social theory essay

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In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section Social Theory

Introduction.

• Reference Works
• Histories of Social Thought
• Émile Durkheim
• Georg Simmel
• Ferdinand Tönnies
• W. E. B. (William Edward Burghardt) Du Bois
• Functionalism and Its Critics
• Theories of Action and Interaction
• Interpretive and Phenomenological Theories
• Psychoanalytic Social Theory
• Twentieth-Century Marxism
• Structuralism and Post-structuralism
• Postmodernism
• Theories of Modernity and Modernization, c . 1965 to the Present
• Globalization
• Standpoint Theories: Feminist and Postcolonial Interventions
• Developments since 2000
• Developments since 2010

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• Michel Foucault
• Role Theory
• Social Network Analysis
• Symbolic Interactionism
• Talcott Parsons
• W.E.B. Du Bois

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Social Theory by Austin Harrington LAST REVIEWED: 08 February 2021 LAST MODIFIED: 23 March 2022 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199756384-0054

Social theory refers to ideas, arguments, hypotheses, thought-experiments, and explanatory speculations about how and why human societies—or elements or structures of such societies—come to be formed, change, and develop over time or disappear. Usually supported in research institutions as a core component of the discipline of sociology, social theory most commonly encompasses the range of explanatory concepts, analytical tools, and heuristic devices on which sociologists and social scientists draw in their efforts to interpret statistical or qualitative data about particular empirical social phenomena. Social theory in this relatively narrowly delimited sense is usually thought of as more or less synonymous with the term “sociological theory.” But many common understandings of the scope of the field also imply a wider range of reference than this. Social theory can name general sources of ideas about social phenomena relevant to other disciplines of the social sciences and humanities, such as anthropology, political science, economics, history, cultural and media studies, and gender studies. And social theory can also be thought of as incorporating normative concerns bearing on debates about desirable ends or values of social life—about how social life ideally “ought to be”—in ways that overlap closely with concerns in the fields of moral, political, and legal philosophy. As social theory in most of its central concerns names only a practice of systematic theoretical thinking relevant to particular substantive problems or questions in sociology and other social-science disciplines, some headings in this bibliographical survey of the field will be found to overlap thematically with other Oxford Bibliographies entries in sociology. For more detailed surveys of substantive areas in the Oxford Bibliographies listing with prominent theoretical components see especially: Comparative Historical Sociology, Chicago School of Sociology, World-Systems Analysis, Marxist Sociology, Feminist Theory, Max Weber, Émile Durkheim, Postmodernity, Symbolic Interactionism, and Michel Foucault. The emphasis of the survey that follows falls primarily on currents and schools of thought in Western social theory from the 18th century to the present day. Note, however, that this survey omits commentary of texts currently unavailable in English.

Textbooks in social theory have been available in English for the past four or five decades. Most currently relevant textbooks and general guides to the field, however, date from the 1990s onward. One of the most wide-ranging recent textbooks, written at an elementary level and suitable for newcomers to the field, is Harrington 2005 , covering virtually all sections of the field, with an emphasis on European developments. A more in-depth guidebook, written at a higher level and with a more concentrated focus on particular schools, is Joas and Knöbl 2009 . An influential work specifically on American technical developments in theoretical sociology is Collins 1988 . A classic work, still highly readable and a canonical work in its own right, is Mills 2000 . An accessible and stimulating book, narrower in range but suitable for younger student readership, is Ritzer 1993 .

Collins, Randall. 1988. Theoretical sociology . New York: Harcourt Brace.

One of the best systematic expositions and syntheses of American traditions in social and sociological theory.

Harrington, Austin, ed. 2005. Modern social theory: An introduction . Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.

Covers virtually all fields in elementary and concise form, with a glossary and useful biographical materials.

Joas, Hans, and Wolfgang Knöbl. 2009. Social theory: Twenty introductory lectures . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.

DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781139878432

A more selective but still highly comprehensive guide, with detailed evaluative assessments of key schools of thought and debates.

Mills, C. Wright. 2000. The sociological imagination . New York: Oxford Univ. Press.

Stimulating classic work by the radical American sociologist, progenitor of the concept of the “military-industrial complex” and the “power elite.” Originally published in 1959.

Ritzer, George. 1993. The McDonaldization of society: The changing character of contemporary social life . Newbury Park, CA: Pine Forge Press.

An engaging, easy read introducing the reader to Marxian and Weberian ideas about capitalism and rationalization, applied to contemporary capitalist mass consumer culture.

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25 Famous Sociology Theories: Examples and Applications

Sociological theory refers to the conceptual frameworks sociologists use to understand, explain, and predict human behavior within the context of social structures and systems.

We can generally divide sociological theories into two rough buckets. The two buckets are:

• Macrosociology : Macrosociology explores large-scale social structures, long-term processes, and societal trends. For instance, conflict theory posits that social life is a struggle between groups to gain control of resources, thus causing social inequalities (Robinson, 2014). Theorists such as Marx and Weber elaborate on how overarching structures like the economy drive social behaviors and patterns. 
• Microsociology : Microsociology studies the intimate social interactions and everyday behaviors of individuals and small groups, with an intrest in individual agency. For instance, symbolic interactionism, a micro sociological theory, explicates how people use symbols (like words or gestures) to create meaning and communicate with each other (Jeon, 2017).
• Mesosociology: Mesosociology examines the in-between social forces and factors, such as examining local communities, ageism, race and ethnicity, and so on, on regional levels, without the explicit focus on only social institutions (e.g. educational institutions) or specific individuals.

Below are the 25 most famous sociological theories from both macro and micro perspectives.

Sociology Theory Examples

1. conflict theory.

Type of Theory: Macrosociology

Conflict Theory proposes that society is marked by ongoing struggles for resources and power, resulting in social inequalities.

This theory, originally formulated by Karl Marx, asserts that social life is fundamentally about contestations between groups with differing interests (Robinson, 2014).

It highlights how those with more resources often wield greater power, having the ability to shape society to maintain their privileges.

Consequently, it posits that conflicts may arise because of power dynamics and these disagreements drive social change . 

Example of Conflict Theory The persistent wage gap between men and women in many societies can be seen as an illustration of conflict theory, showcasing how power plays maintain social disparities (Blau & Kahn, 2017). It suggests that the gender wage gap is a reflection not solely of individuals’ choices but also of broader societal structures and power dynamics.

2. Functionalism

Definition: Functionalism considers society as a complex system of interdependent parts, each having a function fulfilling societal stability.

This sociological perspective, rooted in the works of Emile Durkheim , perceives each segment of society as vital for its overall functioning — much akin to the organs in a body (Parsons, 2010).

Maintaining harmony is crucial, as per this paradigm, with every part, be it family, education, or law, contributing towards societal equilibrium. Disruptions to this balance, such as social changes or conflicts, are seen as temporary disturbances that society works to resolve.

Example of Functionalism An example from functionalism could be the educational system, which not only provides knowledge (manifest function) but also serves to integrate individuals into societal norms and expectations (latent function) (Meyer, 2011). Here, education is vital for maintaining societal stability and ensuring societal continuity.

3. Symbolic Interactionism

Type of Theory: Microsociology

Symbolic Interactionism emphasizes how individuals use symbols to navigate social interactions and create social worlds.

This theory, developed by George Herbert Mead and further expanded by Herbert Blumer, highlights the subjective meaning of human actions and interactions (Jeon, 2017).

It propounds that people act based on the meanings objects, behaviors, or words have for them, and these meanings emerge from social interactions.

Therefore, society is viewed as being actively and continually constructed and reconstructed through these interactions and the meanings derived from them. 

Example of Symbolic Interactionism An everyday illustration of symbolic interactionism is the use of language, a system of symbols, to convey our thoughts or feelings (Stryker, 2017). The meaning assigned to words isn’t inherent but constructed through our social interactions, and this plays a crucial role in determining our subsequent actions and reactions.

4. Social Exchange Theory

Social Exchange Theory postulates that human relationships and interactions are guided by a cost-benefit analysis and the pursuit of rewards.

Driven by the principles of economics, this theory suggests that individuals engage in social interactions akin to transactions, aiming to maximize their benefits and minimize their costs (Cook, 2013).

Impressions of past exchanges and expectations of future returns inform the decisions to pursue or withdraw from interactions.

The balance of rewards against costs can contribute significantly to the stability of social relationships, or conversely, their dissolution. 

Example of Social Exchange Theory The dynamics of friendships can be viewed through this lens (Molm, 2010), where individuals continue the friendship so long as the perceived emotional support, companionship, and other benefits outweigh the costs, such as time commitment and emotional energy.

5. Feminist Theory

Type of Theory: Macrosociology, Microsociology, and Mesosociology

Feminist Theory is concerned with understanding and challenging the social inequalities and injustices faced by women.

This multidisciplinary set of theories emphasizes the diverse experiences of women, often overlooked in traditional sociological paradigms , shedding light on the interconnectedness of gender with other social structures like race, class, and sexuality (Risman, 2017).

It critically examines the ways in which societal institutions perpetuate gender disparities, seeking to dismantle patriarchal structures.

Feminist theorists assert that meaningful societal change necessitates a paradigm shift in gender relations and the deconstruction of problematic norms and stereotypes. 

Example of Feminist Theory The gender pay gap is an instance where feminist theorists have highlighted systemic injustice (Bobbitt-Zeher, 2011), pointing to discriminatory employment practices and societal norms that value certain types of work over others.

6. Structural Strain Theory

Structural Strain Theory posits that social dysfunctions and deviant behavior arise when there is a discrepancy between societal goals and the means to achieve those goals.

