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7 Effective Note-Taking Methods

Do you want to take better notes? Explore seven effective note-taking methods, including the Cornell method, the sentence method, the outlining method, the charting method, the mapping method, the flow-based method, and the rapid logging method.

Taking notes while learning is a great way to record information to review later. Note-taking can also help you stay more focused on the material you’re listening to or reading and help you remember your questions and comments while listening to the material. To get the most out of your notes later, you can use systems or note-taking methods to organize what you write down. 

In this article, you’ll learn about seven effective note-taking methods and how they can help you get more value out of your notes.

Effective note-taking methods

One way to take practical notes is to adopt a system or method. Your best note-taking method will be the one you use frequently or makes the most sense to you. You can also change your method, although you might consider finding what works and sticking with it. Consistency will make it easier to stick with the habit of taking good notes, and it will make it easier to review your notes later.

Below, you’ll find seven examples of note-taking methods to try, although you can find more to choose from if you’d prefer. You may also blend styles to find a hybrid method that’s most effective for you. The important thing is to create consistent notes highlighting the most critical points of the lecture to review later, as well as key terms and potential exam questions.

1. The Cornell method

Developed at Cornell University, the Cornell note-taking method begins by dividing the page into three sections: A column along the left-hand side of the page, a row across the bottom, and the rectangle that remains centered along the top and right edges of the page. The last section, the rectangle, will be the only section you write in while actively taking notes during a lecture, while the others will remain blank for now.

During the lecture, your primary goal is to record as much information as possible in the note-taking sections of your notes. Immediately after the lecture is over, you will use the left-hand column to record the major points of the lecture as well as any potential information that may be on the exam. This is also a place for ideas, questions, and other notes you want to retain. You'll also use the footer or bottom column to summarize the notes on the page.

Why use the Cornell method 

The Cornell method makes it easy to identify the most essential points of the lecture. You can mark cues like an asterisk or exclamation point in the left-hand column to mark important details to return to later. The design is flexible and uncomplicated, making it easy to use in various settings or lecture topics.

Another advantage to the Cornell method is that you must finish your notes after the lecture, which forces you to think about the material you just learned and rephrase it in your own words. This helps you retain more information.

2. Sentence method

The sentence method, or list method, is a way of capturing as much information as possible. It’s a simple method where you record every thought or sentence on a new line without pausing to organize or prioritize the information. With the sentence method, you won’t spend time during the lecture working out which points are the main points to study later, leaving you with more time to listen to the lecturer and write down more of what they are saying.

You can improve your notes after class by spending a few minutes clarifying and categorizing your notes, marking down main ideas and potential exam questions, and taking notes of any questions you have.

Why use the sentence method 

The sentence method allows you to take notes quickly, which is especially useful for keeping up during a fast-paced lecture or a class that presents much information. The sentence method is also useful when you don’t have clues about the lecture format ahead of time, such as with a syllabus or agenda.

While the sentence method has a clear time-saving benefit, it doesn’t allow you to engage with the content as you would if you were paraphrasing in your own words. By returning to your notes later to add context and review, you can get more study power out of your efforts.

3. Outlining method

The outline method involves creating an outline of the important points of the lecture using numbers, letters, and indentation to show information hierarchies. You can use a more traditional outline structure or incorporate other symbols to help you designate the main ideas, ideas that support those ideas, and the more minor details of each sub-category.

Learning to use the outline method when using pen and paper to take notes can take some practice because it can be difficult to identify relationships between different pieces of information during a live class or lecture. Outlining is especially useful on a computer because you can quickly change and edit how information is organized as the lecture progresses.

Why use the outlining method 

The outlining method helps you quickly understand how information relates to each other. It’s also easy to review and make sense of later. The outline method is beneficial if your professor gives you a syllabus or agenda to add structure to your notes before the class begins. In that circumstance, you can pre-populate your notes and focus on adding details while the lecture is underway.

4. Charting method

The charting method is a way of visually organizing your notes in a chart. This method works best when summarizing information you’re taking notes with headings.

For example, a lecture about famous people throughout history might use a chart to list each person along the left-hand column, with topics like “early life,” “major achievements,” or “historical significance” along the top. As the lecture progresses, you can fill each box with notes to review later.

Why use the charting method

The charting method helps you understand the material visually. It’s particularly effective for keeping track of important details in a lecture, such as dates or numbers, that can get lost in the chaos of other note-taking forms.

Another advantage of the charting system is that it reduces the writing you must do to organize the information. Plus, the visual nature of a chart makes it easy to review later or to create study materials.

 5. Mapping method

The mapping note-taking method starts with the central idea in the middle of the page, sometimes in a circle. You can write related ideas in smaller circles around the main idea, connected with lines. As you fill in more details, the connections will get more specific, and circles and lines will sprawl along the page, moving from the main idea to small details.

Learning how information should relate to each other can take practice while listening to a lecture in person. You can review your notes later and adjust the position of information on the map to help keep things accurate.

Why use the mapping method

Mapping provides a visual representation of how the material relates to one another. Not only does this make it easier to study later, but it can also help you retain the material.

Another way mapping helps you retain material is that by working through the relationships in real time and paraphrasing what you hear, you are actively engaging with the material. This lets you learn the material as you listen, not simply record what the lecturer says.

6. Flow-based method

Flow-based notes are a concept developed by Scott Young where you write down points of information from the lecture in your own words and connect them visually with arrows. This method of note-taking is similar to the sentence or list method. Still, instead of moving down the paper line by line, you’re drawing connections and representing the material in a visual way to describe relationships. Flow-based note-taking intends to record the material organically as you process it in your head, allowing for a non-linear note system.

Why use the flow-based method

The flow-based method allows you the flexibility to organize information quickly and intuitively. By writing the notes in your own words and demonstrating how they relate to other pieces of information, you will retain more of what you write because of the thought required to rephrase and understand the information.

7. Rapid logging method

Rapid logging, a term often used in connection to bullet journaling, is a method of rapidly capturing information using symbols to organize and add context. For example, you could use one symbol to designate tasks you must complete, another for questions to ask later, and a third for potential exam topics.

Rapid logging aims to note important information without any irrelevant details quickly. Doing so will allow you to capture more information. You can also return to your notes later to add context.

Why rapid logging works

Rapid logging is straightforward and flexible, allowing you to design whatever symbols you need to help you distinguish between different types of information, and you can start taking notes without setting up your notes with any formatting. One of the most significant advantages of rapid logging is that you can use it for any note-taking setting, whether taking notes during a lecture, setting up a day planner, or keeping a personal journal. 

Benefits of taking good notes

Taking good notes can help you in a lot of different ways. You record what was discussed when you take notes during a lecture or conference. Reviewing your notes after class helps you retain more information from the lecture and can serve as the beginning of a study guide or material to review for an exam.

Effective note-taking methods can also help you pay better attention in class. Taking notes can help you focus on what’s being said and makes you less likely to daydream or let your thoughts wander. When you take practical notes with a note-taking system, you will save time when you return to your notes to study later because it will be easier to understand what you’ve written and the lecture's main points.

Another benefit of taking good notes is that you have a place to jot down ideas, questions, and connections that come into your head while listening to the lecture. These ideas can be fleeting, but your note-taking method can help you capture them.

Paper vs. digital note-taking

You can use the analog method of scratching a pen or pencil across paper or use technology to take your notes digitally. Let’s examine the pros and cons of traditional and digital paper note-taking methods.

Paper notes

One of the most significant advantages of using pen and paper to write notes is that you'll retain more information. Writing notes by hand causes us to think more closely about what we are doing because we are more engaged in creating words, funneling the lecture's message through our minds. Paper notes also eliminate distractions that come from digital devices. You won’t have any notifications or emails on your notepad to take you away from the lecture.

Another benefit to paper notes is that it can be faster and easier to create diagrams or other visual ways of organizing information. Although you could achieve the same effect with technology, such as a tablet with a stylus, paper notes are an inexpensive alternative.

Digital notes

Digital notes are an attractive option because typing is faster than writing notes by hand, allowing you to capture more information from the lecture you’re listening to. Typing notes on a computer also lets you edit your notes easily to add more information, organize the information, or create a study guide. However, the formatting capabilities of your word processor might limit you.

Learn more with Coursera

If you’re ready to take the next step, consider Academic Listening and Note-Taking , a course to help you learn note-taking strategies. Another option, the Academic Skills for University Success Specialization from the University of Sydney, helps you further build skills for success. Both are available on Coursera, along with a catalog of courses from globally-renowned institutions.

Keep reading

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This content has been made available for informational purposes only. Learners are advised to conduct additional research to ensure that courses and other credentials pursued meet their personal, professional, and financial goals.

Effective Note-Taking in Class

Do you sometimes struggle to determine what to write down during lectures? Have you ever found yourself wishing you could take better or more effective notes? Whether you are sitting in a lecture hall or watching a lecture online, note-taking in class can be intimidating, but with a few strategic practices, anyone can take clear, effective notes. This handout will discuss the importance of note-taking, qualities of good notes, and tips for becoming a better note-taker.

Why good notes matter

In-class benefits.

Taking good notes in class is an important part of academic success in college. Actively taking notes during class can help you focus and better understand main concepts. In many classes, you may be asked to watch an instructional video before a class discussion. Good note-taking will improve your active listening, comprehension of material, and retention. Taking notes on both synchronous and asynchronous material will help you better remember what you hear and see.

Post-class benefits

After class, good notes are crucial for reviewing and studying class material so that you better understand it and can prepare appropriately for exams. Efficient and concise notes can save you time, energy, and confusion that often results from trying to make sense of disorganized, overwhelming, insufficient, or wordy notes. When watching a video, taking good notes can save you from the hassle of pausing, rewinding, and rewatching large chunks of a lecture. Good notes can provide a great resource for creating outlines and studying.

How to take good notes in class

There’s a lot going on during class, so you may not be able to capture every main concept perfectly, and that’s okay. Part of good note-taking may include going back to your notes after class (ideally within a day or two) to check for clarity and fill in any missing pieces. In fact, doing so can help you better organize your thoughts and to determine what’s most important. With that in mind, it’s important to have good source material.

Preparing to take good notes in class

The first step to taking good notes in class is to come to class prepared. Here are some steps you can take to improve your note-taking before class even begins:

• Preview your text or reading assignments prior to lecture. Previewing allows you to identify main ideas and concepts that will most likely be discussed during the lecture.
• Look at your course syllabus so that you know the topic/focus of the class and what’s going to be important to focus on.
• Briefly review notes from previous class sessions to help you situate the new ideas you’ll learn in this class.
• Keep organized to help you find information more easily later. Title your page with the class name and date. Keep separate notebook sections or notebooks for each class and keep all notes for each class together in one space, in chronological order.

Note-taking during class

Now that you are prepared and organized, what can you do to take good notes while listening to a lecture in class? Here are some practical steps you can try to improve your in-class note-taking:

• If you are seeking conceptual information, focus on the main points the professor makes, rather than copying down the entire presentation or every word the professor says. Remember, if you review your notes after class, you can always fill in any gaps or define words or concepts you didn’t catch in class.
• If you are learning factual information, transcribing most of the lecture verbatim can help with recall for short-answer test questions, but only if you study these notes within 24 hours.
• Record questions and thoughts you have or content that is confusing to you that you want to follow-up on later or ask your professor about.
• Jot down keywords, dates, names, etc. that you can then go back and define or explain later.
• Take visually clear, concise, organized, and structured notes so that they are easy to read and make sense to you later. See different formats of notes below for ideas.
• If you want your notes to be concise and brief, use abbreviations and symbols. Write in bullets and phrases instead of complete sentences. This will help your mind and hand to stay fresh during class and will help you access things easier and quicker after class. It will also help you focus on the main concepts.
• Be consistent with your structure. Pick a format that works for you and stick with it so that your notes are structured the same way each day.
• For online lectures, follow the above steps to help you effectively manage your study time. Once you’ve watched the lecture in its entirety, use the rewind feature to plug in any major gaps in your notes. Take notes of the timestamps of any parts of the lecture you want to revisit later.

Determining what’s important enough to write down

You may be asking yourself how you can identify the main points of a lecture. Here are some tips for recognizing the most important points in a lecture:

• Introductory remarks often include summaries of overviews of main points.
• Listen for signal words/phrases like, “There are four main…” or “To sum up…” or “A major reason why…”
• Repeated words or concepts are often important.
• Non-verbal cues like pointing, gestures, or a vocal emphasis on certain words, etc. can indicate important points.
• Final remarks often provide a summary of the important points of the lecture.
• Consider watching online lectures in real time. Watching the lecture for the first time without pausing or rewinding can help force you to focus on what’s important enough to write down.

