action research background of the study

Action Research: Steps, Benefits, and Tips

Introduction

History of action research, what is the definition of action research, types of action research, conducting action research.

Action research stands as a unique approach in the realm of qualitative inquiry in social science research. Rooted in real-world problems, it seeks not just to understand but also to act, bringing about positive change in specific contexts. Often distinguished by its collaborative nature, the action research process goes beyond traditional research paradigms by emphasizing the involvement of those being studied in resolving social conflicts and effecting positive change.

The value of action research lies not just in its outcomes, but also in the process itself, where stakeholders become active participants rather than mere subjects. In this article, we'll examine action research in depth, shedding light on its history, principles, and types of action research.

Tracing its roots back to the mid-20th century, Kurt Lewin developed classical action research as a response to traditional research methods in the social sciences that often sidelined the very communities they studied. Proponents of action research championed the idea that research should not just be an observational exercise but an actionable one that involves devising practical solutions. Advocates believed in the idea of research leading to immediate social action, emphasizing the importance of involving the community in the process.

Applications for action research

Over the years, action research has evolved and diversified. From its early applications in social psychology and organizational development, it has branched out into various fields such as education, healthcare, and community development, informing questions around improving schools, minority problems, and more. This growth wasn't just in application, but also in its methodologies.

How is action research different?

Like all research methodologies, effective action research generates knowledge. However, action research stands apart in its commitment to instigate tangible change. Traditional research often places emphasis on passive observation , employing data collection methods primarily to contribute to broader theoretical frameworks . In contrast, action research is inherently proactive, intertwining the acts of observing and acting.

The primary goal isn't just to understand a problem but to solve or alleviate it. Action researchers partner closely with communities, ensuring that the research process directly benefits those involved. This collaboration often leads to immediate interventions, tweaks, or solutions applied in real-time, marking a departure from other forms of research that might wait until the end of a study to make recommendations.

This proactive, change-driven nature makes action research particularly impactful in settings where immediate change is not just beneficial but essential.

Action research is best understood as a systematic approach to cooperative inquiry. Unlike traditional research methodologies that might primarily focus on generating knowledge, action research emphasizes producing actionable solutions for pressing real-world challenges.

This form of research undertakes a cyclic and reflective journey, typically cycling through stages of planning , acting, observing, and reflecting. A defining characteristic of action research is the collaborative spirit it embodies, often dissolving the rigid distinction between the researcher and the researched, leading to mutual learning and shared outcomes.

Advantages of action research

One of the foremost benefits of action research is the immediacy of its application. Since the research is embedded within real-world issues, any findings or solutions derived can often be integrated straightaway, catalyzing prompt improvements within the concerned community or organization. This immediacy is coupled with the empowering nature of the methodology. Participants aren't mere subjects; they actively shape the research process, giving them a tangible sense of ownership over both the research journey and its eventual outcomes.

Moreover, the inherent adaptability of action research allows researchers to tweak their approaches responsively based on live feedback. This ensures the research remains rooted in the evolving context, capturing the nuances of the situation and making any necessary adjustments. Lastly, this form of research tends to offer a comprehensive understanding of the issue at hand, harmonizing socially constructed theoretical knowledge with hands-on insights, leading to a richer, more textured understanding.

Disadvantages of action research

Like any methodology, action research isn't devoid of challenges. Its iterative nature, while beneficial, can extend timelines. Researchers might find themselves engaged in multiple cycles of observation, reflection, and action before arriving at a satisfactory conclusion. The intimate involvement of the researcher with the research participants, although crucial for collaboration, opens doors to potential conflicts. Through collaborative problem solving, disagreements can lead to richer and more nuanced solutions, but it can take considerable time and effort.

Another limitation stems from its focus on a specific context: results derived from a particular action research project might not always resonate or be applicable in a different context or with a different group. Lastly, the depth of collaboration this methodology demands means all stakeholders need to be deeply invested, and such a level of commitment might not always be feasible.

Examples of action research

To illustrate, let's consider a few scenarios. Imagine a classroom where a teacher observes dwindling student participation. Instead of sticking to conventional methods, the teacher experiments with introducing group-based activities. As the outcomes unfold, the teacher continually refines the approach based on student feedback, eventually leading to a teaching strategy that rejuvenates student engagement.

In a healthcare context, hospital staff who recognize growing patient anxiety related to certain procedures might innovate by introducing a new patient-informing protocol. As they study the effects of this change, they could, through iterations, sculpt a procedure that diminishes patient anxiety.

Similarly, in the realm of community development, a community grappling with the absence of child-friendly public spaces might collaborate with local authorities to conceptualize a park. As they monitor its utilization and societal impact, continual feedback could refine the park's infrastructure and design.

Contemporary action research, while grounded in the core principles of collaboration, reflection, and change, has seen various adaptations tailored to the specific needs of different contexts and fields. These adaptations have led to the emergence of distinct types of action research, each with its unique emphasis and approach.

Collaborative action research

Collaborative action research emphasizes the joint efforts of professionals, often from the same field, working together to address common concerns or challenges. In this approach, there's a strong emphasis on shared responsibility, mutual respect, and co-learning. For example, a group of classroom teachers might collaboratively investigate methods to improve student literacy, pooling their expertise and resources to devise, implement, and refine strategies for improving teaching.

Participatory action research

Participatory action research (PAR) goes a step further in dissolving the barriers between the researcher and the researched. It actively involves community members or stakeholders not just as participants, but as equal partners in the entire research process. PAR is deeply democratic and seeks to empower participants, fostering a sense of agency and ownership. For instance, a participatory research project might involve local residents in studying and addressing community health concerns, ensuring that the research process and outcomes are both informed by and beneficial to the community itself.

Educational action research

Educational action research is tailored specifically to practical educational contexts. Here, educators take on the dual role of teacher and researcher, seeking to improve teaching practices, curricula, classroom dynamics, or educational evaluation. This type of research is cyclical, with educators implementing changes, observing outcomes, and reflecting on results to continually enhance the educational experience. An example might be a teacher studying the impact of technology integration in her classroom, adjusting strategies based on student feedback and learning outcomes.

Community-based action research

Another noteworthy type is community-based action research, which focuses primarily on community development and well-being. Rooted in the principles of social justice, this approach emphasizes the collective power of community members to identify, study, and address their challenges. It's particularly powerful in grassroots movements and local development projects where community insights and collaboration drive meaningful, sustainable change.

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Engaging in action research is both an enlightening and transformative journey, rooted in practicality yet deeply connected to theory. For those embarking on this path, understanding the essentials of an action research study and the significance of a research cycle is paramount.

Understanding the action research cycle

At the heart of action research is its cycle, a structured yet adaptable framework guiding the research. This cycle embodies the iterative nature of action research, emphasizing that learning and change evolve through repetition and reflection.

The typical stages include:

• Identifying a problem : This is the starting point where the action researcher pinpoints a pressing issue or challenge that demands attention.
• Planning : Here, the researcher devises an action research strategy aimed at addressing the identified problem. In action research, network resources, participant consultation, and the literature review are core components in planning.
• Action : The planned strategies are then implemented in this stage. This 'action' phase is where theoretical knowledge meets practical application.
• Observation : Post-implementation, the researcher observes the outcomes and effects of the action. This stage ensures that the research remains grounded in the real-world context.
• Critical reflection : This part of the cycle involves analyzing the observed results to draw conclusions about their effectiveness and identify areas for improvement.
• Revision : Based on the insights from reflection, the initial plan is revised, marking the beginning of another cycle.

Rigorous research and iteration

It's essential to understand that while action research is deeply practical, it doesn't sacrifice rigor . The cyclical process ensures that the research remains thorough and robust. Each iteration of the cycle in an action research project refines the approach, drawing it closer to an effective solution.

The role of the action researcher

The action researcher stands at the nexus of theory and practice. Not just an observer, the researcher actively engages with the study's participants, collaboratively navigating through the research cycle by conducting interviews, participant observations, and member checking . This close involvement ensures that the study remains relevant, timely, and responsive.

Drawing conclusions and informing theory

As the research progresses through multiple iterations of data collection and data analysis , drawing conclusions becomes an integral aspect. These conclusions, while immediately beneficial in addressing the practical issue at hand, also serve a broader purpose. They inform theory, enriching the academic discourse and providing valuable insights for future research.

Identifying actionable insights

Keep in mind that action research should facilitate implications for professional practice as well as space for systematic inquiry. As you draw conclusions about the knowledge generated from action research, consider how this knowledge can create new forms of solutions to the pressing concern you set out to address.

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Action research

A type of applied research designed to find the most effective way to bring about a desired social change or to solve a practical problem, usually in collaboration with those being researched.

SAGE Research Methods Videos

How do you define action research.

Professor David Coghlan explains action research as an approach that crosses many academic disciplines yet has a shared focus on taking action to address a problem. He describes the difference between this approach and empirical scientific approaches, particularly highlighting the challenge of getting action research to be taken seriously by academic journals

Dr. Nataliya Ivankova defines action research as using systematic research principles to address an issue in everyday life. She delineates the six steps of action research, and illustrates the concept using an anti-diabetes project in an urban area.

This is just one segment in a whole series about action research. You can find the rest of the series in our SAGE database, Research Methods:

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Theoretical and Methodological Validation of the Action Research: Methodology of the Scientific Study

• Open Access
• First Online: 11 September 2021

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• Ona Monkevičienė 9 &
• Alvyra Galkienė 9  

Part of the book series: Inclusive Learning and Educational Equity ((ILEE,volume 5))

2 Citations

This chapter presents the theoretical and methodological substantiation of the action research, which was used by collaborating research teams from Poland, Lithuania, Finland and Austria for the study “Improving Inclusive Education Through Universal Design for Learning”. The chapter discusses different sociocultural contexts in the participating countries and what led to the research question, which asks “How does the implementation of universal design for learning enrich the practice of inclusive education in different educational contexts”. This question was looked at in terms of its relevance to the four above-mentioned countries. It can be argued that the action research is favourable for the development of theory and that inclusive education can be changed and reflected by it. The types of action research chosen by the research teams are discussed, those being collaborative, and critical participatory. The cycles of action research and their goals are also presented. Seeking to substantiate the choices of research teams regarding the process and methods of action research, this chapter elaborates on the aspects of action research organisation that are interpreted differently by the researchers: Can the action research be conducted only by the researcher–teachers or can it be carried out by teachers in cooperation with researchers? Is it possible to use a combination of qualitative and quantitative research? The problem with quality and validity of action research is discussed.

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• Transformation of education
• Methods of action research

3.1 Theoretical Perspective of the Research

The theoretical framework of the study is based on the theory of social constructivism, introduced by Vygotsky (Scheurman, 2018 ), and theories of educational neuroscience. Scheurman ( 2018 ) supports the idea of Piaget’s constructivism and explains Vygotsky’s theory on how social and cultural contexts influence the authentic construction of a child’s understanding. In terms of social constructivism theory, knowledge is co-constructed in the child’s interaction with others, as well as with his or her social and cultural environment. The teacher is seen as a collaborator and provides scaffolding (expert support) for learning. According to Wilson ( 1996 ), the sociocultural theory of Vygotsky ( 1978 ) highlights the significance of the child’s authentic learning experiences towards the construction of their own cognitive processes and strategies for world understanding. This is accomplished with the employment of the following cultural tools: scaffolding, dialogue, collaboration and language. The theories of educational neuroscience present a scientific understanding of brain–behaviour relationships, which allow for the development of new learning and teaching strategies (Jamaludin et al., 2019 ). The above-discussed theories substantiate the understanding of the approach investigated by the Universal Design for Learning and its improvement applied to inclusive education from multiple theoretical lenses (Hackman, 2008 , Meyer et al., 2014 ).

The Goal and Objectives of the Research

The purpose of the study is to better understand how the implementation of universal design for learning enriches the practices of inclusive education in different educational contexts.

The objectives of the research are to employ the Universal Design for Learning (UDL) methodology to:

Reveal the transformations of the educational process in an inclusive classroom

Identify the educational factors facilitating a student becoming an expert learner

Reveal the pedagogical competence of teachers for a diverse set of students

Re-interpret existing inclusive education practices in the classroom

The Context of the Research

The research was conducted implementing the project “Preconditions of Transformation of Education Process in Different Educational Contexts by Applying Inclusive Education Strategies” (Erasmus+, No. 2018-1-LT01-KA201-046957, 2018–2021). Researchers and school teachers from four countries and various educational settings, all of whom have been exploring research-based solutions for improving inclusive education, made up the international research team. Researchers from the University of Vienna, Austria, joined teachers from LWS Steinbrechergasse, a local school in Vienna; researchers from the University of Cracow, Poland, teamed up with local teachers from Zespol Szkol Ogolnoksztalcacych No. 9; researchers from Vytautas Magnus University, Lithuania, joined teachers from Vilniaus Balsiu mokykla, a school in Vilnius; finally, researchers from the University of Lapland, Finland, partnered with local teachers from Aleksanteri Kenan koulu.

The countries all experience different socio-educational contexts in the implementation of inclusive education. In Lithuania and Poland, inclusive education is still in a phase of active transformation. In Austrian primary schools, it has been actively implemented since 1993 and in secondary schools since 1996 (School Organization Act). However, challenges have been encountered in coping with immigration and socially disadvantaged situations (Galkienė, 2017 ). National projects have been implemented in Finland since 1997 and have contributed to a wide adoption of inclusive education’s main principles. Since 2014, special attention has mainly been paid to ensuring the child’s well-being (Galkienė, 2017 ). At present, the main focus in Finland is on developing the pedagogical competence of inclusive teachers.

In a joint discussion, the international research team identified problem areas in the quality of inclusive education in their countries and directions for its improvement: The concern in Poland centred around the replacement of routine lessons with methods applied by teachers, using the way schoolchildren learn to improve the quality of inclusive education; in Lithuania, it is about the promotion of schoolchildren’s self-regulated learning and developing their qualities and abilities in the context of having them be expert learners; Finland aims to develop teachers’ professional competencies, which enable them to teach a wide range of students; Austria seeks to re-interpret the existing practices of inclusive education by striving for a higher quality of this type of education. The researcher team also discussed the possibilities of applying UDL to help improve inclusive education in specific problem areas. It was decided that researchers and school teachers from all four countries would implement the UDL approach in schools, and assess its transformative impact in order to improve the quality of inclusive education in the identified problem areas.

3.2 Methodological Approach of the Participatory and Collaborative Action Research

Action research as transformational power.

The international research team chose action research after taking into consideration the aim and nature of the inquiry in question. This choice was made because such research is appropriate for planning, implementing, investigating and reflecting on the improvement of inclusive education quality . A theory is usually developed while action research is taking place. Simultaneously, a practical intervention is introduced to help understand and characterise processes and their results. It is believed that social systems and phenomena are easier to comprehend if attempts are made to change them. According to Cohen et al. ( 2013 ), action research is a powerful means for change and improvement. It possesses the potential power to initiate a change at school (Ferrance, 2000 ). According to Rowe et al. ( 2013 ), action research may initiate not only changes that are developmental or transactional but also ones that are transformational. Transformational changes are more radical compared to developmental or transactional ones because they embrace not only improvement of existing practices, structures and procedures but transformation of values, goals, roles, relations, learning and thinking of individuals, teams and organisations. The researchers state that action research is an efficient methodological approach for developing inclusive education (Charalampous & Papademetriou, 2019 ; Armstrong & Tsokova 2019 ).

Action Research Approaches

Since one can use it with various approaches, action research is convenient. Researchers frequently systemise action research according to type: individual teacher research, collaborative action research, school-wide research, etc. (Ferrance, 2000 ), classroom action research, as well as emancipatory, participatory and critical participatory action research (Kemmis et al., 2014 ). In all types of action research, participants raise questions and solve a real problem in a local environment, in a specific context and with the intention of sharing new knowledge with others. The implementers of the research perform the roles of practitioners and researchers. Thus, action research is conducted in the context of a participatory paradigm and, for this reason, it is referred to as participatory action research. Morales ( 2016 ) and Datta et al. ( 2015 ) identify other features of action research, such as collaboration among all the participants, co-learning, joint conducting of research and group reflections and creating new knowledge and meaning. Meanwhile, other researchers single out a separate type of action research, i.e. collaborative action research (Ferrance, 2000 ; Charalampous & Papademetriou, 2019 ).

Two types of action research—participatory and collaborative—are employed in the present research with an emphasis on the participatory approach, which prevails in participatory action research. However, the process of action research also possesses features of a collaborative approach. Nevertheless, the collaborative approach dominates in the process of collaborative action research but the action research naturally relies on the participatory paradigm.