This theory, formulated by Robert K. Merton, suggests that when individuals have limited resources or opportunities to reach socially-approved goals, they might resort to socially unacceptable means, leading to deviance (Agnew, 2011).

Merton conceptualized five adaptation modes to this strain – conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and rebellion, each reflecting different responses to the experienced disconnection between goals and means.

Example of Structural Strain Theory The incidence of property crime in economically disadvantaged communities reflects this theory (Chamlin & Cochran, 2012), where limited legitimate means to achieve financial success might pressure individuals towards unlawful ways.

7. Labeling Theory

Labeling Theory argues that individuals become deviant not merely due to their actions but rather due to societal reactions and labels attached to their behavior.

It suggests that once a deviant label is applied, it becomes part of the individual’s self-concept, shaping their actions and leading to a ‘self-fulfilling prophecy’ (Tannenbaum, 2019).

Individuals might internalize the label, causing them to act in ways that confirm the societal stereotype.

Hence, this theory challenges the simplistic perception of deviance as an inherent characteristic and instead, underscores the role of social definitions and reactions. 

Example of Labeling Theory Stigmatization of ex-offenders and the subsequent difficulty in reintegrating into society highlight the power of negative labels (Moore, 2016). This societal response often leads to recidivism, validating the label and perpetuating a cycle of deviance.

8. Rational Choice Theory

Rational Choice Theory assumes that individuals make decisions based on their rational calculations, aiming to maximize personal benefit.

This theory applies economic theory to social interactions, suggesting that people behave as rational actors, weighing the costs and benefits of potential actions (Becker, 2013).

While initially focused on economic behavior, the theory has been expanded to understand a broad range of social phenomena, from politics to crime.

Critics, however, question the assumption of perfect rationality, pointing out that humans’ decision-making can often be influenced by emotions, biases, and other non-rational factors.

Example of Rational Choice Theory Choosing whether or not to attend college can be considered in terms of this theory (Dominitz & Manski, 1996) – individuals weigh the immediate costs (tuition fees, loss of potential income from working) and the potential long-term benefits (higher earnings, better employment prospects).

9. Social Disorganization Theory

Social Disorganization Theory suggests that crime rates are higher in neighborhoods where social institutions (like schools and families) are unable to maintain control.

According to Shaw and McKay’s pioneering work in the early 20th century, social disorganization arises due to certain characteristics such as poverty, residential instability, and ethnic diversity (Sampson & Groves, 1989).

These factors hinder the formation of close-knit, cohesive communities, leading to social disorganization.

As a result, these communities struggle to maintain social control , providing fertile ground for criminal behavior.

Example of Social Disorganization Theory High rates of juvenile delinquency in economically disadvantaged neighborhoods exemplify this theory (Kubrin & Weitzer, 2003) – without stable social structures, young people may turn to crime as a means of navigation through disorganized social environments .

10. Social Learning Theory

Social Learning Theory posits that people learn from observing others, with the environment, cognition, and behavior all interplaying to influence learning.

Developed primarily by Albert Bandura, this theory suggests that indirect or vicarious experiences, such as observing others’ behavior and the consequences of such behavior, play a crucial role in human learning (Bandura, 2011).

It posits that individuals are more likely to adopt behaviors if they observe similar people being rewarded for these behaviors.

Conversely, they are less likely to replicate behaviors if they see others being punished for them.

Example of Social Learning Theory The influence of media violence on aggressive behavior is often discussed within this theoretical framework (Anderson & Bushman, 2001) – individuals, particularly children, may replicate aggressive behaviors observed in media, especially when such behavior appears to be rewarded.

11. Critical Theory

Critical Theory seeks to challenge and change society as a whole, rather than simply understand or explain it.

This theory, developed by the Frankfurt School scholars, aims to critique and change society, often seeking to emancipate social groups oppressed by a capitalist, hegemonic society (Horkheimer, 2012).

It is an extension of conflict theory, by inserting a more political and ideological perspective, explicitly advocating for class-based social change.

Critical theorists focus on the role of power in society and how dominant social structures and processes maintain power disparities.

Therefore, it not only aims towards understanding the societal dynamics but also advocates for social justice and equality.

Example of Critical Theory The civil rights movement in the United States exemplified the application of critical theory (Roth, 2019), challenging racial segregation and discrimination laws and advocating for equal rights and social transformation.

12. Postmodern Theory

Postmodern theory in sociology critiques grand theories and ideologies, focusing on the role of language, power relations, and motivations in shaping our understanding of reality. 

Founded in the mid to late 20th century among thinkers like Foucault and Lyotard, Postmodern Theory challenges universal metanarratives, instead advocating for a respect for difference, contradiction, and the indeterminate nature of knowledge. 

It insists that society is too diverse, fragmented, and complex to be fully captured by broad, sweeping theories. 

Therefore, it encourages a more interpretive, localized, and deconstructive approach to understand social realities. 

Example of Postmodernism The questioning of established scientific knowledge and the inclusion of marginalized voices and perspectives can be understood through the Postmodern lens, as in Feminist epistemologies (Harding, 2013).

13. Network Theory

Type of Theory: Mesosociology

Network Theory posits that social actors and their actions are best understood through their relations to one another rather than their individual attributes. 

According to this theory, social patterns and phenomena emerge from the complex web of relations among social actors (Borgatti & Halgin, 2011). 

Whether these actors are individuals, groups, organizations, or even societies, their network connections largely influence their behavior, roles, and opportunities. 

The theory emphasizes the importance of ties and relationships, making it crucial in areas like social networking, organizational studies, and public health. 

Example of Network Theory An example of this theory can be seen in the spread of diseases in epidemiology, such as how HIV/AIDS dissemination was mapped through patients’ social relations (Rothenberg, 2001).

14. Ethnomethodology

Ethnomethodology suggests that individuals use their knowledge of social norms to construct a sense of order and make sense of the world around them. 

Developed by Harold Garfinkel in the 1960s, this approach focuses on the ways people make sense of their everyday world by creating shared understandings of symbols and actions (Rawls, 2013). 

In essence, it attempts to uncover the hidden rules and structures that individuals subconsciously agree upon to coordinate their interactions smoothly. 

These common-sense knowledge rules allow individuals to interpret and predict the behavior of others, thereby facilitating social interactions. 

Example of Ethnomethodology The everyday conversations between friends and how they navigate misunderstandings showcases Ethnomethodology in action, reflecting how we use shared understandings to communicate effectively (Sacks, 1995).

15. Structural Functionalism

Structural Functionalism views society as a complex system, wherein each part works together to promote the stability and survival of the entire system. 

Built upon the works of Émile Durkheim, Auguste Comte, and Herbert Spencer, this theoretical perspective perceives every aspect of society, be it an institution like family or an act like crime, as serving specific functions to maintain societal balance (Turner, 2013). 

This notion of social equilibrium argues that disruptions, like social change or conflict, are typically rectified by society’s compensatory mechanisms. 

However, critics suggest this perspective overlooks social inequalities, ignoring the disadvantages of certain social arrangements. 

Example of Structural Functionalism The way different parts of the educational system from schools to universities serve to maintain social order and ensure the smooth functioning of society reflects principles of Structural Functionalism (Ballantine & Hammack, 2013).

16. Social Phenomenology

Social Phenomenology emphasizes understanding the subjective experiences and interpretations that individuals have of the world. 

Derived from the philosophical tradition of phenomenology, social phenomenologists, like Alfred Schutz, suggest the social world is a human construct, experienced and interpreted through the conscious individuals who inhabit it (Natanson, 2017). 

It is concerned with exploring how individuals ascribe meanings to their experiences, thereby creating their own subjective realities. 

This focus on individual perceptions and interpretations provides a valuable framework for understanding the complexities of social life. 

Example of Social Phenomenology Individual interpretations of a contentious political event could be explored using social phenomenology, revealing how political orientation, social background, and personal experiences shape subjective perceptions and interpretations (Ku, 2016).

17. Cultural Theory

Cultural Theory investigates how culture and societal structures influence individual behaviors, beliefs, and identity.

Central to this perspective is an understanding that culture, as a shared system of meanings, guides human behavior and societal operations (Couldry, 2012). 

These shared meanings, symbols, and practices enable communication and cooperation, foster social cohesion, and influence identity formation.

Culture, therefore, is seen as a collective programming of the mind that distinguishes one group or society from another.

Example of Cultural Theory Cross-cultural differences in general behaviors or business practices could be considered under this theory, highlighting how cultural norms and values shape behaviors (Hofstede, 2011).

18. World Systems Theory

World Systems Theory suggests that societies function within a world economic system that inherently promotes disparity and inequality.

Immanuel Wallerstein, who developed the theory, argued that the world system is characterized by a division of labor leading to the development of core, semi-peripheral, and peripheral nations (Wallerstein, 2011). 

Acknowledging that these differing positions affect societies’ economic and political development, this theory challenges the view that all societies go through similar linear stages of development. 

Instead, it underscores how the interconnected global ecosphere shapes and is shaped by national economies. 

Example of World Systems Theory The persistent economic disparity between developed and developing nations is illustrative of World Systems Theory, revealing how global economic systems contribute to uneven resource distribution (Arrighi, 2010).

19. Social Constructionism

Social Constructionism posits that social phenomena are created, institutionalized, and made into tradition by humans.

Contrary to theories that view social phenomena as objective facts, social constructionists argue that aspects of the social world – such as social roles, symbols, and institutions – are not inherent or static, but are instead constructed and reconstructed by social actors (Berger & Luckmann, 2011). 