Different formats for notes

There is no right format to use when taking notes. Rather, there are many different structures and styles that can be used. What’s important is that you find a method that works for you and encourages the use of good note-taking qualities and stick with it. Here are a few types of formats that you may want to experiment with:

1. Cornell Notes: This style includes sections for the date, essential question, topic, notes, questions, and a summary. Check out this link  for more explanation.

2. Outline: An outline organizes the lecture by main points, allowing room for examples and details.

3. Flowchart/concept map: A visual representation of notes is good for content that has an order or steps involved. See more about concept mapping here .

4. Charting Method : A way to organize notes from lectures with a substantial amount of facts through dividing key topics into columns and recording facts underneath.

5. Sentence Method : One of the simplest forms of note taking, helpful for disseminating which information from a lecture is important by quickly covering details and information.

Consider…what’s the best strategy for you: handwritten, digital, or both?

Taking notes in a way to fully understand all information presented conceptually and factually may differ between students. For instance, working memory, or the ability to process and manipulate information in-the-moment, is often involved in transcribing lecture notes, which is best done digitally; but there are individual differences in working memory processes that may affect which method works best for you. Research suggests that handwriting notes can help us learn and remember conceptual items better than digital notes. However, there are some pros to typing notes on a computer as well, including speed and storage. Consider these differences before deciding what is best for you.

Follow up after class

Part of good note-taking includes revisiting your notes a day or so after class. During this time, check for clarity, fill in definitions of key terms, organize, and figure out any concepts you may have missed or not fully understood in class. Figure out what may be missing and what you may need to add or even ask about. If your lecture is recorded, you may be able to take advantage of the captions to review.

Many times, even after taking good notes, you will need to utilize other resources in order to review, solidify, question, and follow-up with the class. Don’t forget to use the resources available to you, which can only enhance your note-taking. These resources include:

• Office Hours : Make an appointment with your professor or TA to ask questions about concepts in class that confused you.
• Academic Coaching : Make an appointment with an Academic Coach at the Learning Center to discuss your note-taking one-on-one, brainstorm other strategies, and discuss how to use your notes to study better.
• Learning Center resources : The Learning Center has many other handouts about related topics, like studying and making the most of lectures. Check out some of these handouts and videos to get ideas to improve other areas of your academics.
• Reviewing your notes : Write a summary of your notes in your own words, write questions about your notes, fill in areas, or chunk them into categories or sections.
• Self-testing : Use your notes to make a study guide and self-test to prepare for exams.

Works consulted

“The Pen is Mightier Than the Keyboard: Advantages of Longhand Over Laptop Note Taking.” Mueller, P., and Oppenheimer, D. Psychological Science 25(6), April 2014.

“Note-taking With Computers: Exploring Alternative Strategies for Improved Recall.” Bui, D.C., Myerson, J., and Hale, S. Journal of Educational Psychology, 105(299-309), 2013.

“How To Take Study Notes: 5 Effective Note Taking Methods.” Oxford Learning. Retrieved from https://www.oxfordlearning.com/5-effective-note-taking-methods/

“Preparing for Taking Notes.” The Pennsylvania State University. Retrieved from http://tutorials.istudy.psu.edu/notetaking/notetaking2.html

“Listening Note Taking Strategies.” UNSW Sydney. Retrieved from https://student.unsw.edu.au/note-taking-skills

“Note Taking and In-Class Skills.” Virginia Tech University. Retrieved from https://www.ucc.vt.edu/academic_support/study_skills_information/note_taking_and_in-class_skills.html

“Lecture Note Taking.” College of Saint Benedict, Saint John’s University. Retrieved from https://www.csbsju.edu/academic-advising/study-skills-guide/lecture-note-taking

“Note Taking 101.” Oregon State University. Retrieved from http://success.oregonstate.edu/learning/note-taking-tips

“Note Taking. Why Should I Take Notes in Class?” Willamette University. Retrieved from http://willamette.edu/offices/lcenter/resources/study_strategies/notes.html

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Think about how you take notes during class. Do you use a specific system? Do you feel that system is working for you? What could be improved? How might taking notes during a lecture, section, or seminar be different online versus in the classroom? 

Adjust how you take notes during synchronous vs. asynchronous learning (slightly) . 

First, let’s distinguish between  synchronous  and  asynchronous  instruction. Synchronous classes are live with the instructor and students together, and asynchronous instruction is material recorded by the professor for viewing by students at another time. Sometimes asynchronous instruction may include a recording of a live Zoom session with the instructor and students. 

With this distinction in mind,  here are some tips on how to take notes during both types of instruction:

Taking notes during live classes (synchronous instruction).

Taking notes when watching recorded classes (asynchronous instruction)., check in with yourself., if available, annotate lecture slides during lecture., consider writing notes by hand., review your notes., write down questions..

Below are some common and effective note-taking techniques: 

Cornell Notes

If you are looking for help with using some of the tips and techniques described above, come to the ARC’s note-taking workshop, offered several times every semester.

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How to take good notes (and how NOT to!)

Learn how to finally take smarter notes. These 8 note-taking strategies will help you to truly master your subject, prepare for your exams, and save hours of study time.

It’s a race against time.

The projector’s light burns brightly against the canvas as the lecturer paces back and forth, the PowerPoint clicker clutched in hand, words spilling from his mouth faster than you can follow them. The lecture hall is hushed, your fellow students bent low to their pages, furiously writing, copying down the information on the slide.

The clock is ticking.

Sweat beads across your forehead—the slide has been up for a whole minute now. Any second, the lecturer is going to raise that clicker and skip to the next slide. But you’re not done yet. Time is running out. You grit your teeth, pen flying furiously across the page of your notebook. Almost finished ... almos—CLICK!

“And as we see on this next slide”

There is hardly a student under the sun who cannot relate to this dramatization. We put so much pressure on ourselves to capture in writing everything our educators tell us and show us that we forget to do the most important thing of all:

Hear what they are saying.

The result is that you walk out of the classroom with next to NO recollection of the lesson.

Sure, you’ll have your notes (which look like they were written by a spider that fell in an inkwell and staggered across the page), but you’ll only look at those again when the next test or exam comes your way. And by that point, you’ll struggle to make head or tail of them.

We’re here to change that.

The team here at Brainscape has spent over a decade rigorously asking ourselves, the scientific literature, and our millions of users what it takes to learn efficiently, comfortably, and conveniently.

What we have discovered has become the foundation and framework of our awesome web and mobile flashcard app , which applies tried-and-tested cognitive learning principles to help students prepare for high stakes exams.

It has also taught us that note-taking is one of the primary tenets of education . Note-taking can vastly improve student learning . Yet, most students have been doing it wrong .

This doesn’t have to be the case.

By taking your focus off the notebook in front of you and returning your attention to your lecturer, you can spend more time learning in class and less time relearning everything from scratch when exam time comes.

So the Brainscape team put our heads together, geeked out on what science has to say, and came up with this super helpful guide on how to take notes well (and how not to), which we now offer to you to help you succeed.

Let’s jump right in!

The secret for how to take notes well: preparation

As students, we think the best way to take notes in class is to be thorough. The more the better . But the tragedy is, for all your efforts, this way of recording information is just not benefiting you as it should. In fact, it’s handicapping you.

While you’re so busy writing everything down, you’re missing out on:

• Engaging in the lecture,
• Hearing what your teacher is saying,
• Processing the information, and
• Asking questions about what’s unclear to you.

This is what genuine learning looks like: listening and engaging in class . The missing link in facilitating this ... is preparation .

Preparing for class beforehand is a fundamental step that almost all students are missing in their note-taking approach.

Okay, so nobody actually reads the textbook before class. But you can!

In other words, the ironic secret to taking better notes isn't as much what you do in class as what you do before it.

Reading the relevant section or chapter before class:

• Fundamentally takes the pressure off of you to write everything down during the lecture,
• Alerts you to what information is to come, which primes your brain for learning,
• Contributes enormously towards your ability to understand the information presented in the lecture,
• Frees up your concentration and focus , which you can now direct at the lecturer and to asking questions,
• Deepens the memories you make of the information, and
• Saves you hours of time later on.

With this preparation done, you can walk into class primed to learn and fully equipped to sit back, listen, engage, and only take notes when needed . Keep reading for a step-by-step on how to best prepare for class.

Use these 8 steps to learn how to take notes

“By failing to prepare, you are preparing to fail.” ― Benjamin Franklin (and he’s on the $100 bill so he knows what he’s talking about)

We have 8 steps for effective note-taking strategies. The first four steps are all about how to best prepare and make the most out of your class:

• Step 1: Review the previous lesson
• Step 2: Read through the new material
• Step 3: Write down any questions you might have
• Step 4: Make preliminary notes before class

Step 1. Review the previous lesson

In most subjects, the concepts you learn today logically support the concepts you learn tomorrow. If you don’t know what the heck is going on, anything new you’re exposed to isn’t going to have a framework to fit into, which makes remembering it so much harder.

Ergo, by reviewing the previous lesson’s notes, you (1) reinforce the information you learned (which is critically important ) and (2) provide a stable foundation for the new information you’ll be exposed to today.

It’s kind of like reading the previous page of a novel to remind yourself of what’s going on in the story before reading on.

Step 2. Skim through the new material

Being primed to learn makes your brain receptive to new information. So, read through the sections your lecturer intends to cover in the next lesson before you arrive for class.

Reading ahead in the textbook takes new information you need time to process, and makes it familiar. Then, in class, you can focus on consolidating that information and filling in the gaps.

This may feel super nerdy. Who reads the textbook before class? But think about it. You're gonna have to eventually read the chapter anyway . If reading it before the lecture is so much more effective, why not do it in this order?!

The idea here is not to memorize or become 100% confident in the material but rather to establish:

• A high-level view of what’s to come,
• A preliminary understanding of the chapter’s key concepts, and
• An idea of the concepts you might struggle with.

It also makes you curious to fill in the gaps ... and a curious student is an engaged student!

Step 3. Write down any questions you might have

Once you’ve finished reading the chapter, think about some questions you should ask to bridge any gaps in your understanding.

For example: let’s say you’ve read a chapter on thunderstorms, and you mostly understand the atmospheric requirements for their formation. But cloud electrification makes you say "DOH!" harder than Homer Simpson. You might write the following questions:

• How do particles within a cloud become positively and negatively charged?
• Why do the positive ions travel upwards while the negative ions travel earthwards?
• Do people who play golf in thunderstorms have a lower-than-average IQ?

Simply jotting these specific questions down awakens your powers of metacognition.

Oooh, aaah.

Metacognition is your awareness and understanding of your own thought processes and using it prompts your brain to form deeper memory traces .

In your head, it might sound a little like this: “Do I fully understand this concept? Or could I use some clarity on a few points?”

This type of inquiry encourages engagement in class and puts your brain into problem-solving mode , both of which are powerful for learning and remembering. And this takes the pressure off the note-taking in class, since you’ll already know the information your lecturer will be presenting.

Step 4. Make preliminary notes before class

Now your task is to create your own chapter outline with preliminary notes from the textbook. The idea is to have the basic structure of the chapter with its main concepts laid out in logical connection with one another, leaving plenty of space for you to write down additional information in class.

Keep this summary succinct and with only the key points, concepts, and definitions from the chapter written down. Anything time-consuming is probably going to deter you from doing this all-important prep work so keep it concise! You can go into greater detail where your understanding falters and you may require richer explanations.

With your preparation done, we will now address how to take good notes during and after class with the following four steps …

• Step 5: Note-taking in class
• Step 6: Consolidate the material
• Step 7: Transform the salient concepts into flashcards
• Step 8: Reframing content as concept maps

Step 5. Note-taking in class

With your preliminary notes done, you can focus on the lecture, using the spaces you’ve left to flesh out the information rather than writing everything from scratch. Just remember to remain calm and keep your perspective on the material so that you don’t slip back into your old habits.

Also, keep a record in the margin of your page of the most important points so that you can turn these into flashcards later (more on this in a moment!).

Pro Tip: If the information in a particular lecture is super important, or the course you’re taking critical to your overall education, you could even use your device to make an audio or even video recording of it. This frees you up to pay total attention in class rather than writing down notes.

