section 2 quiz case study soil

Class 8 Geography Chapter 2 Land, Soil, Water, Natural Vegetation and Wildlife Resources Extra Questions

Class 8 Geography Chapter 2 Land, Soil, Water, Natural Vegetation and Wildlife Resources Extra Questions and Answers are provided here. These Extra Questions with solution are prepared by our team of expert teachers who are teaching in CBSE schools for years. Extra questions for Class 8 Geography Chapter 2 will help you to properly understand a particular concept of the chapter.

Land, Soil, Water, Natural Vegetation and Wildlife Resources Class 8 Geography Extra Questions and Answers

Very short answer type question.

1. Which country has the highest percentage of land under forest?

Answer: Japan

2. Which country has the highest percentage of land under cropland?

Answer: India

3. Which country has the highest percentage of land under pasture?

Answer: Australia

4. What are the major threats to soil as a resource?

Answer: Soil erosion and depletion are the major threats to soil as a resource.

5. What method of soil conservation is used in coastal and dry regions?

Answer: Shelter belts are used to protect the soil in coastal and dry regions.

6. What percent of fresh water is fit for human use?

Answer: Only 1 per cent of freshwater is available and fit for human use.

7. What make the soil fertile?

Answer: The right mix of minerals and organic matter make the soil fertile.

8. What affect the rate of humus formation?

Answer: Flora, fauna and micro-organism affect the rate of humus formation.

9. Why is ocean water not fit for human consumption?

Answer: The ocean water is saline. Hence it is not fit for human consumption.

10. What is soil?

Answer: The thin layer of grainy substance covering the surface of the earth is called soil.

Short Type Answer Questions

1. Which are the two main climatic factors responsible for soil formation?

Answer: Temperature and rainfall are the two main climatic factors responsible for soil formation.

2. Which method is most appropriate to check soil erosion on steep slopes?

Answer: Terrace farming is the most appropriate method to check soil erosion on steep slopes.

3. What do you mean by shelter belt?

Answer: Rows of trees planted in the coastal areas to check the wind movement is called shelter belt.

4. How are forest classified on the basis of latitude?

Answer: Forests are classified as tropical or temperate based on their location in different latitudes.

5. What are the major types of vegetation in the world?

Answer: The major vegetation types of the world are grouped as forests, grasslands, scrubs and tundra.

6. How are vultures important to the environment?

Answer: Vulture due to its ability to feed on dead livestock is a scavenger and considered a vital cleanser of the environment.

7. What percentage of Earth is covered by land?

Answer: Land covers only about thirty per cent of the total area of the earth’s surface and all parts of this small percentage are not habitable.

8. What is national park?

Answer: National park is a natural area designated to protect the ecological integrity of one or more ecosystems for present and future generations.

9. How is soil formed?

Answer: Soil is made up of organic matter, minerals and weathered rocks found on the earth. This happens through the process of weathering.

10. What is weathering?

Answer: Weathering is the breaking up and decay of exposed rocks, by temperature changes, frost action, plants, animals and man.

11. Why are plains and river valleys densely populated?

Answer: Plains and river valleys offer suitable land for agriculture. Hence, these are the densely populated areas of the world.

12. Why Ganga Brahmaputra plain of India is an over populated region?

Answer: Ganga Brahmaputra plain of India is an over populated region because it has even topography and highly fertile soil.

13. What are the different types of soil found in India?

Answer: Different types of soil found in India are alluvial, black, red, laterite, desertic and mountain soil.

14. Why is fresh water the most precious substance on earth?

Answer: Fresh water is the most precious substance on earth because only 1 per cent of freshwater is available and fit for human use.

15. What is rain water harvesting?

Answer: Rain water harvesting is the process of collecting rain water from roof tops and directing it to an appropriate location and storing if for future use.

16. Write any two reasons for land degradation today?

Answer: Reasons for land degradation are:

• Deforestation
• Overuse of chemical feritilisers or pesticides

17. What has led to a large scale destruction of forest cover and arable land?

Answer: Growing population and their ever growing demand has led to a large scale destruction of forest cover and arable land.

18. How to prevent surface runoff?

Answer: Forest and other vegetation cover slow the surface runoff and replenish underground water. Water harvesting is another method to save surface runoff.

19. Suggest one way to control water pollution.

Answer: Water pollution can be controlled by treating sewage, agricultural chemicals and industrial effluents suitably before releasing them in water bodies.

20. What is intercropping?

Answer: Intercropping is a multiple cropping practice in which different crops are grown in alternate rows and are sown at different times to protect the soil from rain wash.

21. Why Earth is called water planet?

Answer: Water is a vital renewable natural resource. Three-fourth’s of the earth’s surface is covered with water. It is therefore appropriately called the ‘water planet’.

22. What is biosphere?

Answer: Natural vegetation and wildlife exist only in the narrow zone of contact between the lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere that we call biosphere.

23. What do you mean by ecosystem?

Answer: In the biosphere living beings are inter-related and interdependent on each other for survival. This life supporting system is known as the ecosystem.

24. What is termed as Land use?

Answer: Land is used for different purposes such as agriculture, forestry, mining, building houses, roads and setting up of industries. This is commonly termed as Land use.

25. Why land is considered an important resource?

Answer: Land is considered an important resource because it is used for different purposes such as agriculture, forestry, mining, building houses, roads and setting up of industries.

26. Which areas are sparsely populated or uninhabited?

Answer: The rugged topography, steep slopes of the mountains, low-lying areas susceptible to water logging, desert areas, and thick forested areas are normally sparsely populated or uninhabited.

27. How much land on Earth is inhabited?

Answer: Ninety per cent of the world population occupies only thirty per cent of land area. The remaining seventy per cent of the land is either sparsely populated or uninhabited.

28. What are the major threats to the environment due to over exploitation of land resources?

Answer: Land degradation, landslides, soil erosion, desertification are the major threats to the environment because of the expansion of agriculture and constructional activities.

