus records of Ji Jia”) by Han Yanzhi from 1178 [ 18 , 19 ]. Other historical works describing the species bearing citrus fruits are “Nürnbergische Hesperides” from 1708 and “Traité du Citrus” from 1811. Historically, one of the best known classifications of citrus species is “Histoire Naturelle des Orangers” from 1818. The American botanist Walter Tennyson Swingle (1871–1952) had a particularly significant impact on the present-day taxonomy of the genus Citrus . He is the author of as many as 95 botanical names of species of the genus Citrus . Currently, the systematics of the species of the genus Citrus are based on studies of molecular markers and other DNA analysis technologies still provide new information [ 20 ].

3. Botanical Characteristics and Occurrence of C. limon

Citrus limon (L.) Burm. f. (lemon) is a tree reaching 2.5–3 m in height. It has evergreen lanceolate leaves. Bisexual flowers are white with a purple tinge at the edges of the petals. They are gathered in small clusters or occur individually, growing in leaf axils. The fruit is an elongated, oval, pointed green berry that turns yellow during ripening. Inside, the berry is filled with a juicy pulp divided into segments (like an orange). The C. limon pericarp is made of a thin, wax-covered exocarp, under which there is the outer part of the mesocarp, also known as flavedo. This part contains oil vesicles and carotenoid dyes. The inner part of the mesocarp, also known as the albedo, is made of a spongy, white parenchyma tissue. The endocarp, or ‘fruit flesh’, is divided into segments by the spongy, white tissue of the mesocarp [ 2 ].

The C. limon tree prefers sunny places. It grows on loamy, well-drained, moist soils with a wide pH range [ 1 , 2 ].

The location of the original natural habitat of C. limon is not accurately known [ 1 , 21 ]. However, C. limon is considered to be native to North-Western or North-Eastern India [ 2 , 17 ].

C. limon is mainly recognized as a cultivated species. It has been cultivated in southern Italy since the 3rd century AD, and in Iraq and Egypt since 700 AD. The Arabs introduced C. limon into Spain, where it has been cultivated since 1150. Marco Polo’s expeditions also brought C. limon to China in 1297. It was also one of the first new species that Christopher Columbus brought in the form of seeds to the North American continent in 1493. In the 19th century, worldwide commercial production of C. limon began in Florida and in California. Nowadays, the USA is the largest producer of C. limon . Italy, Spain, Argentina and Brazil also play a significant role [ 17 ].

4. C. limon Pharmacopoeial Monographs and Safety of Use

By cold-pressing the fresh outer parts of the C. limon pericarp (Lat. exocarpium ), an essential oil is obtained—the lemon oil (lat. Citrus limon aetheroleum , Limonis aetheroleum , Oleum Citri ). The oil is colourless or yellow, and has a characteristic, strong lemon scent [ 21 ]. It is considered a pharmacopoeial raw material. Its monographs, entitled ‘ Limonis aetheroleum ’, are present in the European Pharmacopoeia 9th [ 22 ], American Pharmacopoeia [ 23 ], and in the Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India [ 24 ].

Another pharmacopoeial raw material obtained from C. limon is the outer part of the mesocarp —the flavedo . A monograph entitled ‘ Citrus limon flavedo ’ can be found in older editions of the French Pharmacopoeia, for example, in its 10th edition from 1998 [ 25 ].

The fresh fruit of C. limon is officially listed for use in phytotherapy and in homeopathy in Germany. According to the German Commission D Monographs for homeopathic medicines, C. limon fresh fruits can be used for treating gingival bleeding and debilitating diseases [ 26 ].

C. limon also has a positive recommendation in the European Commission’s Cosmetics Ingredients Database (CosIng Database) as a valuable plant for cosmetics’ production [ 27 ].

The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) classified the pericarp, fruit, and leaves of C. limon as raw materials of plant origin, in which there is presence of naturally occurring ingredients that may pose a threat to human health when used in the production of food and dietary supplements. EFSA has remarked that the toxic substances in these raw materials are photosensitizing compounds belonging to the furanocoumarin group, including bergapten and oxypeucedanin ( Figure 1 ) [ 28 ].

Chemical structure of selected linear furanocoumarins, determining the photosensitizing effect of C. limon.

In the American Food and Drug Administration (FDA) list, C. limon essential oil and extracts are classified as safe products [ 29 ].

5. Chemical Composition of C. limon

The chemical composition of C. limon fruit is well known. It has not only been determined for the whole fruit but also separately for the pericarp, juice, pomace, and essential oil. The compositions of the leaves and the fatty oil extracted from C. limon seeds are also known. Due to the large number of C. limon varieties, cultivars and hybrids, various research centres undertake the task of analyzing the chemical composition of the raw materials obtained from them.

The most important group of bioactive compounds in both C. limon fruit and its juice, determining their biological activity, are flavonoids such as: flavonones—eriodictyol, hesperidin, hesperetin, naringin; flavones—apigenin, diosmin; flavonols—quercetin; and their derivatives ( Figure 2 ). In the whole fruit, other flavonoids are additionally detected: flavonols—limocitrin ( Figure 2 ) and spinacetin, and flavones—orientin and vitexin ( Table 3 and Table 4 ). Some flavonoids, such as neohesperidin, naringin and hesperidin ( Figure 2 ), are characteristic for C. limon fruit. In comparison to another Citrus species, C. limon has the highest content of eriocitrin ( Figure 2 ) [ 30 ].

Chemical structure of flavonoids characteristic of C. limon.

Composition of C. limon fruits extracts.

Composition of C. limon juice.