But, be SUPER sparing with this technique . It has the nasty habit of making students lazy and seducing them to put off the necessary preparation and consolidation work until right before the exam. It can also be time-consuming working through 23 hours of audio/video content! Like people who take videos of fireworks displays, you might both miss the moment and then never look at the video again.

Step 6. Consolidate the material

Before the lecture (with your preparation work) you were introduced to the chapter’s concepts for the first time. During the lecture, these concepts were reinforced and expanded upon. Now, after the lecture—ideally within 24 hours of it—you should sit down with your notes and combine everything you have into Version 2.0: your new, improved, and rewritten sexy study notes!

This consolidation of your study notes after class strengthens the memory traces you’ve created in your brain, while also helping you to understand the section’s most important concepts and paraphrase them in your own words . It also leaves you with a valuable learning asset, which you can use for studying for tests and exams!

Step 7. Transform the salient concepts into flashcards

What you really need to do after taking notes is to transform them into a format that you can actively study later. And this is best done by turning the material’s salient points into Cue/Target pairs (i.e. Question/Answer card), which you can review in a custom pattern based on how well you know each one.

That’s right: we’re talking about flashcards . And, naturally, flashcards are Brainscape’s favorite study tool!

Flashcards have been used for centuries by serious students to efficiently learn knowledge-intensive subjects, from biology, science, and medicine to history, law, and language.

What flashcards essentially do is break subjects up into their fundamental (and manageable) bite-sized facts, making them much easier to digest. They also leverage your brain's innate wiring to help you absorb information by engaging:

• Active recall: Thinking of the answer from scratch rather than passively reading through your notes or textbook,
• Spaced repetition: Repeating your exposure to the information in order to better memorize it.
• Metacognition: Assessing the strength of your knowledge as you go.

Decades of cognitive science research and thousands of academic studies prove this method's effectiveness.

[ Use Brainscape to start studying with flashcards ]

Just remember , no matter how great the flashcard tool you use—and Brainscape is pretty great—if you didn't first record and consolidate your notes effectively, you may be missing the key content that’s likely to be on your exam!

Step 8. Reframing content as concept maps

Finally, if your subject is riddled with complex, interrelated topics, it might also make sense to transform the content into a mind map or concept map. These are useful, adjunctive tools for consolidating information presented in your textbook and in class. And they have the added benefit of engaging your critical thinking skills, which form more permanent, long-term memories.

BUT while concept maps are great exercises to consolidate notes after the lecture , they are not the best format for studying that information later on. Similar to reading a textbook, simply staring at a concept map only engages your brain on a passive level and doesn’t establish any strong, meaningful connections to that information. This tends to form shallow memories that disappear quickly.

Flashcards, on the other hand, compel you to actively recall information (by answering questions) and repeat difficult concepts to you more often, which, as we have explained, establishes deeper memory traces.

So, be cautioned: making concept maps can be a useful tool, but if you think that continually reviewing them will help you prepare effectively for your exam, you might be making a version of the #1 biggest studying mistake !

What about the Cornell Method of note-taking?

Most resources that dive into how to take good notes mention the “ Cornell Method ”: a systematic format for condensing and organizing notes designed for high school or college level students. Very briefly, the Cornell Method pivots on the same approach we have discussed in this article (record, question, recite, reflect, and review) but requires students to divide their page into two columns with keywords and questions on the left and discussion on the right.

You can also combine this with the visual icons for deeper learning.

The Outline Method is another popular note-taking strategy (also for college-level students). An outline naturally organizes the information in a highly structured, logical manner, forming a skeleton of the subject. This can later serve as an excellent study guide when preparing for exams.

Which note-taking method works the best? Quite simply: the one that works for you .  Nowadays, most of us tend to take our notes digitally anyway (e.g. in a Google doc), so it's increasingly easy to move your notes around or turn them into an outline after the fact, rather than sweating precisely how we divide a sheet of paper before even beginning to record any information.

Writing smarter (not harder): a summary

Now you know how to take notes the right way; follow these steps:

• Step 1: Remind yourself what you learned the day before

All of this—the pre-reading, preliminary note-taking, jotting down of questions, information consolidation, and flashcard-making—may sound like a lot of extra work .

It is the work you should be doing to (1) truly master your subject, (2) prepare for your exams throughout the semester, and (3) save yourself hours of study time later on, not to mention the anxiety that comes with cramming an entire semester’s worth of information into a few days or weeks.

The note-taking approach we have outlined in this guide sets the excellent students apart from the mediocre ones, who have only average results and a nasty case of carpal tunnel to show for their efforts. So, go forth and write smarter (and not harder) with our eight steps on how to take good notes!

Chang, W. & Ku, Y. (2014). The effects of note-taking skills instruction on elementary students’ reading. The Journal of Educational Research, 108 (4), 278–291. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220671.2014.886175

Kiewra, K. A. (2002). How classroom teachers can help students learn and teach them how to learn. Theory Into Practice, 41 (2), 71-80. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15430421tip4102_3

Rahmani, M. & Sadeghi, K. (2011). Effects of note-taking training on reading comprehension and recall. The Reading Matrix, 11 (2). https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/85a8/f016516e61de663ac9413d9bec58fa07bccd.pdf

Flashcards for serious learners .

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Linda Clark and Charlene Jackson

Introduction

Notetaking and reading are two compatible skill sets. Beyond providing a record of the information you are reading or hearing, notes help you make meaning out of unfamiliar content. Well-written notes help you organise your thoughts, enhance your memory, and participate in class discussion, and they prepare you to respond successfully in exams. This chapter will provide you with guidelines for understanding your purpose for taking notes, and steps for taking notes before, during and after class. Then, a summary of different notetaking strategies will be provided so that you can choose the best method for your learning style. Finally, you will discover ways to annotate your notes to enable quick reference, along with information about taking notes specifically for assignments.

Understanding Your Purpose for Learning

  Knowing your course requirements and the intended purpose for your notes should impact the type of notes you take. For example, are you:

• taking lecture notes that will become the basis of exam study?
• taking notes while watching your classes online?
• taking notes from books or articles for an assignment?

There are no right or wrong ways to take notes, but it is important to find strategies that work for you and are efficient for your purpose.

Taking Notes from Classes

Whether you are attending classes on campus or are studying online, it is still important to take notes from your lectures. Notes help you keep up with the content each week which in turn helps you prepare for your exams. There are things you should consider before, during and after your lectures to assist with your notetaking.

Before the class

In some courses the weekly class content is available before the lecture as PowerPoint slides. This may make it tempting not to take notes, however these slides usually only have key points. Further details and explanations are given verbally in the class. A good tip is to print the PowerPoint slides before the lecture and use them as the basis for your note taking. If you select the three slides per page from the print options, it will give you room to take some notes. Come to lectures prepared by completing any set reading or tasks for that week. This will help you understand the content and more easily make decisions about what relevant notes to take.

 During the class

Take notes to actively engage in the process of learning. This will help with concentration. Handwriting your notes has been proven to increase memory and retention. Do not try to write down every word or you will miss important information. Keep your notes brief, use keywords, short sentences and meaningful abbreviations.

Most lectures are recorded so you can go back and check for anything you missed. It is a good idea also to leave plenty of space for these thoughts, or for adding in pictures or diagrams. Pay attention to the structure or organisational pattern of the lecture. Key points are usually outlined at the beginning of the lecture, and repeated or summarised at the end. Listen for language cues emphasising important information including:

• numerical lists, e.g. “firstly…, secondly”, “there are three steps/stages…”
• phrases such as “on the other hand”, “in particular”, “remember/note/look out for”, “consequently”
• inclusion of examples or hypothetical situations
• emphasis of a particular point through tone of voice

If you do not understand the content, make a note or write a question and follow this up in your tutorial or discussion forum.

After the class

It is important that you re-read your notes as soon as possible after the class, when the content is still fresh in your mind, and make any additions. If you have exams in your course, then it is important to spend time organising your notes throughout the semester. This will ensure that by the end of the semester you will have well-ordered notes that are meaningful and useful to learn from, saving you valuable exam preparation time. Your learning preference will inform the review strategies you choose.

Notetaking Strategies

There are several different notetaking strategies. Regardless of your method, be sure to keep your notes organised, store notes from the same subject together in one place, and clearly label each batch of notes with subject, source and date taken. Here are three notetaking strategies you can try; Cornell Method, linear notes and concept mapping.

Cornell Method

One of the most recognisable notetaking systems is called the Cornell Method. In this system, divide a piece of paper into three sections: the summary area, the questions column and the notes column (see Figure 16.3 ). The Cornell Method provides you with a well-organised set of notes that will help you study and review your notes as you move through the course. If you are taking notes on your computer, you can still use the Cornell Method in Word or Excel.

The righ t-hand notes c olumn: Use this section to record in your own words the main points and concepts of the lecture. Skip lines between each idea in this column and use bullet points or phrases. After your notetaking session, read over your notes column and fill in any details you missed in class.

In the questions c olumn : Write any one or two-word key ideas from the corresponding notes column. These keywords serve as cues to help you remember the detailed information you recorded in the ‘notes’ column.

The summary area: Summarise this page of notes in two or three sentences using the summary area at the bottom of the sheet. Before you move on, read the large notes column, and quiz yourself over the key ideas you recorded in the questions column. This review process will help your memory make the connections between your notes, your textbook reading, your in-class work, and assignments.

The main advantage of the Cornell Method is that you are setting yourself up to have organised, workable notes. This method is a useful strategy to organise your notes for exam preparation.

Linear notes

  A common format for note taking is a linear style – using numbers or letters to indicate connections between concepts. Indicate the hierarchy of ideas by using headings, written in capitals, underlined or highlighted in some way. Within concepts, ideas can be differentiated by dot points, or some other indicator, to create an outline that makes the notes easier to read. The main benefit of an outline is its organisation.

The following formal outline example shows the basic pattern:

Notetaking can continue with this sort of numbering and indenting format to show the connections between main ideas, concepts and supporting details.

Con cept mapping

One final notetaking method that appeals to learners who prefer a visual representation of notes is called mapping or sometimes mind mapping or concept mapping . The basic principles are that you are making connections between main ideas through a graphic depiction. Main ideas can be circled, with supporting concepts radiating from these ideas, shown with a connecting line and possibly details of the support further radiating from the concepts. You may add pictures to your notes for clarity.

Sketchnoting

Sketchnoting differs from concept mapping.  Concept maps use a hierarchical structure and consist primarily of text with a focus on one main theme, and show the connections between ideas related to that theme. Sketch notes have a picture focus using a flexible layout and can cover one or a range of themes. (See Figure 16.6 )

Sketchnoting is a personalised way of combining words with visual elements such as drawings, icons, shapes and lines.  This style of notetaking is used by students to maintain engagement, enhance understanding, and to retain information from verbal or written content. The sketchnoting technique is used to organise ideas and summarise content in a meaningful way to help the notetaker recall the information at a later date. Sketchnoting can be created digitally or using pen and paper. You can choose your style and preference.

Annotating notes

Annotations can refer to anything you do with a text to enhance it for your particular use (either a printed text, handwritten notes, or other sort of document you are using to learn concepts). The annotations may include highlighting passages or vocabulary, defining those unfamiliar terms once you look them up, writing questions in the margin of a book and underlining or circling key terms for future reference. You can also annotate some electronic texts.

Your mantra for highlighting text should be less is more. Always read your text selection first before you start highlighting anything. You need to know what the overall message is before you start placing emphasis in the text with highlighting. Another way to annotate notes after initial notetaking is underlining significant words or passages.

Taking notes for assignments

When taking notes for an assignment, be clear whether they are your own words, or a direct quote so that you do not accidentally plagiarise. When you have finished taking notes, look for key themes or ideas and highlight them in different colours. This organises your information and helps you to see what evidence you have to support various ideas you wish to make in your assignment. Make sure to record the author, title, date, publishing details and relevant page numbers of books and articles you use. This will save you time and avoid errors when referencing.

Electronic Notetaking

  If you use an e-reader or e-books to read texts for class or read articles from the internet on your laptop or tablet, you can still take effective notes. Almost all electronic reading platforms allow readers to highlight and underline text. Some devices allow you to add a written text in addition to marking a word or passage that you can collect at the end of your notetaking session. Look into the specific tools for your device and learn how to use the features that allow you to take notes electronically. You can also find apps on devices to help with taking notes. Microsoft’s OneNote, Google Keep, and the Notes feature on phones are relatively easy to use, and you may already have free access to those.