Social Constructionism highlights how these constructed realities can have real, tangible effects on human interaction, social structure, and personal identity . 

Example of Social Constructionism Gender roles and expectations serve as a compelling illustration of Social Constructionism, emphasizing how society, not biology, dictates these roles and norms (West & Zimmerman, 2009).

20. Dependency Theory

Dependency Theory argues that global inequality is due to the exploitation of peripheral and semi-peripheral nations by core nations.

This theory originated as a response to modernization theory, offering a critique of the existing capitalist world system and arguing that underdevelopment was fostered by the historical development of the world economic system (Frank, 2011). 

In this view, periphery nations exporting raw materials to the core nations are left in a state of dependency, perpetuating a cycle of poverty and underdevelopment.

Example of Dependency Theory Dependence on commodity exports by many African countries illustrates Dependency Theory, demonstrating how reliance on export earnings from primary commodities can facilitate an exploitative dynamic with more developed nations (Nwoke, 2015).

21. Neo-Marxist Theory

Neo-Marxist Theory extends the classical Marxist theory by incorporating factors such as culture, ideology, and state power into the analysis of societal dynamics. 

Neo-Marxists, such as Antonio Gramsci and Louis Althusser, placed much emphasis on the cultural and ideological superstructure that influences and solidifies the capitalist mode of production (Levitsky, 2013). 

This perspective asserts that power resides not just in economic structures, but also in ideological systems which influence and control societal thought and behavior. 

While upholding the fundamental Marxist tenet of economic determinism, Neo-Marxist theory also recognized the independent impacts of politics, social forces, and ideas in shaping societal relations. 

Example of Neo-Marxist Theory Gramsci’s concept of cultural hegemony, which explains how the dominant class maintains control by shaping cultural norms and values to their advantage, can be considered an application of Neo-Marxist thought (Jones, 2006).

22. Queer Theory

Queer Theory explores identities and experiences that deviate from the normative understandings of sexuality and gender, advocating for the deconstruction of such binaries. 

Rooted in the intellectual traditions of feminist criticism and gay and lesbian studies, Queer Theory critically interrogates the socio-cultural constructs of gender and sexuality, challenging the conceptual rigidity of these categories (Jagose, 2012). 

It posits that identities are not fixed but fluid and questions the societal stigmatization of non-normative sexual identities and practices.

Example of Queer Theory The exploration of non-binary gender identities and the critique of heteronormative structures in society exemplify the application of Queer Theory (Butler, 2011).

23. Intersectionality Theory

Intersectionality Theory examines how various social categories such as race, class, and gender interact to shape individual experiences and systemic inequality.

Patricia Hill Collins and Kimberlé Crenshaw, key contributors to this theory, argue that systems of oppression are interconnected and cannot be examined independently from one another (Crenshaw, 1989).

This multi-faceted approach to social identities underscores that individuals experience discrimination and privilege in varying degrees, depending on their conjoint identities.

Example of Intersectionality Theory The unique challenges faced by women of colour, who contend with both racial and gender discrimination, can be understood through the lens of Intersectionality Theory (Choo & Ferree, 2010).

24. Actor-Network Theory

Type of Theory: Microsociology, Macrosociology

Actor-Network Theory suggests that both human and non-human elements contribute equally to the function of social networks and should be treated as actors or agents within a network.

Developed by sociologists such as Bruno Latour and Michel Callon, Actor-Network Theory illustrates the idea that society is constructed through complex networks of interaction between various actors (Latour, 2005). 

It thus dissolves the boundaries between the social and natural world, viewing both human and non-human entities as possessing agency.

Example of Actor-Network Theory The role of technology in modern social life can be viewed through Actor-Network Theory, reflecting how tech devices shape human behavior and social interaction (Akrich, 1992).

25. Social Identity Theory

Type of Theory: Microsociology, Mesosociology

Social Identity Theory posits that a person’s sense of self is shaped by their membership in social groups and categories.

Developed by Henri Tajfel and John Turner, this theory argues that individuals seek to maintain or enhance their self-esteem by identifying with specific social groups and perceiving these groups in a positive light (Tajfel, 1974).

This identification with in-groups and differentiation from out-groups can lead to bias and discrimination, thereby driving societal dynamics.

Example of Social Identity Theory Football fan behavior, where loyalty to one’s team often involves devaluing rival teams, illustrates the principles of Social Identity Theory (Brown, 2000).

Sociological theories, ranging from macro to micro levels, provide a lens through which you can examine and understand various societal phenomena. These theories indeed facilitate predictive and explanatory capabilities, thus aiding in gaining a more profound, sharper understanding of the complex environ of human society.

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• Social Sciences

Social Theory: An Introduction

27 Nov 2022

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Social theory is a paradigm used in examining social phenomena (Seidman, 2016). This term explains ideas on how changes in society are developed. These ideas explain social behavior, social structures, civilization, and modernity. There are certain themes that take centre stage in contemporary social theory. These themes include the nature of social life, social institutions structure, themes of gender race and class, and social transformation. 

According to Seidman (2016), the social theory seeks to define a given phenomena in society. Social theory explores the relationships and processes of socialization between society and individuals. Social theory helps in addressing and understanding embodied intentions, meanings, values, and ideas created by man's social behavior, events, institutions, texts and images. These embodiments are products of historical situations, cultures, and agencies. They can therefore not be summed up or generalized into principles of cause and effect. Social theory reflects on knowing and understanding the social talk. The social theory arises from a variety of context in everyday life these could be in conversations, interactions and interactions between people (Seidman, 2016). 

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Social theory is an expression of the agendas and disputes that dominate general communication on political and social issues. It ought to be an extension of social debates where every member of society has a say and ability to contribute. In dealing with defiant behavior, social theory systematically clarifies this social life problem through using well-defined techniques and concepts of analysis. Seidman (2016), states that social theory draws a distinction between various ways of responding to social life. It differentiates real observations from speculations and stereotype and untangles detachment attitudes from partisanship attitudes and vested interest (Glucksmann, 2014) . The researcher further states that social theory includes an attitude of both involvement and detachment form social life. 

Reasons for Using Social Theory 

Why social theory .

According to Glucksmann (2014), social theory tends to rely on the consistency of a given behavior in making a conclusion as such it does not contradict itself. This gives consistent and clear predictions on a given phenomena in society. Secondly, social theory is constructed on a systematic collection of data and an analysis of data for identification of patterns it does not ignore facts. As such, hypothesis developed on social theory are informed hypothesis ( Glucksmann, 2014) . Social theory collects, summarizes and organize information. It connects different facts and assigns meaning to them. 

Theories explain facts and connect them to research. Findings from social theories are relevant to the explanation of events findings from other researches. According to Taylor, Walton, and Young (2013), social theory can be applied in a wide range of situation and can be used to explain a variety of phenomena in society using a few principles. Social theory is a testable theory, and its objectivity can be measured through making specified predictions. The social theory relies more on predictions than creating explanations after facts. 

Social theory has the ability to predict and explain events before they happen or are observed. This theory is able to predict when to expect certain events or behaviors through analyzing the existence or non-existence of triggers (Taylor, Walton & Young, 2013). This theory Specifies on predictions as opposed to giving vague predictions. Almost all predictions made by the social theory are testable. The facts stated in social theory problem solving are reliable and specific. Its predictions can be verified through observations. The predictions made by social theory can be verified through making observations on public events and phenomena. However, social theory predicts a single outcome as opposed to predicting many contradicting outcomes. This is one of the drawbacks of using social theory in addressing the defiant behavior (Taylor, Walton, & Young, 2013). According to the researchers, defiant behavior has no specific trigger, and as such, it is difficult to rely on one prediction as a trigger or an outcome of a given behavior or occurrence. 

Defiant Behavior 

Defiant behavior is also known as opposition defiant disorder (ODD) is a disorder depicted by disobedience, hostility, and defiant behaviors by children directed to authority or adults (Aebi, Barra, Bessler, Steinhausen, Walitza & Plattner, 2015). This disorder is also characterized by irritability, anger vindictive and argumentative behaviors. While some of these behaviors may be common in children's development, in opposition defiant disorder victims, these characteristics are more persistent and conspicuous. These children often do these purposely to cause conflict and annoyance then blame it on others. According to statistics, 10.2% of children develop this disorder. According to Aebi et al. (2015) opposition defiant disorder is more common in boys than in girls in puberty. This number levels as the children grow and becomes equal in both boys and girls. (Burnette, 2013). However, 2/3 of children diagnosed with opposition defiant disorder manage to surpass it as they continue to grow. 

Causes of opposition defiant disorder cannot be narrowed down to specific known caused. However, it is believed that a combination of genetic, biological and environmental factors contributes to the development of opposition defiant disorder in children (Aebi et al. 2015). Some of the following factors are the main triggers to the development of opposition defiant disorder. Genetic factors; most children who are diagnosed with opposition defiant disorder usually have a history of family members who suffer from similar disorders. These disorders include anxiety, personality and mood disorder. According to Aebi et al. (2015), these genetic components render a person more susceptible to defiant behavior compared to those who have not been exposed to such genes. 

Biological composition; the existence of certain brain chemicals in some individuals has been linked to the depiction of defiant behavior. These chemicals; -neurotransmitters help in balancing brain chemicals. When an imbalance in these chemicals occurs, brain messages are not effectively communicated and as such, symptoms of opposition defiant disorder begin showing (Cavanagh, Quinn, Duncan, Graham & Balbuena, 2017). 