Phenolic acids are another important group of compounds found both in the juice and fruit. There are mainly two such compounds in the juice—ferulic acid and synapic acid, and their derivatives. In contrast, the presence of p-hydroxybenzoic acid has been confirmed in the fruit. In the fruit, there are also coumarin compounds, carboxylic acids, carbohydrates, as well as amino acids, a complex of B vitamins, and, importantly, vitamin C (ascorbic acid) ( Table 3 and Table 4 ) [ 1 , 12 , 13 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 ].

Another interesting group of compounds that are found in C. limon fruits are limonoids. Limonoids are highly oxidized secondary metabolites with polycyclic triterpenoid backbones. They mainly occur in citrus fruits, including lemons, in which they are found mainly in the seeds, pulp, and peel. There are predominantly two such compounds in C. limon fruits—limonin and nomilin ( Figure 3 ) [ 37 ]. Studies have shown that the concentrations of the compounds of this group are dependent on fruit growth and maturation stages. Young citrus fruits contain the highest amounts of these compounds, compared to ripe ones [ 38 ].

Chemical structure of limonoids characteristic of C. limon.

Analysis of macroelements in C. limon fruit showed the presence in pulp and peel of: calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), phosphorus (P), potassium (K) and sodium (Na) [ 36 ].

In C. limon seed oil, the main ingredients are fatty acids, such as arachidonic acid, behenic acid and linoleic acid, and also tocopherols and carotenoids ( Table 5 ) [ 33 , 35 ]. The latest studies showed that C. limon fruit pulp oil contains more fatty acids compared to other Citrus species, such as C. aurantium , C. reticulata and C. sinensis. The following fatty acids have been identified in C. limon pulp oil: behenic acid, erucic acid, gondoic acid, lauric acid, linoleic acid, α-linolenic acid, margaric acid, palmitic acid, palmitoleic acid, pentadecanoic acid, and stearic acid [ 39 ].

Composition of oil from C. limon seeds.

The main components of the C. limon essential oil are monoterpenoids. Among them, quantitatively dominant in the essential oil obtained from pericarp are: limonene (69.9%), β-pinene (11.2%), γ-terpinene (8.21%), ( Figure 4 ), sabinene (3.9%), myrcene (3.1%), geranial (E-citral, 2.9%), neral (Z-citral, 1.5%), linalool (1.41%). In addition to terpenoids, the essential oil also contains linear furanocoumarins (psoralens) and polymethoxylated flavones ( Table 6 ) [ 14 , 40 , 41 ].

Chemical structure of selected terpenoids characteristic of C. limon essential oil.

The chemical composition of the essential oil of the C. limon pericarp and leaf.

The essential oil of the C. limon leaf differs in composition from oil obtained from pericarp. Its main compounds include: limonene (31.5%), sabinene (15.9%), citronellal (11.6%), linalool (4.6%), neral (4.5%), geranial (4.5%), (E)-β-ocimene (3.9%), myrcene (2.9%), citronellol (2.3%), β-caryophyllene (1.7%), terpne-4-ol (1.4%), geraniol (1.3%) and α-pinene (1.2%) ( Table 6 ) [ 14 , 16 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 ].

6. Metabolomic Profile Studies

The team of Mucci et al. [ 35 ] investigated the metabolic profile of different parts of C. limon fruit. Flavedo, albedo, pulp, oil glands, and the seeds of lemon fruit and citron were studied through high resolution magic angle spinning nuclear magnetic resonance (HR-MAS NMR) spectroscopy. The analyses were made directly on intact tissues without any physicochemical manipulation. In C. limon flavedo were detected: terpenoids (limonene, β-pinene and γ-terpinene), aminoacids (asparagine, arginine, glutamine, proline), organic acids (malic acid and quinic acid), osmolites (stachydrine), and fatty acid chains and sugars (glucose, fructose, β-fructofuranose, myoinositol, scylloinositol and sucrose) ( Table 3 ). The albedo of C. limon fruit showed the presence of low signals from: aminoacids (alanine, threonine, valine, glutamine), sugars (glucose, sucrose, β-fructofuranose, myoinosytol, scylloinositol and β-fructopyranose), and osmolites (stachydrine, β-hydroxybutyrate, ethanol) ( Table 3 ). In albedo, clear signals from flavonoids were detected, such as hesperidin and rutoside, that have been identified also by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analyses. Oil glands’ HR-MAS NMR composition analysis showed the presence of terpenoids (limonene, γ-terpinene, β-pinene, α-pinene, geranial, neral, citronellal, myrcene, sabinene, α-thujene, nerol and geraniol esters) and sugars (glucose, sucrose, β-fructofuranose and β-fructopyranose). The analysis of C. limon pulp showed the presence of aminoacids (asparagine, proline, alanine, γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), glutamine, threonine and valine), organic acids (citric acid and malic acid), sugars (glucose, sucrose, β-fructofuranose, β-fructopyranose, myoinosytol and scylloinosytol) and osmolites (stachydrine, ethanol and methanol) ( Table 3 ). HR-MAS NMR seeds analysis indicated that their composition is dominated by triglyceride signals (linoleic acid, linolenic acid and their derivatives), sugars (glucose and sucrose), osmolites (stachydrine) and trigonelline [ 35 ].

In another metabolomic study, the peel extracts of ripened C. limon fruit was characterized as containing nonfluorescent chlorophyll catabolites (NCCs) and dioxobilane-type nonfluorescent chlorophyll catabolite (DNCC) [ 44 ]. In the peels of C. limon fruit, four chlorophyll catabolites were detected: Cl-NCC1, Cl-NCC2, Cl-NCC3 and Cl-NCC4 [ 44 ].