Notetaking is a major element of university studying and learning. As you progress through your study, your notes need to be complete so you can recall the information you learn in lectures. The strategies that have been explored in this chapter will help you to be deliberate in your notetaking.

• Know the purpose for your notes.
• Before the class, print any lecture slides with the notes option.
• During the class, keep your notes brief, use keywords, short sentences and meaningful abbreviations.
• After the class, re-read your notes and organise them.
• The Cornell Method uses a table with a summary area, a questions column and a notes column.
• Linear notetaking uses headings, numbers or letters to show hierarchy and connections between concepts.
• Concept mapping uses graphic depiction to connect ideas.
• Sketchnoting is a creative way to make personalised meaningful notes from written or spoken content.
• Annotating your notes with highlights, underlining, circling or writing in the margin can enhance your understanding.
• Notetaking for assignments must show clearly when the words are your own or are a direct quote. Record the source details for use in referencing.
• Notetaking can be performed by hand or on electronic devices.

Academic Success Copyright © 2021 by Linda Clark and Charlene Jackson is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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• The best way to write study notes

As a student, it’s likely you’ll have done a lot of note-taking by now. But are your study notes messy, disorganised or confusing to read? If so, it’s probably because you haven’t learned how to write study notes effectively yet.

Writing notes in your own words is one of the best ways to ensure you’ve remembered and understood what your teacher is saying in class or what you’ve read in a textbook.

However, unless your notes are concise, structured and well-organised, it’s unlikely they’ll be much help when it comes to reviewing what you’ve just been taught or revising for an exam.

There are many different ways to take good notes; you just need to find the one that suits you best. In this article, we’ve outlined some of the most popular note-taking methods – which you can try out next time you’re in class.

What’s the best way to write study notes?

There’s no one best way to write study notes, but some of the most popular methods include the Cornell Method, the Outline Method, the Mapping Method, the Flow Notes Method and the Bullet Journaling Method.

Some tips for helping you take effective study notes are to make sure you focus only on the key points and phrases, consider drawing pictures if you’re short on time and remember to clarify anything you don’t understand.

Keep reading to learn more about writing better notes.

Why is it important to take good study notes?

As mentioned above, taking your own notes helps you to remember and understand key topics and concepts much better. This is because:

• You have to think about what you’re writing down
• You’ll be actively listening to what your teacher is saying
• You’re more likely to be able to make connections between topics
• You can review everything you’ve learnt once the class is over

Effective study notes will also make exam time less stressful, as they’ll be really helpful when it comes to revising.

What are some of the different note-taking techniques?

The cornell method.

Created at America’s Cornell University, this note-taking technique has been around for decades.

It’s great for taking structured notes, as you divide your paper up into easily-digestible sections:

• Notes – This is for the notes you take during class, which you can structure however you like, although we recommend the Outline Method (see below).
• Cues – This section can be written during or straight after class. It’s where you fill out the main points or potential exam questions. The words you write should jog your memory, to help you remember bigger ideas.
• Summary – Your summary can be written straight after class or when reviewing your notes. It should be a summary of the whole lecture.

You can also use the Cornell Method for taking revision notes from textbooks. It’s particularly helpful for testing yourself, as you can cover up the notes and summary sections of the page and see how much you can remember from your cues.

The Outline Method

This is one of the easiest ways to take notes, and most people find it comes quite naturally.

It’s useful for learning about detailed topics, as you use headings and bullet points to organise the information straight down the page.

Here’s how to use the Outline Method:

• At the start of each lesson, write a headline for the main topic at the top of the page and underline or highlight it
• As the lesson progresses, write subheadings for each subtopic, indenting them slightly to the right
• List key information underneath each subheading using bullet points

The great thing about this method is that it’ll help you to pay attention to what’s being said. The downside is that reviewing your notes afterwards can be overwhelming. To combat this, you could try highlighting keywords straight after class, so that only the most relevant information stands out.

The Mapping Method

Also called the Mind-Map Method, this note-taking method is ideal for visual learners, and it’s useful for when you’re being taught about the relationships between different topics.

You start by writing the name of the main topic you’re learning about in the middle of your page. Then you write headings for each subtopic branching off the main topic, with important notes underneath each one. You can then have more subtopics branching off each of the previous subtopics, continuing this pattern as needed.

This method is perfect for subjects that have interlocking topics or complex, abstract ideas, for example, history, chemistry and philosophy.

The Chart Method

This is another good technique to use if you’re learning about the relationships between topics, however, it’s really only useful if you know what the topics are before the start of your lesson.

To use it, divide your page into several columns, labelled by category. Then, when your teacher mentions information relating to one of the categories, jot it down in the relevant column.

It’s handy for lessons that cover lots of facts and figures as it enables you to organise information in a way that’s easy to review.

The Sentence Method

If your lessons are fast-paced and cover a great deal of information, you may find this note-taking method helpful.

This is because each time a new topic is introduced, you jot down the main points on a new line. This enables you to cover lots of details quickly and helps you to identify which information is worth writing down.

If you want to organise your notes further, use headings for each main topic.

The Flow Notes Method

Rather than simply transcribing a lesson, the Flow Notes Method allows you to actively learn while you’re writing, so you spend less time reviewing your notes after class.

The aim is to engage with the material in a way that connects with you, from drawing doodles, diagrams and graphs to use your knowledge of other subjects to make connections with what’s being said in your current class.

If you’re an auditory and visual learner with a fantastic memory, you might find that taking notes in this way suits you best, although pairing this technique with Cornell notes can make it easier to revise for exams.

The Writing on Slides Method

Some teachers are kind enough to provide their students with course material before the lesson. If you’re lucky enough to be in this position, use it to your advantage!

By printing off presentation slides beforehand, you can save time by annotating the key concepts that are already there in front of you, instead of frantically trying to keep up with everything that’s being said.

As well as being an easy way to write notes, it’s effective for reviewing and revising too, as actually seeing the slide means it’s more likely you’ll remember what your teacher was saying at the time.

The Bullet Journaling Method

Another one for visual learners, the Bullet Journaling Method allows you to be as creative with your note-taking as you want to be.

With this technique, you take aesthetically-pleasing notes and sort information in the way your mind works – which can involve blending multiple note-taking methods.

The aim is to make your bullet journal as attractive and organised as possible. Although, this can be difficult to do when you’re scribbling down notes in a classroom environment, so you can always use another technique when writing notes in class and then transfer them to your bullet journal when reviewing them afterwards.

Is it better to hand-write study notes or type them up?

As you now know from reading this article, there are multiple ways in which you can take good study notes, and it’s up to you to decide which method is best suited to the way your brain understands and retains information.

Similarly, whether you prefer handwriting notes or typing them up on a laptop or tablet, it’s your choice how you record the information you’ve learned from a lecture or textbook.

It could be argued that because typing is quicker, you’re less likely to process information properly in order to condense it into note-form. Or that electronic devices provide more opportunities for distraction. However, self-disciplined students may benefit from taking in-depth digital notes they can study extensively once a class is over.

What are some tips for taking better study notes?

If you’re struggling to take effective study notes, you might find the following tips helpful:

• Don’t try to write everything down – just focus on key points and phrases.
• But don’t write too little either, as this could lead to ambiguity.
• Avoid the temptation to copy everything, word-for-word. Write in short, succinct sentences, organising and rewriting the original material in your own words. This will also help to ensure you’re not plagiarising.
• If you’re short on time, use abbreviations and symbols, or try drawing pictures or diagrams instead.
• Colour-code what you’ve written after the initial note-taking; not during.
• If you don’t understand something, remember to go back later and clarify it.

How to get the most out of your study notes

Throughout this article, we’ve spoken about reviewing your notes, and we can’t stress enough, the importance of doing this.

You should review your notes within the first 24 hours to make sure you retain as much information as possible, and then go back over small portions of your notes every day up until an exam or test.

Your study notes will also come in handy when doing research or assigned reading, as you can refer to them to ensure you have a good understanding of the subject matter.

Writing study notes in your own words is one of the best ways to make sure you’ve remembered and understood what your teacher is saying in class or what you’ve read in a textbook. It will also make exam time less stressful, as your study notes will be really helpful with revision.

When it comes to taking good notes, there are many different methods – you just need to find the one that suits you best.

Some of the most popular note-taking methods are the Cornell Method, the Outline Method, the Mapping Method, the Chart Method, the Sentence Method, the Flow Notes Method, the Writing on Slides Method and the Bullet Journaling Method.

Some tips to help you take effective study notes include making sure you focus only on the key points and phrases, drawing pictures if you’re short on time and remembering to clarify anything you don’t understand.

Once you’ve taken your notes and class is over, it’s extremely important to go back over them to increase the chances of the information staying in your head.

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The Cornell Note Taking System

Why do you take notes? What do you hope to get from your notes? What are Cornell Notes and how do you use the Cornell note-taking system?

There are many ways to take notes. It’s helpful to try out different methods and determine which work best for you in different situations. Whether you are learning online or in person, the physical act of writing can help you remember better than just listening or reading. Research shows that taking notes by hand is more effective than typing on a laptop. This page and our Canvas module will teach you about different note-taking systems and styles and help you determine what will work best for your situation.

In our Cornell Note Taking System module you will:

• Examine your current note taking system
• Explore different note taking strategies (including the Cornell Notes system)
• Assess which strategies work best for you in different situations

The best way to explore your current note-taking strategies and learn about the Cornell note taking system is to go through our Canvas note taking module. The module will interactively guide you through how to use Cornell Notes –  click on the link here or the button below. This module is publicly available.

Just want to see a bit more about Cornell Notes? You can view the videos below.

Watch: What are Cornell Notes?

Watch: Learn how students use the Cornell Note Taking System

The Cornell Note-Taking System was originally developed by Cornell education professor, Walter Pauk. Prof. Pauk outlined this effective note-taking method in his book, How to Study in College (1).

•   Pauk, Walter; Owens, Ross J. Q. (2010).  How to Study in College  (10 ed.). Boston, MA: Wadsworth.  ISBN   978-1-4390-8446-5 .  Chapter 10: “The Cornell System: Take Effective Notes”, pp. 235-277

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Chapter 5 Study Skills

5.6 Note-Taking

You’ve got the PowerPoint slides for your lecture, and the information in your textbook. Do you need to take notes as well?

Despite the vast amount of information available in electronic formats, taking notes is an important learning strategy. In addition, the way that you take notes matters, and not all note-taking strategies lead to equal results.  By considering your note-taking strategies carefully, you will be able to create a set of notes that will help retain the most important concepts from lectures and tests, and that will assist you in your exam preparation.

Two Purposes for Taking Notes

People take notes for two main reasons:

• To keep a record of the information they heard. This is also called the external storage function of note-taking.
• To facilitate learning material they are currently studying.

The availability of information on the internet may reduce the importance of the external storage function of note-taking. When the information is available online, it may seem logical to stop taking notes.  However, by neglecting to take notes, you lose the benefits of note-taking as a learning tool.

How Note-Taking Supports Learning

Taking notes during class supports your learning in several important ways:

• Taking notes helps you to focus your attention and avoid distractions.
• As you take notes in class, you will be engaging your mind in identifying and organizing the main ideas. Rather than passively listening, you will be doing the work of active learning while in class, making the most of your time.
• Creating good notes means that you will have a record for later review. Reviewing a set of condensed and well-organized notes is more efficient than re-reading longer texts and articles.

Everybody takes notes, or at least everybody claims to. But if you take a close look, many who are claiming to take notes on their laptops are actually surfing the Web, and paper notebooks are filled with doodles interrupted by a couple of random words with an asterisk next to them reminding you that “This is important!” In college and university, these approaches will not work. Your instructors expect you to make connections between class lectures and reading assignments; they expect you to create an opinion about the material presented; they expect you to make connections between the material and life beyond school. Your notes are your road maps for these thoughts. Do you take good notes? Actively listening and note-taking are key strategies to ensure your student success.

Effective note-taking is important because it

• supports your listening efforts.
• allows you to test your understanding of the material.
• helps you remember the material better when you write key ideas down.
• gives you a sense of what the instructor thinks is important.
• creates your “ultimate study guide.”

