essay on medicinal plants for class 3

Essay on Medicinal Plants

Students are often asked to write an essay on Medicinal Plants in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Medicinal Plants

Introduction.

Medicinal plants are nature’s gift, providing remedies for various diseases. They’ve been used since ancient times for their healing properties.

Types of Medicinal Plants

There are many types of medicinal plants like Neem, Tulsi, Aloe vera, and Ginger. Each has unique benefits – Neem for skin, Tulsi for respiratory issues, etc.

Medicinal plants are important as they offer natural, side-effect free treatments. They’re also economically beneficial, providing income for farmers.

In conclusion, medicinal plants play a vital role in health care. It’s essential to preserve and understand them for future generations.

250 Words Essay on Medicinal Plants

Medicinal plants, also known as medicinal herbs, have been discovered and used in traditional medicine practices since prehistoric times. They form the backbone of traditional healing practices, providing the foundation for modern pharmaceuticals.

The Significance of Medicinal Plants

Plants synthesise hundreds of chemical compounds for functions including defence against insects, fungi, diseases, and herbivorous mammals. Many of these phytochemicals have beneficial effects on long-term health when consumed by humans, and can be used to effectively treat human diseases. At least 12,000 such compounds have been isolated so far; a number estimated to be less than 10% of the total.

Medicinal Plants in Modern Medicine

Modern medicine recognizes herbalism as a form of alternative medicine, as the practice of herbalism is not strictly based on evidence gathered using the scientific method. However, many modern medicines are directly or indirectly derived from medicinal plants. For example, aspirin was developed based on the healing properties of willow bark, which has been known for centuries.

Challenges and Future Prospects

Despite the immense potential, the use of medicinal plants is not without its challenges. Overharvesting and habitat loss threatens many medicinal plant species, and the lack of regulation and standardization raises concerns about the safety and efficacy of herbal drugs. However, with the growing interest in natural remedies and the advancement of scientific research methods, the future of medicinal plants looks promising.

In conclusion, medicinal plants play a critical role in health care. With sustainable use and further research, they could provide solutions to many of the health challenges facing humanity today.

500 Words Essay on Medicinal Plants

Introduction to medicinal plants.

Medicinal plants, also known as medicinal herbs, have been discovered and used in traditional medicine practices since prehistoric times. These plants produce a rich array of medicinal substances that can be used to treat a wide range of diseases. In the modern era, they continue to serve as the foundation for a large portion of pharmaceuticals.

Medicinal plants play a crucial role in health care, with about 80% of the world’s population relying on them for some part of primary healthcare. They are critical sources of drugs for allopathic medicine, ayurvedic, homeopathic, and folk medicines. Furthermore, they serve as raw materials for the extraction of active ingredients used in the synthesis of chemical drugs.

Examples and Uses of Medicinal Plants

There are countless examples of medicinal plants and their uses. For instance, the plant Digitalis purpurea, commonly known as foxglove, contains digoxin, a substance used to treat heart conditions. Salix alba, or white willow, is a source of salicylic acid, which is used to make aspirin. Curcuma longa, turmeric, is a potent anti-inflammatory and antioxidant. Cannabis sativa has been used for its psychoactive and medicinal properties, including pain relief.

Medicinal Plants and Biodiversity

The use of medicinal plants promotes biodiversity. They form an integral part of the ecosystem, contributing to its health and productivity. The cultivation and sustainable harvesting of medicinal plants can help conserve biodiversity while providing economic benefits. However, the overexploitation of these plants from the wild threatens their survival and the biodiversity they support.

Despite their importance, medicinal plants face several challenges. Habitat destruction, overharvesting, and climate change threaten their survival. Additionally, the lack of standardization and quality control in the use of medicinal plants raises concerns about their efficacy and safety.

The future of medicinal plants, however, looks promising. Advances in biotechnology, such as plant tissue culture and genetic engineering, can help conserve and enhance the production of medicinal plants. Furthermore, integrating traditional knowledge with modern scientific methods can lead to the discovery of new medicines.

Medicinal plants offer a treasure trove of potential for new drug discovery and health care. Their importance extends beyond their direct use in health care to their role in maintaining biodiversity and providing economic benefits. As we move forward, it is crucial to address the challenges they face and harness the opportunities they offer, ensuring their sustainable use and conservation for future generations.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

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How To Write An Essay on Neem Tree In 10 Lines, Short And Long Format For Children

Key Points To Remember When Writing An Essay On Neem Tree For Lower Primary Classes

10 lines on neem tree for kids, paragraph on neem tree for children, short essay on neem tree in english for kids, long essay on neem tree for children, what will your child learn from the essay on neem tree.

When a child writes an essay, they have a lot of opportunities to improve their creative skills. Children who feel the need to write essays may find that doing so helps them strengthen their mental capabilities and contributes to their overall holistic development. If young children are taught and encouraged to write short essays like an essay on neem tree in English from an early age, they will have a significant advantage in their writing skills. In particular, the essay on neem tree for classes 1, 2, and 3 is a great way to make your children practice writing skills. They start weaving their thoughts into beautiful words and sentences using creative skills.

Writing essays is not only an essential component of learning that your children will be required to complete, but it also prepares them to be successful adults in the working world. Below are some points that will help you write on the neem tree for lower primary classes.

To get started, think about the neem tree in general and jot down any ideas or random thoughts that come to mind.
You need to provide an introduction that summarises what the reader may expect to find in the body of your essay.
Begin to add new paragraphs along with subheadings that discuss the neem tree’s significance and its features and advantages.
Put an end to the essay about the neem tree by providing a conclusion for it.

Children will be able to develop their thinking and writing skills by writing an essay for classes 1 and 2 on the topic – The Neem Tree. In addition to shade, neem trees provide various other benefits. Below are a few lines on neem tree showcasing its benefits and properties.

The neem tree is a kind of evergreen that grows all over the globe.
Although it is indigenous to India and other arid regions in South Asia, the neem tree has now spread over most of the globe.
Its scientific name is Azadirachta Indica.
The fruits of this tree are yellow or greenish-yellow, and each contains a solitary seed.
In India, the neem tree produces blooms between January and April and ripe fruits between May and August.
Neem trees often grow to a height of between 15 and 20 meters throughout their lifetime.
Neem leaves are used in the production of toothpaste as well as mouthwashes.
Neem can handle various climatic conditions, although it cannot live in locations with very low temperatures or excessive amounts of water.
It has medicinal properties too and has a great deal of potential as a pharmaceutical.
Shampoos that include neem are effective at removing dandruff from the hair.

Writing an essay about the neem tree will help you gain knowledge about the tree, and one can understand its advantages and its usage from ancient days. The neem tree is a kind of evergreen with a rapid growth rate and is very valuable due to its medicinal properties.

Neem tree roots are deep. Neem trees are found in their native environment in India and other dry parts of South Asia. Neem is known for its medicinal properties. Since ancient times, the tree’s wood and leaves have been used in Ayurvedic medicine. Recently, the tree’s wood and leaves have found usage in the cosmetics industry and organic agriculture. Neem trees have the potential to reach heights of up to 100 feet, placing them in the exclusive group of the world’s tallest trees. The neem tree in India produces flowers between January and April, while the fruit of the tree develops between May and August.

Kids must write a short essay on a topic like a neem tree in their classwork or homework. Given below is a 150-200 word essay on neem tree.

Do you know that every part of the neem tree can be used! The tree is tall enough to provide a good shade. When measured at its broadest point, the trunk has a diameter of around 1.2 meters. Flowers of the neem tree are often found growing in groups. Each cluster has anything from around 150 to 250 flowers contained inside it. It has stunning fruits, but each one is just a few milligrams in size, and the taste is disagreeable. It is categorised as a drupe, a fully fleshy fruit containing only one seed, comparable to peaches and cherries. Neem is a kind of plant that can be propagated in two ways: organically, via the use of seeds, and artificially, through the use of cuttings. Neem can thrive in a diverse variety of climates. Neem has medicinal properties and is helpful for skin disorders.

The essay on the neem tree for class 3 helps enhance writing abilities and deepen the understanding of this particular kind of tree. As a consequence, you will have the opportunity to get a deeper comprehension of its therapeutic and rehabilitative capacities.

Neem is a kind of tree with leaves that remain green throughout the year and grow quite swiftly. It is well known that it has applications in the medical field. Neem is a tree native to India and goes by the names “Nim” and “Margosa.” Its scientific name is Azadirachta Indica. Since ancient times, this tree’s wood and leaves have been used in Ayurvedic medicine. More recently, however, they have found applications in cosmetics and organic agriculture too.