The metabolomic profile of C. limon leaf was investigated by Asai et al. [ 45 ]. The studies showed that C. limon leaves contain 26 different organic acids and their derivatives (aconitic acid, 2-aminobutyric acid, 4-aminobutyric acid, ascorbic acid, benzoic acid, citramalic acid, citric acid, p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, fumaric acid, glucaric acid, glycolic acid, 3-hydroxybutyric acid, 2-isopropylmalic acid, malic acid, malonic acid, 3-methylglutaric acid, oxamic acid, D-3-phenyllacetic acid, pipecolic acid, pyruvic acid, quinic acid, shikimic acid, succinic acid, threonic acid, urocanic acid), 21 aminoacids (alanine, γ-aminobutyric acid, anthranilic acid, asparagine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, glutamine, glycine, histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, proline, pyroglutamic acid, serine, threonine, tryptophan, tyrosine, valine), and 13 sugars and sugar alcohols (arabinose, fructose, galactose, glucose, glycerol, inositol, lyxose, maltose, rhamnose, ribose, sorbose, sucrose, xylitol). Additionally, studied leaves have been exposed to stress conditions (leaves were placed in such a way that the edge of the petiole was in contact with the bottom of a glass bottle, soaked with 0.2 mM jasmonic acid and salicylic acid aqueous solutions, and incubated at 25 °C for 24 h). The content of aminoacids, such as, tyrosine, tryptophan, phenylalanine, valine, leucine, isoleucine, lysine, methionine, threonine, histidine, and γ-aminobutyric acid, was increased after this stress treatment [ 45 ].

According to Mehl et al. [ 46 ], the identification of volatile and non-volatile metabolites in C. limon essential oil is dependent on geographic origin and the analytical methods used. To evaluate the potential of volatile and non-volatile fractions for classification purposes, volatile compounds of cold-pressed lemon oils were analyzed, using modern methods like gas chromatography-flame ionization detector-mass spectrometer (GC-FID/MS) and fourier transform mid-infrared spectroscopy (FT-MIR), while the non-volatile residues were studied using FT-MIR with proton nuclear magnetic resonance ( 1 H-NMR) and ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC-TOF-MS). The studies lead to very good differentiation and classification of samples regarding their geographic origin and extraction process modalities. The essential oil from the Italian-originated C. limon fruit was enriched in α-thujene, α-pinene, α-terpinene, sesquiterpenoids (i.e., β-caryophyllene) and furocoumarins (i.e., bergamottin). The essential oil from Spanish and Argentinian C. limon fruit was characterized by significant terpene contents, such as limonene, but differed in imperatorin, and byakangelicol contents. The studies showed that essential oil from Spanish C. limon fruit contained more camphor and 4-terpineol, while Argentinian C. limon fruit contained more sabinene and cis-sabinene hydrate [ 46 ].

The studies performed by Jing et al. [ 16 ] focused on the identification of components in the essential oil of different Citrus species, including C. limon . In general, most of the studied essential oil components were identified as monoterpenoids. The major monoterpenes in C. limon essential oil were: limonene (70.37%), p-mentha-3,8-diene (18.00%), myrcene (4.40%), α-pinene (3.24%), α-thujene (1.05%) and terpinolene (0.90%) ( Table 6 ). Other monoterpenoids, which were identified as characteristic of C. limon, were: sabinene (0.28%), α-terpinene (0.22%), trans-muurola-4(14), 5-diene (0.18%), eucalyptol (0.12%), octanol acetate (0.03%), β-curcumene (0.03%), zonarene (0.03%), 7-epi-sesquithujene (0.02%), citronellyl acetate (0.02%), α-farnesene (0.01%) ( Table 6 ). The shown metabolite-based profiling model can be used to clearly discriminate the basic Citrus species. Limonene, α-pinene, sabinene and α-terpinene were the major characteristic components of the analyzed metabolomes of Citrus genotypes that contributed to their taxonomy [ 16 ].

Studies performed by Masson et al. [ 43 ] deal with furanocoumarin’s and coumarin’s metabolomic profile in essential oil from C. limon fruit peel. C. limon essential oil contained large amounts of both furanocoumarins and coumarins compared to another tested Citrus essential oils. In C. limon essential oil, 13 furanocoumarins were detected (bergamottin, bergapten, byakangelicol, byakangelicin, epoxybergamottin, 8-geranyloxypsoralen, heraclenin, imperatorin, isoimperatorin, isopimpinellin, oxypeucedanin, oxypeucedanin hydrate, phellopterin) and two coumarins (citropten and herniarin) ( Table 6 ) [ 43 ].

7. Biological Activity of C. limon Raw Materials

7.1. anticancer activity.

C. limon nanovesicles have been isolated from the fruit juice using the ultracentrifugation method and purification on a 30% sucrose gradient, using an in vitro approach. The study showed that isolated nanovesicles (20 µg/mL) inhibited cancer cell proliferation in different tumour cell lines, by activating a TRAIL-mediated apoptotic cell death. Furthermore, C. limon nanovesicles suppress chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) tumour growth in vivo by specifically reaching the tumour site and by activating TRAIL-mediated apoptotic cell processes ( Table 7 ) [ 47 ].

Biological activity of C. limon fruit extracts confirmed by scientific research.

Another study has shown that an 80:20 methanol:water extract from lemon seeds induces apoptosis in human breast adenocarcinoma (MCF-7) cells, leading to the inhibition of proliferation. This extract showed the highest (29.1%) inhibition of MCF-7 cells in an MTT assay (Cell Proliferation Kit), compared to ethyl acetate, acetone and methanol extracts. The results suggest that aglycones and glycosides of the limonoids and flavonoids present in the 80:20 methanol:water extract may potentially serve as a chemopreventive agent for breast cancer ( Table 7 ) [ 9 ].