There are various forms of taking notes, and which one you choose depends on both your personal style and the instructor’s approach to the material. Each can be used in a notebook, index cards, or in a digital form on your laptop. No specific type is good for all students and all situations, so we recommend that you develop your own style, but you should also be ready to modify it to fit the needs of a specific class or instructor. To be effective, all of these methods require you to listen actively and to think; merely jotting down words the instructor is saying will be of little use to you.

The List Method

Example: The List Method of Note-taking

Learning Cycle

September 3

Prof. Jones

The learning cycle is an approach to gathering and retaining info that can help students be successful in Col. The cycle consists of 4 steps which should all be app’d. They are preparing, which sets the foundation for learning, absorbing, which exposes us to new knowledge, capturing, which sets the information into our knowledge base and finally reviewing and applying which lets us set the know. into our memory and use it.

Preparing for learning can involve mental preparation, physical prep, and oper. prep. Mental prep includes setting learning goals for self based on what we know the class w/ cover (see syllabus)/ Also it is very important to do any assignments for the class to be able to learn w/ confidence and…. ______________

Physical Prep means having enough rest and eating well. Its hard to study when you are hungry and you won’t listen well in class if you doze off.

Operation Prep means bringing all supplies to class, or having them at  hand when studying… this includes pens, paper, computer, textbook, etc. Also means setting to school on time and getting a good seat (near the front).

Absorbing new knowledge is a combination of listening and reading. These are two of the most important learning skills you can have.

The list method is usually not the best choice because it is focused exclusively on capturing as much of what the instructor says as possible, not on processing the information. Most students who have not learned effective study skills use this method, because it’s easy to think that this is what note-taking is all about. Even if you are skilled in some form of shorthand, you should probably also learn one of the other methods described here, because they are all better at helping you process and remember the material. You may want to take notes in class using the list method, but transcribe your notes to an outline or concept map method after class as a part of your review process. It is always important to review your notes as soon as possible after class and write a summary of the class in your own words.

The Outline Method

Example: The Outline Method of Note-taking

Learning is a cycle made up of 4 steps:

• Preparing: Setting the foundation for learning.
• Absorbing: (Data input) Exposure to new knowledge.
• Capturing: Taking ownership of the knowledge.
• Review & Apply: Putting new knowledge to work.
• assignments from prior classes.
• Readings! (May not have been assigned in class – see Syllabus!)
• Know what instructor expects to cover
• Know what assignments you need to do
• Set your own objective
• Get right about of rest. Don’t zzz in class.
• Eat right. Hard to focus when you are hungry.
• Arrive on time.
• Bring right supplies – (Notebooks, Texts, Pens, etc.)
• Get organized and ready to listen
• Don’t unterupt the focus of others
• Get a good seat
• Sit in the front of the class.

The advantage of the outline method is that it allows you to prioritize the material. Key ideas are written to the left of the page, subordinate ideas are then indented, and details of the subordinate ideas can be indented further. To further organize your ideas, you can use the typical outlining numbering scheme (starting with roman numerals for key ideas, moving to capital letters on the first subordinate level, Arabic numbers for the next level, and lowercase letters following.) At first you may have trouble identifying when the instructor moves from one idea to another. This takes practice and experience with each instructor, so don’t give up! In the early stages you should use your syllabus to determine what key ideas the instructor plans to present. Your reading assignments before class can also give you guidance in identifying the key ideas.

If you’re using your laptop computer for taking notes, a basic word processing application (like Microsoft Word or Works) is very effective. Format your document by selecting the outline format from the format bullets menu. Use the increase or decrease indent buttons to navigate the level of importance you want to give each item. The software will take care of the numbering for you!

After class be sure to review your notes and then summarize the class in one or two short paragraphs using your own words. This summary will significantly affect your recall and will help you prepare for the next class.

The Concept Map Method

Example: The Concept Map Method of Note-taking

This is a very graphic method of note-taking that is especially good at capturing the relationships among ideas. Concept maps harness your visual sense to understand complex material “at a glance.” They also give you the flexibility to move from one idea to another and back easily (so they are helpful if your instructor moves freely through the material).

To develop a concept map, start by using your syllabus to rank the ideas you will listen to by level of detail (from high-level or abstract ideas to detailed facts). Select an overriding idea (high level or abstract) from the instructor’s lecture and place it in a circle in the middle of the page. Then create branches off that circle to record the more detailed information, creating additional limbs as you need them. Arrange the branches with others that interrelate closely. When a new high-level idea is presented, create a new circle with its own branches. Link together circles or concepts that are related. Use arrows and symbols to capture the relationship between the ideas. For example, an arrow may be used to illustrate cause or effect, a double-pointed arrow to illustrate dependence, or a dotted arrow to illustrate impact or effect.

As with all note-taking methods, you should summarize the chart in one or two paragraphs of your own words after class.

The Cornell Method

Example: The Cornell Method of Note-taking

The Cornell method was developed in the 1950s by Professor Walter Pauk at Cornell University [1] . It is recommended by many universities because of its usefulness and flexibility. This method is simple to use for capturing notes, is helpful for defining priorities, and is a very helpful study tool.

The Cornell method follows a very specific format that consists of four boxes: a header, two columns, and a footer.

The header is a small box across the top of the page. In it you write identification information like the course name and the date of the class. Underneath the header are two columns: a narrow one on the left (no more than one-third of the page) and a wide one on the right. The wide column, called the “notes” column, takes up most of the page and is used to capture your notes using any of the methods outlined earlier. The left column, known as the “cue” or “recall” column, is used to jot down main ideas, keywords, questions, clarifications, and other notes. It should be used both during the class and when reviewing your notes after class. Finally, use the box in the footer to write a summary of the class in your own words. This will help you make sense of your notes in the future and is a valuable tool to aid with recall and studying.

Using Index Cards for the Cornell Method

Some students like to use index cards to take notes. They actually lend themselves quite well to the Cornell method. Use the “back” or lined side of the card to write your notes in class. Use one card per key concept. The “front” unlined side of the card replaces the left hand “cue” column. Use it after class to write keywords, comments, or questions. When you study, the cards become flash cards with questions on one side and answers on the other. Write a summary of the class on a separate card and place it on the top of the deck as an introduction to what was covered in the class.

“I used to tape my lecture classes so I could fill in my sketchy notes afterwards. Now that I’m using the Cornell system, my notes are complete and organized in much less time. And my regular five-minute reviews make learning almost painless. No more taping and listening twice.” — A student at Southern Methodist University

You will have noticed that all methods end with the same step: reviewing your notes as soon as possible after class. Any review of your notes is helpful (reading them, copying them into your computer, or even recasting them using another note-taking method). But THINK! Make your review of notes a thoughtful activity, not a mindless process. When you review your notes, think about questions you still have and determine how you will get the answers. (From the next class? Studying with a friend? Looking up material in your text or on the net?) Examine how the material applies to the course; make connections with notes from other class sessions, with material in your text, and with concepts covered in class discussions. Finally, it’s fun to think about how the material in your notes applies to real life. Consider this both at the very strategic level (as in “What does this material mean to me in relation to what I want to do with my life?”) as well as at a very mundane level (as in, “Is there anything cool here I can work into a conversation with my friends?”).

Instructor Handouts

Some instructors hand out or post their notes or their PowerPoint slides from their lectures. These handouts should never be considered a substitute for taking notes in class. They are a very useful complement and will help you confirm the accuracy of your notes, but they do not involve you in the process of learning as well as your own notes do. After class, review your notes with highlighter in hand and mark keywords and ideas in your notes. This will help you write a summary of the class in your own words.

General Tips on Note-Taking

Regardless of what note-taking method you choose, there are some note-taking habits you should get into for all circumstances and all courses:

• Be prepared. Make sure you have the tools you need to do the job. If you are using a notebook, be sure you have it with you and that you have enough paper. Also be sure to have your pen (as well as a spare) and perhaps a pen with different-coloured ink to use for emphasis. If you are taking notes on your laptop, make sure the battery is charged! Select the application that lends itself best to your style of note-taking. Microsoft Word works very well for outline notes, but you might find taking notes in Excel to work best if you are working within the Cornell method. (It’s easier to align your thoughts in the cue or recall column to your notes in the right column. Just be sure you keep one idea per row!)
• Write on only one side of the paper. This will allow you to integrate your reading notes with your class notes.
• Label, number, and date all notes at the top of each page. This will help you keep organized.
• When using a laptop, position it such that you can see the instructor and white board right over your screen. This will keep the instructor in your field of vision even if you have to glance at your screen or keyboard from time to time. Make sure your focus remains with the instructor and not on your laptop. A word of caution about laptops for note-taking: use them if you are very adept at keyboarding, but remember that not all note-taking methods work well on laptops because they do not easily allow you to draw diagrams and use special notations (scientific and math formulas, for example).
• Don’t try to capture everything that is said. Listen for the big ideas and write them down. Make sure you can recognize the instructor’s emphasis cues and write down all ideas and keywords the instructor emphasizes. Listen for clues like “the four causes were…” or “to sum up.…”
• Copy anything the instructor writes on the board. It’s likely to be important.
• Leave space between ideas. This allows you to add additional notes later (e.g. notes on the answer to a question you or one of your classmates asked).
• Use signals and abbreviations. The ones you use are up to you, but be consistent so you will know exactly what you mean by “att.” when you review your notes. You may find it useful to keep a key to your abbreviations in all your notebooks.
• Use some method for identifying your own thoughts and questions to keep them separate from what the instructor or textbook author is saying. Some students use different colour ink; others box or underline their own thoughts. Do whatever works for you.
• Create a symbol to use when you fall behind or get lost in your note-taking. Jot down the symbol, leave some space, and focus on what the instructor is covering now. Later you can ask a classmate or the professor to help you fill in what you missed, or you can find it in your textbook.
• Review your notes as soon after class as possible (the same day is best). This is the secret to making your notes work! Use the recall column to call out the key ideas and organize facts. Fill in any gaps in your notes and clean up or redraw hastily drawn diagrams.
• Write a summary of the main ideas of the class in your own words. This process is a great aid to recall. Be sure to include any conclusions from the lecture or discussion.
• Use notes when preparing for a test or doing an assignment. Your notes usually have a summary of the most important points and are useful for making sure you incorporate important concepts in your assignments and for focusing on the main concepts when studying for tests and exams.

This video provides some great tips for note-taking as well.

Video: “How to Take Great Notes” (length 5:08)

Exercise: Journal Entry

Choose one of your classes where you normally take notes. Make a conscious effort to use the Cornell method with either the outline or concept map method for taking your notes. Follow as many steps listed previously as possible. Now compare these notes with those you took in the previous class. Are your new notes more useful? What did you like about taking notes this way? What are some of the things you need to work on improving? (Remember this will get much easier with more practice.) Write your thoughts down.

What If You Miss Class?

Clearly the best way to learn class material is to be at the class and to take your own notes. In university, regular attendance is expected. But life happens. On occasion, you may have to miss a class or lecture. When this happens, here are some strategies you can use to make up for it:

• Check with the instructor to see if there is another section of the class you can attend. Never ask the instructor “Did I miss anything important?” (Think about what that’s saying and you’ll see it’s rather insulting.)
• If the instructor posts his or her lectures as a podcast, listen to the lecture online and take notes. If the instructor uses PowerPoint slides, request a copy (or download them if posted) and review them carefully, jotting down your own notes and questions. Review your notes with a classmate who did attend.
• You may want to borrow class notes from a classmate. If you do, don’t just copy them and insert them in your notebook. They will not be very helpful. When you borrow notes from a classmate, you should photocopy them and then review them carefully and mark your copy with your own notes and questions. Use your textbook to try to fill in the gaps. Finally, schedule a study session with the person who gave you the notes to review the material and confirm your understanding.
• If none of these options is available for you, use the course syllabus to determine what was covered in the class, then write a short paper (two pages or so) on the material using the class readings and reliable online sources. See your instructor during office hours to review your key findings and to answer any questions you still may have.

Group Notes: A Collaborative Approach

Groups within a class can take notes together using file-sharing software on the Cloud such as Google Docs. The individuals in the group can add to the document in real time as different individuals are adding themselves. This creates a collaborative document that all can use, download, (or adapt). This won’t work for all situations but can be very useful especially in a fast-moving classroom.

Keeping Your Notes

Class is over, and you have a beautiful set of notes in your spiral notebook or saved in your laptop. You have written the summary of the class in your own words. Now what?