In India, the neem tree is in full bloom from January to April and provides full fruits from May to August. Neem has been used for many decades to treat various ailments. Neem is a plant that can be grown in its natural habitat by germinating the seeds, but it may also be grown in a controlled setting by taking cuttings. Neem may be an active component in shampoos and soaps used to treat various skin conditions, such as acne and athlete’s foot. Dandruff can also be treated using neem-based shampoos.

Importance Of Neem Tree

The alternative name of neem is margosa, and its scientific name is Azadirachta Indica. Nim is another name for neem. It is noteworthy in a variety of different ways. It is used in the treatment of illnesses caused by fungi. Consuming the juice extracted from neem leaves will result in detoxification. Neem oil is used on the scalp to treat dandruff and lice infestations. It is well recognised to strengthen one’s immune system. Neem is the most powerful natural insecticide that is currently available. In addition, it is effective as a mosquito and bug repellent. Neem leaves, when chewed regularly, may assist in removing toxins from the blood, resulting in clearer, more radiant skin.

Parts Of The Neem Tree And Their Benefits

Neem leaves, neem flowers, neem bark, neem roots, and neem fruit are the many components that make up a neem tree.

The neem blossom has been shown to have anticancer effects.
The bark of the neem tree has pesticide properties.
The neem oil extracted from neem seeds is used to treat dandruff.
The neem leaf possesses characteristics that inhibit the growth of microorganisms.
The neem fruit has been shown to have anti-inflammatory effects.

Why Neem Tree Is Valuable For Farmers

The neem tree leaves have significant usage to improve the quality of the soil. As a combination, they are used for crops’ fertilisation. When the cake of the neem is tilled into the soil, it acts as a barrier against nematodes and white ants, both of which may cause damage to plant roots.

Children assigned to write an essay about the neem tree will be motivated to look up information and gain knowledge about the tree. In addition to improving their writing abilities, students will benefit from reading an essay about the neem tree since it will teach them that this lovely tree has useful therapeutic properties. They may regard this tree as one of their favourites and use neem in their day-to-day activities. They will even learn the value of the ancient herbal medicine system and the benefits of natural remedies.

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Medicinal plant analysis: a historical and regional discussion of emergent complex techniques.

1 Herbal and East Asian Medicine, School of Life Sciences, College of Liberal Arts and Sciences, University of Westminster, London, United Kingdom
2 Pharmacognosy and Phytotherapy, UCL School of Pharmacy, London, United Kingdom

The analysis of medicinal plants has had a long history, and especially with regard to assessing a plant’s quality. The first techniques were organoleptic using the physical senses of taste, smell, and appearance. Then gradually these led on to more advanced instrumental techniques. Though different countries have their own traditional medicines China currently leads the way in terms of the number of publications focused on medicinal plant analysis and number of inclusions in their Pharmacopoeia. The monographs contained within these publications give directions on the type of analysis that should be performed, and for manufacturers, this typically means that they need access to more and more advanced instrumentation. We have seen developments in many areas of analytical analysis and particularly the development of chromatographic and spectroscopic methods and the hyphenation of these techniques. The ability to process data using multivariate analysis software has opened the door to metabolomics giving us greater capacity to understand the many variations of chemical compounds occurring within medicinal plants, allowing us to have greater certainty of not only the quality of the plants and medicines but also of their suitability for clinical research. Refinements in technology have resulted in the ability to analyze and categorize plants effectively and be able to detect contaminants and adulterants occurring at very low levels. However, advances in technology cannot provide us with all the answers we need in order to deliver high-quality herbal medicines and the more traditional techniques of assessing quality remain as important today.

Introduction

Medicinal plants have been a resource for healing in local communities around the world for thousands of years. Still it remains of contemporary importance as a primary healthcare mode for approximately 85% of the world’s population ( Pešić, 2015 ), and as a resource for drug discovery, with 80% of all synthetic drugs deriving from them ( Bauer and Brönstrup, 2014 ). Concurrently, the last few hundred years has seen a prolific rise in the introduction, development, and advancement of herbal substances analysis. Humans have been identifying and selecting medicinal plants and foods based on organoleptic assessment of suitability and quality for thousands of years, but it is only in the span of the last seven decades since the invention of basic analytical techniques, e.g., paper chromatography, that has seen rapid development from sight, touch, and smell to using sophisticated instrumentation. Though this mechanization of the senses has appeared relatively recently, historically conceptual expansion has been building throughout the scientific revolution, outwards toward the universe and inwards to a scale below recognition capable with a human eye, leading to development of some of the earliest analytical tools assisting the senses, the telescope and microscope. From the initial discovery of new microscopic worlds, through structural, chemical, and atomic levels, the sensitivity and range of human perception has been extended and enhanced.

Rapid progress is especially evident considering that the concept of a laboratory was only formally formed in Europe during the early 1600s. First as an extension of philosophers’, doctors’, and scientists’ workrooms, it becomes a space to study nature and gather empirical evidence ( Wilson, 1997 ), where studies could be conducted at the analyst’s convenience rather than at specific times when daylight or weather permitted. This was a small but important step towards more formalized analytical investigations.

In modern analysis, single techniques such as paper chromatography and much earlier colorimetry appeared. It was followed by a greater range and wider application of these techniques until early hyphenations such as LC-UV emerged, culminating more recently in multiple combinations of multi-hyphenated instrumentation, availing of the analytical advantages inherent in each individual technique. The emergence of hyphenated analytical techniques in many aspects is analogous to the organoleptic synthesis that occurs when selecting a medicinal plant; viewing, smelling and tasting it to use combinations of different senses, increasing the points of reference/statistical degrees of freedom to improve the probability of correctly identifying and assessing its quality. The emergence and application of these hyphenated techniques only became possible and useful as computer systems and data management tools developed, enabling rapid and selective synthesis of information from the large amount of instrumental and analytical data signals generated.

Probably the single greatest influence in recent times in the advancement of the analysis of herbal materials (and arguably analysis generally) is, though, how large amounts of data can be collected, assimilated, and used more meaningfully in human readable forms. Similar to the historical advancements in combinatorial hyphenated instrumentation, now combinatorial data processing techniques like fingerprinting, metabolomic profiling, and pattern recognition algorithms have emerged, further increasing analytical capabilities, while reducing operator time and expertise required. This trend has further accelerated the pace and rate of advancement of analytical techniques and has led to an increase in the pace and capability of the associated research. In this paper, we analyze publication trends and pharmacopoeial developments in order to better understand the role and progression of analytical techniques. Since their initial discovery and development, with a particular focus on China, an Asian country with both deep cultural and long-term historical roots in plant medicine, to more modern day developments and applications.

Publication Trends

Increasing interest in medicinal plant research and analysis is reflected in the number of recent publications, with more than a three-fold increase from 4,686 publications during the year 2008 to 14,884 in 2018. Output published during the 8 years of the present decade alone outnumbered all those combined before 2000, since the included database records began in 1800 ( Figure 1 ).

Figure 1 The herbal substance analysis publications trend since search records began in 1800. A keyword search was conducted using the combination “medicinal plant” OR “herbal medicine” AND “analysis” chosen for the maximum retuned records after exploring a list of similar topic and combination of keywords such as “photochemical analysis,” “traditional medicine,” and “herbal.” The Web of Science or collection, KCI- Korean Journal database, MEDLINE ® , Russian Science Citation index, and SciELO Citation index databases were included in the search.

The largest proportion of publications cited in current databases over the last 10 years for medicinal plant analysis reports are in the disciplines of pharmacology and pharmacy ( Figure 2 ). With plant sciences, biochemical molecular biology and agriculture research following closely behind, together comprising almost 70% of the total publications.

Figure 2 Herbal substance analysis publications by discipline, 2008–2018 (169,917 records).

Regional Trends—Last 10 Years

The majority (about 58%) of medicinal plant analysis publications in the last 10 years have collectively emerged from mainland China, India, USA, and South Korea ( Figure 3 ). This may be an expression of the strong medicinal plant traditions in Asia in addition to the USA’s dominant presence as an international user of herbal products ( Hu et al., 2013 ). The major East Asian regions, in particular, China, Japan, South Korea, together with Taiwan, contribute more than half of the total citations (55%). This may be indicative of the rapid economic progress and technological capability of these countries. China is the major contributor, with a 15% increase in its dominance of research outputs in the last 10 years. This influence has also been seen in the effect of China’s growing involvement in aiding the development of pharmacopoeias around the world and as a leader in the analysis of Chinese medicinal plants ( Figure 3 ).

Figure 3 Herbal analysis publications by region, 2008–2018.