Environmental factors; - the upbringing of children may be a great contributor towards the development of opposition defiant disorder. If a child grows up in a chaotic life background where violence prevails at home, it is likely that a child may begin acting out as a result of this (Cavanagh et al. 2017). If children are surrounded by friends who are violent and destructive, they may begin displaying opposition defiant disorder behaviors. These children will often be unwilling or unable to follow the rules or show corporation (Cavanagh et al. 2017). They may reject any form of disciplinary structure. They may often challenge their parents and any efforts to rectify their behavior. This behavior may be triggered by trivial reasons of no reason at all. 

At times, children affected by defiant behavior may show regret and be remorseful about their conduct. This may be through making promises, trying to behave better, ask for forgiveness. Some of these behaviors may be sincere while some may be manipulative. According to Cavanagh.Quinn, Duncan, Graham and Balbuena (2017), many a times, opposition defiant disorder children show no remorse of care about the consequences of their behavior or their effect on others. Children who have been subjected to abuse may also exhibit defiant behavior (Aebi et al. 2015). Extremely harsh forms of punishment, inconsistent child rearing, are significant factors of opposition defiant disorder. According to research, children of drug addicts are more prone to developing opposition defiant disorder. Opposition defiant disorder children are more likely to develop depression, anxiety and conduct disorder. 

Defiant behavior can really be frustrating at home and school (Cavanagh et al. 2017). According to these researchers, defiant behavior may lead to expulsion or suspension from school and worse still, affect a child's ability to learn and relate with others socially. If left untreated, opposition defiant disorder can escalate with age in some cases. Theses may lead to lasting consequences legally, socially and psychologically. Many teenagers and children with opposition defiant disorder also suffer from learning disabilities, attention deficit disorders, anxiety disorders and mood disorders such as depression (Cavanagh et al. 2017). Research has identified a correlation between opposition defiant disorder and the development of conduct disorder in adults which is a more serious behavior disorder (Burnette, 2013). Early treatment of opposition defiant disorder can help in the management of this behavioral condition and prevention of its severity. 

Mental therapy often helps in treating opposition defiant disorder and may prevent a child's rebellious behavior from worsening (Cavanagh et al. 2017). In this therapy, all possible causes leading to the disorder are addressed. It should be noted that most children suffering from opposition defiant disorder have difficulties in expressing their emotions. As such it is important to teach them on emotional expression. According to Cavanagh et al. (2017), through learning emotional expressivity, it is easier to train them on how to express their feelings verbally as opposed to resorting to physical tantrums and outbursts. 

Children with poor emotional expressivity also suffer from poor anger management, in this case, anger management therapy may be administered to help. Some therapies that can be used in anger management are relaxation, trigger identification, problem-solving, and recognition of consequences (Cavanagh et al. 2017). For children who cannot control their behavior, individual therapy is recommended. A therapist may use behavior change techniques such as reward techniques and consequences, family therapy, play therapy, or any therapy that suits the needs of an individual child or his/her level of opposition defiant disorder (Aebi et al. 2015). 

According to the researchers, through the help of caregivers and therapist, a child may be able to learn communication skills and explore deep issues that trigger opposition defiant disorder in them which will help in improving interactions with family, peers and authorities. Opposition defiant disorder in a child can lead to the whole family getting affected and as such, family therapy is recommended (Aebi et al. 2015). Opposition defiant disorder in one child in the family can lead to stress and strained relationships between parents, partners and siblings. Through family therapy, family members can learn on how to best cope with this child and as such support him/her in the recovery journey. 

Social Theory and Defiant Behavior 

Sociological theories state that the society creates an atmosphere and condition under which an individual’s behavior develops especially when it comes to defiant and criminal behavior (Taylor, Walton & Young, 2013). Apart from family influence, children are greatly affected by the different environments they get to interact with on a daily basis. There is an interconnection in various elements of environments of children such as proximal influences, such as parents and friends who affect a child directly, distal influences, community and media which affects a child indirectly but impact more than proximal influences (Taylor, Walton & Young, 2013). According to the researchers, the social theory represents the complex relationship between children and the society over time. Social theory models focus on an individual child and the many influences that surround him. Social theory can be of great use in developing preventive and interventional measures as well as help in identifying resources in the community that can help in combating opposition defiant disorder. 

Social theory suggests that defiant behavior occurs when a child's attachment to a group is weakened (Aebi et al. 2015). According to this theory, children care a lot about what other people think or say about them. As such society develops control over them and in response to this, they conform to societies expectations in order to meet what others expect from them. To produce conformity, socialization is important and in line of conformity and socialization, a lot of conflicts are bond to arise and each individual responds differently to these conflicts. 

According to Taylor, Walton and Young, (2013), defiance occurs when this conformity is broken. Social theory assess how opposition defiant disorder victims are attached or not attached to common societal values and systems and what pushes them to break commitment or connections to these values. This theory also suggests that at some point in life, most of us have felt impulsive towards opposition defiant disorder but depending on a person attachment to social values and norms, we may have or have not responded positively to these impulses (Taylor, Walton & Young, 2013). 

Solving Defiant Behavior Using Social Theory 

Social theory can be used in solving defiant behavior (Glucksmann, 2014) . According to the researcher, this theory explains some of the causes of defiant behavior. Through identification of these causes, preventive measures and ways of solving this issue can be identified. This theory can be used in understanding opposition defiant disorder and ways of dealing with it. 

Conclusion  

Defiant behavior is a social problem that affects children. This condition is more prominent in the adolescent stage of a child’s development. Male children tend to develop this condition more as opposed to female children (Burnette, 2013). This condition however gets suppressed and disappears as a child’s grows through adolescence. There are a variety of reasons that causes this condition most of them are societal factors such as a child’s upbringing, and the environment in which a child grows up in, the experiences he or she undergoes or witnesses as a child. Social theory aims at understanding the relationship between society and an individual’s, behavior, relationship with others, and personality (Taylor, Walton, & Young, 2013). 

According to the researchers, through understanding this relationship, social theory can be used in addressing this societal problem in children. Social theory helps in solving this problem through identifying the triggers of this behavior and knowing how to counter them. Social psychologists can apply this theory in treating children suffering from defiant behavior. By combining this theory with other behavior therapies such as cognitive behavior therapy, psychologists can help children identify triggers of defiant behavior and learn how to avoid these triggers or deal with them (Taylor, Walton & Young 2013). Some of the triggers of defiant behavior are disrupted parenting, depression, environmental factors, genetics, and some biological composition (Taylor, Walton, & Young, 2013). Social theory is a reliable in addressing this problem in that it is a valid and reliable theory whose facts can be tested through public observations. 

References  

Aebi, M., Barra, S., Bessler, C., Steinhausen, H. C., Walitza, S., & Plattner, B. (2015). Oppositional defiant disorder dimensions and subtypes among detained male adolescent offenders. Journal of child psychology and psychiatry. 

Burnette, M. L. (2013). Gender and the development of oppositional defiant disorder: contributions of physical abuse and early family environment. Child maltreatment, 18(3), 195-204. 

Cavanagh, M., Quinn, D., Duncan, D., Graham, T., & Balbuena, L. (2017). Oppositional defiant disorder is better conceptualized as a disorder of emotional regulation. Journal of attention disorders, 21(5), 381-389. 

Glucksmann, M. (2014). Structuralist Analysis in Contemporary Social Thought (RLE Social Theory): A Comparison of the Theories of Claude Lévi-Strauss and Louis Althusser . Routledge. 

Seidman, S. (2016). Contested knowledge: Social theory today. John Wiley & Sons. 

Taylor, I., Walton, P., & Young, J. (2013). The new criminology: For a social theory of deviance. Routledge. 

Tung, I., & Lee, S. S. (2014). Negative parenting behavior and childhood oppositional defiant disorder: Differential moderation by positive and negative peer regard. Aggressive behavior, 40(1), 79-90. 

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Social Identity Theory In Psychology (Tajfel & Turner, 1979)

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

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Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

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Social Identity Theory, proposed by Henri Tajfel and John Turner in the 1970s, posits that individuals derive a portion of their self-concept from their membership in social groups.

The theory seeks to explain the cognitive processes and social conditions underlying intergroup behaviors, especially those related to prejudice, bias, and discrimination.

Social identity is a person’s sense of who they are based on their group membership(s).

Tajfel and Turner (1979) proposed that the groups (e.g., social class, family, football team, etc.) people belonged to were important sources of pride and self-esteem.

Social identity groups can give you a sense of:

• Belonging : Being part of a group can instill feelings of connection and unity, giving individuals the comforting sense that they’re not alone in their experiences or perspectives.
• Purpose : Group affiliations often come with shared goals or missions, which can provide direction and purpose to individual members.
• Self-worth : Affiliating with a group can boost self-esteem as individuals derive pride from group achievements and a positive group image.
• Identity : Groups provide a framework to understand oneself in the context of a larger community. They can help define who you are based on shared attributes, values, or goals.

1. Social Categorization

This refers to the tendency of people to classify themselves and others into various social groups based on attributes like race, gender, nationality, or religion.

We categorize objects to understand them and identify them. In a very similar way, we categorize people (including ourselves) to understand the social environment.  We use social categories like black, white, Australian, Christian, Muslim, student, and bus driver because they are useful.

Categorization helps individuals simplify the social environment but can also lead to stereotyping. If we can assign people to a category, that tells us things about those people.

Similarly, we find out things about ourselves by knowing what categories we belong to.  We define appropriate behavior by referencing the norms of groups we belong to, but you can only do this if you can tell who belongs to your group. An individual can belong to many different groups.

For example, you have categorized yourself as a student, chances are you will adopt the identity of a student and begin to act the ways you believe student act.