Start by organizing your notes. We recommend you use a three-ring binder for each of your subjects. Print your notes if you used a computer. If you used note cards, insert them in plastic photo holders for binders. Group all notes from a class or unit together in a section; this includes class notes, reading notes, and instructor handouts. You might also want to copy the instructor’s syllabus for the unit on the first page of the section.

Next, spend some time linking the information across the various notes. Use the recall column in your notes to link to related information in other notes (e.g. “See class notes date/page”).

If you have had a quiz or test on the unit, add it to your binder, too, but be sure to write out the correct answer for any item you missed. Link those corrections to your notes, too.

Use this opportunity to write “notes on your notes.” Review your summary to see if it still is valid in light of your notes on the reading and any handouts you may have added to your notes package.

You don’t need to become a pack rat with your notes. It is fairly safe to toss them after the end of a course except in the following cases:

• If the course you took is a prerequisite for another course, or when the course is part of a standard progression of courses that build upon each other (this is very common in math and science courses), you should keep them as a reference and review for the follow-up course.
• If the course may pertain to your future major, keep your notes. You may not realize it now that they may have future value when you study similar topics or even the same topics in more depth.
• If you are very interested in the course subject and would like to get into the material through a more advanced course, independent study, or even research, keep your notes as a prep tool for further work.

Key Takeaways

• Good note-taking is a key strategy for academic success.
• Choose among effective note-taking styles for what works best for you and modify it to meet the needs of a specific class or instructor.
• List notes are generally less effective and not prioritized.
• Outlines work well for taking notes on a laptop when the instructor is well organized.
• Concept map notes are good for showing the relationships among ideas.
• The Cornell method is effective for calling out key concepts and organizing notes for review.
• Instructor handouts and PowerPoint presentations help with—but do not replace the need for—personal note-taking.
• If you miss a class, explore your options for replacing your missing notes.
• Keep your notes organized in a way that makes it easy to study for tests and other uses in the future.

Exercise: Note-taking

• Name two advantages of the Cornell system over the list method of note-taking.
• Describe the benefits of—and potential problems with—taking class notes on a laptop.
• List at least three ways to make up for missing notes because you miss a class.

Text Attributions

• This chapter was adapted from “ Got Notes? ” in University Success by N. Mahoney, B. Klassen, and M. D’Eon. Adapted by Mary Shier. CC BY-NC-SA .
•  The first two paragraphs and text under the “Two Purposes for Taking Notes” heading are from “ Take Notes from Lectures – That You’ll Actually Use ” in University 101: Study, Strategize and Succeed by Kwantlen Polytechnic University. CC BY-SA .

Video Attributions

• “ How to Take Great Notes ” by watchwellclass . Standard YouTube Licence.
• Pauk, W. & Owens, R.J.Q. (2013). How to Study in College . Boston, MA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. ↵

5.6 Note-Taking Copyright © 2020 by Mary Shier is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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The 13 Most Effective Note-Taking Methods

These are efficient note-taking methods that anyone can pick up and use to take better notes.

• By Sander Tamm
• Mar 19, 2024

E-student.org is supported by our community of learners. When you visit links on our site, we may earn an affiliate commission.

“Genius is 1% talent and 99% percent hard work.” Albert Einstein

When you’re first learning a new concept, you’re taking in further information that has to go through the process of memorization.

The human brain, however, is inefficient at remembering things. 

Within  24 hours  of leaving class, your brain will have forgotten more than half of what it remembered at the end of the class.

This phenomenon is described by the Ebbinghaus forgetting curve , which perfectly illustrates the need for note-taking .

Compare the right-side green line with the left-side red line. 

Someone who takes notes and reviews them three times (green line) remembers nearly everything after a week. On the other hand, a person who doesn’t review their notes at all (red line) forgets everything within a week.

Don’t be the red line – make sure you’re one of the green lines instead! To do so, you’ll need to learn how to take  effective , visually interesting , and/or aesthetical notes .

To help you do so, these are the best note-taking methods:

Best Note-Taking Methods

Outline note-taking method.

Best for:  Most subjects except science classes such as physics or math

Difficulty level:  Medium

The  outline method of note-taking  uses indentation to store information in a clear hierarchy. When applicable, the outline method is one of the most efficient note-taking formats as it creates meticulously well-organized notes. The method can also be used in both  deductive and inductive  order.

Outlined notes are some of the easiest to review, as it’s one of the few systems that allow you to see space relationships between topics. However, the method is not always suitable for taking notes during a live lecture, and outlining requires a clear lesson structure. 

Advantages:

• Space relationships between topics are visible,
• Information is recorded in a logical, hierarchical manner,
• Outlined notes are quick and easy to review pre-exam,
• Special notepaper & preparation not required,
• Research on the outline method  has been positive,
• Usable during class (slow to medium-paced lectures).

Disadvantages:

• Unsuitable for some STEM subjects,
• Learning materials/lectures require a clear structure,
• Outlining notes requires intense concentration and thought.

Cornell Note-Taking Method

Best for:  Recording main concepts & forming study questions

Difficulty level:  Easy

The  Cornell note-taking method , developed over half a century ago, is a tried-and-true strategy for taking effective notes. It uses two top columns (the “cue” and “note” columns), together with a single bottom row (the summary section), to record notes. 

The method is versatile, usable for most subjects, and one of the simplest yet most effective note-taking methods. By mastering the Cornell system, you’ll always have at least one solid note-taking skill under your belt. The Cornell system is one of the most popular note-taking strategies in the world for a good reason.

• Organized and systematic for both recording and reviewing notes
• Time-efficient and requires little effort,
• Taking Cornell notes is very easy to learn,
• Suitable for most subjects (except equation-based subjects),
• Fulfills a  natural learning cycle  within one single page,
• Ideal for extracting major concepts and ideas.
• Requires creating or purchasing Cornell-style pages,
• Large quantities of Cornell notes can be challenging to organize,
• Not great at reducing the size of notes,
• Research on the Cornell method  is mixed.

The Cornell method is a variant of the split-page note-taking method  (also known as the two-column method). Try the split-page method if you are finding the Cornell method a bit too restrictive but you like the basic approach of cues or keywords combined with more detailed notes.

Boxing Note-Taking Method

Best for:  Digital note-taking with a stylus pen

The  boxing method of note-taking uses boxes to visually separate topics within a page. While the boxing method was designed for digital devices, it’s a technique that can be easily adapted to handwritten notes. 

Using the boxing strategy results in notes that are visually pleasing and easy to review. The method also takes full advantage of digital-only features such as lassoing, resizing, and moving notes after writing. Together with mind mapping, it’s one of the most effective note-taking strategies for visual learners.

• Takes advantage of digital note-taking tools,
• Great for learners with a visual learning style,
• Aesthetically pleasing notes,
• Notes reduce well.
• Slightly time-intensive,
• Not always practical for note-taking during lectures.

Charting Note-Taking Method

Best for:  Recording facts and statistics

Difficulty level:  Hard

The  charting method of note-taking , also known as “matrix note-taking,” uses charts to classify information within rows and columns. While the method is not usable for many subjects, it is a remarkable tool under the right circumstances. This method is best used with subjects with factual or statistical information that can be categorized into tables.

On the other hand, it’s not suitable for note-taking during live lectures, very detailed topics, and subjects where the space relationships between content are essential. It’s also not well-suited for subjects that have many equation-based problems.

• A compelling method for subjects with lots of facts and statistics,
• Easy comparisons between different topics,
• Reduces note sizes better than any other method,
• Charted notes are straightforward and efficient to review,
• Very efficient for studying comparisons.
• Unsuitable for most subjects,
• Requires a basic understanding of the topic,
• Very time-intensive.

Mapping Note-Taking Method

Best for:  Analyzing visual connections between key ideas and concepts

The mapping method of note-taking , also known as “concept mapping,” connects different thoughts, ideas, concepts, and facts through visualization. Both Leonardo Da Vinci’s and Albert Einstein’s notebooks reportedly contained mapping-style notes that connected drawings to words and notes.

The mapping method starts with a central topic in the middle of the page before branching into smaller subtopics, supporting topics, and more minor details. The method provides a one-of-a-kind graphical overview of lecture content that is irreplaceable for visual learners. 

Mapping is best used in content-rich college classes where the information is structured. However, taking notes in a live class with this method is very rarely possible due to its time-consuming nature.

 Advantages:

• An excellent method for visual learning styles,
• It gives a comprehensive overview of a large subject,
• It helps you understand the connections between small elements within a major topic,
• Maximizes active participation,
• Reviewing mapped notes is very efficient.

 Disadvantages:

• Requires a good understanding of the topic,
• Requires strong concentration,
• It cannot be used effectively during class,
• It can be difficult to correctly include all relationships ,
• Mapping is very time-consuming.

Sentence Note-Taking Method

Best for:  Quick, unstructured note-taking

Difficulty level:  Very easy

The  sentence method of note-taking uses sentences separated by lines to quickly transcribe as much information as possible from the information source. It requires quick handwriting or typing skills to be used effectively, and it’s likely the most commonly used note-taking method due to its simplicity. 

Using the sentence method results in oversized notes that are notoriously difficult to review afterward. However, the sentence method can sometimes be the only viable choice for fast-paced, unstructured lessons you’re unprepared for. It’s often a good idea to rewrite notes taken with the sentence method after class.

Try not to rely on this method when you have a choice, but keep it as a backup plan when you can’t use an alternative note-taking strategy.

• It can be used for any subject and type of class,
• Very easy to implement,
• Suitable for quick note-taking during class.
• Reviewing sentence method notes after class is difficult and time-consuming,
• No inter- and intra- relationships between notes are visible,
• The main points are indistinguishable from more minor details,
• Quick handwriting or typing speed required,
• No element of metacognitive note analysis during note-taking.

Blurting Note-Taking Method

Best for:  Studying and memorizing complex topics

Difficulty level: Medium

Unlike passively highlighting text or rereading notes, the Blurting Method is truly one of the most efficient ways to understand where you are at in your knowledge and do something about it at the same time.

The blurting method of note-taking is an  active recall  technique that can be used to help you learn and remember information. Active recall is basically a learning technique that involves testing yourself on the material that you’re trying to learn and has been shown to be a very effective way to make.

The blurting method, at its simplest, is reading a section of text or notes, then closing them and writing down as much of the information as you can remember. This makes your brain work harder to retain the information, making it really hammer the info down into your long-term memory.

• It can help you identify the areas where you need to focus in your study time, thus making sure that the gaps in your knowledge are covered.
• It gives you a better understanding of the material, as you are forced to put the information into your own words.
• Recall ensures information is retained longer.
• It’s a flexible method that can be modified to suit your needs.
• The method can be used on any type of written learning material – but also after listening to lectures and online course videos.
• This method is time-consuming, and some might find it tedious.
• It does not replace note-taking during on-going lectures.
• It is mentally taxing.
• It is not the most efficient method for memorizing a lot of facts – use flashcards or a similar method in this case

Q/E/C Note-Taking Method

Best for: Argumentative subjects (such as history, philosophy, and literature)

The Question/Evidence/Conclusion (Q/E/C) method of note-taking is a simple but powerful method for organizing and recording information from lectures. Focused on capturing the big ideas and how they relate to each other, the method is structured around concepts that require arguing and evidence to create a clear and concise summary. Each concept is divided up into three parts: question, evidence, and conclusion.

The Q/E/C is ideally suited for most subjects in the humanities, especially ones that tend to present in an argumentative form, such as history, philosophy, and literature. It is also a very useful method to include in your toolbox for other subjects, including technical ones, where it can be suited for certain classes.

The method is also an excellent way to outline or plan for your essays, as it helps you develop a clear structure and will likely help you identify additional questions and counterarguments along the way that you may need to consider.

• Helps you focus on the bigger picture
• Helps you keep track of the relationship between the overall topic and the arguments/evidence
• An excellent way to clearly record more argumentative presentations
• Clear way of presenting arguments and counterarguments
• Forces you to synthesize arguments and write a conclusion
• A good fit for the humanities and non-technical subjects
• Matches the way many lecturers present (and view the world)
• Useful method for outlining argumentative essays
• Less suitable for technical subjects or for concepts with more complex relationships
• Challenging to use during fast-paced or poorly structured lectures
• Requires concentration and reflection
• Can be difficult to use if you don’t yet have an overall grasp of a new subject

Morse Code Note-Taking Method

Best for: Quickly absorb large volumes of course material in argumentative subjects.