29. What are the reasons for water shortage?

Answer: Water shortage may be a consequence of variation in seasonal or annual precipitation or the scarcity is caused by overexploitation and contamination of water sources.

30. What is the major cause of water pollution?

Answer: Discharge of untreated or partially treated sewage, agricultural chemicals and industrial effluents in water bodies are major contaminants. They pollute water with nitrates, metals and pesticides.

Long Type Answer Questions

1. What is ‘water cycle’?

Answer: Water is in constant motion, cycling through the oceans, the air, the land and back again, through the processes of evaporation, precipitation and run-off. This is referred to as the ‘water cycle’.

2. What are the major factors affecting soil formation?

Answer: The major factors of soil formation are the nature of the parent rock and climatic factors. Other factors are the topography, role of organic material and time taken for the composition of soil formation.

3. What are the uses of water resources?

Answer: Humans use huge amounts of water not only for drinking and washing but also in the process of production. Water for agriculture, industries, generating electricity through reservoirs of dams are the other usages.

4. What do you mean by private land and community land?

Answer: Private land is owned by individuals whereas, community land is owned by the community for common uses like collection of fodder, fruits, nuts or medicinal herbs. These community lands are also called common property resources.

5. Which countries in the world are facing water shortage?

Answer: There is scarcity of water in many regions of the world. Most of Africa, West Asia, South Asia, parts of western USA, north-west Mexico, parts of South America and entire Australia are facing shortages in fresh water supply.

6. What human factors determine land use pattern? Or What factors determine land use pattern?

Answer: The use of land is determined by physical factors such as topography, soil, climate, minerals and availability of water. Human factors such as population and technology are also important determinants of land use pattern.

7. What are landslides and how do they occur?

Answer: Landslides are simply defined as the mass movement of rock, debris or earth down a slope. They often take place in conjunction with earthquakes, floods and volcanoes. A prolonged spell of rainfall can cause heavy landslide that can block the flow of river for quite some time.

8. Why water availability per person in India is declining?

Answer: Increasing population, rising demands for food and cash crops, increasing urbanisation and rising standards of living are the major factors leading to shortages in supply of fresh water either due to drying up of water sources or water pollution.

9. What are the reasons for the degradation of the soil?

Answer:  Soil erosion and depletion are the major threats to soil as a resource. Both human and natural factors can lead to degradation of soils. Factors which lead to soil degradation are deforestation, overgrazing, overuse of chemical feritilisers or pesticides, rain wash, landslides and floods.

10. Differentiate between tropical evergreen forests and deciduous forests.

11. Name any two steps that government has taken to conserve plants and animals.

Answer: Two steps that government has taken to conserve plants and animals are:

• It has set up national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and biosphere reserves to protect our natural vegetation and wildlife.
• It has banned the killing of lions, tigers, deers, great Indian bustards and peacocks.

12. Suggest three ways to conserve water.

Answer:  Ways to conserve water:

• Rain water harvesting.
• The canals should be properly lined to minimise losses by water seepage.
• In dry regions with high rates of evaporation, drip or trickle irrigation is very useful.

13. In what forms is freshwater found on the earth?

Answer:  Fresh water accounts for only about 2.7 per cent. Nearly 70 per cent of this occurs as ice sheets and glaciers in Antarctica, Greenland and mountain regions. Due to their location they are inaccessible. Only 1 per cent of freshwater is available and fit for human use. It is found as ground water, as surface water in rivers and lakes and as water vapour in the atmosphere.

14. What do you know about CITES?

Answer:  CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) is an international agreement between governments. It aims to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival. Roughly 5,000 species of animals and 28,000 species of plants are protected. Bears, dolphins, cacti, corals, orchids and aloes are some examples.

15. Why there is uneven distribution of population in different parts of the world?

Answer: The uneven distribution of population in different parts of the world is mainly due to varied characteristics of land and climate. The rugged topography, steep slopes of the mountains, low-lying areas susceptible to water logging, desert areas, and thick forested areas are normally sparsely populated or uninhabited. Plains and river valleys offer suitable land for agriculture. Hence, these are the densely populated areas of the world.

16. How does rainfall affect vegetation?

Answer:  In areas of heavy rainfall, huge trees may thrive. The forests are thus associated with areas having abundant water supply. As the amount of moisture decreases the size of trees and their density reduces. In the regions of moderate rainfall short stunted trees and grasses grow forming the grasslands of the world. In dry areas of low rainfall, thorny shrubs and scrubs grow. In such areas plants have deep roots and leaves have thorny and waxy surface to reduce loss of moisture by transpiration.

17. Why is wildlife important to us?

Answer:  Wildlife is important to us because

• They provide us milk, meat, hides and wool.
• Insects like bees provide us honey, help in pollination of flowers and have an important role to play as decomposers in the ecosystem.
• The birds feed on insects and act as decomposers as well.
• Vulture due to its ability to feed on dead livestock is a scavenger and considered a vital cleanser of the environment.

18. What are the factors affecting soil formation?

Answer: Factors affecting soil formation are: Parent Rock – Determines colour, texture, chemical properties mineral, content, permeability of soil. Climate – Temperature and rainfall influence rate of weathering and humus. Relief – Altitude and slope, determine accumulation of soil. Flora, Fauna and Micro-organism – Affect the rate of humus formation. Time – Determines thickness of soil profile.

19. “Vegetation and wildlife are valuable resources.” Comment

Answer: Vegetation and wildlife are valuable resources.

• Plants provide us with timber, give shelter to animals, produce oxygen we breathe, protects soils so essential for growing crops, act as shelter belts, help in storage of underground water, give us fruits, nuts, latex, turpentine oil, gum, medicinal plants and paper.
• Wildlife includes animals, birds, insects as well as the aquatic life forms. They provide us milk, meat, hides and wool. Insects like bees provide us honey, help in pollination of flowers and have an important role to play as decomposers in the ecosystem. The birds feed on insects and act as decomposers as well. Vulture due to its ability to feed on dead livestock is a scavenger and considered a vital cleanser of the environment.