7.2. Antioxidant Activity

It has been shown that the antioxidant activity of the flavonoids from C. limon —hesperidin and hesperetin—was not only limited to their radical scavenging activity but also augmented the antioxidant cellular defences via the ERK/Nrf2 signalling pathway ( Table 7 ) [ 8 ].

In addition, vitamin C prevents the formation of free radicals and protects DNA from mutations. Studies have also shown a reduction in lipid peroxidation in seizures and status epilepticus was induced by pilocarpine in adult rats [ 48 ].

7.3. Anti-Inflammatory Activity

Various in vitro and in vivo studies have been conducted to evaluate hesperidin metabolites, or their synthetic derivatives, at their effectiveness in reducing inflammatory targets including NF-κB, iNOS, and COX-2, and the markers of chronic inflammation ( Table 7 ) [ 8 ].

The essential oil from C. limon (30 or 10 mg/kg p.o .) exhibited anti-inflammatory effects in mice under formalin test by reducing cell migration, cytokine production and protein extravasation induced by carrageenan. These effects were also obtained with similar amounts of pure D-limonene. The anti-inflammatory effect of C. limon essential oil is probably due to the high concentration of D-limonene ( Table 8 ) [ 49 ].

Biological activity of C. limon essential oil confirmed by scientific research.

Studies by Mahmoud et al. [ 50 ] have shown the protective effects of limonin on experimentally induced hepatic ischemia reperfusion (I/R) injury in rats. The mechanism of these hepatoprotective effects was related to the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory potential of limonin mediated by the down-regulation of the TLR-signaling pathway [ 50 ].

In studies with the essential oil administered at a dose of 10 mg/kg p.o. , D-limonene induced a significant reduction in intestinal inflammatory scores, comparable to that induced by ibuprofen. The studies documented that D-limonene-fed rats had significantly lowered serum concentrations of TNF-α compared to untreated TNBS-colitis rats. The anti-inflammatory effect of D-limonene also involved the inhibition of TNFα-induced NF-κB translocation in fibroblast cultures. The application of D-limonene in colonic HT-29/B6 cell monolayers increased epithelial resistance. The study found evidence that IL-6 markedly decreased during dietary supplementation with D-limonene [ 51 ]. Another study showed that the oil moderately inhibited soybean 5-lipoxygenase (5-LOX) with an IC 50 value of 32.05 μg/mL ( Table 8 ) [ 52 ].

7.4. Antimicrobial Activity

Acetone extracts from C. limon fruits have shown inhibitory activity against the Gram-positive bacteria Enterococcus faecalis (MIC 0.01 mg/mL) and Bacillus subtilis (MIC 0.01 mg/mL), and the Gram-negative Salmonella typhimurium (MIC 0.01 mg/mL) and Shigella sonnei (MIC 0.01 mg/mL) ( Table 7 ) [ 7 ].

Moreover, under another study, C. limon essential oil showed antibacterial activity against Gram-positive bacteria ( Bacillus subtilis (MIC 2 mg/mL), Staphylococcus capitis (MIC 4 mg/mL), Micrococcus luteus (MIC 4 mg/mL)), and Gram-negative ( Pseudomonas fluorescens (MIC 4 mg/mL), Escherichia coli (100% inhibition)) ( Table 8 ) [ 52 , 53 ].

The C. limon essential oil exhibits inhibitory activity against Staphylococcus mutans (MIC 4.5 mg/mL) and effectively reduced the adherence of S. mutans on a glass surface, with adherence inhibition rates (AIR) from 98.3% to 100%, and on a saliva-coated enamel surface, for which the AIRs were from 54.8% to 79.2%. It effectively reduced the activity of glucosyltransferase (Gtf) and the transcription of Gtf in a dose-dependent manner ( Table 8 ) [ 54 ].

Ethanol and acetone extracts from fruits of C. limon were active against Candida glabrata (MIC 0.02 mg/mL) ( Table 7 ) [ 7 ]. On the other hand, C. limon essential oil ingredients, such as D-limonene, β-pinene and citral, have shown inhibitory activity against Aspergillus niger (MIC 90 µL/mL at 70 °C), Saccharomyces cerevisiae (MIC 4 mg/mL) and Candida parapsilosis (MIC 8 mg/mL) ( Table 8 ) [ 52 , 55 ]. Another study confirmed that C. limon essential oil promoted a 100% reduction in the growth of C. albicans [ 56 ].

Moreover, other studies have shown that C. limon essential oil at a concentration of 0.05% inhibits Herpes simplex replication to the extent of 33.3% ( Table 8 ) [ 57 ].

7.5. Antiparasitic Effect

The effect of C. limon essential oil on Sarcoptes scabiei var. cuniculi has been evaluated in vitro and in vivo. The infected parts of rabbits were treated topically once a week for four successive weeks. In vitro application results showed that C. limon essential oil (10% and 20%, diluted in water) caused mortality in 100% of mites after 24 h post-application. In vivo application of 20% lemon oil on naturally infected rabbits showed complete recovery from clinical signs and absence of mites in microscopic examination from the second week of treatment ( Table 8 ) [ 58 ].