2. Social Identification

Once individuals categorize themselves as members of a particular group, they adopt the identity of that group. This means they begin to see themselves in terms of group characteristics and adopt its norms, values, and behaviors.

If for example you have categorized yourself as a student, the chances are you will adopt the identity of a student and begin to act in the ways you believe students act (and conform to the norms of the group).

There will be an emotional significance to your identification with a group, and your self-esteem will become bound up with group membership.

3. Social Comparison

After categorizing and identifying with a group, individuals compare their group to others. This comparison is often biased in favor of one’s own group, leading to in-group favoritism.

This is critical to understanding prejudice, because once two groups identify themselves as rivals, they are forced to compete in order for the members to maintain their self-esteem.

Competition and hostility between groups is thus not only a matter of competing for resources (like in  Sherif’s Robbers Cave ) like jobs but also the result of competing identities.

4. In-group (us) and Out-group (them)

Within the context of SIT, the ‘in-group’ refers to the group with which an individual identifies, while ‘out-group’ pertains to groups they don’t identify with.

The theory asserts that people have a natural inclination to perceive their in-group in a positive light while being neutral or even negative towards out-groups, thus enhancing their self-image .

5. Positive Distinctiveness

The desire for positive self-esteem will motivate one’s in-group to be perceived as positively different or distinct from relevant out-groups.

Prejudiced views between cultures may result in racism; in its extreme forms, racism may result in genocide, such as occurred in Germany with the Jews, in Rwanda between the Hutus and Tutsis, and, more recently, in the former Yugoslavia between the Bosnians and Serbs.

Examples of In-groups and Out-groups

It’s important to note that ingroups and outgroups are fluid concepts. The group an individual identifies with can change based on context, environment, or over time.

Moreover, everyone belongs to multiple ingroups across different facets of their identity. The categorization into ingroups and outgroups also plays a significant role in intergroup dynamics, biases, and conflicts.

Ethnicity & Race:

• Ingroup : Someone of Chinese descent might identify with other Chinese individuals.
• Outgroup : The same individual might see people of Japanese or Indian descent as an outgroup.
• Ingroup : A Christian might identify with other Christians.
• Outgroup : Muslims, Hindus, or Buddhists might be perceived as outgroups to Christians.

Nationality:

• Ingroup : An American might feel a kinship with fellow Americans.
• Outgroup : Canadians, Mexicans, or Britons might be seen as outgroups.

Professional Affiliation:

• Ingroup : Teachers might see other teachers as part of their ingroup.
• Outgroup : They might see administrators, policymakers, or even other professions like lawyers or doctors as outgroups.

Sports Teams:

• Ingroup : A fan of the New York Yankees might identify with fellow Yankees fans.
• Outgroup : Boston Red Sox fans could be perceived as the outgroup.

Political Affiliation:

• Ingroup : A Republican might feel aligned with fellow Republicans.
• Outgroup : Democrats, Libertarians, or members of other political parties might be seen as outgroups.
• Ingroup : Teenagers might feel that other teens understand their experiences and challenges best.
• Outgroup : They might see adults, especially older adults, as an outgroup.

Musical Preference:

• Ingroup : Fans of heavy metal music might identify with fellow metalheads.
• Outgroup : Fans of pop, country, or classical music might be perceived as outgroups.

Educational Institutions:

• Ingroup : Alumni of a particular university might feel a sense of camaraderie with fellow alumni.
• Outgroup : Alumni from rival universities might be seen as the outgroup.

Gender and Sexual Orientation:

• Ingroup : LGBTQ+ individuals might feel a sense of belonging with others who identify similarly.
• Outgroup : Heterosexual individuals or those who aren’t supportive might be perceived as outgroups.

Implications

• In-group Favoritism : Because individuals seek positive self-esteem, they are inclined to favor and promote their in-group at the expense of out-groups. This can manifest in various ways, from simple preference to allocating more resources to in-group members.
• Stereotyping and Prejudice : By categorizing people into groups, there’s a risk of overemphasizing similarities within groups and differences between them, leading to stereotyping. Coupled with the natural bias towards one’s own group, this can foster prejudice against out-groups.
• Intergroup Conflict : When competition or perceived threats exist between groups, or when resources are scarce, the dynamics described by SIT can intensify, leading to intergroup hostility and conflict.
• Shifts in Group Membership : SIT suggests that if individuals feel their current group membership is not providing positive self-esteem, they may either seek to elevate the status of their current group or abandon it in favor of another group that offers a more positive identity.

Applications

• Reducing Prejudice : By recognizing the mechanisms that lead to in-group bias and out-group prejudice, interventions can be designed to foster intergroup understanding and cooperation.
• Organizational Behavior : Within organizations, understanding group dynamics can be instrumental in team formation, conflict resolution, and promoting corporate identity.
• Political and Social Movements : SIT can provide insights into the formation and mobilization of social or political groups, including understanding factors that lead to radicalization. Social identity theory is useful for political psychologists because it addresses intergroup relations, but it has limitations in explaining real-world political identities.

Key issues limiting social identity theory’s application to politics are: 1) Choice in acquiring identities versus assigned identities; 2) Subjective meaning of identities rather than just boundaries; 3) Gradual strength of identification rather than just its existence; 4) Stability of identities over time rather than high fluidity.

Key issues limiting social identity theory’s application to politics are : 1) Choice in acquiring identities versus assigned identities; 2) Subjective meaning of identities rather than just boundaries; 3) Gradual strength of identification rather than just its existence; 4) Stability of identities over time rather than high fluidity.

Research priorities include: studying real-world political identities varying in strength; examining identity formation/development, not just consequences; understanding individual differences in adopting identities; and investigating the meaning of identities based on values, prototypes, valence for members, and contrast with outgroups.

Critical Evaluation

The social identity approach explains group phenomena based on social context, categorization, identity, norms, and status. It shed new light on old topics like crowd behavior, stereotyping, social influence, cohesion, and polarization with its emphasis on collective psychology.

• The approach is one of the only broad meta-theories in social psychology that integrates concepts across an impressive range of domains.
• The theory revolutionized the field of social psychology and had a major influence on research into prejudice, stereotyping, social influence, and intergroup conflict (Hornsey, 2008).
• It has extensive empirical support. The minimal group paradigm remains a widely-used tool.

Yet theorists debate whether the original formulation oversimplified the complex relationship between personal and collective identity.

Depersonalization may also be overstated, as group members accept diverse opinions. The theory’s breadth and multifaceted nature make it hard to falsify.

Critics argue it focuses more on ingroup favoritism than outgroup negativity. And its meta-theoretical scope sometimes comes at the cost of precise, testable hypotheses.

Recent evolutions in the social identity approach sought to address some limitations. Theorists now embrace a more nuanced perspective, acknowledging the interplay between personal and social identity. The self-concept is seen as fluid, with individuals shaping group norms as well as vice-versa.

Distinctiveness and belonging are recognized as concurrent human needs. This fueled research on subgroups, deviance, and the motivational significance of inclusion versus differentiation.

New research also expanded the outcomes examined to cover emotions and historical memory. It delved into the most inclusive level of human identity. Applications proliferated in justice, leadership, communication, politics, and especially organizational psychology.

The approach is increasingly prominent in understanding responses to stigmatized identities, collective action, political conflicts, and intergroup contact.

Ingroups are studied not as monoliths but as complex entities with dissenting voices. Overall, social identity theory remains vibrant and influential, broad-reaching across psychology.

Keep Learning

• If your identity is a definition of who you are, then how does your affiliation with multiple groups affect it?
• Can one truly understand the experiences of an outgroup without having been a part of it?
• How do experiences of discrimination or privilege, based on social identities, shape an individual’s understanding of societal structures?
• In what ways does social identity contribute to societal cohesion, and conversely, societal division?

Huddy, L. (2001). From social to political identity: A critical examination of social identity theory.  Political Psychology ,  22 (1), 127-156.

Tajfel, H., Turner, J. C., Austin, W. G., & Worchel, S. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. Organizational identity: A reader , 56-65.

Billig, M., & Tajfel, H. (1973). Social categorization and similarity in inter-group behavior. European Journal of Social Psychology, 3, 27–52.

Brewer, M. B. (1979). In-group bias in the minimal inter-group situation: A cognitive motivational analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 86, 307–324.

Brown, R. (2000). Social identity theory: Past achievements, current problems and future challenges. European journal of social psychology ,  30 (6), 745-778.

Deaux, K. (1993). Reconstructing social identity. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 19 , 4–12.

Ethier, K. A., & Deaux, K. (1994). Negotiating social identity when contexts change: Maintaining identification and responding to threat. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 243–251.

Flippen, A. R., Hornstein, H. A., Siegal, W. E., & Weitzman, E. A. (1996). A comparison of similarity and interdependence as triggers for in-group formation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22 , 882–893.

Hogg, M. A., Terry, D. J., & White, K. M. (1995). A tale of two theories: A critical comparison of identity theory with social learning theory. Social Psychology Quarterly, 58 , 255–269.

Jackson, J. W., & Smith, E. R. (1999). Conceptualizing social identity: A new framework and evidence for the impact of different dimensions. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25 , 120–135.

Karasawa, M. (1991). Toward an assessment of social identity: The structure of group identification and its effects on in-group evaluations. British Journal of Social Psychology, 30 , 293–307.

Mummendey, A., & Schreiber, H. J. (1984). “Different” just means “better”: Some obvious and some hidden pathways to in-group favouritism. British Journal of Social Psychology, 23, 363–368.

Noel, J. G., Wann, D. L., & Branscombe, N. R. (1995). Peripheral ingroup membership status and public negativity toward outgroups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68 , 127–137.