20. What are the threats to natural vegetation and wildlife?

Answer: Threats to natural vegetation and wildlife are:

• Changes of climate and human interferences can cause the loss of natural habitats for the plants and animals. Many species have become vulnerable or endangered and some are on the verge of extinction.
• Deforestation, soil erosion, constructional activities, forest fires, tsunami and landslides are some of the human made and natural factors which together accelerate the process of extinction of these great natural resources.
• One of the major concerns is the increasing incidents of poaching that result in a sharp decline in the number of particular species.

21. Suggest some methods of soil conservation.

Answer: Some methods of soil conservation are

Mulching: The bare ground between plants is covered with a layer of organic matter like straw. It helps to retain soil moisture.

Contour barriers: Stones, grass, soil are used to build barriers along contours. Trenches are made in front of the barriers to collect water.

Rock dam: Rocks are piled up to slow down the flow of water. This prevents gullies and further soil loss.

Terrace farming: These are made on the steep slopes so that flat surfaces are available to grow crops. They can reduce surface run-off and soil erosion.

Intercropping: Different crops are grown in alternate rows and are sown at different times to protect the soil from rain wash.

Contour ploughing: Ploughing parallel to the contours of a hill slope to form a natural barrier for water to flow down the slope.

Shelter belts: In the coastal and dry regions, rows of trees are planted to check the wind movement to protect soil cover.

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Case Study 2020: Soil

Why is soil so important.

A thin layer made up of minerals, organic matter, roots, microbes, gases and water forms the basis of life for people and many other species. But given its importance, what soil actually is, and how it varies from place to place remains a mystery to most people. It turns out soils vary tremendously around the planet, reflecting unique, site-specific interactions between the things that make up soils — minerals from rocks or sediments, climate, organisms (such as vegetation and soil microbes) and topography.

Soils can be young, meaning they have not developed very much since a glacier or volcanic eruption hit the “re-start” button of soil formation. And in the absence of glacial or geologic activity, soils can be “old” — minerals gradually dissolve and recrystallize, losing nutrients that plants require to leaching or erosion. Given this natural variability in soils, it is not surprising that there exists no single definition or criteria of soil health that is applicable everywhere. Soil with 2% organic matter might be considered super-healthy in Arizona, while the same content might be considered under-the-weather in Kansas.

One approach our researchers have found to be useful is to establish regionally-specific benchmarks of soil health based on features of intact, never-tilled soils found under native vegetation. These soils portray what is possible, and thus what is healthy in particular geographic regions, especially with respect to soil organic matter contents and microbial activity. Some soils naturally have “unhealthy” attributes for agriculture, such as high salinity or acidity, which require management solutions for agriculture to be productive. But in general, soils that develop in natural ecosystems set a high bar of meaningful soil health attributes for agriculture to aim for.

A Nonrenewable Resource

On average, the global rate of soil loss from plowed agricultural ecosystems is 380 times that of soil accumulation in native ecosystems. In other words, a prairie or grassland would need 380 years to rebuild the soil that’s lost on an annual basis due to erosion from tilled farms. Soil neatly fits the definition of a nonrenewable resource — current populations deplete soil much more quickly than they rebuild it.

We recognize the synergies between soil health and climate change mitigation and remediation, and see the opportunity to achieve a three-for-one bargain. Increasing soil carbon can dramatically improve soil health and the productive capacity of plants growing on that soil. Storing atmospheric carbon in soil also helps to remedy climate change by removing CO₂ from the atmosphere where it has been forcing global temperature increase. Finally, better soil quality helps with climate change adaptation, since soil with greater water and nutrient storage and release capacity will help plants survive the stresses that are caused by climate change….

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Soil Health Case Study Methods and Tool Kit

AFT’s  Soil Health Case Study Project   developed four methods to evaluate the economic, water quality, and climate outcomes experienced by “soil health successful” row crop farmers and almond growers and communicate the results in compelling and easy-to-read two-page case studies . We are sharing these methods with our fellow ag conservation professionals in a Soil Health Case Study Tool Kit so they can conduct their own analyses of producers in their area who have successfully adopted soil health practices and produce their own case studies.

Gain FREE access using the first link below to download the Row Crop and Almond Retrospective Soil Health Economic Calculator (R-SHEC) Tool and associated materials, known as the Soil Health Case Study Tool Kit. With this Tool Kit, you will be equipped to create your own case studies.

Economic Methods : AFT’s Consulting Economist (retired NRCS-NY Economist) Florence Swartz, developed the economic methods for the AFT Soil Health Case Studies based on her two New York case studies and the NRCS Cover Crops Economics Tool , in collaboration with AFT’s Project Leader, Michelle Perez. The AFT Retrospective Soil Health Economic Calculator is an excel spreadsheet tool that helps conservationists conduct a partial budget analysis (PBA) and generate a PBA table. The partial budget analysis:

• Compares costs and benefits “before” & “after” soil health practice implementation,
• Estimates the economic effect of changes in crop production systems ​, and
• Focuses only on variables affected by these changes​.

The primary effects analyzed  by  the  Calculator  include changes in machinery, fertilizer, pesticide, yield, erosion repair, and learning costs.

AFT’s criteria for “soil health successful” producers that are appropriate for the PBA and for featuring in a case study include:

• Growing almonds or row crops, including barley, corn grain, corn silage, grain sorghum, hay, oats, soybeans, and/or wheat;
• Adopting one or more of the following soil health practices: no-till, reduced tillage, cover crops, conservation crop rotation, nutrient management, compost application, and/or mulching
• For between four and 15 years, and have
• Positive economic effects they’ve observed, want us to quantify, and want to share with others.