7.6. Anti-Allergic Effect

Aqueous extracts from the peel of C. limon fruits have been used to investigate their effects on the release of histamine from rat peritoneal exudate cells (PECs). The extracts inhibited the release of histamine from rat PECs induced by the calcium ionophore A23187. Heating the extracts at 100 °C for 10 min. enhanced the inhibition of histamine release. Histamine release was inhibited to the extent of 80%. The extracts potentially suppressed inflammation in mice cavity, like indometacin, a well-known anti-inflammatory drug ( Table 7 ) [ 59 ].

7.7. Hepatoregenerating Effect

An ethanolic extract of C. limon fruits has been evaluated for its effects on experimental liver damage induced by carbon tetrachloride (CCl 4 ), and the ethyl acetate soluble fraction of the extract has been evaluated for its effect on the HepG2 cell line (human liver cancer cell line). The ethanolic extract (150 mg/mL) normalized the levels of aspartate aminotransferase (ASAT), alanine aminotransferase (ALAT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), and total direct bilirubin, which had been altered due to CCl 4 intoxication in rats. After treatment with the extract, the level of malondialdehyde in the liver tissue was significantly reduced, hence the lipid peroxidation, and raised the level of the antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase and catalase. It improved the reduced glutathione levels in the treated rats in comparison with CCl 4 -intoxicated rats. The effect seen was dose dependent, and the effect of the highest dose was almost equal to the standard—silymarin. In an investigation carried out on a human liver-derived HepG2 cell line, a significant reduction in cell viability was observed in cells exposed to CCl 4 ( Table 7 ) [ 10 ].

Studies with C. limon essential oil have also shown the stimulation of liver detoxification by the activation of cytochrome P 450 and liver enzymes (glutathione S-transferase) in chronic liver poisoning ( Table 8 ) [ 21 ].

7.8. Antidiabetic Effect

Ethanol extracts from C. limon peel were administered orally at a dose of 400 mg/kg daily for 12 days to diabetic rats in which diabetes had been induced by the use of streptozotocin. The study showed a reduction in blood glucose, a reduction in wound healing time, and an increase in tissue growth rate, collagen synthesis, and protein and hydroxyproline levels ( Table 7 ) [ 60 ].

Another study evaluated the antidiabetic effect of D-limonene in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. D-limonene was administered orally at doses of 50, 100 and 200 mg/kg body weight, and glibenclamide at a dose of 600 µg/kg body weight, daily for 45 days. The administration of D-limonene for 45 days gradually decreased the blood glucose level, and the maximum effect was observed at a dose of 100 mg/kg body weight. The activities of gluconeogenic enzymes, such as glucose 6-phosphatase and fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase, were increased, and the activity of the glycolytic enzyme, glucokinase, was decreased, along with liver glycogen, in the diabetic rats. The effect of D-limonene was more pronounced at the dose of 100 mg/kg body weight than at the two smaller doses. The antidiabetic effect of D-limonene was comparable with that of glibenclamide ( Table 8 ) [ 61 ].

7.9. Anti-Obesity Activity

In a study, lemon juice was used in a low-calorie diet (‘lemon detox diet’). The diet consisted of 2 L of lemon detox juice containing 140 g ‘Neera’ syrup, 140 g lemon juice, and 2 L water per day. The study showed that C. limon juice caused a reduction in serum high-sensitive C-reactive protein (hs-CRP) in comparison with the placebo and normal diet group. Haemoglobin and haematocrit levels remained stable in the group on the lemon detox diet, while they decreased in the placebo and normal diet groups ( Table 7 ) [ 62 ].

Studies have shown that D-limonene is beneficial to people with dyslipidaemia and hyperglycaemia. D-limonene at a dose of 400 mg/kg per day for 30 days promotes in male rats a decrease in LDL-cholesterol, prevents the accumulation of lipids, and affects the blood sugar level. Its antioxidant action enhances these effects. Dietary supplementation with D-limonene would restore pathological alteration of the liver and pancreas. It could help in the prevention of obesity ( Table 8 ) [ 21 ].

7.10. Effects on the Digestive System

Studies have shown that D-limonene increases gastric motility and causes a reduction in nausea, neutralization of stomach acids, and relief of gastric reflux ( Table 8 ) [ 21 ].

7.11. Effects on the Cardiovascular System

A study has indicated that daily intake of C. limon juice has a beneficial effect on blood pressure. The study was conducted on 100 middle-aged women in an island area nearby Hiroshima. Instances of lemon juice ingestion and the number of steps walked had been recorded for five months. The results indicated that daily lemon juice intake and walking were effective in reducing high blood pressure because both showed significant negative correlations with systolic blood pressure ( Table 7 ) [ 63 ].

In vitro and in vivo studies have confirmed that C. limon juice (0.4 mL/kg) has a significant impact on blood pressure and on coagulation and anticoagulation factors in rabbits. In vitro tests revealed a highly significant increase in thrombin time and activated partial thromboplastin time by C. limon , whereas fibrinogen concentration was significantly reduced in comparison with the control; prothrombin time, however, was not affected significantly. Significant changes were observed in haematological parameters, such as amounts of erythrocytes and haemoglobin and mean corpuscular haemoglobin concentrations, in in vivo testing of C. limon . Bleeding time and thrombin time were significantly prolonged, and there was an increase in protein C and thrombin–antithrombin complex levels ( Table 7 ) [ 11 ].

7.12. Influence on the Nervous System

The influence of C. limon juice on the memory of mice has been investigated using Harvard Panlab Passive Avoidance response apparatus, controlled through the LE2708 Programmer. Passive Avoidance is a fear-motivated test used to assess the short- or long-term memory of small animals, which measures the latency in entering a black compartment. Animals that were fed C. limon juice (0.2, 0.4 and 0.6 mL/kg) showed, in comparison with the control, a highly significant or a significant increase in latency before entering a black compartment after 3 and 24 h, respectively ( Table 7 ) [ 64 ].