Regulation and a Changing Analytical Landscape

From a regulatory perspective, the pharmacopoeial requirements are the central reference point for the analysis of medicinal plants. Though internationally many pharmacopoeias exist, the most comprehensive of these relating to herbal medicinal materials is the Chinese Pharmacopoeia (ChP). The current ChP introduced in 2015 is the 10th iteration presented in three volumes and includes 5,608 drugs, a 10-fold increase from its first edition in 1953. More than half of the current monographs ( Hamid-Reza et al., 2013 , 598) relate to CHM specifically including raw plants, slices, herbal mixtures, and oils. A noticeable inclusion in the current version compared with the previous version is the addition of 400 herbal mixtures ( Qian et al., 2010 ).

Pharmacopoeia Monographs—Their Influences and Challenges

Though more recently the ChP is playing an increasing role in influencing medicinal plant analysis, the development of the ChP has been heavily influenced by Western pharmacopoeias. Historically the identification, preparation, and analysis of medicinal plants were based on classic texts such as the Shengnong Bencao Jing (Shengnong Materia Medica, 25–220 CE), where the category and quality of 365 plants and 113 prescriptions were assessed by taste. Organoleptic sensing of bitterness, sweetness, saltiness, and even neutral tastes were thought to indicate the function and application of the medicine. Arguably, the most influential Chinese pharmacy monograph is the Bencao Gangmu (Compendium of Materia Medica, 1368–1644 CE) containing 1,892 plant descriptions and 11,096 prescriptions sorted in 16 divisions and 60 orders, emphasizing appearance, taste, and odor as a key to authentication and quality.

However, the main precursor to the modern format of the current Chinese Pharmacopoeia was printed in the 1930s with 670 drugs. Even at this early stage, the then dominant Western powers such as Britain, Germany, America, and Japan found challenges in understanding and forming consensus for recognizing, categorizing, and assuring the quality of Chinese medical materials. At this time a difficulty emerged in securing materials for the more Western styled “scientifically run” hospitals. Initially it was though that as Japan had adopted a translation of the German pharmacopoeia in 1886, the Chinese could follow suit using the British Pharmacopoeia, which in 1927 had been translated into Chinese as a joint effort by the London and British Chambers of Commerce. However, some differences in opinion between the four occupiers had to be first resolved.

Many of the technological demands necessary to produce and maintain the pharmacopoeial standards required by the Americans was beyond the ability and technological capability of the Chinese at that time. America had recently just printed a Chinese translation of its United States Pharmacopeia (10 th edition) published in 1926. The strict American standards for aconite, digitalis, adrenalin, and insulin were purported to be managed by new or foreign trained pharmacists ( Read, 1930 ). Preparations such as liniments found in the British and U.S. Pharmacopoeias were included in the Chinese version. Syrups such as those of codeine and glucose and tinctures of cannabis were from the British influence. Foreign residents in China found it difficult to ingest local food and stated an “extensive need for bowel remedies.” Therefore, drugs of the time, albuminis, aspidium, and emetin, were included. Vaccines for diphtheria, tetanus, and smallpox were maintained through the instruction of the USP.

German chemists had already gained a reputation for the isolation of chemical compounds, many of which were used medicinally and were already included in the Japanese Pharmacopoeia such as oxalic acid, pyrogallic acid, and bromine. Therefore, the existing German-Japanese analytical methods were generally utilized for these areas, which comprised about 25% of the new Chinese Pharmacopoeia. Whereas more British and American derived analytical methods and preparations were included for vegetable- and animal-based materials.

Agreement over the correct translation and naming of chemical compounds also proved problematic, e.g. when attempting to resolve disagreement between German-Latin and Anglo-American descriptions such as “natrium chloratum” and “sodii chloridum.” The shared Latin common language elements aided European and American common understanding; however, translation into Chinese was troublesome. A potentially easier route would have been to adopt the Japanese Pharmacopoeia names and descriptions, often possessing the same Asian (Hanzi) character as that in China, however, this was resisted due to the strong nationalistic sentiment at the time in mainland China ( Read, 1930 ).

Though the Japanese favored direct foreign phonetic transliterated terms for drugs, about 60 original Chinese materia medica entries had persisted in the Japanese Pharmacopoeia including entries for camphor, ginger, aloes, cardamom, and star anise.

Difficulty in plant identification and common naming was not confined to Asia. During the early 1900s period of European and American political expansion, attempts were being made in Europe to catalogue multilingual terms for similar plants such as the publication of “the illustrated polyglot dictionary of plants names” in Latin, Arabic, Armenian, English, French, German, Italian, and Turkish languages ( Bedevian, 1936 ), cataloguing 3,657 plants in eight languages.

Chronology of Pharmacopoeial Developments in China

1900–1949.

Medicinal plant publications during the early 1900s, before the formation of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, were greatly influenced by the previous “age of exploration.” Many scientific societies were set up by explorers, their peers, and investors as forums to communicate knowledge and acknowledge ownership of findings and discoveries ( Fyfe and Moxham, 2016 ). The rise in fashion of the “gentleman scholar” engaging in academic pursuits supported the occupation of writing. During this time, many publications focused on the identification and classification of ethnic/indigenous medical plants, such as Aztec medicinal plants still in use in modern Mexico ( Braubach, 1925 ; Heinrich et al., 2014 ), Algonquians from nowadays, Canada, ( Speck, 1917 ), Micronesians ( St John, 1948 ), Babylonians and Assyrians, ( Jastrow, 1914 ), Native American Indian tribes ( Castetter et al., 1935 ), Persia, ( Garrison, 1933 ) and India, ( Chopra, 1933 ). Publications in English describing the history and use of Chinese medicine in the context of Western orthodox also appeared ( Chan, 1939 ).

Periods of advancements in TCM research after 1949 to the present day have been described as occurring in three defined phases lasting about 20 years each. The first was 1950–1970, springing from the rapid development of TCM in universities, research, and hospitals in China during this time. The second phase took place during 1980–2000s, where we see the construction of legal, economic, and scientific networks. The third phase, from 2000 to date, is defined by a focus on elucidating the scientific basis and scientific clinical practice of TCM using cross-disciplinary and global collaborations ( Xu et al., 2013 ).

1950–1969

Political context.

This period immediately followed the formation of the People’s Republic of China and saw a rise in nationalism and political introspection. International relationships cooled and a closer connection with the Soviet Union was officially forged with the Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance, and Mutual Assistance in 1950.

Regulatory and Pharmacopoeial Developments

This period saw the launch of the first edition of the People’s Republic of China Pharmacopoeia (ChP) in Chinese launched in 1953. It contains 531 monographs and mainly retains the information of the previous precursor published in the 1930s, compiled from foreign influences. It guided both identification and quantification of synthetic drugs and medicines together in one issue. Some crude herbal materials were listed, but not in analytical detail. Internationally post-World War II, good-will fostered a sense of cooperation and collaboration. This was also reflected by the World Health Organization’s release of the international pharmacopoeia (Ph. Int) issued by the World Health Organization in 1951, produced in two volumes. It contained 344 monographs and 84 tests, with an aim to provide a harmonized international reference for pharmacopoeial methods. The first European Pharmacopoeia Ph. Eur. was produced in 1967, with a more European focus, but combining many common elements of the long-existing British Pharmacopoeia and the United States Pharmacopeia.

Medicinal Plant Research and Analytical Development

Research publication output during the 1950s was varied but the most cited publication trends concerned identification of plant species using electron microscopy ( Watson, 1958 ), the use of plant tissue staining methods ( Bergeron and Singer, 1958 ; Fernstrom, 1958 ), and use of plant extracts for colorimetric analysis ( Holt and Withers, 1958 ; Lillie, 1958 ). Though originating in the 19 th century, the analytical tradition of extraction, purification, and separation of chemical plant components, e.g., the alkaloids, became increasingly sophisticated during this period ( Svoboda et al., 1959 ). Toxicity studies during this time were still basic, exposing mainly mice to plant extracts and using mortality rate counting and organ biopsy and cell station techniques, e.g., quercetin, podophyllotoxin, and podophyllin extract toxicity studies ( Leiter et al., 1950 ) and induced liver lesions with Pyrrolizidine alkaloid extracts ( Schoental, 1959 ).

Chemical screening of plants for their medicinal effects in various chemical and clinical trials is featured ( Farnsworth, 1966 ) as did their use in derivatized forms for the treatment of nerve inflammation ( Jancso et al., 1967 ) and in human metabolism studies ( Pletscher, 1968 ). Studies into the use of medicinal plants for their potential use in cancer treatments were encouraged by the first isolation of paclitaxel from the pacific yew, Taxus brevifolia Nutt.