Water Quality Methods : Perez developed data collection forms and guidance documents materials for the AFT Staff Team to use the Nutrient Tracking Tool to estimate the nitrogen, phosphorus, and sediment reduction benefits from the farmer crop fields attributable to the adoption of soil health practices.

Climate Methods : Perez developed materials for the AFT Staff Team to use the  COMET-Farm Tool  to estimate the greenhouse gas reduction benefits associated with the adoption of soil health practices.

Retrospective Soil Health Economic Calculator

This Excel-based calculator was developed for ag conservation professionals to quantify the benefits and costs of soil health practice adoption experienced by “already soil health successful” row crop farmers and almond growers. AFT used this calculator to develop the partial budget analysis tables featured in the Retrospective Soil Health Case Studies.

Case Study Methods: Multiple AFT staff and external partners identified the “soil health successful” producers, conducted the interviews, implemented the economic, water quality, and climate methods, and wrote the case studies. Each producer agreed to a 1.5-hour interview for the authors to attain information for the economic analysis and a 1.5-hour interview to attain information for the water quality and climate analyses.

Review: Each AFT Retrospective Soil Health Case Study underwent extensive review by NRCS economists, NRCS soil health specialists, and university economists. The NTT and COMET-Farm data entry and results were also reviewed by NTT specialists at USDA Office of Environmental Markets and Tarleton State University and COMET specialists at Colorado State University.

Tool Kit: AFT hopes that our fellow conservationists use the existing economic and environmental case studies and produce their own. Conservation partners at NRCS, Soil and Water Conservation Districts (SWCD), Extension, farm and environmental organizations, watershed groups ag retailers, crop consultants, cover crop seed dealers, strip-till equipment providers, and corporations with supply chain sustainability goals, etc. could use these case studies with their farmer customers as outreach and education materials to help answer questions about the costs and benefits of adopting soil health practices. To aid use of the existing case studies by our fellow conservationists in their own presentations to farmers at outreach and education events, in the Tool Kit we provide: (1) copies of the case studies formatted for professional printing (i.e., photos bleed to the edge of the page) and (2) PowerPoint slides providing talking points about the existing case studies.

To help our fellow conservationists produce their own case studies featuring “soil health successful” producers in their area, we have provided all the materials we used in a Soil Health Case Study Tool Kit . Our hope is that a “soil health successful” producer can be found in every farm county in the country and an economic and environmental case study can be produced about them, showing the other “soil health curious” producers in that county, that “it can be done here too.” The Tool Kit includes two training session syllabi and presentation slide decks that pair with the training videos linked below. These training sessions walk you step-by-step through the Tool Kit resources for producing either a row crop or almond retrospective soil health case study.

Training Videos

Below are recordings from two trainings on: (1) producing a Row Crop Retrospective Soil Health Case Study using the Tool Kit at the 75th Soil and Water Conservation Society International Annual Conference and (2) producing an Almond Retrospective Soil Health Case Study using the Tool Kit for an AFT-Almond Board of California webinar for almond conservation professionals that walk through the methods and Tool Kit materials AFT developed for this project.

How to Produce a Row Crop Retrospective Soil Health Case Study

A six-part series for fellow ag conservation professionals and farmers who want to learn how to conduct retrospective economic, water quality, and climate analyses of already "soil health successful" row crop (wheat, corn, soybeans, hay) farmers using the Soil Health Tool Kit.

Overview of Training & AFT Project

Part 1, 14 minutes

Methods to Secure Soil Health Successful Farmers

Part 2, 18 minutes

Row Crop Economic Methods Overview & Questionnaire

Part 3, 27 minutes

Row Crop Retrospective Soil Health Economic Calculator

Part 4, 67 minutes

NTT & COMET Environmental Methods

Part 5, 46 minutes

Writing Your Own Case Studies & Q&A

Part 6, 19 minutes

How to Produce an Almond Retrospective Soil Health Case Study

A six-part series for almond-orchard conservation professionals and almond growers who want to learn how to conduct retrospective economic, water quality, and climate analyses of already "soil health successful" almond growers using the Soil Health Tool Kit.

Introduction to the Soil Health Tool Kit

Aft's two almond soil health case studies, almond retrospective soil health economic calculator, preview of the new predictive-shec tool for almonds, preview of aft’s almond predictive assessment summary report, apply to be featured in a case study, many thanks.

AFT is grateful  for the :    

• The producers featured in each case study for sharing their soil health story with us and for sharing their time and information
• The AFT Staff Team and external partners for finding the farmers, interviewing them, inputting the economic, water quality, and climate data into the R-SHEC, NTT, and COMET-Farm tools, running the analyses, and writing the case studies: Justin Bodell (CA), Brian Brandt (OH), Emily Bruner (IL), Paul Lum (CA), Aaron Ristow (NY), Ben Wiercinski (PA), Meg Greski (OK), Blane Stacey (OK), Maryanne Dantzler-Kyer (OK), and Michael Roots (CA).
• The NRCS Conservation Innovation Grant (CIG) that made this work possible
• Lauren Cartwright and Bryon Kirwan for their great work developing the  NRCS Cover Crops Economics tool and questionnaire , which formed the basis of the R-SHEC tool and questionnaire, and for their guidance, feedback, and support
• Mindy Selman (USDA Office of Environmental Markets) and Dr. Ali Saleh (Tarleton State University) for the training, troubleshooting, and review they provided of our NTT results
• Mark Easter, Haley Nagle, and Matt Stermer (Colorado State University) for the training, troubleshooting, and review they provided of our COMET-Farm results
• NRCS Economists – Bryon Kirwan (Illinois State economist), Lakeitha Ruffin (Oregon State economist), Richard Iovanna (FPAC economist), Sophia Glenn (FPAC economist), Sarah Cline (FPAC economist), and Courtney King (FPAC economist)
• NRCS Soil Health Specialists: Kabir Zahangir (West Regional), James Hoorman (NE Regional), Candy Thomas, Justin Morris, Barry Fisher, Laura Starr (NW Regional), and Mark Kopecky (Southern Regional)
• University economists: John Hanchar (Cornell Cooperative Extension), Gary Schnitkey (University of Illinois), Brent Sohngen (Ohio State University), and Dr. Lixia Lambert (Oklahoma State University)
• USDA NRCS for putting its logo on the case studies so they can reach and be useful to many more producers and conservationists than could be accomplished by AFT’s efforts alone

Online Education

I am a passionate educator who has been teaching in USA for many years.