Studies have also shown that the main compound of C. limon essential oil—D-limonene—in concentrations of 0.5% and 1.0%, administered to mice by inhalation, has a significant calming and anxiolytic effect by activating serotonin and dopamine receptors. In addition, D-limonene has an inhibitory effect on pain receptors, similar to that of indomethacin and hyoscine ( Table 8 ) [ 65 ].

7.13. Influence on Skeletal System

Studies have shown the potential use of nomilin for the inhibition of osteoclastogenesis in vitro. Cell viability of the mouse RAW264.7 macrophage cell line and mouse primary bone-marrow-derived macrophages (BMMs) with the Cell Counting Kit (Dojindo Laboratories, Kumamoto, Japan) was measured. Nomilin caused significantly decreased TRAP-positive multinucleated cell numbers (a measure of osteoclast cell numbers) when compared with the control. Moreover, the non-toxic concentrations of the compound decreased bone resorption activity and down regulated osteoclast-specific genes (NFATc1 and TRAP mRNA levels), coupled with suppression of the MAPK signaling pathway. Studies have shown the therapeutic potential of nomilin for the prevention of bone metabolic diseases such as osteoporosis [ 66 ].

7.14. C. limon as Corrigent in Pharmacy

In addition to the very important uses mentioned above, the oil is used in pharmacy and cosmetic formulations as a flavour and aroma corrigent, as well as a natural preservative, due to its confirmed antibacterial and fungistatic effects [ 21 ].

8. C. limon in the Food Industry

Due to the rich chemical composition of C. limon fruit and other lemon-derived raw materials, they have applications in the food industry and in food processing. The lemon fruit is used mainly as a fresh fruit, but it is also processed to make juices, jams, jellies, molasses, etc. [ 41 ]. Fresh lemon fruit can be kept for several months, maintaining their levels of juice, vitamins, minerals, fibre, and carbohydrates. The vitamin C (ascorbic acid) content in lemon fruits and juices decreases during storage and industrial processing. The factors lowering this content are: oxygen, heat, light, time, storage temperature and storage duration. To prevent the reduction in the ascorbic acid levels and antioxidant capacity of both the lemon fruit and lemon juice, they should be kept at 0–5 °C and protected from water loss by proper packaging, with high relative humidity during distribution. Under such conditions, lemon products show a good retention of vitamin C and antioxidant capacity [ 41 , 74 ].

C. limon peel is rich in pectin, which is used in a wide range of food industrial processes as a gelling agent, including the production of jams and jellies, and as thickener, texturizer, emulsifier and stabilizer in dairy products. Due to its jellifying properties, the pectin is also used in pharmaceutical, dental and cosmetic formulations [ 75 ].

Lemon juice is used as an ingredient in beverages, particularly lemonade and soft drinks, and in other foods, such as salad dressings, sauces, and baked products. Lemon juice is a natural flavouring and preservative, and it is also used to add an acidic, or sour, taste to foods and soft drinks [ 41 , 76 ].

C. limon is the most suitable, being free from pesticide residues, raw material for enhancing the flavour of liqueurs, e.g., “limoncello”, the traditional liqueur of Sicily. It is made by the maceration of lemon peel in ethanol, water and sugar [ 41 , 76 ].

Currently, the essential oil from lemon, i.e., pure isolated linalol and citral, are used mainly as a flavouring and natural preservative due to their functional properties (antimicrobial, antifungal, etc.) [ 52 , 53 ]. In particular, they are often used to extend the short shelf-life of seafood products and in the production of some types of cheese because they significantly reduces populations of microorganisms, especially those from the family Enterobacteriaceae [ 41 , 76 ].

9. Cosmetological Applications

C. limon fruit extracts and essential oil, as well as the active compounds isolated from these raw materials, have become the object of numerous scientific studies aimed at proving the possibility of their use in cosmetology. Lemon-derived products have long been credited with having a positive effect on acne-prone skin that is easily affected by sunburn or mycosis. In this regard, traditional uses of this raw materials are known in various parts of the world. In Tanzania, the fruit juice of C. limon is mixed with egg albumin, honey and cucumber, and applied to the skin every day at night to smooth the facial skin and treat acne [ 77 ]. Juice from freshly squeezed fruit of C. limon mixed with olive oil is used as a natural remedy for the treatment of hair and scalp disorders in the West Bank in Palestine [ 78 ]. Currently, knowledge of the cosmetic activity of C. limon is constantly expanding.

C. limon essential oil shows antibiotic and flavouring properties, and for this reason it is used in formulations of shampoos, toothpaste, disinfectants, topical ointments and other cosmetics [ 41 ].

Scientific studies have shown a significant antioxidant effect of C. limon fruit extracts, which is the reason they are recommended for use in anti-ageing cosmetics [ 8 , 48 ]. The use of different carriers for C. limon extracts (e.g., hyalurosomes, glycerosomes) in cosmetics production technology contributes to an even greater inhibition of oxidative stress in skin-building structures, including keratinocytes and fibroblasts ( Table 9 ) [ 79 ]. In addition, vitamin C from C. limon is used as an ingredient in specialized dermocosmetics. Its external use increases collagen production, which makes the skin smoother and more tense. It is used in anti-aging products, to reduce shallow wrinkles, and as a synergistic antioxidant in combination with vitamin E [ 48 ].

Biological activity of C. limon fruit extracts, essential oil and its ingredients compounds significant from the cosmetics point of view, confirmed by scientific research.