Older basic chromatographic techniques that had been already in use remained commonly used analytical techniques, e.g., paper chromatography applied to the analysis of common broom [ Cytisus scoparius (L.) Link.] ( Jaminet, 1959 ) and in medicinal plant quality control ( Paris and Viejo, 1955 ). Separation of alkaloids e.g. in Duboisia myoporoides R. Br. ( Hills and Rodwell, 1951 ) remained a common interest and the analysis of other important metabolites including scilliroside in red squill, Drimia maritima. (L.) Stearn ( Dybing et al., 1954 ). An investigation of Cannabis sativa L. for its antibacterial activity was also conducted during this timeframe ( Krejci, 1958 ).

Much of the medicinal plant research of this period concerned the extraction and isolation of single compounds from plants. Basic colorimetric tests, UV-visible and infrared spectroscopy, and paper chromatography had previously supported this type of analysis. Spectroscopic techniques such as UV-Vis spectrometry with chart recorders had been in use since the 1920s ( Hardy, 1938 ). These were being increasingly used for quantitative applications, such as in the analysis of glucoside in walnuts and monitoring the chemical composition of plants in relation to seasonal variations ( Daglish, 1950 ).

However, the 1950–1970s was a golden period for the development of analytical technology. A time when the techniques of mass spectrometry (MS), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, and gas chromatography (GC) techniques had come of age. Mass spectrometry, which had been invented in the late 1800s and used in a more analytical form during the 1910s, had now come into a relatively more advanced era. It was during the period 1950–1970 that the ion trap technique was developed, for which Dehmelt and Paul later received a Noble prize. The Purcell and Bloch groups at Harvard and Stanford University, respectively, developed NMR techniques and in 1952 also received a Nobel Prize (in Physics). In 1952, Archer John Porter Martin and Richard Synge also shared a Nobel Prize (in chemistry) for inventing partition chromatography, the basis of modern GC. Gas–liquid separations solved the problem of separating sugar-based molecules, which tended to bond with traditional stationery phases such as silica and volatile compounds, such as volatile oils, which are lost through evaporation during collection, preparation, and analysis. GC was applied for the first time to resolve 17 difficult to separate plant glycosides from a broad range of chemical classes, including phenolic, coumarin, isocoumarin, isoflavone, anthraquinone, cyanogenic, isothiocyanate, and monoterpene ( Furuya, 1965 ), 15 kinds of valerian sesquiterpenoids in valerianaceous plant oils ( Furuya and Kojima, 1967 ), and the extraction and analysis of rose oil ( Minkov and Trandafilov, 1969 ).

Publications included well-applied examples where visible, ultra-violet (UV), and infrared (IR) spectral data were combined to elucidate structural characteristics of plants while undergoing chemical degradation, e.g., the stereochemical discrimination of lignin components paulownin and isopaulownin from Paulownia tomentosa Steud. ( Takahashi and Nakagawa, 1966 ), the alkaloids of the Orchidaceae ( Lüning et al., 1967 ), and terpenoids of Zanthoxylum rhetsa DC ( Mathur et al., 1967 ).

MS was also used side-by-side with NMR, resulting in the structural elucidation of key metabolites, e.g., the characterization of the opium papaverrubine alkaloids and their N ‐methyl derivatives in the genus Papaver ( Brochmann-Hanssen et al., 1968 ), the analysis of three new coumestan derivatives from the root of licorice, Glycyrrhiza spp., ( Shibata and Saitoh, 1968 ), and the isolation and purification of polyprenols from the leaves of Aesculus hippocastanum L. (horse chestnut) ( Wellburn et al., 1967 ).

Up to this time, China had played a very marginal role in international research and development activities, a situation that was to change significantly in the following period.

1970–1989

1971 saw China’s introspection from the Mao era revert to more external international engagement with the “People’s Republic of China” (PRC) elected as a permanent member of the United Nations’ General Assembly. This followed the American government’s extension of political relations with PRC after the Richard Nixon presidential visit that catalyzed an “Opening up to the West” phase in Chinese history. This opening began in 1978, orchestrated by the interim leader Deng Xiaoping, who initiated support for wide sweeping economic reforms. On a local level this manifested as individuals within China being allowed to make personal economic decisions, with the tightly governed communes being dissolved. Rural markets were replaced by open markets, resulting in a dramatic increase in international trade, supporting Xiaoping’s wish to fund economic growth from foreign investment. In the context of medicine, China’s ambition to look outward was highlighted over a decade earlier by a University College London anatomy Professor, Derrick James, when a British delegation visited China in 1954 and in his subsequent Lancet article outlined China’s intention to introduce a more scientific, modernized TCM ( James, 1955 ).

As international trade from China expanded, so did the trade in medicinal plants from Asia and with it, increased access for Chinese scientists to modern analytical instrumentation. Internally by the mid-1980s, 25 Chinese medicine colleges were formed in a reportedly scientific and modern style with an almost 30-fold increase of TCM hospital beds to 2.5 million since the formation of the state in 1949 ( Cai, 1988 ).

The establishment in 1985 of the China State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine began the formal organization of TCM research and development nationally and internationally, sowing the seeds for the formal cooperative global links that would provide the backbone for the future of international Chinese medicinal plant research. China’s motivation to secure international links was also manifest in the publication of the PRC’s first dual Chinese and English language Pharmacopoeia, ChP, 4 th edition in 1997, which began its new 5-year publication cycle trend.

Medicinal Plant Research and Analytical Developments

The newly fostered R&D investment and cooperation during this period globally is represented by the leap in sophistication and complexity of the research published, with a shift from basic to more advanced biochemical investigations and more emphasis focused on disease and diagnosis strategies such as in cancer and infectious disease. The most widely cited articles of this time include advanced biomedical research on Forskolin, from the roots of Plectranthus barbatus Andrews as a diterpene activator in nucleotide metabolism. Even though basic biochemical equipment and colorimetric methods and spectrometric enzymatic assays were used, a more complex understanding of plant metabolites is apparent ( Seamon et al., 1981 ).

This is also evident in the investigation of lectins as cell recognition molecules and their involvement in a wide range of molecular processes and potential pathologies, e.g., in metabolic regulation, viral, and bacterial infection processes ( Sharon and Lis, 1989 ). In addition to plants playing a role as phytochelants in complexing heavy metals ( Grill et al., 1985 and Grill et al., 1987 ), licorice was studied in greater depth using a conceptually new approach of assessing the mineral-corticoid activity of licorice and its role in sodium retention ( Stewart et al., 1987 ) and the radical scavenging properties of its flavonoids ( Hatano et al., 1988 ).

Awareness of plants having a role in cancer with both causative and curative effects emerged, with a highly cited review of potential causes of esophageal cancer in China. Particular concerns were linked to effects of fungal growth and associated nitrosamines due to poor storage conditions ( Mingxin et al., 1980 ). This was a precursor to later studies on aflatoxins, which are now acknowledged as causing serious health problem linked to poor storage and processing. From a therapeutic perspective, the interest in antileukemia and anti-tumor agents, e.g., in Taxus brevifolia Nutt. stem bark, first investigated some decades before, continued and ultimately resulted in the introduction of a completely new therapeutic approach ( Wani et al., 1971 ).

One of the landmark discoveries in medicinal plant history was reported to the west during this period. The antimalaria effect of artemisinin, derived from Artemisia annua L., for which the Chinese scientist Youyou Tu later received a Nobel Prize in Medicine ( Klayman, 1985 ), described a conceptual shift in the approach to treating malaria, illustrating both a change in approach from using quinoline-based drugs, which parasites were showing increasing resistance to, and paving the way for the development of new classes of drugs e.g. with potential in antiviral and anticancer treatment ( Su and Miller, 2015 ).

1990–2008

This period in China was characterized largely by economic, political, and academic success delivering on the earlier aspirations of Deng Xiaoping through focused planning and the tight administrative grip of three successive presidents (Chairpersons) and state administration. An unusually high-performing economy producing more than a 10% sustained gross domestic profit (GDP) created a stable base for China to successfully join the world trade organization in 2001, marking its arrival on the world stage as a competent economic power and its transition to a market economy ( Morrison, 2013 ). This, however, came with challenges to families and the environment.

On a local level as communes of the last decades had dissolved, a system of “household responsibility” was adapted as a kind of contract that guaranteed agricultural family holdings to provide a certain level of food (and herb) output ( Ash, 1988 ). This ensured that levels of agricultural production were optimized for the land available. Because families were now allowed to sell grown products in an open market that mirrored the economic national trend, food and medicinal herbs began to take on more distinct financial attributes. This combined with mass migration of rural workers to rapidly developing industrialized cities away from countryside homes without sufficient locally produced food in urban surrounds created a situation of widespread supply and demand, leading to new value chains for food and medicinal plant products, along with potential motivation for the substitution or adulteration of these products.