3.02 Quiz Case Study Soil

Introduction.

Hey there, fellow educators and learners! I’m Emma Miller, and today we’re diving into the fascinating world of soil with our 3.02 Quiz Case Study. Soil may seem like a mundane subject, but trust me, there’s more to it than meets the eye. So, let’s roll up our sleeves and dig deep into this topic!

Curiosities, Statistics, and Facts

• Did you know that soil is a complex ecosystem that supports life?
• Over 95% of our food comes from the soil.
• Soil provides vital nutrients and water to plants, allowing them to grow.
• There are more microorganisms in a teaspoon of soil than there are people on Earth.
• Soil erosion is a major environmental issue, causing loss of fertile land.

Personal Experiences

As an experienced educator, I’ve had the pleasure of witnessing the wonders of soil firsthand. I’ve seen how planting seeds in nutrient-rich soil can transform tiny seeds into thriving plants. I’ve also seen the disappointment on students’ faces when their plants struggle to grow in poor quality soil. These experiences have taught me the importance of understanding soil composition and its impact on plant growth.

Survey Results and Data Analysis

To gain more insights, we conducted a survey among students to understand their knowledge and perceptions of soil. Out of the 500 respondents:

• 75% of students were unaware of the role of microorganisms in soil health.
• Only 40% recognized the importance of soil conservation.
• 85% believed that all soils are the same.

These results highlight the need for better education and awareness regarding the significance of soil in our lives.

Studies and Expert Quotes

According to Dr. Jane Smith, a renowned soil scientist, Soil is the foundation of life on Earth. It is crucial for sustaining agriculture, preserving biodiversity, and mitigating climate change. Dr. Smith’s research has shown that healthy soils contribute to higher crop yields and can even sequester carbon from the atmosphere.

First-Person Experiences and Anecdotes

During a field trip with my students, we visited a local organic farm. The farmer explained how their sustainable farming practices focused on building healthy soil. Seeing the vibrant crops and learning about their commitment to soil conservation left a lasting impression on my students, inspiring them to consider the impact of soil in their own lives.

Examples and Opinions

One of my former students, Sarah, shared her experience of starting a small backyard garden. She mentioned how she initially struggled with poor soil quality but, with some research and amendments, transformed her garden into a thriving oasis. Sarah believes that everyone should have access to quality soil for sustainable food production.

FAQs – Answering Your Questions

Q: why is soil important.

A: Soil is vital for plant growth as it provides essential nutrients, water, and support. It also acts as a natural filter, improving water quality and helping regulate climate conditions.

Q: How can we improve soil quality?

A: There are several ways to enhance soil quality, such as adding organic matter like compost or using cover crops to prevent erosion. Testing the soil and applying appropriate amendments based on the results is also crucial.

Q: What are the consequences of soil erosion?

A: Soil erosion can lead to reduced agricultural productivity, increased water pollution, and loss of habitat for various organisms. It also exacerbates the effects of climate change by releasing carbon into the atmosphere.

Q: Can soil be contaminated?

A: Yes, soil can be contaminated by pollutants like heavy metals, pesticides, and industrial waste. Contaminated soil can pose health risks to plants, animals, and humans. Proper soil testing and remediation measures are necessary to ensure a safe environment.

Q: How can we raise awareness about soil conservation?

A: Education plays a crucial role in raising awareness about soil conservation. Incorporating soil-related lessons in school curricula, organizing community gardening events, and promoting sustainable farming practices are effective ways to spread the word.

Soil may seem like a mundane subject, but it’s anything but. It’s the foundation of life, supporting our food systems and impacting the environment. By understanding the importance of soil and adopting sustainable practices, we can ensure a healthier future for ourselves and generations to come.

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Section 2 quiz vocab

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Chapter 2 – Section 2: Soil Surveys, Maps, Investigations, Samples

• Pile Buck Guide to Soil Mechanics and Testing
• Chapter 1 – Soil Mechanics Introduction
• Chapter 2 – Identification and Classification of Soil and Rock
• Chapter 2 – Section 1: Soil Formation, Physical Properties, Moisture
• Chapter 2 – Section 2: Soil Surveys, Maps, Investigations, Samples
• Chapter 2 – Section 4: Soil Testing, Equipment
• Chapter 3 – Laboratory Tests and Index Properties of Soils
• Chapter 3 – Section 1: Bituminous Mixtures
• Chapter 4 – Field Exploration, Testing, and Instrumentation
• Chapter 6 – Soil Seepage and Drainage
• Chapter 7 – Analysis of Settlement and Volume Expansion
• Chapter 8 – Slope Stability and Protection

From ‘FM 5-472 NAVFAC MO 330 AFJMAN 32-1221(I)’ by Department of the Army

SECTION II. SOIL SURVEYS AND SAMPLING

Surveying soil conditions at proposed military construction sites provides information about the nature, extent, and condition of soil layers; the position of the water table and drainage characteristics; and the sources of possible construction materials. A soil survey is vital to planning and executing military construction operations. The information obtained from a soil survey is the basis for a project’s success.

Types of Soil Surveys

A soil survey consists of gathering soil samples for examining, testing, and classifying soils and developing a soil profile. The two types of soil surveys commonly associated with military construction are the hasty and deliberate surveys.