The ingredients of C. limon essential oil (including citral, β-pinene, D-limonene), due to the inhibiting activity of tyrosinase and the inhibition of L-dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-DOPA) oxidation, have a depigmenting effect [ 80 ]. In addition, the essential oil has been proven to support the penetration of lipids as well as water-soluble vitamins. It can be used as a promoter of penetration of active substances through the skin [ 81 ]. Moreover, besides the direct effect on the skin, the essential oil can also be used as a natural preservative and as a corrigent in cosmetic products. Studies have confirmed its antibacterial and fungistatic effects ( Table 9 ) [ 7 , 52 , 53 ].

Furthermore, C. limon pericarp extracts, too, exhibit scientifically proven activity that helps to accelerate the regeneration of diabetic wounds. In addition, the essential oil derived from C. limon pericarp has shown anti-inflammatory, anti-allergic and slimming properties [ 49 , 59 , 60 , 62 ].

According to the CosIng Database (Cosmetic Ingredient Database), C. limon can be used in twenty-three forms. It can be used in cosmetics in the form of oils obtained from various organs, in the form of extracts, hydrolates, powdered parts of the plant, wax and juice [ 27 ]. The most common activity defined by CosIng for the raw material of this species is to keep the skin in good condition, to improve the odour of cosmetic products, and to mask the smell of other ingredients of cosmetic preparations [ 27 ]. The approved forms of raw materials and their potential effects, as well as their use as corrigents, presented in the CosIng Database, are summarized in Table 10 [ 27 ].

C. limon in cosmetic products according to CosIng.

C. limon essential oil has been used since the 18th century in the production of the famous ‘Eau de Cologne’. In aromatherapy, it is used to treat numerous diseases and lifestyle-related ailments: hypertension, neurosis, anxiety, varicose veins, arthritis, rheumatism and mental heaviness. It also alleviates symptoms characteristic of menopause. C. limon essential oil is also used in aromatherapy massages to relax muscles, and for calming down and deep relaxation [ 21 ].

C. limon fruit extracts and essential oil should not be used in high concentrations in baths or directly on the skin. Recent studies have shown that D-limonene contained in the oil has an allergenic and irritating effect on the skin. It may cause cross-allergy with balsam of Peru. After applying cosmetics containing C. limon oil, it is forbidden to expose the skin to sunlight . C. limon essential oil contains photosensitizing compounds belonging to the linear furanocoumarin group. The lemon pericarp contains: bergapten, phellopterin, 5- and 8-geranoxypsoralen, and the essential oil contains: bergapten, imperatorin, isopimpinellin, xanthotoxin, oxypeucedanin and psoralen [ 21 , 82 ].

The International Fragrance Association (IFRA) has issued restrictions on the use of C. limon essential oil. In preparations remaining on the skin, the concentration of that oil should not exceed 2%. In addition, C. limon essential oil should not be used in preparations remaining on skin exposed to UV rays. They should not contain more than 15 ppm of bergapten [ 83 ].

10. Plant Biotechnological Studies on C. limon

Plant biotechnology creates opportunities for the potential use of plant in vitro cultures in the pharmaceutical, cosmetics and food industries. In vitro cultures can be a good alternative to plants growing in vivo. Plant biotechnology enables control and optimization of the conditions for conducting in vitro cultures to increase the accumulation of active compounds. It facilitates, among other things, optimization of the culture medium, including the concentration of plant growth and development regulators, the use of elicitors (stressors), the selection of highly productive cell lines and genetic transformations. In vitro cultures can also be used in plant propagation (micro-propagation process) [ 84 ].

C. limon cultures in vitro have thus far been the subject of research concerned with the development of micropropagation protocols. They have focused on the selection of plant growth regulators (PGRs) that induced shoot and root production in in vitro cultures. In 2012, biotechnological research on the micropropagation of C. limon was performed by Goswami et al. [ 85 ] from SKN Rajasthan Agricultural University in India. Shoot cultures were propagated from plant nodes on a Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium [ 86 ] containing different types and concentrations of PGRs. The maximum number of shoots and shoot regenerations was observed at a low level of 6-benzyladenine (BA) −0.1 mg/L, or kinetin −0.5 mg/L. Shoot proliferiation was also observed in combinations of PGRs such as BA and 1-naphthaleneacetic acid in concentrations of 0.1 mg/L each. With an increase in BA concentration in MS medium, shoot proliferation decreased. Regenerated shoots showed root induction on MS basal medium or on MS medium containing 1.0 mg/L of indole-3-butyric acid.

Another biotechnological study on C. limon was carried out in the Department of Citriculture in Murcia (Spain) [ 87 ]. The researchers studied organogenesis and made histological characterization of mature nodal explants of two important cultivars of C. limon —‘Verna 51’ and ‘Fino 49’. The highest number of buds per regenerating explant was obtained on the MS medium in comparison with the Woody plant medium [ 88 ]. The presence of 1–3 mg/L BA, in combination with 1 mg/L of 1-gibberellic acid (GA) in the culture medium, was essential for the development of adventitious buds. The lowest extent of organogenesis was observed when BA was used in the medium without GA [ 87 ].

11. Conclusions

The presented review proves that C. limon is a very attractive object of different scientific studies. The C. limon fruit is a raw material that can be used in different forms, e.g., extracts, juice and essential oil. The rich chemical composition of this species determines a wide range of its biological activity and its being recommended for use in phytopharmacology. The studies have focused on the essential oil and its main active compound—D-limonene. Extracts from C. limon fruits are rich in flavonoids such as naringenin and hesperetin.