Difficulty level: Hard

A fairly recent addition to the realm of note-taking methods – but one that many academics swear by – is the Morse Code note-taking method , a variant of the Q/E/C method . Not to be confused with Morse Code itself, this note-taking method uses dots and dashes to mark up course literature while you are reading it . Importantly, it enables you to keep reading while taking notes rather than pausing to jot down your notes.

Dots are used to denote the main ideas, and dashes for supporting facts, arguments, and examples. After you have finished reading the entire text, you use your notes in the margin to type up notes and then condense them into a format that is useful for further review.

• As you do not stop reading, it is among the most efficient methods for covering larger quantities of text.
• It helps extract the main and supporting points from a text.
• It promotes active reading through the note-taking
• It facilitates reading comprehension and critical thinking through the decoding and condensing stages.
• It is not applicable to all types of reading material (in particular, material that is not structured in an argumentative academic style).
• Very little information is captured in your notes – if you wait too long to decode your notes, you may have forgotten the context.
• Less suitable for readers who tend to lose their focus when engaging in continuous reading (who may benefit from pausing and processing their notes paragraph by paragraph or page by page.

Flow Note-Taking Method

Best for: Understanding interrelationships between concepts at a higher level

While linear note-taking methods (such as the sentence and outline methods) have their place in your toolkit, you will want to complement these with non-linear methods that force you to actively engage with the topic at hand as a whole. Using such methods translate into a better understanding of an area and how its different component parts relate to each other. One of the main non-linear approaches that you should become familiar with is the flow method of note-taking .

It can look similar to the mapping method, but the focus of this method is on the higher-level concepts and ideas and how they relate to each other. Detailed descriptions and paraphernalia have to take a step back. The relationships are indicated using arrows and lines, in whichever way you find useful.

• The flow method aims to have you learn during class by having you engage actively with the content.
• Even though you are actively learning during class, you also get useful notes for revision – while the notes are not in the most useful format for revision, they tend not to be terrible
• It’s a flexible method that suits most subjects.
• It is a good choice for note-taking after having followed a class or after having read all material to solidify your understanding.
• The method can be personalized to suit individuals’ needs and preferences.
• The flow method is not well suited for topics of which you have no prior understanding, as it can be difficult to pick out what is more or less important and figure out how they relate to each other during the class.
• While engaging mainly with the bigger picture, you risk missing important details during lectures.
• Flow notes can easily turn out quite messy and are not ideal for revision (you can try to mitigate this by adding cue words to your notes to prompt you to describe relationships during revisions).
• It can be difficult to find the time to actively engage with a topic during fast-paced lectures, forcing you to take detailed notes and apply the flow method after class instead.
• Practice with the method is needed as you need to figure out how to best use it to suit your learning style.

REAP Method

Best for: Active reading to build deeper understanding of texts

The REAP method (Read, Encode, Annotate, Ponder) was developed by Marilyn Eanet and Anthony Manzo at the University of Missouri at Kansas City in 1976 as a response to what they saw as inadequate teaching methods for developing active reading. The method is designed to help students be able to understand the meaning of texts through reflecting and communicating on their content.

REAP consists of four stages:

• Reading:  Reading the text provided to identify the ideas expressed by the author.
• Encoding:  “Encoding” the main ideas identified in the text in your own words.
• Annotating:  Writing “annotations” of the ideas, quotes, etc., in the text.
• Pondering:  Reflecting on the content and writing comments or criticisms of the text, and discussing with others.

This will make you return to a text multiple times, each time from a different vantage point, and let you gradually analyze the text at a higher and higher level.

• A scientifically proven effective method for improving reading comprehension and recall
• Helps build capacity to engage critically with texts
• Provides a framework for re-engaging with a text from multiple vantage points
• Method that takes a lot of time, focus, and mental energy
• Not suitable for note-taking during lectures
• Less suitable for all texts (such as some college textbooks) or learning purposes (such as more detailed memorization)

Focused Question Clusters Method

Best for: Preparing for multiple-choice or other fact-based tests

Focused Question Clusters is a method, proposed by Cal Newport, to help students use their textbooks and existing lecture notes to prepare for MCQ-style exams by writing questions and then quizzing themselves. 

Focused Question Clusters involve the following main steps:

• Identify your main topic and the relevant subtopics.
• For each subtopic, write a series (or a “cluster”) of questions that relate to it, covering the main points. The questions should be clear and possible to answer with a few words.
• Write a few background topics to the topic as a whole.
• Use these questions to review (you might want to employ one of the relevant study methods for how you quiz yourself, such as active recall )

Although this kind of rapid-fire questions will help most with preparing for multiple-choice style exams, the engagement with the material will also help your brain to make the connections to get a deeper understanding of the topic.

• An effective way to gain and retain knowledge about a topic
• Particularly effective for MCQ-style exams
• A useful tool for studying in groups
• Question drafting can be divided up and the results shared as a resource between students studying together
• Drafting the questions takes a considerable amount of time and effort
• Not the best way to engage with more argumentative topics

Highlighting Method

Best for: Quickly marking up a text that you plan to review later on.

Difficulty level: Easy

Highlighting is a popular study technique that involves marking important passages in a text. The overall idea is to highlight important points in a text – common ones are key numbers, dates, names, and other key points – that can then be easily spotted when reviewing the whole material. In its pure form, it does not involve writing any notes, but in practice, it is often combined with   other note-taking methods .

This a useful method for students, researchers, and anyone else who needs to go through a lot of material as it allows them to quickly find the information they need later on. Note, however, that while this method is very commonly used, it has been the topic of scientific studies that have found it of questionable value for studying.

• Easy to get started with.
• Does not require writing.
• Provides you with a marked-up text that can help you revise more efficiently.
• It’s easy to go on autopilot with the method and become a passive reader rather than actively engaging with the text.
• Studies have found it to be of questionable value.

Sander Tamm

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An Honest Review of Coursera in 2023: Pros, Cons & Alternatives

In this Coursera review, I’ll go through all of the MOOC provider’s key features and determine if it’s worth paying for.

The Flow Method of Note-Taking: Notes for Active Learning

In our article on the flow note-taking method, we’ll look at how this approach can help you take a more active role in your learning and better understand how concepts relate to each other.

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Note-taking: science, strategies & tips.

Attending class lectures is one of the most important things you can do for your academic success. Taking effective notes in class ensures your time spent in class is productive and useful.

According to experts, taking notes in class has two primary functions: (a) it keeps you alert, attentive and accountable as you listen, and (b) the notes themselves become a record of what was said in lecture or discussion that can be used later for studying and review (Seward, 1910).  According to Hartley & Marshall (1974) students who take notes experience increased attention and concentration in class (as cited in Cuseo, Fecas & Thompson, 2007). In addition, writing during class and reviewing notes before tests produces better recall which is important to your performance on exams (Kiewra, 1985).  When evaluating your own note-taking strategies, ask yourself if you're achieving those two primary functions. If you aren't, consider ways you could alter your strategies to be more effective.

It's important to keep in mind the different levels of note-taking. Surface-level note-taking involves writing down the words you hear but not really paying attention to the meaning or topic; this might be similar to a court reporter taking a transcript of a trial: they record information but may not be personally processing it (Anderson & Armbruster, 1991). In comparison, as you seek to be effective in your note taking. and to get the most out of the practice, you should aim for meaning-based note taking which is characterized by thinking and processing what's being said. Rather than trying to write down every single word that you hear, you listen to the lecturer and begin to make connections and form your own understanding of what's being presented; you write down in your own words what's being discussed. This level of note taking is ideal for the classroom lecture when you listen for main ideas, make inferences, and identify question areas.

Remember, too, that notes are only as good as what you do with them. Go back into your notes and be sure you've gotten all the answers you're looking for to the questions you had during the lecture or reading or pre-work that you did ahead of class. Then, see how you can transform what you've recorded.

• Can you turn it into a study guide?
• Can you combine several sets of notes on the same topic? (notes from reading, from discussion/recitation/lab, notes from the lecture, etc.)
• Can you take your notes and turn the information into a diagram or a mind/concept map?

By going into your notes and turning them into something new, you're asking yourself to make connections, to continue to put information into your own words, and to identify gaps in your understanding and the information you've taken down. If you're interested in more note-taking information, take a look at our Note Taking 101 material below, and if you'd like some additional tips, read on:

• Prepare your brain for its information intake . When you read and take notes before you go to class, it primes your brain for the content you'll encounter in lecture. You can develop questions about what's unclear, or what you want to know more about, etc. All of this allows you to anticipate the lecture and make connections between what you've read and what you're hearing, and to fill in gaps.
• Print any provided lecture notes . At times, instructors will post lecture notes or PowerPoint slides on Canvas or the class website prior to class. If you print these out, then you can write your notes directly into the slides. You're not writing down what's already there; rather, you're trying to capture new information from the lecture.
• Pay close attention to the entire lecture . Listen for main ideas, relationships between concepts, and examples. Actively think about what you’re hearing and make choices about what to write down in your notes. Why is the instructor choosing the examples they do? How do the different parts of the lecture all connect? What's the point?
• Take notes on assignments and exam information . If the lecture includes any discussion of expectations for an assignment or exam, this is important information to write down. The information may not be included on a formal assignment description or on Canvas, or there may be an additional detail that will be helpful for you to think about.
• Revisit your notes and their information . After class is over, spend time revisiting, rewriting, transforming and/or studying your notes. Add to your notes with information from the book/videos/discussion boards. If you meet with peers to study, connect with them about their own notes, as they may have written something down that you missed and vice versa.  
• Evaluate your note taking . Compare with other students, check in with the instructor, and try to use your notes to teach someone the material. If your notes don't seem effective when you revisit information or are studying later, revise your note-taking strategy.

   Want more information about note-taking? Our Note Taking video can tell you more, and show you more, too.

   Interested in seeing some note-taking styles? Check out these examples of note taking !

   Want more of the strategy/science? Check out our Note Taking 101 packet below.

Still have questions or want to talk with someone about all of this? Come and see us in the Academic Success Center:

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Taking Notes for Written Assignments

In this section, we'll talk about specific strategies you can use to help you take notes and stay organized while you're preparing to write an essay, term paper, or any other type of written assignment.

Depending on your assignment and the instructions from your professor, you may need to take notes from a variety of sources such as academic journal articles, articles from websites, encyclopedia entries, and more.

Taking notes for written assignments can be different from taking notes to help you study for exams or tests—you'll need to have a research question in mind to guide your reading, and you'll need to keep track of which sources you've used so you can write accurate citations.

Before You Get Started

To take effective notes, you need to know what information you're looking for before you get started.

Having a general question is good place to start—but having a research question will let you find information to answer a specific question .

Watch the video below and checking out the Academic Research Guide for more information about the research process.

Once you've chosen your topic or research question, your next step will be to track down your sources.

Check out the General Research guide at the Library to

• Learn more about Sheridan's Page 1+ catalogue .
• Get some great Google tips & tricks .
• Explore how to use sources effectively in your assignments.

After you find some great sources, you'll need to take notes and remember where you found the original information and ideas .

You'll need to include this information about the source by citing it, using the citation style your professor has assigned.

To make sure you have all the information you need to create a complete citation later on, you'll need to write down (at least) the following:

• Author names(s).
• Page numbers (if applicable).

You'll need more information to write your complete citation, but these three items will help you get started and make it easier for you to track down the rest of the details later.

Check out the Library's Citation Guide to learn more about writing citations.

• Last Updated: Feb 1, 2024 4:28 PM
• URL: https://sheridancollege.libguides.com/takingnotesmodule

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Note Taking, Note Making, and Assignments

• First Online: 25 February 2021

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• C. George Thomas 2  

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Note taking is a normal practice when students attend lectures, seminars, and discussions. Noting down important points is also routine when reading books, journals, and other reference materials for preparing essays, seminars, presentations, theses, and examinations. These activities are important for researchers and teachers too, if they want to excel in their profession. We use the phrases, note taking and note making , to distinguish the above two processes of hearing and reading. ‘Note taking’ is a passive process, mostly done by students or listeners during lectures, but ‘note making’ is a more active and focused activity where one note down relevant and required information after reading a book or article. Note taking and note making represent two related key academic skills students and researchers must nurture, but one has to approach them prudently for greater utility.

Live as if you were to die tomorrow. Learn as if you were to live forever. Mahatma Gandhi (1869–1948)

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Lynch, T. 2004. Study Listening – A Course in Listening to Lectures and Note taking (2nd Ed.). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 214p.