Participatory Action Research

The Austrian team of researchers chose critical participatory action research. While carrying this out, attempts were made to connect all the social groups that were participating in the pedagogical practice and interact through it as a means of introducing changes in existing pedagogical practices at school (Kemmis et al., 2014 ). According to the above-mentioned authors, critical participatory action research aims to change three areas: the way in which practitioners practice (in this case, teachers and other participants in the educational process), their understanding of their own practices and conditions under which they practice (Kemmis et al., 2014 , p. 63). Participatory action research is typically coordinated by the participants themselves, its model being democratic and its success focused on personal and collective change (Morales, 2016 ; Jacobs, 2016 ).

Participatory action research proved useful for attaining the goal set by the Austrian team of researchers: to re-interpret existing inclusive education practices in the classroom under the perspective of the UDL methodology. Participating teachers, students and parents identified good practices of inclusive education, as well as barriers that work against it. Together, they developed a research and action plan, and reflected on learner outcomes.

Collaborative Action Research

The Polish, Lithuanian and Finnish research teams used collaborative action research, where school and university teachers acted as co-researchers. The Polish group employed collaborative action research to reveal transformations to the educational process that took place when an inclusive classroom employed the UDL methodology; the Lithuanians employed the UDL strategy to identify the educational factors facilitating a student becoming an expert learner. The Finns used it to reveal the pedagogical competencies involved with teaching to a diverse group of students. The participatory action research conducted in Austria included collaboration between university researchers and teachers.

Collaborative action research is considered to be an efficient strategy for transforming a settled practice in schools to achieve clear goals for its improvement and as a way to both improve teachers’ professional competencies and create knowledge free from the boundaries of theory and practice (Mertler, 2019a ; Rowell et al., 2017 , Alber & Nelson, 2002 ). Some researchers (Kemmis et al., 2014 ) express a position that action research has to be carried out by teachers themselves, since this type of research involves a self-reflective and self-transformative process. However, the studies conducted by the teachers and researchers working together contradict this approach (Charalampous & Papademetriou, 2019 ; Kapenieks, 2016 ). In the research carried out by Olander and Holmqvist Olander ( 2013 ), teachers joined researchers to design and reflect on lessons, with the results of one planned and delivered lesson of biology serving as a basis for planning a second and then a third lesson. Olander and Holmqvist Olander ( 2013 , 210) state that teachers’ collaboration with researchers allowed them to identify what students do not know and to design efficient lesson models. Moreover, such collaboration “is an important tool and has potential to scaffold teachers’ professional development”. The results of the research presented by Messiou ( 2019 ) show that collaborative action research encourages the development of inclusive thinking and improves inclusive education practices.

The collaborative dialogue of school teachers and university lecturers, which led to deeper reflection, was one of the essential features of “Improving Inclusive Education Through Universal Design for Learning”, the international action research presented in this study. Teachers and researchers from Poland, Lithuania, Finland and Austria acted as co-researchers from the first stages of the action research process to the end. Researchers from universities in all the countries chose participating schools and where authorities and teachers would volunteer to join the projects. They also sought out and tested new strategies of inclusive education that aim to improve the quality of both inclusive education and student achievement in their schools. As mentioned above, university researchers and school teachers together held discussions about the problems with the quality of inclusive education in their countries, as well as changes that would need to be introduced. In their joint discussion, all the researchers and school teachers chose the UDL approach, predicting that its implementation could have a transformative impact in improving the quality of inclusive education in the problem areas identified in each country. The researchers and teachers all participated in the training courses, where lecturers from the organisation CAST, which has created and has been developing this approach, presented conceptual and practical aspects of UDL. The researchers and teachers together participated in the CAST webinars, which focused on such topics as “The conception and principles of UDL”, “Design of socio-educational environment based on the UDL principles”, “Planning the process of education, based on UDL principles”, “Implementation of UDL-based learning-teaching methods in the process of education. Observation and analysis of teaching videos using the UDL lens” and “Designing of UDL-based classroom settings and teaching/learning supplies” (2018). The researchers and teachers shared insights on contextualisation of UDL at school and its use for lesson planning. They looked at this through the prism of striving for a better quality of inclusive education, more ways of learning that best suits students and more goal-oriented learning. After every cycle of action research, a joint discussion was held with the Polish, Lithuanian, Finish and Austrian research teams. Teachers spoke with researchers while they also debated within their own separate groups.

Researchers and school teachers from all participating countries designed models of action research tailored to the problems that had been analysed, devised a three-point plan of action research and set goals for each phase. Discussing with the researchers and collecting data from others participating in the education process (learners and parents), the teachers from Poland, Lithuania and Finland identified the strengths of inclusive education, areas for improvement, and barriers in the educational process that prevent students from experiencing learning success in their schools. They also foresaw UDL-based actions that would eliminate barriers in the education process. Together with teachers, the researchers discussed the methods of data collection. The researchers observed the lessons delivered by teachers and, based on the results of previously taught lessons, discussed with teachers the planning of new lessons. The application of a UDL approach during lessons was also discussed among teachers. The teachers alone, as well as with the researchers, reflected on the results, problems and barriers of each cycle of action. As mentioned above, participatory action research was carried out in Austria, where teachers, students, parents and researchers participated in all stages.

To ensure the success of the joint researcher–teacher approach, researchers need to establish certain principles and conditions: a two-way empowering relationship with teachers (Datta et al., 2015 ); a clear discussion on research methods and process, as well as roles; scaffolding that helps teachers plan their activities (Mertler, 2019b ); reflections and participation in the learning process to form the foundation for improving teachers’ educational practice; reflections that need to be grounded in mutual trust and open to discussions surrounding difficulties (Insuasty & Jaime Osorio, 2020 ). All these conditions had been embedded in our research, with the resulting collaboration between researchers, teachers and other participants in the action research being warm, open and based on critical dialogue, reflection and scaffolding.

3.3 Cycles of Action Research

Action research is a cyclical process that involves identifying areas where there are problems and room for improvement, devising an action and implementation plan, setting up data collection, assessing and reflecting action and changes, and modifying the action plan. These all need to be considered for results to occur (Ferrance, 2000 ; Cohen et al., 2013 ; Charalampous & Papademetriou, 2019 ). Models of action research vary. Although the research teams from Poland, Lithuania, Finland and Austria applied different models of action research, all but one comprised three cycles (with Austria comprising two), which we present below.

The first cycle is aimed at analysing the context of inclusive education’s problem areas that were identified in Polish, Lithuanian, Finnish and Austrian schools, as well as identifying a specific research problem. Applying the UDL approach in the school of each country, best practices for organising inclusive education were evaluated and student learning barriers were identified from the perspective of teachers and students (The Austrians and Poles also identified barriers from the perspective of parents). Possible areas for improvement were identified, as were how the application of UDL can contribute to that improvement.

The second cycle applies the UDL approach as a means of eliminating student learning barriers identified in the first cycle and to improve the quality of inclusive education. Traditional routine teaching and learning was replaced with an educational processs grounded in the principles of UDL; the UDL approach was applied to help develop the qualities of students as expert learners; practices of inclusive education were re-interpreted and renewed in the context of the UDL approach; in the process of inclusive education and applying the UDL approach, teachers came together to reflect on the competencies that help them facilitate teaching a diverse set of learners. This second-cycle reflection touched on changes in the practice of teaching and learning, as well as in the attitudes of teachers and other participants, the factors that enhance the quality of inclusive education, and unresolved or newly identified barriers to student learning.

In the third cycle , the UDL approach was applied seeking to enhance the good practices of inclusive education, which had been modelled in the second cycle, and to eliminate the barriers to students learning, which had not been coped with in the second cycle or emerged anew. The change in the practice of teaching and learning as well as in the attitudes of teachers and other participants in the process of teaching, the factors that strengthen the quality of inclusive education, unresolved or newly identified challenges to further improvement of the quality of inclusive education students’ learning were reflected on in the third cycle. The third cycle of action research conducted by Finnish researchers focused on reflecting the teachers’ competence to work with a diversity of students in the classroom applying UDL.

It just so happened that due to the coronavirus outbreak the schools faced a problem in the third cycle of research. Challenges with distance learning begat new questions: How can the inclusive process be organised in the online classroom and made accessible to all students, including SEN learners; What are both the advantages and disadvantages of distance learning that make it possible or impossible to ensure inclusion for all students or individual learners; How does the UDL approach help to adapt to unexpected challenges and make the experience more dynamic?

3.4 Research Methods

The data collection in the action research aims to identify a specific problem, to then foresee what will be improved prior to devising an action plan. Implementing it requires reflection on changes in practices and attitudes and factors that had led to those changes (after implementation of action plan). The accumulated data enable understanding of what is going on in the classroom and what participants in the process of teaching and learning think about and how they approach their work. It also helps to identify actions that can stimulate changes that result from a specific action and how that result can be predicted and achieved. The methodology of action research is associated with a qualitative paradigm over a long period of time. For this reason, it seemed most appropriate to apply qualitative data collection and analysis methods (Dosemagen & Schwalbach, 2019 , 163). However, other researchers have expanded the field of methods applied in the action research and have used a mixed research approach (i.e. combining qualitative and quantitative methods) (Charalampous & Papademetriou, 2019 ). While they evaluated and understood their work by applying qualitative methods, their results were measured with quantitative methods (Parker et al., 2017 ). Ivanova and Wingo ( 2018 ) substantiated conceptual, philosophical and procedural aspects of using a mixed-method approach in action research. A multi-method approach is applied in the presented research, applying either qualitative research methods on their own or combining both qualitative and quantitative (Charalampous & Papademetriou, 2019 ). Various methods of data collection and analysis were used: interviews, diaries, video and audio recordings, questionnaires, etc. (Ferrance, 2000 ). It should be noted that qualitative methods of data collection and analysis prevail even when a mixed approach to research methods is followed.

A multi-method approach was applied in the research conducted by the Polish, Lithuanian and Finnish research teams while a qualitative research approach was applied in the research conducted by the Austrians. A more detailed description of applied methods is provided in chapters where the research results are presented.

The action research was conducted following all the ethical requirements. Informed consent (from students, their parents, teachers, school authorities) was obtained. To ensure confidentiality, the names of children and teachers were changed to pseudonyms and no details that could be linked with a particular person were presented. While writing the study, the participants in the research were provided with information on the research results.

3.5 Quality and Validity of Action Research

Bradbury et al. ( 2019 , 25) state that the quality of action research is ensured by (1) clearly defined goals, (2) partnership and participation, (3) contribution to action research theory practice, (4) appropriate methods and process, (5) actionability, (6) reflexivity and (7) significance. To ensure the validity of action research, researchers have to adhere to principles that ensure the research quality (Dosemagen & Schwalbach, 2019 ).

The validity of the action research conducted in Poland, Lithuania, Finland and Austria is guaranteed by the quality of its organisation. The common goals of this research and the aims of the first cycle were discussed and elaborated on in the joint meeting. The aims of the second cycle of action research emerged after reflections on the first cycle by the teams of each country and were discussed in the joint meeting of all the countries. The aims of the third cycle were based on the reflections of the second cycle and were discussed in by analogy, ensuring a clear and precise definition. The validity of research methods and procedures was ensured by the responsibility for their design, assumed by university researchers, active discussions with teachers in the research process and from analysing and reflecting on the data.

As stated, a participatory and collaborative approach to the research was followed at all stages. Continuous reflection was held at different action research stages, allowing for all the participants to engage in the action research.

The use of UDL’s theoretical approach for introducing changes to inclusive education practices ensured a connection between theory and practice. The teachers devised plans for UDL-based lessons and, during the course of their implementation, the impact on students’ participation in the lessons was observed, their choices of learning that were convenient to them, expressing the qualities of the expert learner and having an influence on student achievement. It was also observed and reflected on whether action research helps in coping with challenges encountered by schools and whether or not it provides any benefit to all the participants in the process of teaching and learning. All this created pre-requisites for re-interpretation of the very UDL approach from the perspective of its application in different socio-educational contexts for different purposes.

Limitations of Action Research

The results of action research are context-specific and, therefore, cannot be generalised (Dosemagen & Schwalbach, 2019 , 162). The results of one study cannot be applied when making predictions or conclusions about other groups. On the other hand, the processes of action research disclose how considerable changes can be modelled and implemented in different local contexts, how transformative social learning occurs when dialogue based, creative methods that change practice are applied. Action research encourages teachers’ engagement in solving complex problems in the local context. Moreover, according to Bradbury et al. ( 2019 , 27): “action research liberates learning from a consolation of facts to taking our own experience seriously”.

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Monkevičienė, O., Galkienė, A. (2021). Theoretical and Methodological Validation of the Action Research: Methodology of the Scientific Study. In: Galkienė, A., Monkevičienė, O. (eds) Improving Inclusive Education through Universal Design for Learning. Inclusive Learning and Educational Equity, vol 5. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-80658-3_3

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4 Preparing for Action Research in the Classroom: Practical Issues

ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS

• What sort of considerations are necessary to take action in your educational context?
• How do you facilitate an action plan without disrupting your teaching?
• How do you respond when the unplanned happens during data collection?

An action research project is a practical endeavor that will ultimately be shaped by your educational context and practice. Now that you have developed a literature review, you are ready to revise your initial plans and begin to plan your project. This chapter will provide some advice about your considerations when undertaking an action research project in your classroom.

Maintain Focus

Hopefully, you found a lot a research on your topic. If so, you will now have a better understanding of how it fits into your area and field of educational research. Even though the topic and area you are researching may not be small, your study itself should clearly focus on one aspect of the topic in your classroom. It is important to maintain clarity about what you are investigating because a lot will be going on simultaneously during the research process and you do not want to spend precious time on erroneous aspects that are irrelevant to your research.

Even though you may view your practice as research, and vice versa, you might want to consider your research project as a projection or megaphone for your work that will bring attention to the small decisions that make a difference in your educational context. From experience, our concern is that you will find that researching one aspect of your practice will reveal other interconnected aspects that you may find interesting, and you will disorient yourself researching in a confluence of interests, commitments, and purposes. We simply want to emphasize – don’t try to research everything at once. Stay focused on your topic, and focus on exploring it in depth, instead of its many related aspects. Once you feel you have made progress in one aspect, you can then progress to other related areas, as new research projects that continue the research cycle.

Identify a Clear Research Question

Your literature review should have exposed you to an array of research questions related to your topic. More importantly, your review should have helped identify which research questions we have addressed as a field, and which ones still need to be addressed . More than likely your research questions will resemble ones from your literature review, while also being distinguishable based upon your own educational context and the unexplored areas of research on your topic.

Regardless of how your research question took shape, it is important to be clear about what you are researching in your educational context. Action research questions typically begin in ways related to “How does … ?” or “How do I/we … ?”, for example:

Research Question Examples

• How does a semi-structured morning meeting improve my classroom community?
• How does historical fiction help students think about people’s agency in the past?
• How do I improve student punctuation use through acting out sentences?
• How do we increase student responsibility for their own learning as a team of teachers?

I particularly favor questions with I or we, because they emphasize that you, the actor and researcher, will be clearly taking action to improve your practice. While this may seem rather easy, you need to be aware of asking the right kind of question. One issue is asking a too pointed and closed question that limits the possibility for analysis. These questions tend to rely on quantitative answers, or yes/no answers. For example, “How many students got a 90% or higher on the exam, after reviewing the material three times?

Another issue is asking a question that is too broad, or that considers too many variables. For example, “How does room temperature affect students’ time-on-task?” These are obviously researchable questions, but the aim is a cause-and-effect relationship between variables that has little or no value to your daily practice.

I also want to point out that your research question will potentially change as the research develops. If you consider the question:

As you do an activity, you may find that students are more comfortable and engaged by acting sentences out in small groups, instead of the whole class. Therefore, your question may shift to:

• How do I improve student punctuation use through acting out sentences, in small groups ?

By simply engaging in the research process and asking questions, you will open your thinking to new possibilities and you will develop new understandings about yourself and the problematic aspects of your educational context.