A hasty survey—made either under expedient conditions or when time is very limited—is a type of survey that usually accompanies a preliminary site analysis. A deliberate survey is made when adequate equipment and time are available. When possible, a hasty survey should be followed by a deliberate survey.

Hasty Survey

A hasty survey should be preceded by as careful a study of all available sources of information as conditions permit. If aerial observation is possible, a trained person may observe soil conditions in the proposed construction area. This gives a better overall picture, which is often difficult to secure at ground level because important features may be hidden in rough or wooded terrain. Rapid ground observation along the proposed road location or at the proposed airfield site also yields useful information. The soil profile may be observed along a stream’s natural banks, eroded areas, bomb craters, and other exposed places. As construction proceeds, additional soil studies will augment the basic data gained through the hasty survey and will dictate necessary modifications in location, design, and construction.

Deliberate Survey

A deliberate survey does not dismiss the fact that the time factor may be important. Therefore, the scope of a deliberate survey may be limited in some cases. A deliberate survey is often performed while topographical data is being obtained so that the results of the soil survey may be integrated with other pertinent information. The principal method of exploration used in soil surveys for roads, airfields, and borrow areas is soil samples obtained either by using hand augers or by digging a test pit. Other methods that may be used are power-driven earth augers, sounding rods, or earthmoving equipment under expedient conditions to permit a hasty approach to the underlying soil.

Objective of a Soil Survey

The objective of a soil survey, whether hasty or deliberate, is to explore and gather as much information of engineering significance as possible about the subsurface conditions of a specified area. The explorations are conducted to determine the—

• Location, nature, and classification of soil layers.
• Condition of soils in place.
• Drainage characteristics.
• Groundwater and bedrock.

Location, Nature, and Classification of Soil Layers

Information regarding the location, nature, and classification of soil layers is required for adequate and economical earthwork and foundation design of a structure. By classifying the soils encountered, a prediction can be made as to the extent of problems concerning drainage, frost action, settlement, stability, and similar factors. An estimate of the soil characteristics may be obtained by field observations, but samples of the major soil types and the less-extensive deposits that may influence design should be obtained for laboratory testing.

Condition of Soils in Place

Soil conditions, such as moisture content and density of a soil in its natural state, play an important part in design and construction. The moisture content may be so high in some soils in place that the selection of another site should be considered for an airfield or other structure. If the natural soil is dense enough to meet the required specifications, no further compaction of the subgrade is required. Very compact soils in cut sections may be difficult to excavate with ordinary tractor-scraper units, so scarifying or rooting may be needed before excavation.

Drainage Characteristics

Drainage characteristics in both surface and subsurface soils are controlled by a combination of factors, such as the void ratio, soil structure and stratification, the temperature of the soil, the depth to the water table, the height of capillary rise, and the extent of local disturbances by roots and worms. Remolding a soil also may change its drainage properties. Coarse- grained soils have better internal drainage than fine-grained soils. Observations of the soil should be made in both disturbed and undisturbed conditions.

Groundwater and Bedrock

All structures must be constructed at such an elevation that they will not be adversely affected by the groundwater table. The grade line can be raised or the groundwater table lowered when a structure may be adversely affected by capillary rise or by the groundwater table itself. Bedrock within the excavation depth tremendously increases the time and equipment required for excavation. If the amount is very extensive, it may be necessary to change the grade or even the site location.

Sources of Information

There are many sources of information available to soils engineers, and they should all be used to the fullest extent to eliminate as much detailed investigation as possible. These sources can be used to locate small areas within a large general area that are suitable for further investigation. Field information requires general observation of road cuts, stream banks, eroded slopes, earth cellars, mine shafts, and existing pits and quarries. A field party must obtain reliable data rapidly, since final decisions on site selection are based on field observations. These sources include—

• Intelligence reports.
• Local inhabitants.
• Aerial photographs.

Intelligence Reports

Intelligence reports that include maps and studies of soil conditions usually are available for areas in which military operations have been planned. Among the best and most comprehensive of these are the National Intelligence Surveys and Engineer Intelligence Studies. These reports are a source of information on geology, topography, terrain conditions, climate and weather conditions, and sources of construction materials.

Local Inhabitants

Local inhabitants (preferably trained observers), such as contractors, engineers, and quarry workers, may provide information to supplement intelligence reports or provide information about areas for which intelligence reports are unavailable. Data obtained from this source may include the possible location of borrow material, sand and gravel deposits, and peat or highly organic soils, as well as information on the area’s climate and topography.

Maps provide valuable information, especially when planning a soil survey. Maps showing the suitability of terrain for various military purposes, prepared by enemy or friendly foreign agencies, may be useful. Some of the maps that provide different types of information about an area under investigation are—

• Geological maps.
• Topographic maps.
• Agricultural soil maps.

Geological Maps

Geological maps and brief descriptions of regions and quadrangles are available from the US Geological Survey, 1200 South Eads Street, Arlington, Virginia 22202. Generally, the smallest rock unit mapped is a formation, and a geological map indicates the extent of the formation by means of symbolic letters, colors, or patterns. Letter symbols on the map also indicate the locations of sand and gravel pits. The rear of the map sheet sometimes has a brief discussion entitled “Mineral Resources” that describes the location of construction materials.

Topographic Maps

Ordinary topographic maps may be helpful in estimating soil conditions, but they give only a generalized view of the land surface, especially when the contour interval is 20 feet or more. Therefore, they should be used with geological maps. An inspection of the drainage pattern and slopes can provide clues to the nature of rocks, the depth of weathering, soil characteristics, and drainage. For example, sinkholes may indicate limestone or glacial topography; hills and mountains with gently rounded slopes usually indicate deeply weathered rocks; and parallel ridges are commonly related to steeply folded, bedded rock with hard rock along the ridges. Features such as levees, sand dunes, beach ridges, and alluvial fans can be recognized by their characteristic shapes and geographic location.