Tajfel, H., Billig, M. G., & Bundy, R. P. (1971). Social categorization and intergroup behavior. European Journal of Social Psychology, 1 , 149–178.

Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W. G. Austin & S. Worchel (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 33–48). Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.

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Albert Bandura Social Learning Theory Essay

Social learning theory essay: introduction, bandura social learning theory: explanations, the notions of basic social learning, bandura social learning theory: observational learning, importance of cognitive or intrinsic reinforcement, the relationship between learning and change in behavior, bandura social learning theory: applications, bandura social learning theory: conclusion.

Bandura’s social learning theory argues that gaining knowledge that results in behavior change is attained through observation, imitation, and modeling. Besides, the theory postulates that the learning process is achieved through role imitations, attitudes, and anticipated outcomes (Bandura, 1977). In other words, individual learning abilities are enhanced through simulations, scrutiny, and role enhancements. Through observation, individuals can easily create a new behavior, which informs future actions. Generally, the theory explains human behavior concerning incessant interactive reciprocation between ecological, cognitive, and conductive influences. Bandura social learning theory has often been perceived as a conduit between cognitive and behaviorist theories. The reason is that it contains the attributes of both cognitive and behaviorist theories, including increased awareness, recollection, and impetus. The theoretical perspective of Bandura has been widely applied in various fields ranging from psychology to medicine, particularly in explaining children’s cognitive developments and changes in behavior patterns.

According to the theory, learning would be impossible if individuals were left to depend wholly on the impacts of their personal actions (Bandura, 1977). Essentially, the behaviors of an individual cannot be influenced fully by the result of their personal actions. However, individual behaviors are impacted through the process of modeling. In other words, from the observations, individuals can easily come up with an idea of how new behaviors are performed, which informs future actions (Bandura, 1977).

Bandura’s social learning theory is a highly recognized learning and development theory. The reason is that the theory is based on the traditional concepts of learning and development theories while holding the most divergent and provable ideas. In addition to the traditional concepts, Bandura added the social element where the idea of learning through observation is propagated. Bandura argued that gaining new knowledge of information and a resultant change in behaviors are attained through modeling. The modeling process is similar to observational learning, which can be applied to account for several behaviors in individuals (Bandura, 1977).

Three basic ideas form the core of Bandura’s social learning theory. First is the notion of observational learning. Essentially, the idea of observational learning argues that people can gain knowledge by imitating others. The second notion is that an individual’s cognitive or mental state is a critical part of the whole process. The final concept is the fact that not all things observed and learned result in behavioral transformation (Bandura, 1977).

From various experiments, Bandura showed that children tend to learn and imitate other people’s behaviors, particularly significant others. In most cases, children imitate the behaviors they have observed from their adult role models (Bandura, 1977). The observations of Bandura in most of his studies explain the role modeling process in behavior patterns where people tend to imitate the conduct of their significant others. In most behavioral theories, role models are typically termed significant others. The actions of role models majorly influence individuals’ behaviors. According to the social learning theory, new behaviors are learned through observations and imitating the actions of significant others (Bandura, 1977). Through observations, children can understand how new behaviors are performed. For instance, belligerent children have been found to imitate the aggressive actions of their parents. Essentially, such children tend to imitate the hostile actions of their parents, which they had observed in the past. However, learning through observation is not only attained through live models but also through verbal and symbolic models (Bandura, 1977).

Based on the notion, the theory acknowledged three basic learning process models ranging from live to symbolic models. Bandura argued that the live model entails activities that an individual really confirms. The verbal instructional model gives rationalizations and descriptions for a particular behavior (Bandura, 1977). In the symbolic model, the behaviors are portrayed through illusory characters. Symbolic modeling is quite common in the current media, including online, television, and social networking. Learning behaviors through symbolic modeling has become common in the current social system and is influenced by the advances in information technology and globalization.

The theory postulates that gaining knowledge and individual actions are influenced by external environmental factors and cognitive corroboration. According to the theory, intrinsic reinforcement includes internal rewards such as pride, satisfaction, and a sense of accomplishment (Bandura, 1977). Learning will be enhanced when an individual has total internal satisfaction with the new behavior. In addition, adopting the new behavior is quick when it results in increased personal accomplishment. Personal accomplishment is also accompanied by pride and satisfaction. Essentially, intrinsic reinforcement, or the mental state of an individual, plays a critical role in the learning process of an individual (Bandura, 1977). In fact, the emphasis on internal rewards forms the connection between this social learning supposition and cognitive development theories. While most scholars categorize the conjecture under behavioral theories, the approach by Bandura leans towards social cognitive theories.

Most behavior theorists believe that learning enhances and transforms an individual behavior permanently. However, studies indicate that learning can occur without changes in behavior patterns. In other words, new information can be learned without transformations in individual behavior. Bandura’s social learning theory postulates that not all individual behaviors are learned. In fact, the theory argues that the social and intrinsic factors involved in the modeling process determine the success of learning the new behavior (Bandura, 1977). As such, the theory proposed specific steps that must be followed in order to succeed in behavioral changes through the learning process.

One of the steps is the attention. Bandura argues that the learning process is enhanced by increased attention. Actually, any detraction from attention may negatively affect observational learning (Bandura, 1977). Besides, attention is enhanced by intrinsic factors such as increased interest or the creation of new ideas. Another critical factor is retention. Retention is the ability to store the acquired information. While retention can be affected by many factors, the capability of retrieving the information later and put into practice is critical to the modeling process (Bandura, 1977).

Reproduction is the next step after retention. Reproduction is the retrieval of retained information, which is demonstrated by actual practice. The practice of retained information leads to behavior change through skill advancements (Bandura, 1977). The final step in the modeling process is motivation. Motivation can either be in the form of reinforcement or punishment. Either form of motivation is critical for the success of the modeling process.

As indicated, the theory has been widely applied in various fields, from psychology to medicine. In particular, the theory is mainly used in the field of education, particularly in the explanation of the learning process of the pupils. Currently, the education stakeholders take into cognizance of the significance of the theory in establishing strategies that tend to focus on the changing behaviors of school-going children. In addition, the theory has been applied in explaining errant behaviors observed in most school children. Bandura’s social learning theory has also been used to develop education policies such as classroom strategies and help children build self-efficacy. In other fields, the theory has mainly been applied to explain children’s learning and development processes. Further, the theory has been applied in psychology and counseling to explain the behavior patterns of delinquent children. Most importantly, the theory is critical in understanding the current observational learning process through symbolic modeling, majorly influenced by the new media.

Bandura’s social learning theory is one of the highly recognized theories in learning and development. While the theory borrows hugely from the traditional concepts of learning and development theories, it incorporates the social element in which the idea of learning through observation is propagated. The theory argues that the learning process is achieved through observation, imitation, and modeling. As mentioned, the theory is widely applied in the field of education, especially in the explanations of the learning process.

Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory . New York, NY: General Learning Press.

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The Importance of the Social Learning Theory, Essay Example

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The focus of this research paper is to describe the importance of social learning theory by demonstrating its relevance across various situations, time periods, age groups, and cultures. This paper will begin by discussing a brief history and rationale behind the theory developed by Julian Rotter, Albert Bandura, and Robert Akers. It will then describe, in detail, the diverse application of the theory to the understanding and control of aggression, human resource management, children’s dental anxiety, and adolescent tobacco and alcohol use. It will conclude with an evaluation of the literature and suggestions for future research.

The Importance of Social Learning Theory

Social learning theory generally focuses on behaviors that are learned through modeling or imitation of behaviors observed in one’s environment. According to Gibson (2004), Julian Rotter’s 1954 social learning theory was based on expected outcomes combined with positive reinforcement and stated that these two factors largely determine whether a behavior is likely to occur. For example, if a child expects to be punished for bad behavior (perhaps by witnessing others being punished for similar behavior) or is actually punished for such behavior, the child would be unlikely to behave in such a manner due to the expectation of negative consequences.

According to Akers (2009), Burgess and Akers first applied social learning theory to criminal behavior in 1965. Their contention was that behavior is differentially reinforced according to its consequences. They labeled this new version of the theory “differential association reinforcement”. The basic premise of the theory, as it is related to criminal and deviant behavior, is that such behavior is increased when individuals associate with others who commit criminal behavior and observe desirable outcomes of the behavior. For example, if a child sees a local gang member doing drugs, stealing, and killing, and being respected by the community for this behavior, the child will be more likely to engage in similar behavior in the future.

According to Gibson (2004), Bandura’s 1977 application to social learning theory shifted the focus of observational learning toward a more cognitive approach and involved four basic elements: attention of the behavior, retention, behavior production, and motivation. That is, in order for a behavior to be imitated, the individual must first be attending to it, remember it, be able to reproduce it, and recognize the value in such reproduction.

Social learning theory has been and continues to be relevant to this day. Gibson (2004) contends that Rotter’s theory continues to be one of the most relevant theories in adult education literature. In addition, Akers (2009) states that since the inception of his “differential association reinforcement” theory, the theory has garnered widespread attention and has become one of the most widely recognized theories of crime and deviance. It is now well established in the literature of criminology and sociology and is recognized as the most practical theory for explaining all types of criminal behavior. Gibson (2004) also states that Bandura’s social learning theory has been broadly applied to learning situations that occur over an individual’s life span and is highly pertinent in the context of adult learning. Clearly, these theories continue to be applicable to various learning situations and have been shown to be relevant throughout the past six decades. The current paper will focus on how this theory continues to be pertinent today and how it has been applied to various situations and cultures.