Understand Your Capabilities and Know that Change Happens Slowly

Similar to your research question, it is important to have a clear and realistic understanding of what is possible to research in your specific educational context. For example, would you be able to address unsatisfactory structures (policies and systems) within your educational context? Probably not immediately, but over time you potentially could. It is much more feasible to think of change happening in smaller increments, from within your own classroom or context, with you as one change agent. For example, you might find it particularly problematic that your school or district places a heavy emphasis on traditional grades, believing that these grades are often not reflective of the skills students have or have not mastered. Instead of attempting to research grading practices across your school or district, your research might instead focus on determining how to provide more meaningful feedback to students and parents about progress in your course. While this project identifies and addresses a structural issue that is part of your school and district context, to keep things manageable, your research project would focus the outcomes on your classroom. The more research you do related to the structure of your educational context the more likely modifications will emerge. The more you understand these modifications in relation to the structural issues you identify within your own context, the more you can influence others by sharing your work and enabling others to understand the modification and address structural issues within their contexts. Throughout your project, you might determine that modifying your grades to be standards-based is more effective than traditional grades, and in turn, that sharing your research outcomes with colleagues at an in-service presentation prompts many to adopt a similar model in their own classrooms. It can be defeating to expect the world to change immediately, but you can provide the spark that ignites coordinated changes. In this way, action research is a powerful methodology for enacting social change. Action research enables individuals to change their own lives, while linking communities of like-minded practitioners who work towards action.

Plan Thoughtfully

Planning thoughtfully involves having a path in mind, but not necessarily having specific objectives. Due to your experience with students and your educational context, the research process will often develop in ways as you expected, but at times it may develop a little differently, which may require you to shift the research focus and change your research question. I will suggest a couple methods to help facilitate this potential shift. First, you may want to develop criteria for gauging the effectiveness of your research process. You may need to refine and modify your criteria and your thinking as you go. For example, we often ask ourselves if action research is encouraging depth of analysis beyond my typical daily pedagogical reflection. You can think about this as you are developing data collection methods and even when you are collecting data. The key distinction is whether the data you will be collecting allows for nuance among the participants or variables. This does not mean that you will have nuance, but it should allow for the possibility. Second, criteria are shaped by our values and develop into standards of judgement. If we identify criteria such as teacher empowerment, then we will use that standard to think about the action contained in our research process. Our values inform our work; therefore, our work should be judged in relation to the relevance of our values in our pedagogy and practice.

Does Your Timeline Work?

While action research is situated in the temporal span that is your life, your research project is short-term, bounded, and related to the socially mediated practices within your educational context. The timeline is important for bounding, or setting limits to your research project, while also making sure you provide the right amount of time for the data to emerge from the process.

For example, if you are thinking about examining the use of math diaries in your classroom, you probably do not want to look at a whole semester of entries because that would be a lot of data, with entries related to a wide range of topics. This would create a huge data analysis endeavor. Therefore, you may want to look at entries from one chapter or unit of study. Also, in terms of timelines, you want to make sure participants have enough time to develop the data you collect. Using the same math example, you would probably want students to have plenty of time to write in the journals, and also space out the entries over the span of the chapter or unit.

In relation to the examples, we think it is an important mind shift to not think of research timelines in terms of deadlines. It is vitally important to provide time and space for the data to emerge from the participants. Therefore, it would be potentially counterproductive to rush a 50-minute data collection into 20 minutes – like all good educators, be flexible in the research process.

Involve Others

It is important to not isolate yourself when doing research. Many educators are already isolated when it comes to practice in their classroom. The research process should be an opportunity to engage with colleagues and open up your classroom to discuss issues that are potentially impacting your entire educational context. Think about the following relationships:

Research participants

You may invite a variety of individuals in your educational context, many with whom you are in a shared situation (e.g. colleagues, administrators). These participants may be part of a collaborative study, they may simply help you develop data collection instruments or intervention items, or they may help to analyze and make sense of the data. While the primary research focus will be you and your learning, you will also appreciate how your learning is potentially influencing the quality of others’ learning.

We always tell educators to be public about your research, or anything exciting that is happening in your educational context, for that matter. In terms of research, you do not want it to seem mysterious to any stakeholder in the educational context. Invite others to visit your setting and observe your research process, and then ask for their formal feedback. Inviting others to your classroom will engage and connect you with other stakeholders, while also showing that your research was established in an ethic of respect for multiple perspectives.

Critical friends or validators

Using critical friends is one way to involve colleagues and also validate your findings and conclusions. While your positionality will shape the research process and subsequently your interpretations of the data, it is important to make sure that others see similar logic in your process and conclusions. Critical friends or validators provide some level of certification that the frameworks you use to develop your research project and make sense of your data are appropriate for your educational context. Your critical friends and validators’ suggestions will be useful if you develop a report or share your findings, but most importantly will provide you confidence moving forward.

Potential researchers

As an educational researcher, you are involved in ongoing improvement plans and district or systemic change. The flexibility of action research allows it to be used in a variety of ways, and your initial research can spark others in your context to engage in research either individually for their own purposes, or collaboratively as a grade level, team, or school. Collaborative inquiry with other educators is an emerging form of professional learning and development for schools with school improvement plans. While they call it collaborative inquiry, these schools are often using an action research model. It is good to think of all of your colleagues as potential research collaborators in the future.

Prioritize Ethical Practice

Try to always be cognizant of your own positionality during the action research process, its relation to your educational context, and any associated power relation to your positionality. Furthermore, you want to make sure that you are not coercing or engaging participants into harmful practices. While this may seem obvious, you may not even realize you are harming your participants because you believe the action is necessary for the research process.

For example, commonly teachers want to try out an intervention that will potentially positively impact their students. When the teacher sets up the action research study, they may have a control group and an experimental group. There is potential to impair the learning of one of these groups if the intervention is either highly impactful or exceedingly worse than the typical instruction. Therefore, teachers can sometimes overlook the potential harm to students in pursuing an experimental method of exploring an intervention.

If you are working with a university researcher, ethical concerns will be covered by the Institutional Review Board (IRB). If not, your school or district may have a process or form that you would need to complete, so it would beneficial to check your district policies before starting. Other widely accepted aspects of doing ethically informed research, include:

Confirm Awareness of Study and Negotiate Access – with authorities, participants and parents, guardians, caregivers and supervisors (with IRB this is done with Informed Consent).

• Promise to Uphold Confidentiality – Uphold confidentiality, to your fullest ability, to protect information, identity and data. You can identify people if they indicate they want to be recognized for their contributions.
• Ensure participants’ rights to withdraw from the study at any point .
• Make sure data is secured, either on password protected computer or lock drawer .

Prepare to Problematize your Thinking

Educational researchers who are more philosophically-natured emphasize that research is not about finding solutions, but instead is about creating and asking new and more precise questions. This is represented in the action research process shown in the diagrams in Chapter 1, as Collingwood (1939) notes the aim in human interaction is always to keep the conversation open, while Edward Said (1997) emphasized that there is no end because whatever we consider an end is actually the beginning of something entirely new. These reflections have perspective in evaluating the quality in research and signifying what is “good” in “good pedagogy” and “good research”. If we consider that action research is about studying and reflecting on one’s learning and how that learning influences practice to improve it, there is nothing to stop your line of inquiry as long as you relate it to improving practice. This is why it is necessary to problematize and scrutinize our practices.

Ethical Dilemmas for Educator-Researchers

Classroom teachers are increasingly expected to demonstrate a disposition of reflection and inquiry into their own practice. Many advocate for schools to become research centers, and to produce their own research studies, which is an important advancement in acknowledging and addressing the complexity in today’s schools. When schools conduct their own research studies without outside involvement, they bypass outside controls over their studies. Schools shift power away from the oversight of outside experts and ethical research responsibilities are shifted to those conducting the formal research within their educational context. Ethics firmly grounded and established in school policies and procedures for teaching, becomes multifaceted when teaching practice and research occur simultaneously. When educators conduct research in their classrooms, are they doing so as teachers or as researchers, and if they are researchers, at what point does the teaching role change to research? Although the notion of objectivity is a key element in traditional research paradigms, educator-based research acknowledges a subjective perspective as the educator-researcher is not viewed separately from the research. In action research, unlike traditional research, the educator as researcher gains access to the research site by the nature of the work they are paid and expected to perform. The educator is never detached from the research and remains at the research site both before and after the study. Because studying one’s practice comprises working with other people, ethical deliberations are inevitable. Educator-researchers confront role conflict and ambiguity regarding ethical issues such as informed consent from participants, protecting subjects (students) from harm, and ensuring confidentiality. They must demonstrate a commitment toward fully understanding ethical dilemmas that present themselves within the unique set of circumstances of the educational context. Questions about research ethics can feel exceedingly complex and in specific situations, educator- researchers require guidance from others.

Think about it this way. As a part-time historian and former history teacher I often problematized who we regard as good and bad people in history. I (Clark) grew up minutes from Jesse James’ childhood farm. Jesse James is a well-documented thief, and possibly by today’s standards, a terrorist. He is famous for daylight bank robberies, as well as the sheer number of successful robberies. When Jesse James was assassinated, by a trusted associate none-the-less, his body travelled the country for people to see, while his assailant and assailant’s brother reenacted the assassination over 1,200 times in theaters across the country. Still today in my hometown, they reenact Jesse James’ daylight bank robbery each year at the Fall Festival, immortalizing this thief and terrorist from our past. This demonstrates how some people saw him as somewhat of hero, or champion of some sort of resistance, both historically and in the present. I find this curious and ripe for further inquiry, but primarily it is problematic for how we think about people as good or bad in the past. Whatever we may individually or collectively think about Jesse James as a “good” or “bad” person in history, it is vitally important to problematize our thinking about him. Talking about Jesse James may seem strange, but it is relevant to the field of action research. If we tell people that we are engaging in important and “good” actions, we should be prepared to justify why it is “good” and provide a theoretical, epistemological, or ontological rationale if possible. Experience is never enough, you need to justify why you act in certain ways and not others, and this includes thinking critically about your own thinking.

Educators who view inquiry and research as a facet of their professional identity must think critically about how to design and conduct research in educational settings to address respect, justice, and beneficence to minimize harm to participants. This chapter emphasized the due diligence involved in ethically planning the collection of data, and in considering the challenges faced by educator-researchers in educational contexts.

Planning Action

After the thinking about the considerations above, you are now at the stage of having selected a topic and reflected on different aspects of that topic. You have undertaken a literature review and have done some reading which has enriched your understanding of your topic. As a result of your reading and further thinking, you may have changed or fine-tuned the topic you are exploring. Now it is time for action. In the last section of this chapter, we will address some practical issues of carrying out action research, drawing on both personal experiences of supervising educator-researchers in different settings and from reading and hearing about action research projects carried out by other researchers.

Engaging in an action research can be a rewarding experience, but a beneficial action research project does not happen by accident – it requires careful planning, a flexible approach, and continuous educator-researcher reflection. Although action research does not have to go through a pre-determined set of steps, it is useful here for you to be aware of the progression which we presented in Chapter 2. The sequence of activities we suggested then could be looked on as a checklist for you to consider before planning the practical aspects of your project.

We also want to provide some questions for you to think about as you are about to begin.

• Have you identified a topic for study?
• What is the specific context for the study? (It may be a personal project for you or for a group of researchers of which you are a member.)
• Have you read a sufficient amount of the relevant literature?
• Have you developed your research question(s)?
• Have you assessed the resource needed to complete the research?

As you start your project, it is worth writing down:

• a working title for your project, which you may need to refine later;
• the background of the study , both in terms of your professional context and personal motivation;
• the aims of the project;
• the specific outcomes you are hoping for.

Although most of the models of action research presented in Chapter 1 suggest action taking place in some pre-defined order, they also allow us the possibility of refining our ideas and action in the light of our experiences and reflections. Changes may need to be made in response to your evaluation and your reflections on how the project is progressing. For example, you might have to make adjustments, taking into account the students’ responses, your observations and any observations of your colleagues. All this is very useful and, in fact, it is one of the features that makes action research suitable for educational research.

Action research planning sheet

In the past, we have provided action researchers with the following planning list that incorporates all of these considerations. Again, like we have said many times, this is in no way definitive, or lock-in-step procedure you need to follow, but instead guidance based on our perspective to help you engage in the action research process. The left column is the simplified version, and the right column offers more specific advice if need.

Figure 4.1 Planning Sheet for Action Research

Action Research Copyright © by J. Spencer Clark; Suzanne Porath; Julie Thiele; and Morgan Jobe is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Background of The Study – Examples and Writing Guide

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Background of The Study

Definition:

Background of the study refers to the context, circumstances, and history that led to the research problem or topic being studied. It provides the reader with a comprehensive understanding of the subject matter and the significance of the study.

The background of the study usually includes a discussion of the relevant literature, the gap in knowledge or understanding, and the research questions or hypotheses to be addressed. It also highlights the importance of the research topic and its potential contributions to the field. A well-written background of the study sets the stage for the research and helps the reader to appreciate the need for the study and its potential significance.

How to Write Background of The Study

Here are some steps to help you write the background of the study:

Identify the Research Problem

Start by identifying the research problem you are trying to address. This problem should be significant and relevant to your field of study.

Provide Context

Once you have identified the research problem, provide some context. This could include the historical, social, or political context of the problem.

Review Literature

Conduct a thorough review of the existing literature on the topic. This will help you understand what has been studied and what gaps exist in the current research.

Identify Research Gap

Based on your literature review, identify the gap in knowledge or understanding that your research aims to address. This gap will be the focus of your research question or hypothesis.

State Objectives

Clearly state the objectives of your research . These should be specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART).

Discuss Significance

Explain the significance of your research. This could include its potential impact on theory , practice, policy, or society.

Finally, summarize the key points of the background of the study. This will help the reader understand the research problem, its context, and its significance.

How to Write Background of The Study in Proposal

The background of the study is an essential part of any proposal as it sets the stage for the research project and provides the context and justification for why the research is needed. Here are the steps to write a compelling background of the study in your proposal:

• Identify the problem: Clearly state the research problem or gap in the current knowledge that you intend to address through your research.
• Provide context: Provide a brief overview of the research area and highlight its significance in the field.
• Review literature: Summarize the relevant literature related to the research problem and provide a critical evaluation of the current state of knowledge.
• Identify gaps : Identify the gaps or limitations in the existing literature and explain how your research will contribute to filling these gaps.
• Justify the study : Explain why your research is important and what practical or theoretical contributions it can make to the field.
• Highlight objectives: Clearly state the objectives of the study and how they relate to the research problem.
• Discuss methodology: Provide an overview of the methodology you will use to collect and analyze data, and explain why it is appropriate for the research problem.
• Conclude : Summarize the key points of the background of the study and explain how they support your research proposal.

How to Write Background of The Study In Thesis

The background of the study is a critical component of a thesis as it provides context for the research problem, rationale for conducting the study, and the significance of the research. Here are some steps to help you write a strong background of the study:

• Identify the research problem : Start by identifying the research problem that your thesis is addressing. What is the issue that you are trying to solve or explore? Be specific and concise in your problem statement.
• Review the literature: Conduct a thorough review of the relevant literature on the topic. This should include scholarly articles, books, and other sources that are directly related to your research question.
• I dentify gaps in the literature: After reviewing the literature, identify any gaps in the existing research. What questions remain unanswered? What areas have not been explored? This will help you to establish the need for your research.
• Establish the significance of the research: Clearly state the significance of your research. Why is it important to address this research problem? What are the potential implications of your research? How will it contribute to the field?
• Provide an overview of the research design: Provide an overview of the research design and methodology that you will be using in your study. This should include a brief explanation of the research approach, data collection methods, and data analysis techniques.
• State the research objectives and research questions: Clearly state the research objectives and research questions that your study aims to answer. These should be specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound.
• Summarize the chapter: Summarize the chapter by highlighting the key points and linking them back to the research problem, significance of the study, and research questions.

How to Write Background of The Study in Research Paper

Here are the steps to write the background of the study in a research paper:

• Identify the research problem: Start by identifying the research problem that your study aims to address. This can be a particular issue, a gap in the literature, or a need for further investigation.
• Conduct a literature review: Conduct a thorough literature review to gather information on the topic, identify existing studies, and understand the current state of research. This will help you identify the gap in the literature that your study aims to fill.
• Explain the significance of the study: Explain why your study is important and why it is necessary. This can include the potential impact on the field, the importance to society, or the need to address a particular issue.
• Provide context: Provide context for the research problem by discussing the broader social, economic, or political context that the study is situated in. This can help the reader understand the relevance of the study and its potential implications.
• State the research questions and objectives: State the research questions and objectives that your study aims to address. This will help the reader understand the scope of the study and its purpose.
• Summarize the methodology : Briefly summarize the methodology you used to conduct the study, including the data collection and analysis methods. This can help the reader understand how the study was conducted and its reliability.

Examples of Background of The Study

Here are some examples of the background of the study:

Problem : The prevalence of obesity among children in the United States has reached alarming levels, with nearly one in five children classified as obese.

Significance : Obesity in childhood is associated with numerous negative health outcomes, including increased risk of type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and certain cancers.