Current pharmacological studies have confirmed the health-promoting activities of C. limon , especially its anti-cancer and antioxidant properties. C. limon also finds increasing application in cosmetology and food production.

There has been some biotechnological research aimed at developing effective in vitro micropropagation protocols for C. limon .

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, A.S., H.E. and M.K.-S.; data curation, A.S. and M.K.-S.; writing—original draft preparation, A.S. and M.K.-S.; writing—review and editing, A.S., M.K.-S. and H.E.; supervision, A.S. and H.E. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

This research received no external funding.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Free Research Name Generator

Type your search term

Stuck formulating a creative title for your research paper or essay? The free research name generator we've made! All you need to do is:

Do you need help developing an appealing research name for your essay assignment? Don't stress anymore! In three easy steps, you can create an attention-grabbing name for your research paper in a few minutes with the help of our free online research name generator.

• Input your search term.
• Click on the “search topic” button and pick one or more topics proposed by the research name generator.
• Reload the list by clicking the search button again if you want more options.
• 📝 Why Is a Research Name Important
• 📍 Coming up with a Topic
• 🪝 Making a Catchy Research Name

🔗 References

📝 research name - what it is & why it is important.

When looking for a research study on a specific topic, you are likelier to pick essays with catchy, descriptive research names that grab your attention. In contrast, the research paper headings that are less captivating or descriptive are easy to ignore, regardless of the content’s quality. That is why developing an excellent and noticeable title for your research paper is crucial.

So, what makes a good name for your essay?

Let's explore 4 characteristics of a quality research title:

Research Topic vs. Research Name

Although most people use these two terms interchangeably, it is essential to note that a research name is not similar to a research topic:

• A research topic gives you a brief context of the research essay by displaying a sneak peek of the content. Topics are often long, sometimes two sentences long.
• A research name is short and precise, equal to the text’s title. It does not show the context of the research paper.

📍 Coming up with a Research Topic

Writing an academic paper is a serious task requiring intense effort. One of the most critical parts of the entire process is coming up with a suitable heading for your paper. The name you choose for your research proposal, term paper, thesis, or dissertation determines your readers' enthusiasm toward the paper even before they dig into it.

Selecting a theme of your genuine interest is essential because it makes your writing process much easier and more enjoyable.

Here is how you come up with an exciting research topic :

• Seek inspiration from other bodies of work in the same field by consuming as much information as possible regarding your research area. From your research, you will find a name that piques your interest and that of your readers.
• Consider your target audience while writing your research paper name. Use language that is palatable and relatable to your readers. For example, the language relatable to an audience of medics differs from what an audience of lawyers might find suitable.
• Be as straightforward as possible with your topic. A garbled and complicated topic is a huge turn-off for your readers, who will assume that your research paper is as complex as your title.
• Avoid jargon on your research topic since it interferes with the clarity of the message. Try to stick to the basics unless it is vital, field-specific jargon.

🪝 How to Make a Catchy Research Name in 5 Steps

Choosing an appropriate topic for your paper should be the starting point of your writing process. It may be challenging to pick a title from all the content from your research work.

You may wonder:

• What will make your research name appealing to the readers ?
• How to write a heading that captures the essence of your work?

It may be a difficult task, but lucky for you, we are here to help with a few pointers.

1. Answer Some Fundamental Questions about Your Research Paper

You could start by answering the simple question: what issues does your paper address, or what does it seek to achieve? The brief answer to this question can create a relevant title for your research paper.

Let us explore some solutions and build up a title.

2. Identify Research Study Keywords

Having answered the questions, identify the essential parts of the answer and make them your keywords.

3. Use the Keywords to Write Your Title

"We employed a case study of 30 diabetic patients in New York aged between 40 – 60 years to assess the effects of long-term use of pain medication on their insulin production; results revealed a negative correlation between the two."

4. Create a Realistic Research Paper Heading

To create a working title, delete all the unnecessary words that are not important to the study or that your readers would not include in their search.

“A case study of 30 diabetic patients in New York aged 40 – 60 years assessing the effects of pain medication on insulin production, revealing a negative correlation between the medication and insulin levels.” (Word count: 33)

We are drawing closer to a good research paper name.

5. Make Your Title Even Shorter

Since most of the qualitative and quantitative data will be included in the essay, there is no need to have the numbers on your title . Research techniques are also unnecessary in the title, so we can remove them. Let’s see what we have now:

“Assessing the effects of pain medication on diabetic patients” (Word count: 9)

One can immediately recognize the subject and its aims from the simple title. To save yourself the time to create this title, you can use our free online research paper name generator and have a list of catchy title ideas to choose from.

Consider trying other study instruments for students that we’ve made:

• Thesis checker

❓ Name Generator FAQ

❓ what is a good research title.

A creative and catchy research title should be short, captivating, clear, and precise to attract a reader to the article. Our research name maker will help you create a great title.

❓ How do you create a research name?

It would help if you focused on the intended study outcome to compose a well-designed research name. What are you interested in? What parameter of your subject will you measure? All these questions give valuable pointers for creating the name of your study paper. If you’re running out of ideas and time, you can use our free research name checker to develop some catchy titles for your research paper.

❓ What are five examples of research paper names?

There are many types of research paper names, but you can use the five most popular versions for your paper. These are direct, how-to, question, the reason why, and two-part titles.

❓ What is a working title in research?

A working title should highlight the research problem and solution to guide the reader on what to expect from the essay.

• How to write a good research paper title - Nature
• Writing the title and abstract for a research paper - NCBI
• Importance of Choosing a Good Title
• A Title that Works: Characteristics and Tips
• Selecting a Research Topic - LibGuides at MIT Libraries