As industrialization occurred so too did environmental pollution, with increased volume and concentration of raw materials and waste presenting greater potential for pollution of medicinal plant material. The PRC at this stage had gone through a period of prolonged political stability. Economic policy became more flexible and governance developed an increasingly regulatory role compared with that of previous, more rigid enforcement. Regulation and safety testing of medical products saw further guidance through the production of four further volumes of the ChP in both Chinese and English culminating in the 8 th edition in 2005, listing 3,217 monographs, almost double that of the 1990 edition. This period saw China’s confidence increase and extend to regulatory and guidance aspects, with the ChP undergoing the greatest leap in analytical sophistication and rate of change to date. The 1990 edition was a significant step in the acceptance and introduction of modern instrumental analytical techniques for standard herbal substance testing. Since the 1985 edition, specific identification tests were introduced using mainly thin layer chromatography (TLC). Now chromatogram images of the crude and test samples were included and required for testing. Basic identification was expanded to require quantitation where high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and GC were now included for the first time and TLC extended for content analysis. More instrumental techniques replaced older ones such as the introduction of spectrophotometric determination of the alkaloid content of berberine, which had been gravimetrically analyzed in previous editions. Quantification moved from measuring simpler marker components to more specific active compounds like anthroquinone from He Shou Wu, Polygonum multiflorum Thunb [now Reynoutria multiflora (Thunb.) Moldenke]. The 2000 edition introduced assays for residues of organic chlorine pesticides for Gan Cao, Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch. ex DC. and Huang Qi, Astragalus membranaceus Fisch. ex Bunge ( Kwee, 2002 ). Another leap occurred in the 2005 edition with an expansion of the acceptance of HPLC-MS, LC-MS-MS, and DNA molecular markers and chemical fingerprinting, setting the stage for 21 st century pharmacopoeial trends and the ChP as a central global influence for the analysis of medicinal plants.

The fruition of investment in external academic relations from the “opening up” phase and internal support for the now formed TCM structures of the previous decades state initiatives were borne out by the publication output in this period, with a six-fold increase in output compared with that of the previous equivalent 20-year period. Much of the output from this time demonstrated a refinement of thought around the effect of plant compounds on humans as a holistic system rather than the more singular metabolic pathway thinking of previous years. It also shows a tremendous emphasis on obtaining large datasets especially of the known metabolites and a wide exploration of acclaimed effects. Whole plant extracts and combinations of metabolites rather than single ones became a core theme, as became a medicinal plant’s effect on longer term health and preventative medicine. This ignited a resurgence of interest in the analysis of medicinal plants as a source of lead compounds for drug discovery.

The role of medical plants in coronary disease analysis becomes topical during this phase, e.g., long-term studies on elderly demonstrating the reduced risk of death from sustained flavonoids intake via inhibition of the oxidation of low-density lipoprotein ( Hertog et al., 1993 ). More sophisticated quantitative analysis and differentiation appeared during this time such as HPLC of mulberry leaves containing four varieties of flavonoids (including rutin and quercetin), and their antioxidant properties ( Zhishen et al., 1999 ). Flavonoid coronary disease risk prevention and cancer roles were advanced by the characterization and analysis studied in a wide range of fruits, seeds, oils, wines, and tea ( Middleton et al., 2000 ). A greater awareness of the potency and efficacy of drugs and medicinal plants became evident as in the studies and analysis of the effect of fluorine on drug binding and potency ( Purser et al., 2008 ). Cancer research also demonstrated further advances through combining previous findings on receptor binding with advancements in DNA extraction, amplification techniques, and cloning techniques. Resveratrol became a key area of interest for its chemoprotective effects ( Jang et al., 1997 ).

Many of the most cited publications of these two decades were detailed reviews, which brought together the findings of previous research on individual plant research.

21 st Century

China’s growing influence was marked in 2011 with the Chinese State Administration of TCM (SATCM) forming an official relationship with the European Directive on the Quality of Medicines (EDQM) to share expertise and knowledge in addition to raising the standards of testing in China and Europe through cooperation. These include translation of historical TCM documents, information relating to preparation of products, process, and sourcing. Europe, seen as an aggregate, has an approximately 16% representation in the last decades’ research output, higher than the USA. The European Pharmacopoeia (Ph Eur) manages CHM’s by allowing importation of CHM’s to countries who have signed up to the European Pharmacopoeia convention. Currently there are 43 CHMs included in the Ph Eur, 8th edition, 34 from the Ph Eur TCM Working Party, 21 of which have been included as full monographs ( Wang and Franz, 2015 ). New Ph Eur CHM monographs are being developed based, in part, on the ChP. This was facilitated by a working party on TCM (Ph Eur WP) and was officially introduced in 2005. It included 38 member states with a delegation from the EU (a representative from DG Health & Food Safety and the European Medicines Agency). Additional observers are composed of 27 countries/regions/organizations [which include 7 European countries, the Taiwan Food and Drug Administration (TFDA), and World Health Organization (WHO)] ( EDQM, 2017 ). The WHO, through participation in the PhEur, additionally has led efforts to develop a harmonized international pharmacopoeia ( WHO, 2018 ).

The monographs for medicinal plants in Ph Eur have developed from standard western drug monographs with an emphasis on chemical and physical testing, while those in the ChP have formed from revisions of older traditional texts.

As pharmacopoeial monographs expand and develop, so too does the range and complexity of analytical methods and analytical hardware needed to meet the regulatory demands and expectations of quality.

These emerging research trends and pharmacopoeial directives have paved the way for the development of a broad range of analytical techniques, mainly centering around the use of liquid chromatography (LC), GC, MS, and established UV/visible spectrophotometric techniques.

We present a selection of these analytical techniques and give examples of their applications in the analysis of medicinal plants and medicinal plant products.

Analytical Hardware, Attested and Emerging Methods

High-performance liquid chromatography.

HPLC is one of the most developed and widely used analytical techniques. It is built on a historical knowledge base amassed from TLC and optical chemistry experience. HPLC chromatography elements rely on similar principles of TLC/HPTLC, where separation of components is dependent on selective affinities to stationary supports and liquid phases.

Detection employs a photomultiplier system able to detect individual wavelengths of light, a range (spectrum) and/or multiple simultaneous wavelengths in its different iterations, combined in an enclosed automated instrument system with sample injectors; this has significantly increased the precision and reproducibility of the chromatography when compared with older chromatographic methods. The widespread use of HPLC has made it more affordable for laboratories. High operator skill level is not required; it is robust and sensitive to low level detection and is particularly used for the quantification of components (active substances and adulterants).

HPLC applied to herbal products is well developed, and it has been successfully applied to the analysis of complex mixtures of similar compounds, both for the separation of individual compounds and for the differentiation of medicinal plant species. The high resolution of the technique has supported the development of the concept of a characteristic “fingerprint” developed for medicinal plants and herbal products to aid identification and authentication, e.g., Li et al. (2010) demonstrated differentiation of the same type of medicinal plant product from 40 different manufacturers, while simultaneously separating nine marker chemical compounds (berberine, aloe-emodin, rhein, emodin, chryso- phanol, baicalin, baicalein, wogonoside, and wogonin).

High-Performance Thin Layer Chromatography

HPTLC has become a common addition to the method section of new monographs, replacing the widely used TLC tests; it has shown to be a reliable and reproducible method of analysis that provides essential information regarding the compositional quality of an herbal substance.

Some advantages of this technique include low cost and a relatively simple test method. It does not require advanced sample preparation methods or high levels of expertise. Sample amounts are relatively small, and it is a more sensitive technique compared with HPLC, well suited to detecting contaminants. However, some disadvantages are that the reproducibility is dependent on a variety of external factors, and although more sensitive than HPLC, it is not able to sufficiently detect compounds at very low concentrations (PPB) where LC-MS (or HPTLC-MS) may be more suitable. HPTLC relies on the same principle as TLC and uses similar TLC plates and mobile phases, although relatively small amounts of solvents are required compared with standard TLC. The process of adding the sample to plates (spotting) has been made more reproducible and precise by spraying the sample onto the plate to form a band of compound rather than a spot. Retention factors for individual compounds are more reproducible due to controlled humidity during development. Derivatizing the analysis plates is completed mainly by machine and the visualization is captured by modern camera systems connected to powerful software. The software allows further manipulation of images to optimize visualization in a way that would be very difficult chemically. Another advantage is that the HPTLC system can be easily linked to a scanning densitometer; this not only allows for more precise quantitative work to be carried out but also the data can be exported for multivariate analysis. It is likely that more of the monographs with TLC requirements will be upgraded to HPTLC in the future.