Gap in knowledge : Despite efforts to address the obesity epidemic, rates continue to rise. There is a need for effective interventions that target the unique needs of children and their families.

Problem : The use of antibiotics in agriculture has contributed to the development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, which poses a significant threat to human health.

Significance : Antibiotic-resistant infections are responsible for thousands of deaths each year and are a major public health concern.

Gap in knowledge: While there is a growing body of research on the use of antibiotics in agriculture, there is still much to be learned about the mechanisms of resistance and the most effective strategies for reducing antibiotic use.

Edxample 3:

Problem : Many low-income communities lack access to healthy food options, leading to high rates of food insecurity and diet-related diseases.

Significance : Poor nutrition is a major contributor to chronic diseases such as obesity, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease.

Gap in knowledge : While there have been efforts to address food insecurity, there is a need for more research on the barriers to accessing healthy food in low-income communities and effective strategies for increasing access.

Examples of Background of The Study In Research

Here are some real-life examples of how the background of the study can be written in different fields of study:

Example 1 : “There has been a significant increase in the incidence of diabetes in recent years. This has led to an increased demand for effective diabetes management strategies. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the effectiveness of a new diabetes management program in improving patient outcomes.”

Example 2 : “The use of social media has become increasingly prevalent in modern society. Despite its popularity, little is known about the effects of social media use on mental health. This study aims to investigate the relationship between social media use and mental health in young adults.”

Example 3: “Despite significant advancements in cancer treatment, the survival rate for patients with pancreatic cancer remains low. The purpose of this study is to identify potential biomarkers that can be used to improve early detection and treatment of pancreatic cancer.”

Examples of Background of The Study in Proposal

Here are some real-time examples of the background of the study in a proposal:

Example 1 : The prevalence of mental health issues among university students has been increasing over the past decade. This study aims to investigate the causes and impacts of mental health issues on academic performance and wellbeing.

Example 2 : Climate change is a global issue that has significant implications for agriculture in developing countries. This study aims to examine the adaptive capacity of smallholder farmers to climate change and identify effective strategies to enhance their resilience.

Example 3 : The use of social media in political campaigns has become increasingly common in recent years. This study aims to analyze the effectiveness of social media campaigns in mobilizing young voters and influencing their voting behavior.

Example 4 : Employee turnover is a major challenge for organizations, especially in the service sector. This study aims to identify the key factors that influence employee turnover in the hospitality industry and explore effective strategies for reducing turnover rates.

Examples of Background of The Study in Thesis

Here are some real-time examples of the background of the study in the thesis:

Example 1 : “Women’s participation in the workforce has increased significantly over the past few decades. However, women continue to be underrepresented in leadership positions, particularly in male-dominated industries such as technology. This study aims to examine the factors that contribute to the underrepresentation of women in leadership roles in the technology industry, with a focus on organizational culture and gender bias.”

Example 2 : “Mental health is a critical component of overall health and well-being. Despite increased awareness of the importance of mental health, there are still significant gaps in access to mental health services, particularly in low-income and rural communities. This study aims to evaluate the effectiveness of a community-based mental health intervention in improving mental health outcomes in underserved populations.”

Example 3: “The use of technology in education has become increasingly widespread, with many schools adopting online learning platforms and digital resources. However, there is limited research on the impact of technology on student learning outcomes and engagement. This study aims to explore the relationship between technology use and academic achievement among middle school students, as well as the factors that mediate this relationship.”

Examples of Background of The Study in Research Paper

Here are some examples of how the background of the study can be written in various fields:

Example 1: The prevalence of obesity has been on the rise globally, with the World Health Organization reporting that approximately 650 million adults were obese in 2016. Obesity is a major risk factor for several chronic diseases such as diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer. In recent years, several interventions have been proposed to address this issue, including lifestyle changes, pharmacotherapy, and bariatric surgery. However, there is a lack of consensus on the most effective intervention for obesity management. This study aims to investigate the efficacy of different interventions for obesity management and identify the most effective one.

Example 2: Antibiotic resistance has become a major public health threat worldwide. Infections caused by antibiotic-resistant bacteria are associated with longer hospital stays, higher healthcare costs, and increased mortality. The inappropriate use of antibiotics is one of the main factors contributing to the development of antibiotic resistance. Despite numerous efforts to promote the rational use of antibiotics, studies have shown that many healthcare providers continue to prescribe antibiotics inappropriately. This study aims to explore the factors influencing healthcare providers’ prescribing behavior and identify strategies to improve antibiotic prescribing practices.

Example 3: Social media has become an integral part of modern communication, with millions of people worldwide using platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram. Social media has several advantages, including facilitating communication, connecting people, and disseminating information. However, social media use has also been associated with several negative outcomes, including cyberbullying, addiction, and mental health problems. This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on mental health and identify the factors that mediate this relationship.

Purpose of Background of The Study

The primary purpose of the background of the study is to help the reader understand the rationale for the research by presenting the historical, theoretical, and empirical background of the problem.

More specifically, the background of the study aims to:

• Provide a clear understanding of the research problem and its context.
• Identify the gap in knowledge that the study intends to fill.
• Establish the significance of the research problem and its potential contribution to the field.
• Highlight the key concepts, theories, and research findings related to the problem.
• Provide a rationale for the research questions or hypotheses and the research design.
• Identify the limitations and scope of the study.

When to Write Background of The Study

The background of the study should be written early on in the research process, ideally before the research design is finalized and data collection begins. This allows the researcher to clearly articulate the rationale for the study and establish a strong foundation for the research.

The background of the study typically comes after the introduction but before the literature review section. It should provide an overview of the research problem and its context, and also introduce the key concepts, theories, and research findings related to the problem.

Writing the background of the study early on in the research process also helps to identify potential gaps in knowledge and areas for further investigation, which can guide the development of the research questions or hypotheses and the research design. By establishing the significance of the research problem and its potential contribution to the field, the background of the study can also help to justify the research and secure funding or support from stakeholders.

Advantage of Background of The Study

The background of the study has several advantages, including:

• Provides context: The background of the study provides context for the research problem by highlighting the historical, theoretical, and empirical background of the problem. This allows the reader to understand the research problem in its broader context and appreciate its significance.
• Identifies gaps in knowledge: By reviewing the existing literature related to the research problem, the background of the study can identify gaps in knowledge that the study intends to fill. This helps to establish the novelty and originality of the research and its potential contribution to the field.
• Justifies the research : The background of the study helps to justify the research by demonstrating its significance and potential impact. This can be useful in securing funding or support for the research.
• Guides the research design: The background of the study can guide the development of the research questions or hypotheses and the research design by identifying key concepts, theories, and research findings related to the problem. This ensures that the research is grounded in existing knowledge and is designed to address the research problem effectively.
• Establishes credibility: By demonstrating the researcher’s knowledge of the field and the research problem, the background of the study can establish the researcher’s credibility and expertise, which can enhance the trustworthiness and validity of the research.

Disadvantages of Background of The Study

Some Disadvantages of Background of The Study are as follows:

• Time-consuming : Writing a comprehensive background of the study can be time-consuming, especially if the research problem is complex and multifaceted. This can delay the research process and impact the timeline for completing the study.
• Repetitive: The background of the study can sometimes be repetitive, as it often involves summarizing existing research and theories related to the research problem. This can be tedious for the reader and may make the section less engaging.
• Limitations of existing research: The background of the study can reveal the limitations of existing research related to the problem. This can create challenges for the researcher in developing research questions or hypotheses that address the gaps in knowledge identified in the background of the study.
• Bias : The researcher’s biases and perspectives can influence the content and tone of the background of the study. This can impact the reader’s perception of the research problem and may influence the validity of the research.
• Accessibility: Accessing and reviewing the literature related to the research problem can be challenging, especially if the researcher does not have access to a comprehensive database or if the literature is not available in the researcher’s language. This can limit the depth and scope of the background of the study.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Action research: what, why and how?

Affiliation.

• 1 Kempenhaeghe, Heeze, the Netherlands. [email protected]
• PMID: 19681439

Action research is a form of research that enables practitioners to investigate and evaluate their own work. It is increasingly used in health care research; it is a research strategy in which the researcher and practitioners from the setting under study work together in projects aimed at generating new knowledge and simultaneously improving practice. This article gives an overview of the theoretical background of action research, its international historical development and explanations of its varied forms and related practical applications. Ethical problems are discussed as are questions of rigour The article shows that action research can be used to bridge the gap between theory and practice by generating knowledge fitting the particular circumstances in the practical setting, thereby avoiding problems of implementation of research findings due to lack of fit or lack of motivation. Action research lastingly increases the capacities of practitioners to solve problems encountered in practice.

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Action Research: What it is, Stages & Examples

The best way to get things accomplished is to do it yourself. This statement is utilized in corporations, community projects, and national governments. These organizations are relying on action research to cope with their continuously changing and unstable environments as they function in a more interdependent world.

In practical educational contexts, this involves using systematic inquiry and reflective practice to address real-world challenges, improve teaching and learning, enhance student engagement, and drive positive changes within the educational system.

This post outlines the definition of action research, its stages, and some examples.

Content Index

What is action research?

Stages of action research, the steps to conducting action research, examples of action research, advantages and disadvantages of action research.

Action research is a strategy that tries to find realistic solutions to organizations’ difficulties and issues. It is similar to applied research.

Action research refers basically learning by doing. First, a problem is identified, then some actions are taken to address it, then how well the efforts worked are measured, and if the results are not satisfactory, the steps are applied again.

It can be put into three different groups:

• Positivist: This type of research is also called “classical action research.” It considers research a social experiment. This research is used to test theories in the actual world.
• Interpretive: This kind of research is called “contemporary action research.” It thinks that business reality is socially made, and when doing this research, it focuses on the details of local and organizational factors.
• Critical: This action research cycle takes a critical reflection approach to corporate systems and tries to enhance them.

All research is about learning new things. Collaborative action research contributes knowledge based on investigations in particular and frequently useful circumstances. It starts with identifying a problem. After that, the research process is followed by the below stages:

Stage 1: Plan

For an action research project to go well, the researcher needs to plan it well. After coming up with an educational research topic or question after a research study, the first step is to develop an action plan to guide the research process. The research design aims to address the study’s question. The research strategy outlines what to undertake, when, and how.

Stage 2: Act

The next step is implementing the plan and gathering data. At this point, the researcher must select how to collect and organize research data . The researcher also needs to examine all tools and equipment before collecting data to ensure they are relevant, valid, and comprehensive.

Stage 3: Observe

Data observation is vital to any investigation. The action researcher needs to review the project’s goals and expectations before data observation. This is the final step before drawing conclusions and taking action.

Different kinds of graphs, charts, and networks can be used to represent the data. It assists in making judgments or progressing to the next stage of observing.

Stage 4: Reflect

This step involves applying a prospective solution and observing the results. It’s essential to see if the possible solution found through research can really solve the problem being studied.

The researcher must explore alternative ideas when the action research project’s solutions fail to solve the problem.

Action research is a systematic approach researchers, educators, and practitioners use to identify and address problems or challenges within a specific context. It involves a cyclical process of planning, implementing, reflecting, and adjusting actions based on the data collected. Here are the general steps involved in conducting an action research process:

Identify the action research question or problem

Clearly define the issue or problem you want to address through your research. It should be specific, actionable, and relevant to your working context.

Review existing knowledge

Conduct a literature review to understand what research has already been done on the topic. This will help you gain insights, identify gaps, and inform your research design.

Plan the research

Develop a research plan outlining your study’s objectives, methods, data collection tools, and timeline. Determine the scope of your research and the participants or stakeholders involved.

Collect data

Implement your research plan by collecting relevant data. This can involve various methods such as surveys, interviews, observations, document analysis, or focus groups. Ensure that your data collection methods align with your research objectives and allow you to gather the necessary information.

Analyze the data

Once you have collected the data, analyze it using appropriate qualitative or quantitative techniques. Look for patterns, themes, or trends in the data that can help you understand the problem better.

Reflect on the findings

Reflect on the analyzed data and interpret the results in the context of your research question. Consider the implications and possible solutions that emerge from the data analysis. This reflection phase is crucial for generating insights and understanding the underlying factors contributing to the problem.

Develop an action plan

Based on your analysis and reflection, develop an action plan that outlines the steps you will take to address the identified problem. The plan should be specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART goals). Consider involving relevant stakeholders in planning to ensure their buy-in and support.

Implement the action plan

Put your action plan into practice by implementing the identified strategies or interventions. This may involve making changes to existing practices, introducing new approaches, or testing alternative solutions. Document the implementation process and any modifications made along the way.

Evaluate and monitor progress

Continuously monitor and evaluate the impact of your actions. Collect additional data, assess the effectiveness of the interventions, and measure progress towards your goals. This evaluation will help you determine if your actions have the desired effects and inform any necessary adjustments.

Reflect and iterate

Reflect on the outcomes of your actions and the evaluation results. Consider what worked well, what did not, and why. Use this information to refine your approach, make necessary adjustments, and plan for the next cycle of action research if needed.

Remember that participatory action research is an iterative process, and multiple cycles may be required to achieve significant improvements or solutions to the identified problem. Each cycle builds on the insights gained from the previous one, fostering continuous learning and improvement.

Explore Insightfully Contextual Inquiry in Qualitative Research

Here are two real-life examples of action research.

Action research initiatives are frequently situation-specific. Still, other researchers can adapt the techniques. The example is from a researcher’s (Franklin, 1994) report about a project encouraging nature tourism in the Caribbean.

In 1991, this was launched to study how nature tourism may be implemented on the four Windward Islands in the Caribbean: St. Lucia, Grenada, Dominica, and St. Vincent.

For environmental protection, a government-led action study determined that the consultation process needs to involve numerous stakeholders, including commercial enterprises.

First, two researchers undertook the study and held search conferences on each island. The search conferences resulted in suggestions and action plans for local community nature tourism sub-projects.

Several islands formed advisory groups and launched national awareness and community projects. Regional project meetings were held to discuss experiences, self-evaluations, and strategies. Creating a documentary about a local initiative helped build community. And the study was a success, leading to a number of changes in the area.

Lau and Hayward (1997) employed action research to analyze Internet-based collaborative work groups.

Over two years, the researchers facilitated three action research problem -solving cycles with 15 teachers, project personnel, and 25 health practitioners from diverse areas. The goal was to see how Internet-based communications might affect their virtual workgroup.

First, expectations were defined, technology was provided, and a bespoke workgroup system was developed. Participants suggested shorter, more dispersed training sessions with project-specific instructions.

The second phase saw the system’s complete deployment. The final cycle witnessed system stability and virtual group formation. The key lesson was that the learning curve was poorly misjudged, with frustrations only marginally met by phone-based technical help. According to the researchers, the absence of high-quality online material about community healthcare was harmful.

Role clarity, connection building, knowledge sharing, resource assistance, and experiential learning are vital for virtual group growth. More study is required on how group support systems might assist groups in engaging with their external environment and boost group members’ learning. 

Action research has both good and bad points.

• It is very flexible, so researchers can change their analyses to fit their needs and make individual changes.
• It offers a quick and easy way to solve problems that have been going on for a long time instead of complicated, long-term solutions based on complex facts.
• If It is done right, it can be very powerful because it can lead to social change and give people the tools to make that change in ways that are important to their communities.

Disadvantages

• These studies have a hard time being generalized and are hard to repeat because they are so flexible. Because the researcher has the power to draw conclusions, they are often not thought to be theoretically sound.
• Setting up an action study in an ethical way can be hard. People may feel like they have to take part or take part in a certain way.
• It is prone to research errors like selection bias , social desirability bias, and other cognitive biases.

LEARN ABOUT: Self-Selection Bias

This post discusses how action research generates knowledge, its steps, and real-life examples. It is very applicable to the field of research and has a high level of relevance. We can only state that the purpose of this research is to comprehend an issue and find a solution to it.

At QuestionPro, we give researchers tools for collecting data, like our survey software, and a library of insights for any long-term study. Go to the Insight Hub if you want to see a demo or learn more about it.

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Frequently Asked Questions(FAQ’s)

Action research is a systematic approach to inquiry that involves identifying a problem or challenge in a practical context, implementing interventions or changes, collecting and analyzing data, and using the findings to inform decision-making and drive positive change.

Action research can be conducted by various individuals or groups, including teachers, administrators, researchers, and educational practitioners. It is often carried out by those directly involved in the educational setting where the research takes place.

The steps of action research typically include identifying a problem, reviewing relevant literature, designing interventions or changes, collecting and analyzing data, reflecting on findings, and implementing improvements based on the results.