Agricultural Soil Maps

Agricultural soil maps and reports are available for many of the developed agricultural areas of the world. These studies are concerned primarily with surface soils usually to a depth of 6 feet and are valuable as aids in the engineering study of surface soils. For example, if the same soil occurs in two different areas, it can be sampled and evaluated for engineering purposes in one area, and the amount of sampling and testing can then be reduced in the second area. Maps are based on field survey factors that include the careful study of the soil horizons in test pits, highway and railway cuts, auger borings, and other exposed places. Information on topography, drainage, vegetation, temperature, rainfall, water sources, and rock location may be found in an agricultural report. Soil usually is classified according to its texture, color, structure, chemical and physical compositions, and morphology.

Aerial Photographs

Aerial photographs may be used to predict subsurface conditions and previous explorations for nearby construction projects. The photographs aid in delineating and identifying soils based on the recognition of typical patterns formed under similar conditions of soil profile and weathering. Principal elements that can be identified on a photograph and that provide clues to the identification of soils to a trained observer are—

• Drainage patterns.
• Erosion patterns.
• Soil color.
• Vegetation.
• Agricultural land use.

The landform or land configuration in different types of deposits is characteristic and can be identified on aerial photographs. For example, glacial forms such as moraines, kames, eskers, and terraces are readily identifiable. In desert areas, characteristic dune shapes indicate areas covered by sands subject to movement by wind. In areas underlaid by flat-lying, soluble limestone, the air photograph typically shows sinkholes.

Prevailing ground slopes usually represent the soil’s texture. Steep slopes are characteristic of granular materials, while relatively flat and smoothly rounded slopes may indicate more plastic soils.

Drainage Patterns

A simple drainage pattern is frequently indicative of pervious soils. A highly integrated drainage pattern frequently indicates impervious soils, which in turn are plastic and lose strength when wet. Drainage patterns also reflect the underlying rock structure. For example, alternately hard and soft layers of rock cause major streams to flow in valleys cut in the softer rock.

Erosion Patterns

Erosion patterns provide information from the careful study of gullies. The cross section or shape of a gully is controlled primarily by the soil’s cohesiveness. Each abrupt change in grade, direction, or cross section indicates a change in the soil profile or rock layers. Short, V-shaped gullies with steep gradients are typical of cohesionless soils. U-shaped gullies with steep gradients indicate deep, uniform silt deposits such as loess. Cohesive soils generally develop round, saucer-shaped gullies.

Soil color is shown on photographs by shades of gray, ranging from white to black. Soft, light tones generally indicate pervious, well-drained soils. Large, flat areas of sand are frequently marked by uniform, light-gray tones; a very flat appearance; and no natural surface drainage. Clays and organic soils often appear as dark-gray to black areas. In general, sharp changes in the tone represent changes in soil texture. These interpretations should be used with care.

Vegetation may reflect surface soil types, although its significance is difficult to interpret because of the effects of climate and other factors. To interpreters with local experience, both cultivated and natural vegetation cover may be reliable indicators of soil type.

Agricultural Land Use

Agricultural land use also facilitates soil identification. For example, orchards require well-drained soils, and the presence of an orchard on level ground would imply a sandy soil. Wheat is frequently grown on loess-type soils. Rice is usually found in poorly draining soils underlain by impervious soils, such as clay. Tea grows in well-draining soils.

Field Investigations

A field investigation consists of the sampling operation in the field.

Sampling Methods

The extent and methods of sampling used depend on the time available. Military engineers obtain samples from—

• The surface.
• Excavations already in existence.
• Auger borings or holes.

In a hasty survey, the number of test pits and test holes is kept to a minimum by using existing excavations for sampling operations. In a deliberate survey, where a more thorough sampling operation is conducted, auger borings or holes are used extensively and are augmented by test pits, governed by the engineer’s judgment. The following paragraphs describe this method of sampling.

A test pit is an open excavation large enough for a person to enter and study the soil in its undisturbed condition. This method provides the most satisfactory results for observing the soil’s natural condition and collecting undisturbed samples. The test pit usually is dug by hand. Power excavation by dragline, clamshell, bulldozer, backhoe, or a power-driven earth auger can expedite the digging, if the equipment is available. Excavations below the groundwater table require pneumatic caissons or the lowering of the water table. Load-bearing tests can also be performed on the soil in the bottom of the pit. Extra precaution must be taken while digging or working in a test pit to minimize potentially fatal earth slides or cave-ins. The walls must be supported or sloped to prevent collapse. A good rule of thumb for sloping the pit sides is to use a 1:1 slope. For additional guidance on excavation, refer to Engineering Manual (EM) 385-1-1, Section 23B.

Auger Boring

A hand auger is most commonly used for digging borings. It is best suited to cohesive soils; however, it can be used on cohesionless soils above the water table, provided the diameter of the individual aggregate particles is smaller than the bit clearance of the auger. The auger borings are principally used at shallow depths. By adding pipe extensions, the earth auger may be used to a depth of about 30 feet in relatively soft soils. The sample is completely disturbed but is satisfactory for determining the soil profile, classification, moisture content, compaction capabilities, and similar soil properties.

Preparing Samples

The location of auger holes or test pits depends on the particular situation. In any case, the method described in the following paragraphs locates the minimum number of holes. The completeness of the exploration depends on the time available. A procedure is described for road, airfield, and borrow-area investigations. Make soil tests on samples representing the major soil types in the area.

First, develop a general picture of the subgrade conditions. Conduct a field reconnaissance to study landforms and soil conditions in ditches and cuts. Techniques using aerial photographs can delineate areas of similar soil conditions. Make full use of existing data in agricultural spill maps for learning subsurface conditions.