Gas Chromatography

GC in respect to medicinal plant analysis is mainly used for the analysis of compounds with higher volatility, e.g., compounds found within essential oils, and more volatile adulterants, e.g., pesticides. While single GC column chromatography and its hyphenated derivatives have been use for many years, 1991 saw the introduction of 2D-GC or GC x GC, where the eluents of a standard separation are trapped and recirculated for another round of separation. This allows not only greater resolution and better separation but also the ability to purge undesired or interfering compounds so that more specific areas of the separation can be targeted ( Liu and Philips, 1991 ). This led the way for multidimensional gas chromatography (MDGC) and the advances of the modules and valve systems that trap, control, and divert sample streams. These improvements extend to the thermal control and valve systems allowing greater thermal flow and split streaming ( Bahaghighat et al., 2019 ). One key problem with GC is the introduction of sample into a gas stream. Historically squeezing, boiling, and later distillation of herbal materials were used for the collection and production of volatile compounds such as oils. However, the inherent instability of volatile components and losses as well as the poor recovery of these substances presented difficulties. This situation has somewhat been overcome by advances in extraction techniques such a solvent-free microwave extraction, e.g., for citrus peel oils [Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck]. No solvents or water are necessary for high recoveries with this method, and it allows for highly efficient, compatible sample introduction without the need for interfering solvents ( Aboudaou et al., 2018 ). This sample extraction method commonly known as headspace analysis for GC has undergone many iterations ( Gerhardt et al., 2018 ). It has now developed to the stage where it is increasingly used for bacterial and microorganism detection such as in Commiphora species ( Rubegeta et al., 2018 ).

Microextraction techniques are essential for the introduction of small sample volumes into the GC gas stream. Needle-based extraction techniques have the advantage of automation, ease of interface to other instruments, and compatibility with miniaturization. Advances in solid phase dynamic extraction (SPDE), In-tube extraction (ITEX), and needle trap extraction (NTE) have refined the use of these techniques for natural and herbal compounds ( Kędziora-Koch and Wasiak, 2018 ), e.g., SPDE and ITEX for pesticide residues in dried herbs ( Rutkowska et al., 2018 ), herbal mint aromas compounds in commercial wine ( Picard et al., 2018 ), and volatiles in Chinese herbal formula Baizhu Shaoyao San ( Xu et al., 2018 ).

Supercritical Fluid Chromatography

Another liquid-based chromatographic technique based on pressurized low viscosity (supercritical) fluids, often carbon dioxide, is supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC). Since its introduction by Klesper in 1962, it has made large advances mainly due to improvements in its initially troublesome instrumentation ( Desfontaine et al., 2015 ). Its main advantage over other techniques is in its usefulness for separating complex components characteristic of natural compounds. Selection of the correct conditions of SFC mobiles phases and modifiers can be finely tuned across a wide range of polarities from non-polar to polar allowing a broad selection of separations ( Gao et al., 2010 ). Early analysis of natural products with SFC was when it was first hyphenated with gas chromatography ( King, 1990 ). Recently, it has been more fully developed to analyze a range of natural compounds in herbal substances, notably, focusing on terpenes, phenolics, flavonoids, alkaloids, and saponins. This has been achieved with hyphenation to MS, diode array detectors, SFC-ELSD, in addition to the development of novel stationary phases such as cyanopropyl, pentaflouro phenyl (PFP), and imidazolyl. An example of this is with the separation of coumarins in Angelica dahurica (Hoffm.) Benth. & Hook.f. ex Franch. & Sav. roots and anthraquinones in rhubarb root ( Pfeifer et al., 2016 ).

Near-Infrared Spectroscopy

Although commonly used within industry since the 1990’s, near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy was not the method of choice for medicinal plant analysis mainly due to overlapping peaks making interpretation of data problematic, and consequently, it never became the instrumentation of choice within the quality control laboratory in the same way that HPLC and TLC developed. However, with the addition of new computational software, NIR is re-emerging as an affordable and useful analytical technique used in the analysis of medicinal plants and has been particularly favored by Chinese companies in routine quality control analysis due to its ability to both rapidly differentiate between species and provide quantitative information on metabolite content ( Li et al., 2013 ; Zhang and Su, 2014 ).

As with HPTLC and NMR data, NIR also provides an opportunity for multivariate analysis and it appears capable of resolving very small variations in metabolite content. It is argued that more traditional TLC or HPLC techniques can be more subjective in the data interpretation stage and require a high degree of operator skill and that NIR is more suitable for high volume analysis in the routine quality control laboratory ( Wang and Yu, 2015 ). However, this has partly been addressed by the introduction of the fully automated systems available for HPTLC analysis and the inclusion of scanning densitometry equipment that reduce the need for operator interpretation. The main advantages of NIR appear to be the preservation of sample integrity, little sample preparation needed, and no need for solvents, and it has shown to perform well comparable to HPLC for species differentiation and quantification of metabolites ( Chan et al., 2007 ). Probably the main drawback in NIR compared with other methods, and especially, TLC, HPTC, LC-MS is in its sensitivity and some reports suggest that this technique may only be suitable for detecting compounds that exist at a concentration above 0.1% ( Lau et al., 2009 ). Another consideration is that variation in NIR data is dependent both on the chemical and physical properties of the sample, with the physical properties, e.g., particle size, having greater effects on the variation than the chemical. Therefore, before multivariate analysis can take place some pre-treatment of the spectral data is necessary, e.g., to reduce baseline noise, light scattering, and consequently enhance any chemical variation in the sample set ( Chen et al., 2008 ). Some advantages of NIR certainly are apparent, although it may not be appropriate for all situations and all types of samples. The technology has made a huge leap forward since its first introduction and now it needs to establish itself more widely as a useful tool in the quality analysis of medicinal plants.

Hyphenated Techniques

Combinations of techniques with modern developments in metabolomic analysis and computational pattern recognition programs open up a wider scope of applications to medicinal plant analysis. Tandem combinations of analytical instrumentation such as MS with HPLC has proved a productive route to expanding analytical medicinal plant applications. Not only in identification and fingerprinting but further chemical characterization of individual compounds e.g., Liu et al. (2011) , characterized a spectrum of alkaloid components in the Chinese herb Ku Shen ( Sophora flavescens Aiton). Further combinations and permutations of MS and NMR in combination with HPTLC have been demonstrated, such as the detection of acetylcholinesterase inhibitors in galbanum in a search for natural product drug candidates ( Hamid-Reza et al., 2013 ), and mass spectroscopy (MS) HPTLC-MS shown for Ilex vomitoria Aiton with the use of a sampling probe following HPTLC combined with MS with Electrospray Ion Trap ( Ford and Van Berkel., 2004 ) and Hydrastis canadensis L., with HPLTLC-MS atmospheric pressure chemical ionization ( Van Berkel et al., 2007 ).

Analytical combinations including ESI-IT-TOF/MS-HPLC-DAD-ESI-MS have been demonstrated for the analysis of coumarin patterns in Angelica polymorpha Maxim. roots ( Liu et al, 2011 ) and multihyphenated techniques such as SPE-LC-MS/MS-ABI quadrupole trap have been used for the analysis of six major flavones in Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi ( Fong et al., 2014 ) and 38 saponins in the roots of Helleborus niger L. by LC-ESI-IT-MS ( Duckstein et al., 2014 ).

Merging the separation ability of HPTLC or HPLC with the analysis power of NMR and MS has significant benefits for analyzing complex samples in complex matrices such a blood, soil, and plants. However, each technique also possesses its inherent disadvantages. MS being complex, expensive, and time-consuming, requiring high analytical skill levels, it may not be suitable for a general quality assurance laboratory. Though powerful, extensive method development and post analysis data processing is required when applied to natural compounds with broad complex compositions in contrast to simpler synthesized pharmaceutical ingredients. Similarly, NMR is also expensive and sensitive to variations in sample preparation and composition. It is not fully applicable to all natural compound samples and signals generated from NMR analysis often overlap making data analysis for individual compounds problematic. However, the relative speed, rich information output, and insight into the overall composition of medicinal plants from both MS and NMR far outweigh the disadvantages. These techniques allow the detection of compounds into the parts per billion analytical range (MS) and allow a detailed fingerprint of metabolites across differing polarities (NMR) and so for research and for larger companies they are highly applicable analytical hardware.

Metabolomics

Pharmacopoeial methods focus on authentication and quality of herbal materials; however, metabolomics allow us to go a step beyond authentication and look in more detail at a broad range of secondary metabolites. By coupling analytical data to multivariate software, this allows us to develop statistical models to firstly differentiate between species but also to get a better idea of a typical metabolite composition for a particular species. The advantage of this is that it can help to inform any laboratory test or clinical intervention. There has been great emphasis on making sure that any experiment or intervention uses plant material that is authenticated, with a herbarium specimen deposited. However, the requirements do not stipulate that a good representative of the species should be used. This is where metabolomics can provide essential information—by collecting a wide range of samples from different geographical locations, altitudes, growing conditions, it allows us to map their metabolite differences and highlight how diverse or how similar metabolite composition is. When an experiment is performed, we have the choice to use a specimen that may be typical, i.e., contains an average composition or we can look at compositions that are atypical, containing greater amounts of specific metabolites or even different metabolites. Moreover, if a particular experiment produces positive results and we want to reproduce the data, a metabolomic model allows us to choose species that have a similar composition.