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How to Write the Rationale of the Study in Research (Examples)

What is the Rationale of the Study?

The rationale of the study is the justification for taking on a given study. It explains the reason the study was conducted or should be conducted. This means the study rationale should explain to the reader or examiner why the study is/was necessary. It is also sometimes called the “purpose” or “justification” of a study. While this is not difficult to grasp in itself, you might wonder how the rationale of the study is different from your research question or from the statement of the problem of your study, and how it fits into the rest of your thesis or research paper. 

The rationale of the study links the background of the study to your specific research question and justifies the need for the latter on the basis of the former. In brief, you first provide and discuss existing data on the topic, and then you tell the reader, based on the background evidence you just presented, where you identified gaps or issues and why you think it is important to address those. The problem statement, lastly, is the formulation of the specific research question you choose to investigate, following logically from your rationale, and the approach you are planning to use to do that.

Table of Contents:

How to write a rationale for a research paper , how do you justify the need for a research study.

• Study Rationale Example: Where Does It Go In Your Paper?

The basis for writing a research rationale is preliminary data or a clear description of an observation. If you are doing basic/theoretical research, then a literature review will help you identify gaps in current knowledge. In applied/practical research, you base your rationale on an existing issue with a certain process (e.g., vaccine proof registration) or practice (e.g., patient treatment) that is well documented and needs to be addressed. By presenting the reader with earlier evidence or observations, you can (and have to) convince them that you are not just repeating what other people have already done or said and that your ideas are not coming out of thin air. 

Once you have explained where you are coming from, you should justify the need for doing additional research–this is essentially the rationale of your study. Finally, when you have convinced the reader of the purpose of your work, you can end your introduction section with the statement of the problem of your research that contains clear aims and objectives and also briefly describes (and justifies) your methodological approach. 

When is the Rationale for Research Written?

The author can present the study rationale both before and after the research is conducted. 

• Before conducting research : The study rationale is a central component of the research proposal . It represents the plan of your work, constructed before the study is actually executed.
• Once research has been conducted : After the study is completed, the rationale is presented in a research article or  PhD dissertation  to explain why you focused on this specific research question. When writing the study rationale for this purpose, the author should link the rationale of the research to the aims and outcomes of the study.

What to Include in the Study Rationale

Although every study rationale is different and discusses different specific elements of a study’s method or approach, there are some elements that should be included to write a good rationale. Make sure to touch on the following:

• A summary of conclusions from your review of the relevant literature
• What is currently unknown (gaps in knowledge)
• Inconclusive or contested results  from previous studies on the same or similar topic
• The necessity to improve or build on previous research, such as to improve methodology or utilize newer techniques and/or technologies

There are different types of limitations that you can use to justify the need for your study. In applied/practical research, the justification for investigating something is always that an existing process/practice has a problem or is not satisfactory. Let’s say, for example, that people in a certain country/city/community commonly complain about hospital care on weekends (not enough staff, not enough attention, no decisions being made), but you looked into it and realized that nobody ever investigated whether these perceived problems are actually based on objective shortages/non-availabilities of care or whether the lower numbers of patients who are treated during weekends are commensurate with the provided services.

In this case, “lack of data” is your justification for digging deeper into the problem. Or, if it is obvious that there is a shortage of staff and provided services on weekends, you could decide to investigate which of the usual procedures are skipped during weekends as a result and what the negative consequences are. 

In basic/theoretical research, lack of knowledge is of course a common and accepted justification for additional research—but make sure that it is not your only motivation. “Nobody has ever done this” is only a convincing reason for a study if you explain to the reader why you think we should know more about this specific phenomenon. If there is earlier research but you think it has limitations, then those can usually be classified into “methodological”, “contextual”, and “conceptual” limitations. To identify such limitations, you can ask specific questions and let those questions guide you when you explain to the reader why your study was necessary:

Methodological limitations

• Did earlier studies try but failed to measure/identify a specific phenomenon?
• Was earlier research based on incorrect conceptualizations of variables?
• Were earlier studies based on questionable operationalizations of key concepts?
• Did earlier studies use questionable or inappropriate research designs?

Contextual limitations

• Have recent changes in the studied problem made previous studies irrelevant?
• Are you studying a new/particular context that previous findings do not apply to?

Conceptual limitations

• Do previous findings only make sense within a specific framework or ideology?

Study Rationale Examples

Let’s look at an example from one of our earlier articles on the statement of the problem to clarify how your rationale fits into your introduction section. This is a very short introduction for a practical research study on the challenges of online learning. Your introduction might be much longer (especially the context/background section), and this example does not contain any sources (which you will have to provide for all claims you make and all earlier studies you cite)—but please pay attention to how the background presentation , rationale, and problem statement blend into each other in a logical way so that the reader can follow and has no reason to question your motivation or the foundation of your research.

Background presentation

Since the beginning of the Covid pandemic, most educational institutions around the world have transitioned to a fully online study model, at least during peak times of infections and social distancing measures. This transition has not been easy and even two years into the pandemic, problems with online teaching and studying persist (reference needed) . 

While the increasing gap between those with access to technology and equipment and those without access has been determined to be one of the main challenges (reference needed) , others claim that online learning offers more opportunities for many students by breaking down barriers of location and distance (reference needed) .  

Rationale of the study

Since teachers and students cannot wait for circumstances to go back to normal, the measures that schools and universities have implemented during the last two years, their advantages and disadvantages, and the impact of those measures on students’ progress, satisfaction, and well-being need to be understood so that improvements can be made and demographics that have been left behind can receive the support they need as soon as possible.

Statement of the problem

To identify what changes in the learning environment were considered the most challenging and how those changes relate to a variety of student outcome measures, we conducted surveys and interviews among teachers and students at ten institutions of higher education in four different major cities, two in the US (New York and Chicago), one in South Korea (Seoul), and one in the UK (London). Responses were analyzed with a focus on different student demographics and how they might have been affected differently by the current situation.

How long is a study rationale?

In a research article bound for journal publication, your rationale should not be longer than a few sentences (no longer than one brief paragraph). A  dissertation or thesis  usually allows for a longer description; depending on the length and nature of your document, this could be up to a couple of paragraphs in length. A completely novel or unconventional approach might warrant a longer and more detailed justification than an approach that slightly deviates from well-established methods and approaches.

Consider Using Professional Academic Editing Services

Now that you know how to write the rationale of the study for a research proposal or paper, you should make use of our free AI grammar checker , Wordvice AI, or receive professional academic proofreading services from Wordvice, including research paper editing services and manuscript editing services to polish your submitted research documents.

You can also find many more articles, for example on writing the other parts of your research paper , on choosing a title , or on making sure you understand and adhere to the author instructions before you submit to a journal, on the Wordvice academic resources pages.

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Article Contents

Policy and practice recommendations, methodological considerations, acknowledgements, author contributions, conflict of interest statement, open access declaration, ethics approval and consent to participate.

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‘My parkrun friends.’ A qualitative study of social experiences of men at parkrun in Ireland

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Allison Dunne, Helen Quirk, Alice Bullas, Steve Haake, ‘My parkrun friends.’ A qualitative study of social experiences of men at parkrun in Ireland, Health Promotion International , Volume 39, Issue 3, June 2024, daae045, https://doi.org/10.1093/heapro/daae045

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Social support is a well-established determinant of mental wellbeing. Community initiatives, which combine a purposeful activity with social connection, may be appropriate to promote the mental wellbeing of middle-aged men in Ireland—a group at risk of poor mental wellbeing due to social isolation. parkrun offers free, weekly, 5km run or walk events in 22 countries. This study aims to explore the social experience of parkrun participation for middle-aged men in Ireland and considers how social connections made at parkrun relate to mental wellbeing. Online semi-structured interviews were conducted in 2022/23 with 39 men aged 45–64 years, who run, walk or volunteer at parkrun in Ireland, recruited purposively in rural and urban communities. Men with a range of parkrun experience gave interviews lasting a mean of 32 minutes. Interviews were recorded and transcribed verbatim. Reflexive thematic analysis resulted in three themes and ten subthemes. The men described parkrun as offering a welcoming and supportive environment (Theme 1). Men at parkrun could choose the level of social connections, building strong or weak social ties to provide social support and improve mental wellbeing (Theme 2). Social engagement with parkrun evolved following repeated participation (Theme 3). The results suggest that parkrun is a suitable community initiative for middle-aged men at risk of poor mental wellbeing due to social isolation. Social connections were developed after repeated participation in parkrun and these connections improved subjective mental wellbeing. The findings from this study could be used to design new initiatives for mental health promotion.

This study considers how social connections made through community initiatives, such as parkrun, can be used to support mental wellbeing in middle-aged men in Ireland.

Both strong and weak social ties provided social support.

Social connections were developed after repeated participation in parkrun and these connections improved subjective mental wellbeing.

This information can be useful when recommending community initiatives to populations at risk of poor mental wellbeing due to social isolation.

It could also be useful when designing new interventions for mental health promotion.

Mental wellbeing is defined as a state of positive mental health which is vital for quality of life ( World Health Organization, 2022 ). Maintaining a state of good mental wellbeing can be preventative against mental health conditions and suicide ( Keyes et al ., 2010 ; Barry et al ., 2019 ). Social connections, incorporating social support, social capital and social networks, are recognized as determinants of mental health and wellbeing ( Umberson and Karas Montez, 2010 ; Thoits, 2011 ; Holt-Lunstad, 2022 ) and have been identified as a priority area for public health policy ( Holt-Lunstad, 2023 ; World Health Organization, 2023 ).

Ireland’s national mental health promotion plan Stronger Together highlights the importance of community programmes to improve social connection, particularly in the post-COVID-19 pandemic environment where communities are recovering from long periods of lockdowns and hardship which saw people become socially isolated ( Health Service Executive, 2022 ). Social isolation and the subjective feeling of loneliness are risk factors for premature mortality ( Elovainio et al ., 2017 ) and mental health conditions. One population group in Ireland who are known to be at risk of social isolation and poor mental wellbeing are middle-aged men (often defined as aged 45–65 years) who live in deprived neighbourhoods or who belong to marginalized groups ( Health Service Executive, 2016 ; O’Donnell & Richardson, 2020 ). Unemployment, relationship breakdown and living in rural communities can exacerbate this risk ( O’Donnell & Richardson, 2020 ; McGrath et al ., 2022 ; O’Donnell et al ., 2022 ). Men’s physical and mental health is seen as a priority issue in Ireland due to the continued lower life expectancy of men, when compared to women, and the persistent gender gap in mortality by suicide ( Health Service Executive, 2016 ; Department of Health, 2024 ). To address this, the government of Ireland were the first in the world to introduce a men’s health policy ( Health Service Executive, 2016 ).

Previous research has explored ‘what works’ for men’s mental health promotion ( Robertson et al ., 2018 ). Recommendations include using a safe space where men can gather, away from clinical settings ( Robertson et al ., 2018 ) and harnessing interest in sports or physical activity ( Zwolinsky et al ., 2013 ; Sharp et al ., 2021 ). Giving men control over the design and application of interventions was shown to be important ( Robertson et al ., 2018 ). A study on the design of men’s health interventions in Ireland reported that a focus on wellness rather than health (illness) was beneficial for engaging with men ( Lefkowich et al ., 2017 ).

Community-based initiatives, which combine a purposeful activity with social contact, support mental wellbeing by addressing the social determinants of health ( McLeroy et al ., 2003 ; Ballinger et al ., 2008 ; Golding, 2011 ; Baskin et al ., 2021 ) contributing to the building of social support and social capital ( Cohen and Wills, 1985 ; Linnemann et al ., 2017 ; Wiltshire and Stevinson, 2018 ). One community initiative which has the potential to support middle-aged men in Ireland to improve social connections is parkrun. In a similar way to walking football, parkrun includes a physical activity which is open to all genders ( Cholerton et al ., 2020 ; Andersson et al ., 2023 ), and, as with Men’s Sheds, it offers a place to socialize away from pubs and bars ( O’Donnell and Richardson, 2020 ). parkrun (branded with a small ‘p’) is a registered charity which supports free, weekly, timed events in the UK and over 20 other countries worldwide ( parkrun, 2021 ) in which adults and children (4 years and older) run or walk a 5km route in an outdoor setting on Saturday mornings ( parkrun UK, 2021 ). Volunteers from the local community organize the events ( parkrun support, 2021 ). By the start of 2024, parkrun was available at 107 locations in Ireland, with events in both rural and urban settings ( parkrun Ireland, 2024 ). Considering the evidence for what works for men’s health, parkrun combines several of the qualities recommended for a viable health promotion offering for men. These include the natural setting, using running as a hook for engagement, involvement of participants in the organization of the event and a focus on wellbeing rather than illness prevention.

Along with the physical health benefits associated with running and walking at parkrun, such as cardiovascular fitness and body weight control ( Stevinson and Hickson, 2014 , 2019 ), previous research also suggests parkrun participation improves mental wellbeing in the short-term and long-term. The subjective mental wellbeing of parkrun participants was first explored in a cross-sectional study by Stevinson and Hickson (2014) where parkrun attendance was positively associated with high mental wellbeing scores. Research has found that mental wellbeing indicators (self-esteem, stress and mood) improve immediately after parkrun participation ( Rogerson et al ., 2016 ) with benefits for some maintained after 12 months of participation (increased happiness and decreased risk of stress and depression) ( Stevinson and Hickson, 2019 ).

The link between social connections at parkrun and mental wellbeing has not been fully established. Research exploring the social experience of parkrun participants has consistently reported positive effects on social interaction, social capital and connections ( Wiltshire and Stevinson, 2018 ; Sharman et al ., 2019 ) but little research has explored the mechanisms through which parkrun can influence mental wellbeing ( Grunseit et al ., 2020 ). One study did note that men at parkrun describe a change in wellbeing related to community connectedness ( Grunseit et al ., 2017 ), suggesting that parkrun may be a suitable setting for men to form social connections which could in turn improve mental wellbeing. Research in Ireland suggests a possible link between social factors at parkrun and mental wellbeing ( Haake et al ., 2019 ; Dunne et al ., 2023 ). To date, there has been no detailed exploration of these phenomena in an Irish setting, or with a focus on middle-aged men.

The current study aims to explore the relationship between mental wellbeing and social experiences for middle-aged men in Ireland with the principal research question:

What is the social experience of parkrun participation for middle-aged men in Ireland and how is this related to mental wellbeing?

Research team and reflexivity

The interviews were all conducted by lead researcher A.D., a female pharmacist with over 20 years of patient-facing clinical experience in mental health care. With regard to the positionality of the lead researcher, the following reflections were considered. The researcher is in the same age category as the men interviewed, although a different gender. She moved to Ireland as an adult so has experienced Ireland as a newcomer. She has run or walked over 100 parkruns and has volunteered over 70 times, visiting more than 25 parkrun sites. The researcher noted that she should be mindful of her position as a keen and confident parkrunner and that this may influence her interpretation of the data. Reflexive thematic analysis ( Braun and Clarke, 2022 ) was chosen as the researcher could use her experiences as an embedded parkrun participant to engage with the interviewees and understand nuances in the interview data. This method recognizes there will be a subjective nature to the data analysis and is commonly used in health research ( Braun and Clarke, 2021 ; Campbell et al ., 2021 ).

In this study, the term participants is used to describe people who run, walk or volunteer at parkrun. To avoid confusion, the term interviewees will be used to describe the men who took part in the current study. The interviewees were all parkrun participants. The nine interviewees from Knocknacarra parkrun (one of the recruitment sites) had met A.D. briefly at previous parkrun events but did not have a confiding relationship with her prior to study commencement. At the start of each interview, all 39 interviewees were told that A.D. was a researcher who had an interest in mental health and wellbeing. If the topics arose during the interview A.D. described her participation in parkrun events as a runner and volunteer and disclosed her background as a pharmacist.

Semi-structured interviews were used to explore the type and value of social experiences among middle-aged men attending parkrun in Ireland. An interview guide was developed in consultation with parkrun participants, health professionals and the public. Interview questions were designed to be exploratory in nature and the interview script was semi-structured, allowing for the interviewer to explore topics around mental wellbeing and social experiences at parkrun. Putnam’s definition of social capital ( Putnam et al ., 1993 ) and Cohen’s concept of social support ( Cohen and Wills, 1985 ) were used to list possible topics and questions. The interview questions and prompts can be found in Table 1 .