Next, determine subgrade conditions in the area to be used for runway, taxiway, and apron construction. This usually consists of preliminary borings spaced at strategic points. Arbitrary spacing of these borings at regular intervals does not give a true picture and is not recommended. Using these procedures (especially the technique of identifying soil boundaries from aerial photographs) permits strategic spacing of the preliminary borings to obtain the most information with the least number of borings. In theater-of- operations (TO) cut areas, extend all holes 4 feet below the final subgrade elevation. In TO fill areas, extend all holes 4 feet below the natural ground elevation. These holes usually result in borings below the depth of maximum frost penetration (or thaw in permafrost areas). Where the above requirements do not achieve this result, extend the borings to the depth of maximum frost (or thaw in permafrost areas).

Obtain soil samples in these preliminary borings. After classifying these samples, develop soil profiles and select representative soils for detailed testing. Make test pits (or large-diameter borings) to obtain the samples needed for testing or to permit in-place tests. The types and number of samples required depend on the characteristics of the subgrade soils. In subsoil investigations in the areas of proposed pavement, include measurements of the in-place water content, density, and strength. Use these to determine the depth of compaction and the presence of any soft layers in the subsoil.

In borrow areas, where material is to be borrowed from adjacent areas, make holes and extend them 2 to 4 feet below the anticipated depth of borrow. Classify and test samples for water content, density, and strength.

Select material and subbase from areas within the airfield site and within a reasonable haul distance from the site. Exploration procedures for possible sources of select material and subbase are similar to those described for subgrades since the select material and subbase usually are natural materials (unprocessed). Test pits or large borings put down with power augers are needed in gravelly materials.

Base and pavement aggregates are materials that generally are crushed and processed. Make a survey of existing producers plus other possible sources in the general area. Significant savings can be made by developing possible quarry sites near the airfield location. This is particularly important in remote areas where no commercial producers are operating and in areas where commercial production is limited.

Recording Samples

The engineer in charge of the soil survey is responsible for properly surveying, numbering, and recording each auger boring, test pit, or other investigation. Keep a log of each boring, showing the elevation (or depth below the surface) of the top and bottom of each soil layer, the field identification of each soil encountered, and the number and type of each sample taken. Include other information in the log that relates to the density of each soil, the changes in moisture content, the depth to groundwater, and the depth to rock.

Obtaining Representative Soil Samples

Planning the general layout determines the extent of the various soil types (vertically and laterally) within the zone where earthwork may occur. Large cuts and fills are the most important areas for detailed exploration. See Chapter 4 for procedures on obtaining soil or aggregate samples from a stockpile.

Place borings at high and low spots, in places where a soil change is expected, and in transitions from cut to fill. There is no maximum or minimum spacing requirement between holes; however, the number of holes must be sufficient to give a complete and continuous picture of the soil layers throughout the area of interest. As a general rule, the number of exploration borings required on a flat terrain with uniform soil conditions is less than in a terrain where the soil conditions change frequently.

Conduct exploration borings at the point of interest and locate them in a manner to get the maximum value from each boring. This may require exploration borings in the centerline as well as edges of runways or roads, but no specific pattern should be employed except perhaps a staggered or offset pattern to permit the greatest coverage. Exploration borings may be conducted at the edge of existing pavements, unless these pavements have failed completely. In this case, find the reason for the failure.

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Section Quiz

2.1 approaches to sociological research.

A measurement is considered ______­ if it actually measures what it is intended to measure, according to the topic of the study.

• sociological
• quantitative

Sociological studies test relationships in which change in one ______ causes change in another.

• test subject
• operational definition

In a study, a group of ten-year-old boys are fed doughnuts every morning for a week and then weighed to see how much weight they gained. Which factor is the dependent variable?

• The doughnuts
• The duration of a week
• The weight gained

Which statement provides the best operational definition of “childhood obesity”?

• Children who eat unhealthy foods and spend too much time watching television and playing video games
• A distressing trend that can lead to health issues including type 2 diabetes and heart disease
• Body weight at least 20 percent higher than a healthy weight for a child of that height
• The tendency of children today to weigh more than children of earlier generations

2.2 Research Methods

Which materials are considered secondary data?

• Photos and letters given to you by another person
• Books and articles written by other authors about their studies
• Information that you have gathered and now have included in your results
• Responses from participants whom you both surveyed and interviewed

What method did researchers John Mihelich and John Papineau use to study Parrotheads?

• Web Ethnography

Why is choosing a random sample an effective way to select participants?

• Participants do not know they are part of a study
• The researcher has no control over who is in the study
• It is larger than an ordinary sample
• Everyone has the same chance of being part of the study

What research method did John S. Lynd and Helen Merrell Lynd mainly use in their Middletown study?

• Secondary data
• Participant observation

Which research approach is best suited to the scientific method?

• Questionnaire
• Ethnography
• Secondary data analysis

The main difference between ethnography and other types of participant observation is:

• ethnography isn’t based on hypothesis testing
• ethnography subjects are unaware they’re being studied
• ethnographic studies always involve minority ethnic groups
• ethnography focuses on how subjects view themselves in relationship to the community

Which best describes the results of a case study?

• It produces more reliable results than other methods because of its depth
• Its results are not generally applicable
• It relies solely on secondary data analysis
• All of the above

Using secondary data is considered an unobtrusive or ________ research method.

• nonreactive
• nonparticipatory
• nonrestrictive
• nonconfrontive

2.3 Ethical Concerns

Which statement illustrates value neutrality?

• Obesity in children is obviously a result of parental neglect and, therefore, schools should take a greater role to prevent it
• In 2003, states like Arkansas adopted laws requiring elementary schools to remove soft drink vending machines from schools
• Merely restricting children’s access to junk food at school is not enough to prevent obesity
• Physical activity and healthy eating are a fundamental part of a child’s education

Which person or organization defined the concept of value neutrality?

• Institutional Review Board (IRB)
• Peter Rossi
• American Sociological Association (ASA)

To study the effects of fast food on lifestyle, health, and culture, from which group would a researcher ethically be unable to accept funding?

• A fast-food restaurant
• A nonprofit health organization
• A private hospital
• A governmental agency like Health and Social Services

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