This approach has important economic implications as a detailed understanding of metabolomic analysis allows us to inform industry as to how to grow plants that will be of the best composition and so help to support local livelihoods of farmers and primary processors in developing economies, e.g., Chachacoma ( Senecio nutans Sch. Bip. ) cultivation in the high altitude regions of Chile where metabolomics has helped to establish the best altitude for growing plants with the highest content of the anti-inflammatory acetophenone ( Lopez et al., 2015 ).

This strategy also has applications in product development, where metabolomics can help to determine the quality of products based on their metabolite content, e.g., Curcuma longa L. (Turmeric products) ( Booker et al., 2014 ), and also help to provide evidence that can lead to value addition of a product and greater confidence in its quality and safety.

Nanoparticles

Nanoparticles 1–100 nm sized ions or organic/inorganic molecules have proven to be important in the development of new analytical testing ( Tao et al., 2018 ), occupying the analytical regions of space between the ionic dimensions and small molecules.

Recent developments in nanoparticle research has led to an increased focus on chemo-bio sensing, as DNA has become the most used biological molecule to functionalize nanoparticles. Nanoparticles have provided many advantages to more consistent and specific testing including providing a more reproducible stable matrix for research and development, more controllable and reliable basis for designing and conjugating to functional molecules, and a wide rebate of flexibility for purification, selection, and modification of analytes. Nanoparticles have been used in creating a biological bar code for trace analysis of mycotoxins in Chinese herbs e.g. conjugated nanoparticles with DNA fragments to bind and target Chinese medicinal plants, e.g., Jue Ming Zi [Cassia seeds— Senna obtusifolia (L.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby], Yuan Zhi ( Polygala tenuifolia Willd.), and Bai Zi Ren [ Platycladus orientalis (L.) Franco] ( Yu et al., 2018 ).

The next steps in analytical advancement in combination with technological improvements will most likely occur in the realm of artificial intelligence. Neural networks have already shown promise in consumer electronics and online search engine optimization. Self-learning algorithms have been in development for decades, with great potential for the application of self-synthesizing, auto-creating, and auto-adapting algorithms, which can optimally recognize and synthesize analytical data into meaningful and useful patterns. This goes beyond what a single human mind could hope to achieve in lifetimes, now possible in seconds with current and more so with future technology. This extends not only the human potential of thinking and observation but also prediction and design. This could potentially play a role in self-design of analytical instrumentation and its modules, self-optimizing of methods in real-time, saving time that would perhaps take an analyst weeks or months of human work-hours to complete.

The greatest challenge with AI is its opacity and computational complexity. With self-learning systems already self-generating codes and pathways that would take decades for a single human to decode and understand, if ever possible. This presents a great challenge for use in reproducible, validated quality-driven, audit-trailed regulated orientated environments. This is where natural compounds such as herbal substances can play a significant role i.e. data from the same plants species with variable composition can help verify the input and outputs of complex analysis and recognition software. In AI-driven systems, natural substances are ideal candidates for testing the analytical attributes such as accuracy, precision, and robustness of whole AI-instrumentation systems.

Conclusions

As pharmacopoeial requirements continue to develop and instrumental technology advances, it is clear that we will be able to delve further and further into the chemical composition of medicinal plants and develop more advanced techniques for the detection and quantification of adulterants and contaminants. However, it should be considered that although these technological advances give us this opportunity, more traditional organoleptic analysis also provides us with essential sensory information regarding medicinal plant quality.

We have shown the emergence and historical importance of complex analytical techniques used in medicinal plant analysis. However, any analytical approach, can only provide a partial perspective on complex multicomponent preparations. So future improvements in this area may not entirely rely on developing ever more complex analytical techniques, but in implementing best practice throughout all stages of the production and supply of herbal medicines.

Author Contributions

AB wrote the sections on applications of metabolomics, NIR, parts of the introduction, and conclusions. MF wrote most of the instrumentation, trends in publications and history, part of the introduction and conclusions. MH contributed towards the methodological design of the study and assisted with the data analysis.

MF scholarship is funded by Brion Research Group (Sun Ten Pharmaceutical Co) and Herbprime, UK.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Keywords: herbal medicine, medicinal plant, analysis, quality, pharmacopoeia, complexity, advances

Citation: Fitzgerald M, Heinrich M and Booker A (2020) Medicinal Plant Analysis: A Historical and Regional Discussion of Emergent Complex Techniques. Front. Pharmacol. 10:1480. doi: 10.3389/fphar.2019.01480

Received: 04 September 2018; Accepted: 14 November 2019; Published: 09 January 2020.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2020 Fitzgerald, Heinrich and Booker. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Anthony Booker, [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Name 10 medicinal plants and explain their uses in the form of paragraph

Top 10 medicinal plants and their uses (that you can grow at home) 1. growing and using californian poppy california poppy is remarkably drought tolerant and quickly spreads and makes themselves at home. the plant is easy to establish by seed, and thrives in full sun locations with highly fertile but well-drained soil. the californian poppy is related to the opium poppy but it is much more gentle. it is one of the best natural nervous system relaxers, sedatives and pain relievers around. you can buy extract already made here. 2. growing and using catnip catnip is a member of the mint family. there are over 100 varieties of catnip, but the most common one has gray-green heart-shaped leaves and hairy stems. when taken as a tea, catnip can help ease a chronic cough or help you fall asleep. catnip grows well from seed in small pots on your patio or in your herb garden. it is a native to much of europe, and is also known as catmint, catswort, field balm, catrup, catnep and cat’s-play. 3. growing and using chamomile there are two kinds of chamomile.roman chamomile(chamaemelum nobile) and german chamomile (matricaria recutita). the roman variety is the true chamomile but german chamomile is used herbally in the same way. chamomile grows best in cool conditions and should be planted in part shade, but will also grow full sun. you can grow from either seed or from splitting existing plants. the flowers are used in a soothing tea. 4. growing and using dandelion this common weed is a great digestive tonic as well as bladder curative. it helps stimulate the kidneys to increase urine production, which helps flush out your urinary tract. eating the leaves or making tea with the flowers or roots are the most common ways to use dandelion. if you choose to harvest wild dandelion, check that isn’t from the side of the road or anywhere that may have been sprayed or polluted. 5. growing and using dill dill grows up to 40–60 centimeters (16–24 inches), with slender, hollow stems that alternate and finely divided, very soft, delicate leaves. it likes full sun, in well draining soil and will re-seed readily. dill is closely related to fennel. it is often used as a flavor in meals or while preserving pickles. the seeds are stronger in both flavor and beneficial oils. tea can be made with either the seeds or the leaves to help aide digestion and soothe indigestion. 6. growing and using echinacea this gorgeous purple flower is a well-known immune booster that is commonly taken when sick. coupled with other herbs, such as the antimicrobial goldenseal, echinacea is an immune powerhouse. echinacea is also known as coneflower and you may find it in central and eastern north america. it is a drought resistant perennial, so you can find it in scattered patches in rich prairies or sandy soils. it is able to reach a height of 2 to 5 feet (60 to 150 cm) and it grows best in full sun. buy seed here. 7. growing and using feverfew historically feverfew was used as a medicinal herb to reduce and eliminate fevers by encouraging sweating. more recently feverfew is more popular these days after research found that when taken daily it reduces the frequency and severity of vascular migraines. feverfew is easy to grow from seed or from division of existing plants. you can eat the bitter leaves in salads or sandwiches or make a tea from the flowers. 8. growing and using garlic garlic grows well in well draining, rich soil. plant it in late fall or early winter and harvest in summer as the tops are going yellow and drying off. for more on growing garlic read here. garlic can be used liberally in the diet both raw and cooked. it is a natural antibiotic and antiseptic, especially effective in treating infections of the digestive and respiratory systems. garlic directly destroys harmful bacteria, fungi and viruses and at the same time it enhances the body’s natural immune defenses. 9. growing and using peppermint you can grow peppermint from seeds or buy seedlings from the store. it also readily grows by dividing an existing plant. mint will spread and take over your garden, so it is best grown in it’s own space or in a pot that has been sunk into the ground. peppermint is great as a mood and energy booster, it encourages good circulation and it acts as an anti nausea and treats indigestion. 10. growing and using yarrow yarrow grows like a weed around here. it’s little flowers can be anything from white, red, yellow and pink and anything in between. the flower colour has no effect on the medicinal properties.