Interview questions and prompts for semi-structured interviews with men aged 45–64 years attending parkrun in Ireland

Ethical approval for this project was granted by Sheffield Hallam University on 16/9/2022 (Ethics Review ID: ER42513594). Purposive participant recruitment took place from 21/09/2022 to 09/02/2023 via parkrun event Facebook pages and in-person visits to parkrun events across Ireland. Recruitment ceased when the lead researcher (A.D.) was satisfied with the geographical spread of participants and the information power of the interview data ( Malterud et al ., 2016 ). Information power indicates the richness and detail of the data, and its suitability to answer the research question and is more appropriate than data saturation for the reflexive thematic analysis method ( Malterud et al ., 2016 ; Braun and Clarke, 2022 ).

Each participant completed a short demographics questionnaire using Qualtrics survey software after giving online informed consent. Demographics included date of birth, Eircode (Irish postcode) and parkrun participation type (runner/walker, runner/walker/volunteer or volunteer only).

Interviews were conducted using Microsoft Teams video conferencing software and took place between 24/09/2022 and 16/02/2023. The interviews were between researcher A.D. and the interviewee only, with no non-participants present. A.D. used Teams from a home office and the interviewees used their own choice of location, either their own home or workplace office. A single interview was conducted with each interviewee, with no repeat interviews. The audio was recorded on an encrypted Dictaphone for all participants. Those who gave consent for video recording also had their Teams video saved. Handwritten notes were made during and immediately after each interview to capture the researcher’s (A.D.) observations. Auto transcription on Teams was used, with transcription manually checked by A.D. before sending it to each participant for final approval. Names, specific locations and any identifiers were redacted from the transcription. At the time of reporting, the interviewees did not provide feedback on the final findings.

Reflexive thematic analysis used the six-step, iterative, process described by Braun and Clarke (2022) . The lead researcher (A.D.) was the sole coder, a recommended feature of this type of analysis ( Braun and Clarke, 2022 ). Two critical friends were consulted during the theme development process ( Costa and Kallick, 1993 ). NVivo 12 (Lumivero) was used as a tool to manage the inductive coding process. The report was written following the Consolidated Criteria for Reporting Qualitative Studies (COREQ) ( Tong et al ., 2007 ). When the findings of reflexive thematic analysis are reported there is an option to report the results and discussion together or separately ( Braun and Clarke, 2022 ). For this study, the latter style was chosen.

By the end of the recruitment period, 41 interviews had been conducted. Two interviews were not used in the final data set as information regarding study eligibility became apparent during the interview, one participant was not living in the Republic of Ireland at the time and one participant did not take part in parkrun as runner/walker/volunteer, although had observed events without participating. The final number of interviews used for the study was 39.

The mean length of interviews was 32 min 12 s (with a range of 9 min 58 s to 53 min 15 s). All 39 interviewees identified as male and had a mean age of 54 years and 3 months (with a range of 45–64 years). A total of 33 interviewees (84.6%) self-identified their parkrun participation type as runners or walkers who volunteer. The remainder self-identified as runners or walkers (who did not volunteer). All but one of the men had done more than ten events, a threshold used to describe an ‘established’ parkrunner in previous studies ( Morris and Scott, 2019 ). The men lived in nine counties across Ireland (Clare, Cork, Dublin, Galway, Kildare, Mayo, Meath, Roscommon and Sligo). Seven men had moved to Ireland from other countries across the UK and Europe: England (two men), Italy, Poland, Scotland and Wales (two men).

Reflexive thematic analysis of the interview transcripts generated three themes, each with several subthemes: these, with example quotes, are shown in Table 2 .

Themes and subthemes from reflexive thematic analysis of interviews with 39 parkrun participants, all male, aged 45–64 years living in Ireland (rwv = runner or walker who volunteers rw = runner or walker only)

In the following narrative, quantifying language such as occasionally, many or most is used to give an approximation of the strength or consistency associated with each theme, using proportions suggested by Terry (2010) . When the term occasionally is used it will refer to themes or subthemes which involved a quarter or less of the interviewees (10 or less). When some is used it describes 11–25 interviewees. When the term many or often is used, it refers to two-thirds or more of the interviewees (26 or more). Each respondent was given a pseudonym. Age in years at the time of the interview is noted. The abbreviations rwv for runner or walker who volunteers and rw for runner or walker only are used.

Theme 1: parkrun offers a supportive environment for health

Theme 1 encompasses the way that many men in the study positively described the operational characteristics of parkrun such as free access, weekly events, worldwide locations and gender mix.

The interviewees occasionally described the location of the parkrun as being a familiar place where they felt comfortable and welcome (Theme 1a). ‘It’s just a nice, nice [sic] area and as kids, we’d have grown up there, so like it was just nice to go back to it again’ (Jimmy, age 56, rwv).

Many of the men described attending parkrun events with members of their family such as partners or children (Theme 1b). Occasionally, this had also been their route into parkrun; they had attended for the first time with a family member, or had been encouraged by them. ‘Three generations of families, we’re actually seeing grandparents, their kids and their grandchildren out running’ (Séamus, age 62, rwv).

Some men described parkrun as being welcoming (Theme 1c), especially the first time attending ‘I’ve done probably eight different locations. Something like that. But anywhere I was… always welcomed with the smile’ (Jakub, age 47, rwv, originally from Eastern Europe). Occasionally, the men specifically stated that inclusiveness at parkrun is one of the things that support their mental wellbeing (Theme 1c). ‘I enjoyed the, you know, the camaraderie, the atmosphere and the inclusiveness of parkrun’ (Eric, age 64, rwv).

The men often noted that parkrun is open to anyone, regardless of their age, physical ability, mental health status or sexuality and that they are all part of the parkrun community (Theme 1d). ‘…sexuality for me would have been probably a challenge for me, like being a gay man and not entering sports or not entering competitions … with parkrun there’s kind of, there’s a sense of community there, and non-judgmental’ (Don, age 47, rwv).

The men often described being able to interact with new people at parkrun. The way parkrun events are organized gives time for social contact before, during and after the run/walk (Theme 1e). ‘The buzz is the connection with all the different people. That’s the key for parkrun. All the different people … all the new friends I’ve met’ (Pat, age 59, rwv). The people the men met at parkrun ranged from those within their existing networks (e.g. colleagues and neighbours) to ones that they didn’t know from any other setting.

Some men described interacting with people outside of the parkrun setting, after originally meeting at parkrun (Theme 1e). Diarmuid describes how he learned about an adult education group at parkrun; ‘I didn’t know anybody there at all. At the end of the parkrun I heard a guy talking about doing Irish language classes… I’m going to go to his class tomorrow evening’ (Diarmuid, age 52, rw).

The men were asked about negative social interactions at parkrun, including cliques. Only one participant said he had experienced cliques at parkrun, but was not negatively impacted (Theme 1e). ‘Sometimes if there’s an in-group, and you’re not in it you’ll just head for the car, which is also fine’ (Karl, age 46, rwv).

These five subthemes were grouped to form Theme 1 as researcher A.D. felt that they were all describing the conditions and atmosphere at parkrun events which allow social contact to take place. These conditions may contribute to an environment which can support mental wellbeing directly or indirectly. These concepts will be described in more detail in the discussion section.

Theme 2: men who attend parkrun can choose the level of sociability

Theme 2 demonstrates that many men in the study described a range of social connections between themselves and other parkrun participants. Whilst parkrun events support socialization, there is no requirement to socialize; it is possible to turn up, run or walk and go home without speaking to anyone. ‘At parkrun you don’t have to be friends with everyone…it can be at your own kind of level’ (Jarleth, age 52, rwv).

For men who did wish to have social contact, they described two different levels of sociability: deep connections (Theme 2a) and casual social bonds (Theme 2b).

Some men talked about deep connections with people they spoke to at parkrun (Theme 2a). These were either with people they had met at parkrun and developed a friendship with over time, or a strengthening of relationships with people they already knew. These deep connections at parkrun were identified by the men as being good for mental wellbeing. After describing a parkrun participant who had been recently diagnosed with cancer, Derek notes ‘Definitely the social side of it and being able to talk about stuff and actively talking about stuff, it’s a positive… in terms of mental wellbeing’ (Derek, age 60, rwv).

One man, who had moved to Ireland from the UK, described parkrun as a route to making new, deep, friendships which help his mental wellbeing (Theme 2a). ‘Some of my best friends now in Ireland are people I didn’t know at all in parkrun a few years ago. So that’s what helps… I think it’s the social aspect that helps you’ (Dylan, age 64, rwv, originally from the UK).

When talking about casual social bonds at parkrun the men would occasionally use the phrase ‘parkrun friends’ (Theme 2b). This is not an official term from the parkrun charity but seems to have developed organically. ‘It’s actually created a kind of a separate friend group or peer group for me…. There are parkrun friends who are only parkrun friends’ (Finbarr, age 49, rwv). parkrun friends (Theme 2b) were described as people that the men meet at parkrun on Saturday mornings. They chat at the start line, while volunteering or at the café afterwards. However, they would not make any effort to meet up with those people outside of the parkrun setting. ‘You may say hello to lots and lots of people and that you may know over a period of time because of parkrun, but… you don’t have to develop any huge relationship’ (Stefan, age 51, rwv).

Many men noted that topics of conversation among parkrun friends are light-hearted and personal issues are not usually discussed (Theme 2b). ‘A lot of the chat is [about] health and fitness’ (Jimmy, age 56, rwv).

Some men stated directly that the social aspects of parkrun participation were good for their mental wellbeing (Theme 2b) ‘It’s meeting people and getting out there…you can see what it does, especially if you’re crew [a volunteer]… so many stories, that gives you good feeling…You do really, really, really feel great after. You know, a real buzz’ (Mike, age 64, rwv).

Theme 3: the parkrun experience can change over time

Although it is possible to attend just one parkrun event and not return, all but one of the men in this study were regular parkrunners who had attended 10 or more events. Theme 3 captures how they described their feelings before their first parkrun event and how their social experiences had changed over months and years of regular attendance.

One man, Ken, described his journey from a new parkrunner to now being an Event Director (the volunteer responsible for parkrun operations at a particular location) (Theme 3a). Talking about his first time attending a parkrun; ‘I was pretty, bit [ sic ] nervous going up because I wouldn’t have ran with a group of people before… So the bit of running I would have done would have been on my own and well away from people’ (Ken, age 55, rwv). Ken continues to describe how he came to take on the role of Event Director at the same parkrun several years later; ‘With the Event Director like, nobody was stepping up to do it. And I said I’ll do it just for the sake of the run not being, you know, cancelled then’ (Ken, age 55, rwv).

The social connections made at parkrun didn’t always happen immediately. Some of the men described gradually getting to know other people at parkrun over months or years (Theme 3a) ‘I met nobody the first time, you know, but you know how it is, you go and you talk to one or two people, you run with people, you complain about the hills … and you get to know people’ (Dylan, age 64, rwv, originally from the UK).

Occasionally the men explained how their perception of parkrun changed as they became regular participants (Theme 3b). ‘I heard of parkrun for a number of years but I always felt it was… too short for my own running…. once I started the parkruns I just absolutely love them’ (Rob, age 57, rwv).

The final subtheme describes the sense of pride that comes with being a member of the parkrun community (Theme 3c). Garrett describes his pride in being on the team that set up a new parkrun in a rural area of Ireland ‘We take great pride and credit and say We were there for the first one ’ (Garrett, age 52, rwv).

The key concept for these three subthemes is change. The social benefits of parkrun described by the men didn’t usually happen on the first visit. Their repeated participation allowed social contacts to develop and feelings like pride to grow.

This study focussed on the social experience of middle-aged men at parkrun, as this is a population who are at risk of social isolation and poor mental wellbeing and could therefore potentially benefit from community initiatives which combine an activity with social interaction. The results suggest that the men perceived parkrun as a suitable place to make or enhance social connections while participating as runners, walkers or volunteers. Regular participation may maximize the social element of the parkrun experience.

The operational characteristics of parkrun appear to be important in encouraging social interaction (Theme 1). These include: time for social interaction before, during and after the parkrun; a welcoming atmosphere; opportunities to volunteer and regular events. These elements combine to create a supportive environment for health, one of the five action areas for health promotion described in the Ottawa Charter ( World Health Organization, 1986 ).

The results of the current study show that the universal nature of parkrun, with access for all genders, is important for building social connections for middle-aged men in Ireland (Theme 1). Many health promotion initiatives aimed at improving the wellbeing of Irish men take place in a single-gender environment, for example, Men’s Sheds and the physical activity programme Men on the Move ( Kelly et al ., 2019 ; McGrath et al ., 2022 ). While there is certainly a place for single-gender activities ( Health Service Executive, 2016 ), the study by Lefkowich noted that single-gender activities are not always desired by Irish men ( Lefkowich et al ., 2017 ). Men from the current study described attending parkrun with friends, partners and family members of all genders, supporting previous parkrun research about the facilitators of participation ( Wiltshire and Stevinson, 2018 ).

The two openly gay men in the study found that parkrun was a welcoming environment. Gay men in Ireland are a group which are vulnerable to poor mental wellbeing ( Ceatha et al ., 2019 ) so an initiative like parkrun gives an opportunity for this population group to build social connections and support their mental wellbeing. Developing activities which are supportive of men, and that are also welcoming to women and members of the lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer and other sexual orientations and gender identities (LGBTQ+) communities will minimize the chance that groups may feel excluded from attending. The parkrun charity have recently acknowledged this opportunity for inclusivity by adding an option for gender for new registrants ‘prefer not to say’ and (in the majority of parkrun countries) an additional option of ‘another gender identity’: previously there had been only options for ‘male’ or ‘female’ ( parkrun Global, 2023 ). Further research on the inclusivity of all-gender community initiatives compared to men-only groups is recommended.

The men from this study described having a choice of whether to interact socially with other parkrunners or avoid social contact (Theme 2). For those who wish to socialize, the type of social interaction can be split into two types: casual social bonds and deep connections. These types of interactions echo those described by Granovetter as weak or strong ties, taking into consideration the time investment, emotional intensity, intimacy and reciprocity involved ( Granovetter, 1973 ). Weak ties are valuable in forming connections between people from diverse groups and strengthening communities ( Granovetter, 1973 ). The descriptions of weak social ties between the study participants and other parkrunners reinforce Hindley’s proposal that parkrun is a suitable place for casual sociability ( Hindley, 2020 ). The men in the current study explicitly described weak social ties as being beneficial for their mental wellbeing and for their continued engagement with parkrun events. This link between weak ties and mental wellbeing is similar to that described in previous research in the community setting where brief interactions with strangers were shown to positively impact happiness and wellbeing ( Sandstrom and Boothby, 2021 ; Van Lange and Columbus, 2021 ). Social support from both strong and weak ties is well-established as beneficial for mental wellbeing ( Berkman et al ., 2000 ; Golden et al ., 2009 ; Thoits, 2011 ; Moreton et al ., 2023 ) with an even balance of strong and weak ties being ideal ( Collins et al ., 2022 ).

One finding of this study was that it took repeated visits to parkrun events for the men to see the full benefit of social connections (Theme 3). A feature of parkrun is that it takes place in multiple locations, every week, 52 weeks of the year, which facilitates regular attendance. Other initiatives aimed at Irish men, such as Men on the Move, do not continue through the summer, with research by Kelly et al. (2019) noting that a long summer break contributed to men permanently discontinuing the physical activity programme. The continuous nature of parkrun would minimize the risk of this happening. The ‘practice makes perfect’ strategy of repeatedly attempting social contact with strangers to reduce discomfort and build weak ties was recommended by Sandstrom and Boothby (2021) and is an appropriate practice for new parkrun participants wishing to develop social interactions at parkrun events. A health promotion initiative to promote this strategy is an area for future consideration.

The results of the current study suggest that middle-aged men in Ireland could participate in parkrun to increase the number of social connections and develop weak or strong ties with those connections. This has the potential to support their mental wellbeing via the mechanism of social support or social capital. The topic of loneliness was not specifically discussed in this study but the results suggest that this could be an additional benefit from parkrun participation and is an area for further research.

The focus of this study was the experience of middle-aged men in Ireland. It is possible that some or all of the benefits described by the men may be experienced by men of different age groups or women who participate in parkrun and these are areas for further exploration. Grunseit et al. (2017) showed that there appear to be gender differences in the social experiences of parkrun participants so it could be worthwhile repeating this study with a female population to explore this in more detail. Additionally, a further study with men who are over 65 years old could explore the social experiences of this group, a population at risk of social isolation following retirement ( Abramowska-Kmon and Łątkowski, 2021 ).