Social Learning Theory and Aggression

According to Knutson’s (2007) analysis of Albert Bandura’s research, aggression is a result of the reaction types which people have learned for dealing with stressful situations. First of all, the most notorious source of aggression modeling is that demonstrated by the family. For example, there is a higher incidence of aggressive behavior in the families of delinquent boys as opposed to non-delinquent boys. In addition, an individual’s subculture has a significant effect on whether aggressive behavior is likely to occur. For example, in communities where aggression is positively regarded, higher rates of aggression are found. Finally, aggression is also learned through the mass media. Due to the vivid portrayal of violence which children are exposed to every day, it has also been demonstrated that children who watch the most aggressive TV are the most likely to behave in an aggressive manner.

Social Learning Theory and Human Resource Management

According to Gibson (2004), observational modeling techniques derived from social learning theory have also been applied to human resource management in a variety of companies. This method of learning involves presenting the job skill that must be acquired, having the trainee observe an appropriate model of behavior, discussing the efficacy of the action, practicing the behavior, and providing the trainee with feedback. For instance, American Target stores have incorporated such techniques as one component of their customer service training and it has also been used in managerial leadership training situations.

Social Learning Theory and Phobias

According to Do (2004), social learning theory has even been applied in the field of dentistry as a method of reducing dental anxiety in children. Do explains that the theory has been effective in explaining how children develop such phobias and that it has also been useful in combating these fears. For example, many children develop a fear of going to the dentist by observing other children who are fearful of the dentist or who have tantrums when visiting the dentist. The simple act of observing such a negative reaction could lead to the development of severe dental anxiety. However, developing an understanding of this process has allowed dental practitioners to treat dental anxiety using the same rationale used to understand the source of the fear. That is, dentists can intervene by showing the affected child another child undergoing dental treatment, either via video or real life simulation. The fearful child could observe the model child exhibiting coping behaviors, such as deep breathing and relaxation, and then witness the successful completion of the dental procedures.

This has been proven to be a successful method of decreasing children’s dental anxiety. For example, one study involved a group of children who were shown a 13 minute film of a child modeling a positive dental visit. Another group viewed a film unrelated to the modeling exercise. The group of children who watched the positive behavioral modeling video exhibited significantly less troublesome behavior during their own dental visit. Clearly, the application of social learning theory expands far beyond criminality, deviance, and aggression.

Social Learning Theory and Substance Use  

It appears clear that social learning theory is useful in explaining, teaching, understanding, and treating various types of behavior – from aggression and crime to dental anxiety. However, Akers and Jensen attempted to discover whether this theory is useful only in Western cultures or can be applied to cultures very different from those present in the West. They decided to study substance use in Korean adolescents and conducted a cross-cultural test of social learning, social bonding, and self control theories. The rationale behind the test choices was that these are the three theories most often applied by American criminologists.

They studied the attitudes of Korean youth – that is, their beliefs regarding what is appropriate or inappropriate substance use behavior in specific social situations. They also studied differential reinforcement – the effects of rewarding or desired outcomes compared with those of negative or undesired consequences. Aware that the most important factor in whether adolescents are likely to perform a behavior is whether it is socially reinforced, they also investigated the adolescents’ ideas regarding whether they thought they would gain approval or disapproval from their peers and parents for using substances such as alcohol and tobacco.

Their methodology included obtaining a large sample (1012 teens) from an urban South Korean area and asking them various questions using an anonymous self-report questionnaire. They were asked about their alcohol and tobacco use, their attitudes regarding drug use, how often their close friends use such substances, and what reaction they would expect from their parents and peers if they were to discover that they used alcohol or tobacco. The results of the study indicated that social learning theory explained 58% of the variance in the adolescent’s responses. Thus, it is strongly supported as an explanation for both drinking and smoking in urban Korean teenagers. The variance found was as high or higher than that found when similar tests were conducted using American adolescent samples.

Clearly, the idea that people view the behavior of others and imitate such behavior based on observed consequences is an idea that has survived the test of time. The social learning theory created by Rotter, Akers and Bandura has been successfully applied to multiple situations, individuals, age-groups, and cultures. The fact that social learning theory is an important one has been clearly demonstrated – it continues to play a significant role in current research and will, in all probability, continue to play a key role in future research as well. In keeping with Do’s (2004) research on alleviating dental anxiety using social learning theory, possible areas of future research could include investigation of the source of student writing and test-taking anxiety and methods of dealing with such issues.  This is a serious and pervasive problem affecting students of all disciplines, ages, and cultures and any progress toward a solution would be invaluable to the academic community.

Akers, R.L. (2009). Social learning and social structure: A general theory of crime and deviance . New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.

Akers, R.L., & Jensen, G.F. (2007). Social learning theory and the explanation of crime . New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.

Do, C. (2004). Applying social learning theory to children with dental anxiety. Journal of Contemporary Dental Practice , 15(1), 126-35.

Gibson, S.K. (2004). Social learning (cognitive) theory and implications for human resource development. Advances in Developing Human Resources , 6(2), 193-210.

Knutson, J.F. (2007). The control of aggression: Implications from basic research . New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.

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The Social Identity Theory Essay

A social identity is an element of a person’s self-concept, which is a derivative of a supposed membership in a certain significant social group. The social identity theory, as at first put together by John Turner and Henri Tajfel in the 70s and 80s, was able to introduce the idea of a social identity as a means in which to give an explanation about inter-group behavior (Kolak & Martin, 1991).

The social identity theory can best be described as a speculation, which is able to predict specific inter-group relationships and behavior based on known group status distinctions, the apparent stability and authenticity of those status distinctions, as well as the perceived capability of moving from one group to the other. As a result, this concept contrasts with incidences where the phrase “social identity theory” is utilized to signify all-purpose theorizing in relation to human social selves.

Furthermore, even though some researchers have been able to treat it in such a manner, social identity theory was on no account intended to be an all-purpose theory of social categorization. It was consciousness of the incomplete extent of social identity theory, which caused John Turner together with his colleagues to come up with another cousin theory known as the self-categorization theory (Kolak & Martin, 1991). This is a theory that builds on the ideas of social identity theory to bring in a more broad explanation of both self and group processes.

The phrase social identity perspective or social identity approach is put forward for describing the combined contributions of both the self-categorization theory and the social identity theory. In psychology, issues of self and social identity are normally visualized at the personal-self level. Even though this tradition lays emphasis on the significance of social interactions and social roles of human beings for the understanding of who one is. These are largely regarded as inter-individual procedures, in relation to how reflected appraisals from other individuals contribute to the true meaning of self.

It may also help in fulfilling a general need to belong to a certain group of people. By using the self-categorization theory and social identity theory, we are able to focus on the variety of conditions in which matters of identity and selfhood are impacted by the groups to which human beings belong (Kolak & Martin, 1991). Consequently, psychologists have been able to develop categories of situations where concerns in distin identity plays a major role, and for that reason, where the social self provides a variety of motives and functions.

Using the two theories, psychologists are able to identify each cell in this taxonomy as well as how these matters of self and social identity impose upon a wide variety of behavioral, affective and perceptual responses. Background and research The following paper introduces the methods and focus of scientific psychodynamic research for professionals in different fields. In addition, it draws particular attention to the concepts of “self and social identity,” the two key models in relation to psychodynamic disciplines.

Human beings have different perceptions of self. As a result, these distinct experiences of self are due to a variety of unconscious overviews on the subject of self-becoming dominant at certain times, in certain cultural or social settings. These conceptualizations, or self-schemes, are explained by a variety of conscious and unconscious efforts, which may be of social or personal origin. For that reason, selfschemes do not need to be consistent with each other.

In fact, their general organization may show a discrepancy from being rather disjointed to well harmonious. A harmonious amount of self-organization shows itself in an instinctive sense of self as expecting, attending and intending in accordance with cohesive outlooks (Kolak & Martin, 1991). A disjointed amount of selforganization, however, shows itself in a mystification of selfhood, together with a loss of emotional supremacy. As expected, the level of self-organization settles on the identity of human being, that is to say, the individual’s intuitive or conscious sense of semblance over a period. In addition, psychodynamic researchers are paying attention to the assessment of the level of self-organization in an individual as well the support of the individual in accomplishing greater levels of self-organization. The paper also presents a variety of methods utilized in such a research proposal, that is, quantitative modeling on the basis of self-report information as well as the analysis of spoken narratives.

Furthermore, an awareness of the following field may alert other researchers handle individuals to the matters of multiple selves and the role of conceptualizations in how human beings think, feel and conduct themselves in a variety of situations. While the primary objective of this research project is to provide insight around self and social identity, this research will not recommend or conclude whether one approach is superior to the other. The data that is collected is descriptive data. First step is to sort the data and get the frequency of those research studies that fit the criteria for data collection.

This research provided information, which would be beneficial to psychologist leaders who are looking to understand theories behind the self and social identity. Literature review As mentioned earlier, the Social Identity Theory was founded by Turner and Tajfel with the intention of striving to understand the psychological foundation of intergroup discrimination. They attempted to identify the conditions that could lead people from a specific generation or social group to behave in a discriminative manner towards another external group, supportive of the in-group in which they were members.

It is regarded as a discursive method. The major principle behind the Social Identity Theory is that human beings usually define and categorize themselves and other human beings into several distinct social groups and make every effort to have their individual group valued more greatly as compared to other groups (Tajfel & Turner, 1985). According to Tajfel and Turner’s (1979) assertion, it is believed by other known psychologists that social identities are usually formed to advance or boost individual self-esteem and promote a sense of assurance.