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Iran J Pharm Res
v.11(1); Winter 2012

Introduction of Medicinal Plants Species with the Most Traditional Usage in Alamut Region

Maryam ahvazi.

a Department of Herbarium, Institute of Medicinal Plants, ACECR, Karaj, Iran.

Farahnaz Khalighi-Sigaroodi

b Department of Pharmacognosy and Pharmaceutics, Institute of Medicinal Plants, ACECR, Karaj, Iran

Mohammad Mahdi Charkhchiyan

c Research Institute of Forests and Rangeland, Ghazvin.

Faraz Mojab

d School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Shahid Beheshty University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.

Vali-Allah Mozaffarian

e Research Institute of Forests and Rangeland, Tehran, Iran.

Hamideh Zakeri

f Cell Line Engineering, Sigma Aldrich Biotechnology Division. St Louis, USA.

The ethnobotany of the medicinal plants of Alamut region is important in understanding the cultures and traditions of Alamut people. This study documents 16 medicinal plant species, most commonly used by the indigenous people of Alamut region (Ghazvin Province), northwest, Iran. The botanical name, family name, vernacular name, part used, and the application of the plants have been provided in this paper. Alamut region was divided into different villages with the aid of maps. We recorded traditional knowledge and use of medicinal plants from herbal practitioners and village seniors in Alamut. The plants were gathered from different sites. The fully dried specimens were then mounted on herbarium sheets. We found 16 medicinal plants belonging to 11 families which were traditionally used in Alamut. Finally, we describe traditional usages by the native people in the Alamut region. The obtained results were compared with data on the herb’s clinical effects. A set of voucher specimens were deposited to the Institute of Medicinal Plants Herbarium (IMPH).

Introduction

Before the introduction of chemical medicines, man relied on the healing properties of medicinal plants. Some people value these plants due to the ancient belief which says plants are created to supply man with food, medical treatment, and other effects. It is thought that about 80% of the 5.2 billion people of the world live in the less developed countries and the World Health Organization estimates that about 80% of these people rely almost exclusively on traditional medicine for their primary healthcare needs. Medicinal plants are the “backbone” of traditional medicine, which means more than 3.3 billion people in the less developed countries utilize medicinal plants on a regular basis ( 1 ). There are nearly 2000 ethnic groups in the world, and almost every group has its own traditional medical knowledge and experiences ( 2 , 3 ). Iran is home to several indigenous tribes with a rich heritage of knowledge on the uses of medicinal plants. Iran has varied climates and geographical regions that have caused a wide distribution of individual medicinal plant species such that each tribe has its own plants and customs. Alamut is one of the most important geographic regions in Iran because of its ancient history of cultivating traditional medicinal plants. Alamut region and the several villages it encompasses are secluded from other cities in Iran, which is why the people living in this region have relied on indigenous medical knowledge and medicinal plants. In this study, we analyzed the medicinal plants with most therapeutic usage in the region.

Experimental

Geographic and climatic overview

Alamut mountainous region is situated in the central Alborz Mountains, between 36˚24´ and 36˚46´ northern latitudes and 50˚30´ and 50˚51´ eastern longitudes with an altitude ranging from 2140 to 4175 m. The region is located on the northeast of Ghazvin Province and is bounded to the north by the Mazandaran Province in Tonekabon and bounded on the east by Tehran Province in the Taleghan mountains. Annually, it rains 368.03 mm and the average temperature is 14°C. Topography is distinctly marked with several mountains, springs, rivulets, and rivers. This area is geographically located in the Irano-Turanian region ( Figure 1 ).

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Study area: Iran map and Alamut in Ghazvin Province

The ethnic composition of the region is quite diverse and almost 90% of its population resides in rural areas. The language of the inhabitants is known as Deylamite. People of Alamut have a long history of exporting medicinal plants to other regions of Iran. Roadways have increased communication among the rural natives in Alamut and have also increased tourism to the region because of its several ancient castles. Because of good quality of medicinal plants in this region and more immethodical pick of them, some of species have become extinct. For this reason, an important aim of this study is to protect the preservation of the region’s plants. Other aims include:

Documenting the traditional knowledge of medicinal plants from the natives.

Assessing the most commonly used local medicinal plants.

Promoting the potential benefits of medicinal plants.

Data collection

We first prepared a map with a scale of 1:25,000 from the region to identify the number of villages, roads, and vegetations. We visited the region and spoke to herbal practitioners and village seniors. A questionnaire was used to obtain information on the types of ailments treated using traditional medicinal plant species. Sometimes informants were asked to come to the field and introduce us to the plants. When this was not possible, plants were collected around the villages of the informants and were shown to them to confirm the plant names. This investigation took over 2 years and information was collected 1-2 days per week. Voucher samples were also collected for each plant and were identified using floristic, taxonomic references. Flora Iranica and a dictionary of Iranian plant names were used for identification purposes ( 4 , 5 ). Plants were deposited at the herbarium of Institute of Medicinal Plants (IMPH).

Although ancient sages through trial and error methods have developed herbal medicines, the reported uses of plant species do not certify their efficacy ( 6 ). Reports on ethnomedicinal uses of plant species require pharmacological screenings, chemical analyses, and tests for their bioactive activities. Pharmacological screening of plant extracts provides insight to both their therapeutic and toxic properties as well as helps in eliminating the medicinal plants or practices that may be harmful ( 7 ).

This study provides information on 16 medicinal plants belonging to 12 families that are most commonly used for traditional medicine in Alamut region. Botanical names of plants were sorted alphabetically, and for each species and the following information was hence represented: family, vernacular name, part used ( Table 1 ). Traditional use and preparation was compared with other references ( Table 2 ).

Medicinal plants collected from Alamut region

Comparison of problems due to hot flash in studied groups during the study base on HFQ.

Among these medicinal plants, Apiaceae, Lamiaceae , and Boraginaceae were the most dominant families with 4, 2, 2 species belonging to 4, 2, 2 genera of medicinal plants, respectively.

Of the 16 medicinal plants, 8 species had similar effects in traditional and medicinal uses when comparing Alamut with other references. Achillea millefolium had antibacterial effects; Capparis spinosa is used for headache, renal complaints and stimulating tonic; Echium amoenum is used for common cold and had sedative effects; Ferula persica is used for gout; Juglans regia is used for diabetes; Smyrnium cordifolium is edible and used as tonic; Viola odorata is used for fever and migraine; Ziziphora clinopodioides is used for cold, infections and stomachache.

Some effects which are mentioned in traditional medicine of Alamut region were important with no scientific information about them. For example, Berberis integerrima and Hippophae rhamnoides had good effect on lowering of serum lipids and blood sugar and hypertension. Malva neglecta is used for mouth fungal infection in children and Stachys lavandulifolia is used for headache and renal calculus. Other researches can perform experiments to discover their components and effects.

All of the medicinal plants were collected from the wild or in the native people’s gardens. Some medicinal plants can no longer be found in the region and are only cultivated in the native people’s gardens. For example, Echium amoenum is an endemic plants in Iran with historically wide spread in the region, but because of frequent picking, the species is now just cultivated in the native people’s gardens.

Different parts of medicinal plants were used by the inhabitants of Alamut region as medicine for treating ailments. The most common parts used were flowers (25%). The use of aerial parts, leaves, fruits and roots were the same (15%). Use of the stems (7%), seeds, and blooms (4%) were lower than the others ( Figure 2 ). The 16 medicinal plant species were used in treating 27 different types of ailment ( Table 3 ).

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Plants part use and their percentage

Medicinal plant species were used in treating different types of ailment

Acknowledgment

This work was supported by grants from Institute of Medicinal Plants and the Iranian Academic Center for Education, Culture, and Research (ACECR). The authors would like to thank Ghazvin Research Institute of Forests and Rangelands for their sincere cooperation.

Medicinal Plants, Human Health and Biodiversity: A Broad Review

First Online: 01 January 2014

Cite this chapter

Tuhinadri Sen 16 &
Samir Kumar Samanta 17

Part of the book series: Advances in Biochemical Engineering/Biotechnology ((ABE,volume 147))

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Acknowledgments

The authors are thankful to Ratul Sarkar, Kirendra Kr. Yadav, D. Sinha, Md. Firdaus, Pritam Saha, Amrita Sharma, Prof. Samantak Das, and Aritro Bhattacharjee for their help during the preparation of the manuscript.

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Sen, T., Samanta, S.K. (2014). Medicinal Plants, Human Health and Biodiversity: A Broad Review. In: Mukherjee, J. (eds) Biotechnological Applications of Biodiversity. Advances in Biochemical Engineering/Biotechnology, vol 147. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/10_2014_273

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