Community initiatives which provide social support have been identified in Ireland as a national and international health promotion priority, particularly for men at risk of social isolation. Using parkrun as an example of a community initiative allows for the application of the learnings to other community-based events which combine a purposeful activity with time for social interaction for middle-aged men. This type of initiative is often recommended by social prescribing (community referral) schemes ( Fleming et al ., 2020 ; Alison and Simon, 2022 ). The results of this study suggest that activities which are gender-neutral, provide a supportive environment for social interaction and offer a continuous service to maximize the social and mental wellbeing benefits could be included as social prescribing options for men at risk of social isolation. Newcomers to this type of activity should be advised that repeated attendance may be necessary to gradually build social connections.

One consideration is that all but one of the men interviewed were regular parkrunners (who had participated in more than 10 events) so assumptions cannot be made about the application of these results to men who are new to parkrun participation. All men in the study were runners or walkers at events, at least some of the time. An extension of the study could include interviews with men who volunteer at parkrun without running or walking to explore their insights into the social aspects of parkrun.

This research took place in a post-COVID-19 pandemic environment. Research by Quirk et al. (2022) showed that happiness and life satisfaction among the parkrun population in the UK declined during the COVID-19 pandemic, although the effect was felt more strongly by females and younger adults. The current study took place in 2022/23 when parkrun events had been back in operation for at least 12 months following the COVID-19 pause (since September 2021) ( parkrun Ireland, 2021 ). As the long-term impact of the pandemic on men’s health and wellbeing is currently unknown, it is prudent to consider the results in light of the post-pandemic recovery period.

The current study explored the experiences of middle-aged men in Ireland without defining their socioeconomic status. More research into the barriers to participation for this population group is clearly indicated, particularly as men from areas of deprivation may have the most to gain from social connections at parkrun.

The men in the current study perceived that parkrun in Ireland has a diverse community and the demographics of the men in the current study did reflect some diversity in their country of birth. Future studies could extend this further, in particular, to include under-represented groups in this study, and in the wider parkrun community, such as Irish Travellers and people with Asian or African racial backgrounds.

The results of this study suggest that parkrun provides a supportive environment for middle-aged men in Ireland to form strong and weak social ties. These social ties may be beneficial to mental wellbeing through the mechanism of social support. The universal (all-gender) nature of initiatives such as parkrun allows for family involvement, and a diverse group of participants, which may both be important for initial and continued participation. New participants in this type of activity should be advised that repeated attendance may be necessary to gradually build social connections. Given parkrun’s global reach and the increase in loneliness since the COVID-19 pandemic lockdowns, the results may be relevant outside of the Irish setting. The findings from this study can be applied to other community initiatives which combine a purposeful activity with social connection to provide appropriate health promotion opportunities for middle-aged men at risk of poor mental wellbeing.

The authors would like to thank all the men who took part in the interviews. Many thanks also to the parkrun participants, members of the local community, healthcare professionals and the Advanced Wellbeing Research Centre Public Involvement in Research Group for their assistance in designing the recruitment materials and question script. Thank you to Sue Davison and Amy Murray-Evans from Sheffield Hallam University who acted as critical friends during the data analysis stage of this research. Many thanks to Pauline Dunne, University College Dublin, for advice on the reporting of reflexive thematic analysis results. Finally, thank you to the parkrun research board for approving this research project.

A.D., S.H., A.B. and H.Q. designed the study. A.D. completed the data analysis with the assistance of H.Q. A.D. drafted the manuscript. All authors contributed to the writing of and approval of the final manuscript.

Researcher A.D. was funded via a fees-only scholarship from the Centre for Sports Engineering Research, Sheffield Hallam University, UK. Authors have no additional funding to declare. The views, thoughts and opinions expressed in the manuscript belong solely to the author/s, and do not necessarily reflect the position of parkrun, the parkrun Research Board or any funder(s).

A.D., A.B., H.Q., S.H. (author initials) are all parkrun registrants. A.B., H.Q., S.H. were members of the parkrun Research Board ( https://awrcparkrunresearch.wordpress.com/ ) based at the Advanced Wellbeing Research Centre (AWRC) at Sheffield Hallam University (UK) at the time of writing this article. S.H. is the Chair and H.Q. and A.B. are the deputy Vice Chairs of the parkrun Research Board.

For the purpose of open access, the author has applied a Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) licence to any Author Accepted Manuscript version arising from this submission.

The research design and consent procedures for this study were reviewed and approved by Sheffield Hallam University Research Ethics Committee (Reference number: ER42513594). Written and verbal informed consent was received from all participants before the online interviews. Final transcripts were approved by the participants before use in the study.

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Fact Sheet: USDA, HHS Announce New Actions to Reduce Impact and Spread of H5N1

Contact:   [email protected]   |   [email protected]

On March 25, 2024, immediately following the first detection of H5N1 in dairy cattle in the Texas panhandle region, USDA and HHS began their work to understand the origin of the emergence and its potential impact in bovines and humans. USDA experts also took swift action to trace animal movements, began sampling to assess the disease prevalence in herds, and initiated a variety of testing activities to confirm the safety of the meat and milk supplies alongside federal partners. On April 1, 2024, Texas reported the first and only confirmed human H5N1 infection associated with this outbreak, after confirmation by CDC. On April 24, 2024, USDA issued a Federal Order, that took effect on April 29, to limit the movement of lactating dairy cattle and to collect and aggregate H5N1 test results to better understand the nature of the outbreak.

Since the detection of H5N1 in dairy cattle, the Federal response has leveraged the latest available scientific data, field epidemiology, and risk assessments to mitigate risks to workers and the general public, to ensure the safety of America’s food supply and to mitigate risk to livestock, owners, and producers. Today, USDA is taking a series of additional steps to help achieve these goals and reduce the impact of H5N1 on affected premises and producers, and HHS is announcing new actions through the CDC and FDA to increase testing and laboratory screening and testing capacity, genomic sequencing, and other interventions to protect the health and safety of dairy and other potentially impacted food items.

Today, USDA is announcing assistance for producers with H5N1 affected premises to improve on-site biosecurity in order to reduce the spread. In addition, USDA is taking steps to make available financial tools for lost milk production in herds affected by H5N1. Building on the Federal Order addressing pre-movement testing, these steps will further equip producers with tools they can use to keep their affected herds and workers healthy and reduce risk of the virus spreading to additional herds.

Protect against the potential for spread between human and animals. Provide financial support (up to $2,000 per affected premises per month) for producers who supply PPE to employees and/or provide outerwear uniform laundering, for producers of affected herds who facilitate the participation of their workers in USDA/CDC workplace and farmworker study.

Complementary to USDA’s new financial support for producers, workers who participate in the study are also eligible for financial incentives to compensate them for their time, regardless of whether the study is led by federal, state, or local public health professionals.

Support producers in biosecurity planning and implementation . Provide support (up to $1,500 per affected premises) to develop biosecurity plans based on existing secure milk supply plans. This includes recommended enhanced biosecurity for individuals that frequently move between dairy farms – milk haulers, veterinarians, feed trucks, AI technicians, etc. In addition, USDA will provide a $100 payment to producers who purchase and use an in-line sampler for their milk system.  

Provide funding for heat treatment to dispose of milk in a bio secure fashion. This will provide producers a safe option for disposal of milk. Heat treatment performed in accordance with standards set by FDA is the only currently available method considered to effectively inactivate the virus in milk. If a producer establishes a system to heat treat all waste milk before disposal, USDA will pay the producer up to $2,000 per affected premises per month.  

Reimburse producers for veterinarian costs associated with confirmed positive H5N1 premises. This provides support to producers to cover veterinary costs necessarily incurred for treating cattle infected with H5N1, as well as fees for veterinarians to collect samples for testing. This can include veterinary fees and/or specific supplies needed for treatment and sample collection. Veterinary costs are eligible to be covered from the initial date of positive confirmation at NVSL for that farm, up to $10,000 per affected premises.  

Offset shipping costs for influenza A testing at laboratories in the National Animal Health Laboratory Network (NAHLN). USDA will pay for the cost of shipping samples to NAHLN labs for testing. USDA will pay actual shipping costs, not to exceed $50 per shipment for up to 2 shipments per month for each affected premises.   Testing at NAHLN laboratories for samples associated with this event (e.g., pre-movement, testing of sick/suspect animals, samples from concerned producers) is already being conducted at no-cost to the producer.

Taken together, these tools represent a value of up to $28,000 per premises to support increased biosecurity activities over the next 120 days.

Compensate producers for loss of milk production. USDA is taking steps to make funding available from the Emergency Assistance for Livestock, Honey Bees, and Farm-raised Fish Program (ELAP) to compensate eligible producers with positive herds who experience loss of milk production. While dairy cows that have been infected with H5N1 generally recover well, and there is little mortality associated with the disease, it does dramatically limit milk production, causing economic losses for producers with affected premises. USDA can support farmers with the ELAP program to offset some of these losses. This compensation program is distinct from the strategy to contain the spread.

Work with states to limit movement of lactating cattle . Additionally, USDA will work with and support the actions of States with affected herds as they consider movement restrictions within their borders to further limit the spread of H5N1 between herds to reduce further spread of this virus.

USDA will make $98 million in existing funds available to APHIS to fund these initiatives. If needed, USDA has the authority, with Congressional notification, to make additional funds available.

These additional measures build on a suite of actions USDA has taken to date. This includes implementation of the Federal Order to limit spread of the disease, coordinating with federal partners to share expertise and lab capacity, doubling down on our work with producers to practice good biosecurity measures, continuing to conduct investigations to determine how the virus is spread within and between farms, and analyzing and sharing sequences alongside validated epidemiological information.

The U.S. government is addressing this situation with urgency and through a whole-of-government approach. USDA is working closely with federal partners at FDA, which has the primary responsibility for the safety of milk and dairy products, by assisting with conducting lab testing at USDA labs. USDA is also working closely with federal partners at CDC, which has the primary responsibility for public health, by encouraging producer and industry cooperation with public health officials to get vital information necessary to assess the level of risk to human health. 

Additional details on how producers can access and apply for the financial tools is forthcoming.

Today, HHS announced new funding investments through CDC and FDA totaling $101 million to mitigate the risk of H5N1 and continue its work to test, prevent, and treat H5N1. Although the CDC’s assessment of the risk of avian influenza infection for the general public continues to remain low at this time, these investments reflect the Department’s commitment to prioritizing the health and safety of the American public.

Public and animal health experts and agencies have been preparing for avian influenza outbreak for 20 years. Our primary responsibility at HHS is to protect public health and the safety of the food supply, which is why we continue to approach the outbreak with urgency. We stood up a response team which includes four HHS agencies – CDC, FDA, NIH and ASPR – which are working closely with USDA to:

• Ensure we keep communities healthy, safe, and informed;
• Ensure that our Nation’s food supply remains safe;
• Safeguard American agriculture and the livelihood and well-being of American farmers and farmworkers; and
• Monitor any and all trends to mitigate risk and prevent the spread of H5N1 among both people and animals.

Some examples of this work include:

• CDC monitoring of the virus to detect any changes that may increase risk to people, and updated avian flu guidance for workers to ensure people who work with dairy cows and those who work in slaughterhouses have the guides and information they need in both English and Spanish.
• CDC's ongoing discussions with multiple states about field investigations and incentives for workers who participate in these on-site studies. CDC has also asked health departments to distribute existing PPE stocks to farm workers, prioritizing those who work with infected cows. To help states comply with CDC recommendations, ASPR has PPE in the Strategic National Stockpile (SNS) available for states to request if needed.
• FDA’s close coordination with USDA to conduct H5N1 retail milk and dairy sample testing from across the country to ensure the safety of the commercial pasteurized milk supply. NIAID – a part of NIH - is also providing scientific support to this entire effort through six U. S. based Centers for Excellence for Influenza Research and Response, known as CEIRRs.

Today, in light of HHS’ ongoing commitment to ensure the safety of the American people and food supply, HHS announced additional resources to further these efforts through CDC and FDA:

CDC announced it has identified an additional $93 million to support its current response efforts for avian influenza. Building on bipartisan investments in public health, this funding will allow CDC to capitalize on the influenza foundation that has been laid over the last two decades, specifically where CDC has worked domestically and globally to prevent, detect, and respond to avian influenza.

These investments will allow CDC to bolster testing and laboratory capacity, surveillance, genomic sequencing, support jurisdictions and partner efforts to reach high risk populations and initiate a new wastewater surveillance pilot. 

• Develop and optimize assays that can be used to sequence virus independent of virus identification.
• Assess circulating H5N1 viruses for any concerning viral changes, including increased transmissibility or severity in humans or decreasing efficacy of diagnostics or antivirals.
• Support the ability of STLT Public Health Labs throughout the country to surge their testing abilities, including support for the additional costs of shipping human avian influenza specimens, which are select agents.
• Through the International Reagent Resource (IRR), support manufacture, storage, and distribution of roughly one thousand additional influenza diagnostic test kits (equaling nearly around one million additional tests) for virologic surveillance. The IRR would also provide influenza reagents for research and development activities on a global scale. This is in addition to current influenza testing capacity at CDC and in STLT public health and DOD labs, which is approximately 490,000 H5-specific tests.
• Address the manufacturer issue detected with current avian flu test kits.
• Initiate avian flu testing in one commercial laboratory.
• Scale up existing efforts to monitor people who are exposed to infected birds and poultry to accommodate workers at likely many more poultry facilities, as well as potentially workers at other agricultural facilities and other people (e.g., hunters) who may be exposed to species that pose a threat.
• Scale up contact tracing efforts and data reporting to accommodate monitoring of contacts of additional sporadic cases.
• Support the collection and characterization of additional clinical specimens through established surveillance systems from regions with large numbers of exposed persons to enhance the ability to detect any unrecognized cases in the community if they occur.
• Expand respiratory virus surveillance to capture more samples from persons with acute respiratory illness in different care settings.
• Support continuation and possible expansion of existing respiratory surveillance platforms and vaccine effectiveness platforms.
• Provide bioinformatics and data analytics support for genomic sequencing at CDC that supports surveillance needs for enhanced monitoring.
• Expand sequencing capacity for HPAI in state-level National Influenza Reference Centers (NIRCs), Influenza Sequencing Center (ISC), and Pathogen Genomic Centers of Excellence.
• Analyze circulating H5N1 viruses to determine whether current Candidate Vaccine Viruses (CVVs) would be effective and develop new ones if necessary.
• Support partner efforts to reach high risk populations.
• Initiate wastewater pilot to evaluate the use case for HPAI in up to 10 livestock-adjacent sites in partnership with state and local public health agencies and utility partners.
• Implement a study to evaluate the use of Influenza A sequencing in wastewater samples for highly pathogenic avian influenza typing. Initiate laboratory evaluation for HA typing and examine animal-specific markers in community wastewater to assess wildlife and livestock contribution and inform interpretation of wastewater data for action.

Additionally, the FDA is announcing an additional $8 million is being made available to support its ongoing response activities to ensure the safety of the commercial milk supply. This funding will support the agency’s ability to validate pasteurization criteria, conduct surveillance at different points in the milk production system, bolster laboratory capacity and provide needed resources to train staff on biosecurity procedures. Additionally, these funds will help support H5N1 activities in partnership with state co-regulatory partners, who administer state programs as part of the federal/state milk safety system. It may also allow the FDA to partner with universities on critical research questions.

Additional Information:

To learn more about USDA’s response to H5N1 in dairy cattle, visit https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease/avian/avian-influenza/hpai-detections/livestock .

To learn more about CDC’s response to H5N1, visit https://www.cdc.gov/flu/avianflu/mammals.htm .

To learn more about FDA’s response to H5N1, visit https://www.fda.gov/food/alerts-advisories-safety-information/updates-highly-pathogenic-avian-influenza-hpai

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Study models how ketamine's molecular action leads to its effects on the brain

A World Health Organization Essential Medicine, ketamine is widely used at varying doses for sedation, pain control, general anesthesia and as a therapy for treatment-resistant depression. While scientists know its target in brain cells and have observed how it affects brain-wide activity, they haven't known entirely how the two are connected. A new study by a research team spanning four Boston-area institutions uses computational modeling of previously unappreciated physiological details to fill that gap and offer new insights into how ketamine works.

"This modeling work has helped decipher likely mechanisms through which ketamine produces altered arousal states as well as its therapeutic benefits for treating depression," co-senior author Emery N. Brown, Edward Hood Taplin Professor of Computational Neuroscience and Medical Engineering at The Picower Institute for Learning and Memory at MIT, as well as an anesthesiologist at MGH and a Professor at Harvard Medical School.

The researchers from MIT, Boston University, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard University said the predictions of their model, published May 20 in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , could help physicians make better use of the drug.