With the intention of explaining the trend of how human beings assess themselves and other people as members of either an ingroup or an out-group, the Social Identity Theory recognizes a number of psychological concepts. These concepts are social comparison, social identification and social categorization. Social categorization is connected with human beings giving individuals various social categories so as to fully understand and recognize them. This leads to the society being separated or divided into different social classes (in-group and an out-group).

On the other hand, the social identification concept argues that human beings take on the identity of the social class in which they have classified themselves into. Therefore, this concept also comprises of the development of an emotional attachment to an individual’s identification with the social class; therefore, self-esteem will be very much related to membership in a certain social group (Tajfel & Turner, 1979). The last concept, social comparison, is associated with an individual being able to compare the social group and identify with other social groups.

This concept argues that in order to hold on to an individual’s self-esteem, their social group is supposed to be seen in a more positive light when compared to other groups (Tajfel & Turner, 1979). Furthermore, several psychological research studies have supported the piece of information that human beings make social categories with the intention of boosting their selfesteem. However, an example of this concept, when human beings learn that their social group is not acceptable to society, they have a tendency to observe the out-group as improper and unacceptable as well.

In response to this, Contrada & Ashmore, (1999) have been able to identify two categories of methods that people use to boost the status of their social group. Haslam argues that social creativity and social conflict are examples of ways that people use to boost their group status. Social conflict stands for social in-group undermining the status of a social outgroup. This can be performed in an aggressive manner or by way of remonstrations. Social creativity on the other hand relates to the in-group laying emphasis on group characteristics that they thrive on, after advertising their strengths.

In accordance with Contrada & Ashmore (1999), if the in-group is not feeling any risks and feels that their social status is greatly safe they will participate in social creativity more willingly than social conflict. Nevertheless, when the elements of the in-group feel that they have been threatened, then they will willingly take part in social conflict. A major principle when it comes to the Social Identity Theory is that an individual’s social identity is usually not fixed and can’t foresee an individual’s behavior.

Another major assumption when it comes to the social identity theory is that human beings are essentially aggravated to accomplish positive individuality or identity. To be precise, people “make every effort for a positive self-perception”. As human beings to contrasting extents may be informed and defined by their personal social identities (as said by the interpersonal-intergroup variety), it is derived in the social identity theory which mentions that “human beings struggle to accomplish or to uphold positive social identities”.

In addition, it should be noted that the exact nature of this struggle for maintenance of a positive self-concept is an issue of discussion. As a result, both the interpersonal-intergroup variety and the theory of positive individuality inspiration took place as results of the discoveries of minimal group studies. Above all, it was established that under specific conditions human beings would support resource allocations which would make the most of the positive individuality of an in-group contrary to an out-group without regard for individual self-interest.

Research questions • What does the social identity theory states? What are the benefits of the social identity theory to the society? • How do prejudices and biases come about in relation to the social identity theory? • Do the privileged persons in the society deserve all these advantages over the underprivileged ones? • What are the advantages of the social identity theory? • How do human beings view themselves on a social background? Hypothesis and methodology We obtain information that gives appearance to our thoughts and problem solving. The technique by which an event is calculated shapes community perceptions of it and the united hard work to influence it.

The purpose of this research is to give an explanation of how self and social identities impact different individuals in the society as well as how different people relate to the social identity theory as developed by Tajfel and Turner. Wealth and success are a measurement for the value that a person is able to bring into the society. People who work harder, struggle more, innovate and invest more into the society are expected to be compensated more through wealth and other resources as compared to the people who do not. In other words, people are usually rewarded according to merit or their hard work and sacrifice.

However, this does not always happen (Arora). Many individuals are born into royal or rich families with many privileges while others are born with practically nothing. The question is, are they more worthy of these advantages than others? In accordance with Namit Arora’s article about equality, there should be fairness in various aspects of life such as, equality within the taxation system, minimal regulation, social safety, opportunity and wealth distribution. (Brewer & Hewstone, 2004). In addition, Arora mentions three approaches that explain distributive economic justice.

These models are the meritocratic, egalitarian and libertarian models. Life should award people according to their ability and contribution to the society and not because of unearned privileges. The libertarian model supports a free market with distinct policies which are meant for all people. According to Arora’s article, all citizens are guaranteed the same basic liberties and rights, as well as the distribution of wealth and income is verified by free market. This type of model supports a formal system of opportunity. In addition, Arora talks about the egalitarian model where it favors equality of all people as well.

In this model, people are expected to get the same rights, and should be equally and with a lot of respect (Arora). In my own personal opinion, this type of model is the best for it comes with a number of advantages. Social inequality can be seen all over the world we live in. it is evident in sports, politics and normal social engagements. It is shown throughout the world from situations of race, ethnicity, gender, and age (Paul, Ellen & Miller, 241). Let us talk a little about various forms of inequality. First, we shall talk about religion. Religion is one of the strongest correlates of social and economic inequalities.

Religious beliefs affect many components of well-being, such as income, wealth and education. According to Karl Marx, a philosopher, religion is a contributing factor to inequality. He bases his argument in the sense that religion masks the truth and misguides believers. It is important to understand the true meaning of meritocracy as well as its examples. Meritocracy refers to a system where the gifted are chosen and develop based on their own achievements (Brewer & Hewstone, 2004). It may also refer to an idealized civilization where unfairness on the basis of age, gender, nationality, race and other aspects does not exist or is low.

Merit is the surrounding value, the vital and ethically approved decisive factor for all social classifications, especially with regard to socioeconomic status and in public systems. The United States is often associated with the meritocratic model which recognizes various inequalities. A concept, that emphasizes societal agreement on the processes of selection for specific roles via a system of sorting, sifting and rewarding talent and skill, provoked by competition for individual qualifications which in turn brings about access to personal satisfaction, prestige, and wealth.

The meritocratic model endorses worthy people despite the social class in which they were born. The question has been raised severally throughout history as to whether a meritocracy which is based on an individual’s natural abilities is fair (Brewer & Hewstone, 2004). Some people might argue that it is fair, for instance, even though people do not deserve their natural advantages it is fair that they obtain the rewards of these abilities for the reason that these people were gifted and when one is gifted then they should acknowledge their gifts.

Therefore, in his article, Arora argues that social status and natural abilities might not be the beginning of distributive economic justice since they are unjust. The people who are naturally advantaged are not supposed to benefit simply because they have more privileges. On the other hand, why make them “pay” for their positive natural talents and advantages? After all, a person does not choose the situation in which they are born.

The minor adjustment of these inequalities in accordance with John Rawls is his difference theory which makes all disparities subject to the idea that the least privileged individuals will gain from them. In order create the rules for a society which is just, Rawls mentioned in his 1971 masterpiece, that we should first imagine all people in an “initial position” before they are born, a position where nobody knows what their own characteristics will be (Arora). They should not know whether they would be poor or wealthy, beautiful or not, smart or not so smart, healthy or sick, talented or not.

Then we would be able to see what kind of social structure that individuals would be in agreement in advance was fair, if they could not know what place they were ordained to dwell in. Rawls brings up a number of great objections in relation to meritocracy (Clark & Ritson, 247). He argues that if everybody knew that a great sum of their money was going to be subtracted from their accounts simply because they are talented or advantaged, then that may make a person that is less advantaged or talented to be as successful as they can be.

Furthermore, this would as well be a motivation for individuals who are not as advantaged or talented to continue doing nothing since they know that they will be successful even if they do not put a lot of effort into anything. This idea however is not fair in any way. Rawls’s second view on the topic of meritocracy was the subject of effort (Arora). People normally believe that a person’s talents originate from how much of their effort is being used in accomplishing something. However, this is not always correct (Brewer & Hewstone, 2004).

For instance, if there are two children where one is excellent or talented in schoolwork while the other has a disability in learning. Even if they are presenting the same level of effort to schoolwork, the child with the disability will not learn as fast as the other one. Therefore, he or she is expected to fall behind. In a society where there are high levels of inequalities, the egalitarian model may be seen as an ideology that applies in life. In its different forms, it refers to the expression of equal opportunity as a desirably vital value of human civilization.

Egalitarianism basically entails an attack on various s inequalities, however, the nature and extent to which this attack operates may vary (Brewer & Hewstone, 2004). For instance, some attacks are concerned with inequalities of power while others on wealth (Arora). In a sense, democratic societies usually have an egalitarian intent concerning power. Theories of fairness can explain and guide our ideas; however, people still have to work to understand how they can transform the game they want to take part in. An open civilization could do this by dynamic public discussion.

The assumptions from the results of this research cannot be generalized to individuals from a variety of cultures. It can be mentioned that the Social Identity Theory is successful in its assertion that human beings have a prejudiced insight of their own social status in comparison to other social groups, that is to say, give an explanation of in-group prejudice. Evidence of this theory can be discovered in the outcomes of Arora’s study into the in-group prejudice proposition. Benefits to the society The social identity theory has a number of advantages to the society.

Building on the discussed elements, the social identity theory features a number of techniques that may be summoned with the intention of accomplish positive distinctiveness. The human being’s preference of behavior is supposed to be dictated greatly by the apparent intergroup correlation. In particular, the option of technique is a product of the apparent permeability of the boundaries that exist between groups as well as the perceived firmness and authenticity of the intergroup social status ladder (Brewer & Hewstone, 2004).

Outstandingly, even though these are regarded from the point of view of a low social status member of a group, similar behaviors can as well be assumed by members of high status groups. The Social Identity Theory combines all clarifications for prejudices, stereotypes as well as discrimination. All of these are seen to come about from a need to have and maintain a positive identity. This theory explains why prejudices exist witn the society and come up with solutions for them.

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