"When physicians understand what's mechanistically happening when they administer a drug, they can possibly leverage that mechanism and manipulate it," said study lead author Elie Adam, a Research Scientist at MIT who will soon join the Harvard Medical School faculty and launch a lab at MGH. "They gain a sense of how to enhance the good effects of the drug and how to mitigate the bad ones."

Blocking the door

The core advance of the study involved biophysically modeling what happens when ketamine blocks the "NMDA" receptors in the brain's cortex -- the outer layer where key functions such as sensory processing and cognition take place. Blocking the NMDA receptors modulates the release of excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate.

When the neuronal channels (or doorways) regulated by the NMDA receptors open, they typically close slowly (like a doorway with a hydraulic closer that keeps it from slamming), allowing ions to go in and out of neurons, thereby regulating their electrical properties, Adam said. But, the channels of the receptor can be blocked by a molecule. Blocking by magnesium helps to naturally regulate ion flow. Ketamine, however, is an especially effective blocker.

Blocking slows the voltage build-up across the neuron's membrane that eventually leads a neuron to "spike," or send an electrochemical message to other neurons. The NMDA doorway becomes unblocked when the voltage gets high. This interdependence between voltage, spiking and blocking can equip NMDA receptors with faster activity than its slow closing speed might suggest. The team's model goes further than ones before by representing how ketamine's blocking and unblocking affect neural activity.

"Physiological details that are usually ignored can sometimes be central to understanding cognitive phenomena," said co-corresponding author Nancy Kopell, a professor of math at BU. "The dynamics of NMDA receptors have more impact on network dynamics than has previously been appreciated."

With their model, the scientists simulated how different doses of ketamine affecting NMDA receptors would alter the activity of a model brain network. The simulated network included key neuron types found in the cortex: one excitatory type and two inhibitory types. It distinguishes between "tonic" interneurons that tamp down network activity and "phasic" interneurons that react more to excitatory neurons.

The team's simulations successfully recapitulated the real brain waves that have been measured via EEG electrodes on the scalp of a human volunteer who received various ketamine doses and the neural spiking that has been measured in similarly treated animals that had implanted electrode arrays. At low doses, ketamine increased brain wave power in the fast gamma frequency range (30-40 Hz). At the higher doses that cause unconsciousness, those gamma waves became periodically interrupted by "down" states where only very slow frequency delta waves occur. This repeated disruption of the higher frequency waves is what can disrupt communication across the cortex enough to disrupt consciousness.

But how? Key findings

Importantly, through simulations, they explained several key mechanisms in the network that would produce exactly these dynamics.

The first prediction is that ketamine can disinhibit network activity by shutting down certain inhibitory interneurons. The modeling shows that natural blocking and unblocking kinetics of NMDA-receptors can let in a small current when neurons are not spiking. Many neurons in the network that are at the right level of excitation would rely on this current to spontaneously spike. But when ketamine impairs the kinetics of the NMDA receptors, it quenches that current, leaving these neurons suppressed. In the model, while ketamine equally impairs all neurons, it is the tonic inhibitory neurons that get shut down because they happen to be at that level of excitation. This releases other neurons, excitatory or inhibitory from their inhibition allowing them to spike vigorously and leading to ketamine's excited brain state. The network's increased excitation can then enable quick unblocking (and reblocking) of the neurons' NMDA receptors, causing bursts of spiking.

Another prediction is that these bursts become synchronized into the gamma frequency waves seen with ketamine. How? The team found that the phasic inhibitory interneurons become stimulated by lots of input of the neurotransmitter glutamate from the excitatory neurons and vigorously spike, or fire. When they do, they send an inhibitory signal of the neurotransmitter GABA to the excitatory neurons that squelches the excitatory firing, almost like a kindergarten teacher calming down a whole classroom of excited children. That stop signal, which reaches all the excitatory neurons simultaneously, only lasts so long, ends up synchronizing their activity, producing a coordinated gamma brain wave.

"The finding that an individual synaptic receptor (NMDA) can produce gamma oscillations and that these gamma oscillations can influence network-level gamma was unexpected," said co-corresponding author Michelle McCarthy, a research assistant professor of math at BU. "This was found only by using a detailed physiological model of the NMDA receptor. This level of physiological detail revealed a gamma time scale not usually associated with an NMDA receptor."

So what about the periodic down states that emerge at higher, unconsciousness-inducing ketamine doses? In the simulation, the gamma-frequency activity of the excitatory neurons can't be sustained for too long by the impaired NMDA-receptor kinetics. The excitatory neurons essentially become exhausted under GABA inhibition from the phasic interneurons. That produces the down state. But then, after they have stopped sending glutamate to the phasic interneurons, those cells stop producing their inhibitory GABA signals. That enables the excitatory neurons to recover, starting a cycle anew.

Antidepressant connection?

The model makes another prediction that might help explain how ketamine exerts its antidepressant effects. It suggests that the increased gamma activity of ketamine could entrain gamma activity among neurons expressing a peptide called VIP. This peptide has been found to have health promoting effects, such as reducing inflammation, that last much longer than ketamine's effects on NMDA receptors. The research team proposes that the entrainment of these neurons under ketamine could increase the release of the beneficial peptide, as observed when these cells are stimulated in experiments. This also hints at therapeutic features of ketamine that may go beyond anti-depressant effects. The research team acknowledges, however, that this connection is speculative and awaits specific experimental validation.

"The understanding that the sub cellular details of the NMDA receptor can lead to increased gamma oscillations was the basis for a new theory about how ketamine may work for treating depression," Kopell said.

Additional co-authors of the study are Marek Kowalski, Oluwaseun Akeju, and Earl K. Miller.

The JPB Foundation, The Picower Institute for Learning and Memory, The Simons Center for The Social Brain, the National Institutes of Health, George J. Elbaum (MIT '59, SM '63, PhD '67), Mimi Jensen, Diane B. Greene (MIT, SM '78), Mendel Rosenblum, Bill Swanson, and annual donors to the Anesthesia Initiative Fund supported the research.

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Materials provided by Picower Institute at MIT . Note: Content may be edited for style and length.

Journal Reference :

• Elie Adam, Marek Kowalski, Oluwaseun Akeju, Earl K. Miller, Emery N. Brown, Michelle M. McCarthy, Nancy Kopell. Ketamine can produce oscillatory dynamics by engaging mechanisms dependent on the kinetics of NMDA receptors . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , 2024; 121 (22) DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2402732121

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Microplastics Have Been Found In Human Blood, Hearts, Testicles—Here's How They Got There

R esearchers from the University of New Mexico studying the presence of microplastics and nanoplastics in the body this month found the particles present in the testicles of every single dog and human test subject included in study of 70 participants, the latest piece of evidence showing that microscopic pieces of plastic have made their way into the human body through through polluted food, water and air.

Microplastics, defined as a piece of plastic less than 5 millimeters in length, are born from the disposal and breakdown of consumer products like single-use plastic bottles, food packages and plastic pellets , the tiny pieces of plastic used to make packaging, auto parts, toys and other items.

As used plastic items are disposed of through ocean dumping and in landfills, microplastics make their way into human water sources via polluted runoff into lakes, rivers and estuaries, the World Health Organization explains, and they’re also launched into the atmosphere as bubbles containing of plastics burst at the ocean's surface, researchers at Princeton found.

People also ingest microplastics in more direct ways, often through food—thousands of tons of microplastics have made their way onto farmland and some have been absorbed by crops, Chinese scientists have found; Italian researchers discovered plastics in fish intended for human consumption; and containers, specifically those exposed to high temperatures, can leach microplastics into the food they hold, according to a study published in the Journal of Hazardous Materials.

A study commissioned by the World Wildlife Fund suggested the average person ingests about 5 grams of plastic every week—about the weight of a credit card—and other research says the average person eats at least 50,000 particles of microplastic a year, a number that is thought to increase significantly for those with ultra-processed diets, the Guardian reported.

Researchers in the Netherlands found microplastics in human blood for the first time in 2022 (scientists found particles in almost 80% of test subjects), Chinese scientists discovered them in the hearts of people undergoing cardiac surgery last year and, in a study published May 15, in they were found in the reproductive systems of men.

The full long term impact of microplastics on human health are still largely unknown, but dozens of research studies have linked the particles to lung inflammation and a higher risk of lung cancer, metabolic disorders , neurotoxicity, endocrine disruption , weight gain, insulin resistance, and decreased reproductive health.

The results of the recently released study that found particles in the testes of humans and dogs came as a shock to researchers. John Yu, the study's lead author, told NPR he didn't expect the plastics to be so prevalent in the male reproductive system and suggested the result could be connected to the global decline in male fertility, particularly sperm count. Tracey Woodruff, director of the Environmental Research and Translation for Health Center, called the research "a wake up call for policymakers."

Key Background

The first study of plastic debris found in the ocean was published in 1972 when scientists found small plastic particles in the middle of the Atlantic, according to Oceanography magazine. Researchers began tracking plastic debris via surface trawls and study began in earnest after the discovery of the “ Great Pacific Garbage Patch ”—the largest accumulation of plastic in the open ocean—in 1996. Over the last 20 years, increased discovery combined with public awareness campaigns have pushed the issue of ocean pollution to the forefront, and researchers in 2012 made the discovery that the majority of plastic pollution consisted of tiny, often invisible pieces of microplastics. Since then, scientists have committed research to where microplastics come from, how they travel, how they infiltrate living things and how they impact ecosystems, according to Oceanography.

Crucial Quote

“Our work has so clearly shown that microplastics are present in every sample of beach sand, whether it’s in Australia, Asia, Europe, North or South America,” Richard Thompson, professor of Marine Biology and Director of the University’s Marine Institute, wrote . “We’ve looked in the deep sea, in Arctic ice, in the gut of hundreds of fish from the English Channel and we’ve found microplastic contamination everywhere.”

400 million tons. That's how much plastic waste is produced every year, according to the United Nations.

Surprising Fact

Petrochemical companies bear the most fault for single-use plastic waste, according to a study published in 2020 and reported by CNBC . More than half of the world's single-use plastic waste comes from 20 petrochemical companies, the study said, with ExxonMobil named the biggest offender. Ninety percent of single-use plastic is produced by just 100 companies.

Further Reading

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Is Fluoridated Drinking Water Safe for Pregnant Women?

New research suggests a link between prenatal fluoride levels and behavioral issues in children. Experts are divided on the study’s significance.

By Alice Callahan and Christina Caron

A small study published Monday suggested that higher levels of fluoride consumed during the third trimester of pregnancy were associated with a greater risk of behavioral problems in the mothers’ children at 3 years old. The authors of the study, which was funded in part by the National Institutes of Health and the Environmental Protection Agency and published in the journal JAMA Network Open, believe it is the first to examine links between prenatal fluoride exposure and child development among families living in the United States, where fluoride is often added to community water supplies to prevent dental cavities.

The study’s authors and some outside researchers said that the findings should prompt policymakers to evaluate the safety of fluoride consumption during pregnancy.

“I think it’s a warning sign,” said Dr. Beate Ritz, an environmental epidemiologist at the U.C.L.A. Fielding School of Public Health.

But other experts cautioned that the study had several important limitations that made it difficult to assess the potential effects of fluoride consumption during pregnancy.

“There is nothing about this study that alarms me or would make me recommend that pregnant women stop drinking tap water,” said Dr. Patricia Braun, a professor of pediatrics at the University of Colorado School of Medicine and a spokesperson for the American Academy of Pediatrics.

The Background

Fluoride strengthens tooth enamel, and research suggests that drinking water with added fluoride can reduce cavities by up to 25 percent . Many communities in the United States have added fluoride to their water for this reason since the 1940s, a practice widely celebrated as a major public health achievement . In 2020, 63 percent of people in the United States lived in areas with at least 0.7 milligrams per liter of fluoride in the water — considered optimal for cavity prevention — though some areas have levels that are higher , in part because of naturally high fluoride in the groundwater.

In the last few years, several studies from Mexico and Canada have suggested that fluoride exposure during pregnancy is linked to slightly lower scores on intelligence tests and other measures of cognitive function in children.

But recent studies from Spain and Denmark have found no such link.

There is a “contentious debate” about water fluoridation, acknowledged Ashley Malin, an assistant professor of epidemiology in the College of Public Health and Health Professions at the University of Florida and the lead author of the new study. The issue is currently the subject of a lawsuit filed by the nonprofit Food and Water Watch and other groups against the Environmental Protection Agency. The nonprofit claims that water fluoridation poses a risk to children’s health.

The Research

The study looked at a group of 229 predominantly low-income Hispanic pregnant women in Los Angeles who were already being followed in other research. Most of the women lived in areas with fluoridated water. The researchers measured the fluoride levels in their urine in a single test during the third trimester. Then, when their children were 3 years old, the mothers filled out the Preschool Child Behavior Checklist , a measure used to detect emotional, behavioral and social problems.

Overall, 14 percent of the children had a total score in the “borderline clinical” or “clinical” range, meaning that a doctor may want to watch or evaluate them, or provide additional support, Dr. Malin said. And on average, higher fluoride levels in the mothers’ urine were correlated with a greater risk of behavioral problems in the children. The researchers found that women with urine fluoride levels at the 75th percentile were 83 percent more likely to have children with borderline or clinically significant behavioral problems than women with levels at the 25th percentile.

The main problems reported by the mothers were emotional reactivity, which is the tendency to overreact; somatic complaints, such as headaches and stomachaches; anxiety; and symptoms linked to autism (though those symptoms alone would not be enough for an autism diagnosis).

The researchers did not find an association with other behavioral symptoms like aggression or issues with concentration.

The findings are important and add to evidence suggesting prenatal fluoride consumption may affect the developing brain, said Joseph Braun, a professor of epidemiology and the director of the Center for Children’s Environmental Health at Brown University, who was not involved in the research. That said, the increases in behavioral scores were relatively small — about two points on a scale from 28 to 100 for overall behavioral problems. It’s hard to say whether such a difference might be noticeable in an individual child, he said.

But given how widespread water fluoridation is, he added, even minor behavioral changes in individual children could have a meaningful impact on the overall population.

The Limitations

The study was relatively small and didn’t include a diverse group of women. It didn’t account for many factors that can affect child development, including genetics , maternal nutrition, home environment and community support, several experts not involved in the study said.

The data would also have been stronger if the researchers had measured fluoride in urine samples from several points of time during pregnancy and collected information on tap water, bottled water and tea consumption to better understand how each contributed to the women’s fluoride levels, experts said. Black and green teas can contain high levels of fluoride.

The Preschool Child Behavior Checklist that was used to evaluate the 3-year-olds is considered a reliable measure of child behavior. But it did not take into account the fact that symptoms can change in frequency and intensity during early childhood, said Catherine Lord, an expert on autism and related disorders at the University of California, Los Angeles medical school.

Dr. Lord, who was not involved in the fluoride research, added that the checklist is not considered a reliable way to diagnose autism.

It would also be helpful to follow the children to see if the problematic behaviors persisted beyond age 3, said Melissa Melough, an assistant professor of nutrition sciences at the University of Delaware, who was not involved in the research.

What’s Next

While the experts agreed that more robust research was needed to untangle the potential effects of prenatal fluoride exposure, they had differing opinions about the study’s bottom line.

Dr. Malin said that, based on her findings and the evidence from previous studies, it might be a good idea for women to limit fluoride intake during pregnancy, a view that was echoed by Dr. Ritz and others.

“For me, the takeaway is: Protect pregnancy,” said Marcela Tamayo-Ortiz, an environmental epidemiologist at the Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health who has studied prenatal exposures for more than two decades.

But the American Dental Association said in a statement that the organization stands by its recommendation to “brush twice a day with fluoride toothpaste and drink optimally fluoridated water.”

And Dr. Nathaniel DeNicola, an OB-GYN and environmental health expert in Orange County, Calif., said he wouldn’t advise his pregnant patients to avoid fluoridated water based on the study, because “it’s not conclusive.”

Dr. Melough said she didn’t think women should be alarmed by the findings. But, she added, while it’s clear that fluoride helps to reduce cavities, it’s possible that adding it to the water “could have some unintended consequences,” and policymakers should continually evaluate the practice as new science emerges.

You can find out what the fluoride levels are in your local water by contacting your water utility or checking the C.D.C.’s My Water’s Fluoride website . If you want to reduce your fluoride consumption, experts said, limit how much black or green tea you drink. You can also purchase certain water filters that remove some fluoride. There’s no reason to stop brushing your teeth with fluoride toothpaste — just don’t swallow it.

Alice Callahan is a Times reporter covering nutrition and health. She has a Ph.D. in nutrition from the University of California, Davis. More about Alice Callahan

Christina Caron is a Times reporter covering mental health. More about Christina Caron