Murre, J.M.J. and Dros, J. 2015. Replication and analysis of Ebbinghaus’ forgetting curve. PLOS ONE 10(7): 1–23. Available: https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone . [Accessed 10 Feb. 2018].

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Thomas, C.G. (2021). Note Taking, Note Making, and Assignments. In: Research Methodology and Scientific Writing . Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-64865-7_22

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Understanding Assignments

What this handout is about.

The first step in any successful college writing venture is reading the assignment. While this sounds like a simple task, it can be a tough one. This handout will help you unravel your assignment and begin to craft an effective response. Much of the following advice will involve translating typical assignment terms and practices into meaningful clues to the type of writing your instructor expects. See our short video for more tips.

Basic beginnings

Regardless of the assignment, department, or instructor, adopting these two habits will serve you well :

• Read the assignment carefully as soon as you receive it. Do not put this task off—reading the assignment at the beginning will save you time, stress, and problems later. An assignment can look pretty straightforward at first, particularly if the instructor has provided lots of information. That does not mean it will not take time and effort to complete; you may even have to learn a new skill to complete the assignment.
• Ask the instructor about anything you do not understand. Do not hesitate to approach your instructor. Instructors would prefer to set you straight before you hand the paper in. That’s also when you will find their feedback most useful.

Assignment formats

Many assignments follow a basic format. Assignments often begin with an overview of the topic, include a central verb or verbs that describe the task, and offer some additional suggestions, questions, or prompts to get you started.

An Overview of Some Kind

The instructor might set the stage with some general discussion of the subject of the assignment, introduce the topic, or remind you of something pertinent that you have discussed in class. For example:

“Throughout history, gerbils have played a key role in politics,” or “In the last few weeks of class, we have focused on the evening wear of the housefly …”

The Task of the Assignment

Pay attention; this part tells you what to do when you write the paper. Look for the key verb or verbs in the sentence. Words like analyze, summarize, or compare direct you to think about your topic in a certain way. Also pay attention to words such as how, what, when, where, and why; these words guide your attention toward specific information. (See the section in this handout titled “Key Terms” for more information.)

“Analyze the effect that gerbils had on the Russian Revolution”, or “Suggest an interpretation of housefly undergarments that differs from Darwin’s.”

Additional Material to Think about

Here you will find some questions to use as springboards as you begin to think about the topic. Instructors usually include these questions as suggestions rather than requirements. Do not feel compelled to answer every question unless the instructor asks you to do so. Pay attention to the order of the questions. Sometimes they suggest the thinking process your instructor imagines you will need to follow to begin thinking about the topic.

“You may wish to consider the differing views held by Communist gerbils vs. Monarchist gerbils, or Can there be such a thing as ‘the housefly garment industry’ or is it just a home-based craft?”

These are the instructor’s comments about writing expectations:

“Be concise”, “Write effectively”, or “Argue furiously.”

Technical Details

These instructions usually indicate format rules or guidelines.

“Your paper must be typed in Palatino font on gray paper and must not exceed 600 pages. It is due on the anniversary of Mao Tse-tung’s death.”

The assignment’s parts may not appear in exactly this order, and each part may be very long or really short. Nonetheless, being aware of this standard pattern can help you understand what your instructor wants you to do.

Interpreting the assignment

Ask yourself a few basic questions as you read and jot down the answers on the assignment sheet:

Why did your instructor ask you to do this particular task?

Who is your audience.

• What kind of evidence do you need to support your ideas?

What kind of writing style is acceptable?

• What are the absolute rules of the paper?

Try to look at the question from the point of view of the instructor. Recognize that your instructor has a reason for giving you this assignment and for giving it to you at a particular point in the semester. In every assignment, the instructor has a challenge for you. This challenge could be anything from demonstrating an ability to think clearly to demonstrating an ability to use the library. See the assignment not as a vague suggestion of what to do but as an opportunity to show that you can handle the course material as directed. Paper assignments give you more than a topic to discuss—they ask you to do something with the topic. Keep reminding yourself of that. Be careful to avoid the other extreme as well: do not read more into the assignment than what is there.

Of course, your instructor has given you an assignment so that they will be able to assess your understanding of the course material and give you an appropriate grade. But there is more to it than that. Your instructor has tried to design a learning experience of some kind. Your instructor wants you to think about something in a particular way for a particular reason. If you read the course description at the beginning of your syllabus, review the assigned readings, and consider the assignment itself, you may begin to see the plan, purpose, or approach to the subject matter that your instructor has created for you. If you still aren’t sure of the assignment’s goals, try asking the instructor. For help with this, see our handout on getting feedback .

Given your instructor’s efforts, it helps to answer the question: What is my purpose in completing this assignment? Is it to gather research from a variety of outside sources and present a coherent picture? Is it to take material I have been learning in class and apply it to a new situation? Is it to prove a point one way or another? Key words from the assignment can help you figure this out. Look for key terms in the form of active verbs that tell you what to do.

Key Terms: Finding Those Active Verbs

Here are some common key words and definitions to help you think about assignment terms:

Information words Ask you to demonstrate what you know about the subject, such as who, what, when, where, how, and why.

• define —give the subject’s meaning (according to someone or something). Sometimes you have to give more than one view on the subject’s meaning
• describe —provide details about the subject by answering question words (such as who, what, when, where, how, and why); you might also give details related to the five senses (what you see, hear, feel, taste, and smell)
• explain —give reasons why or examples of how something happened
• illustrate —give descriptive examples of the subject and show how each is connected with the subject
• summarize —briefly list the important ideas you learned about the subject
• trace —outline how something has changed or developed from an earlier time to its current form
• research —gather material from outside sources about the subject, often with the implication or requirement that you will analyze what you have found

Relation words Ask you to demonstrate how things are connected.

• compare —show how two or more things are similar (and, sometimes, different)
• contrast —show how two or more things are dissimilar
• apply—use details that you’ve been given to demonstrate how an idea, theory, or concept works in a particular situation
• cause —show how one event or series of events made something else happen
• relate —show or describe the connections between things

Interpretation words Ask you to defend ideas of your own about the subject. Do not see these words as requesting opinion alone (unless the assignment specifically says so), but as requiring opinion that is supported by concrete evidence. Remember examples, principles, definitions, or concepts from class or research and use them in your interpretation.

• assess —summarize your opinion of the subject and measure it against something
• prove, justify —give reasons or examples to demonstrate how or why something is the truth
• evaluate, respond —state your opinion of the subject as good, bad, or some combination of the two, with examples and reasons
• support —give reasons or evidence for something you believe (be sure to state clearly what it is that you believe)
• synthesize —put two or more things together that have not been put together in class or in your readings before; do not just summarize one and then the other and say that they are similar or different—you must provide a reason for putting them together that runs all the way through the paper
• analyze —determine how individual parts create or relate to the whole, figure out how something works, what it might mean, or why it is important
• argue —take a side and defend it with evidence against the other side

More Clues to Your Purpose As you read the assignment, think about what the teacher does in class:

• What kinds of textbooks or coursepack did your instructor choose for the course—ones that provide background information, explain theories or perspectives, or argue a point of view?
• In lecture, does your instructor ask your opinion, try to prove their point of view, or use keywords that show up again in the assignment?
• What kinds of assignments are typical in this discipline? Social science classes often expect more research. Humanities classes thrive on interpretation and analysis.
• How do the assignments, readings, and lectures work together in the course? Instructors spend time designing courses, sometimes even arguing with their peers about the most effective course materials. Figuring out the overall design to the course will help you understand what each assignment is meant to achieve.

Now, what about your reader? Most undergraduates think of their audience as the instructor. True, your instructor is a good person to keep in mind as you write. But for the purposes of a good paper, think of your audience as someone like your roommate: smart enough to understand a clear, logical argument, but not someone who already knows exactly what is going on in your particular paper. Remember, even if the instructor knows everything there is to know about your paper topic, they still have to read your paper and assess your understanding. In other words, teach the material to your reader.

Aiming a paper at your audience happens in two ways: you make decisions about the tone and the level of information you want to convey.

• Tone means the “voice” of your paper. Should you be chatty, formal, or objective? Usually you will find some happy medium—you do not want to alienate your reader by sounding condescending or superior, but you do not want to, um, like, totally wig on the man, you know? Eschew ostentatious erudition: some students think the way to sound academic is to use big words. Be careful—you can sound ridiculous, especially if you use the wrong big words.
• The level of information you use depends on who you think your audience is. If you imagine your audience as your instructor and they already know everything you have to say, you may find yourself leaving out key information that can cause your argument to be unconvincing and illogical. But you do not have to explain every single word or issue. If you are telling your roommate what happened on your favorite science fiction TV show last night, you do not say, “First a dark-haired white man of average height, wearing a suit and carrying a flashlight, walked into the room. Then a purple alien with fifteen arms and at least three eyes turned around. Then the man smiled slightly. In the background, you could hear a clock ticking. The room was fairly dark and had at least two windows that I saw.” You also do not say, “This guy found some aliens. The end.” Find some balance of useful details that support your main point.

You’ll find a much more detailed discussion of these concepts in our handout on audience .

The Grim Truth

With a few exceptions (including some lab and ethnography reports), you are probably being asked to make an argument. You must convince your audience. It is easy to forget this aim when you are researching and writing; as you become involved in your subject matter, you may become enmeshed in the details and focus on learning or simply telling the information you have found. You need to do more than just repeat what you have read. Your writing should have a point, and you should be able to say it in a sentence. Sometimes instructors call this sentence a “thesis” or a “claim.”

So, if your instructor tells you to write about some aspect of oral hygiene, you do not want to just list: “First, you brush your teeth with a soft brush and some peanut butter. Then, you floss with unwaxed, bologna-flavored string. Finally, gargle with bourbon.” Instead, you could say, “Of all the oral cleaning methods, sandblasting removes the most plaque. Therefore it should be recommended by the American Dental Association.” Or, “From an aesthetic perspective, moldy teeth can be quite charming. However, their joys are short-lived.”

Convincing the reader of your argument is the goal of academic writing. It doesn’t have to say “argument” anywhere in the assignment for you to need one. Look at the assignment and think about what kind of argument you could make about it instead of just seeing it as a checklist of information you have to present. For help with understanding the role of argument in academic writing, see our handout on argument .

What kind of evidence do you need?

There are many kinds of evidence, and what type of evidence will work for your assignment can depend on several factors–the discipline, the parameters of the assignment, and your instructor’s preference. Should you use statistics? Historical examples? Do you need to conduct your own experiment? Can you rely on personal experience? See our handout on evidence for suggestions on how to use evidence appropriately.

Make sure you are clear about this part of the assignment, because your use of evidence will be crucial in writing a successful paper. You are not just learning how to argue; you are learning how to argue with specific types of materials and ideas. Ask your instructor what counts as acceptable evidence. You can also ask a librarian for help. No matter what kind of evidence you use, be sure to cite it correctly—see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial .

You cannot always tell from the assignment just what sort of writing style your instructor expects. The instructor may be really laid back in class but still expect you to sound formal in writing. Or the instructor may be fairly formal in class and ask you to write a reflection paper where you need to use “I” and speak from your own experience.

Try to avoid false associations of a particular field with a style (“art historians like wacky creativity,” or “political scientists are boring and just give facts”) and look instead to the types of readings you have been given in class. No one expects you to write like Plato—just use the readings as a guide for what is standard or preferable to your instructor. When in doubt, ask your instructor about the level of formality they expect.

No matter what field you are writing for or what facts you are including, if you do not write so that your reader can understand your main idea, you have wasted your time. So make clarity your main goal. For specific help with style, see our handout on style .

Technical details about the assignment

The technical information you are given in an assignment always seems like the easy part. This section can actually give you lots of little hints about approaching the task. Find out if elements such as page length and citation format (see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial ) are negotiable. Some professors do not have strong preferences as long as you are consistent and fully answer the assignment. Some professors are very specific and will deduct big points for deviations.

Usually, the page length tells you something important: The instructor thinks the size of the paper is appropriate to the assignment’s parameters. In plain English, your instructor is telling you how many pages it should take for you to answer the question as fully as you are expected to. So if an assignment is two pages long, you cannot pad your paper with examples or reword your main idea several times. Hit your one point early, defend it with the clearest example, and finish quickly. If an assignment is ten pages long, you can be more complex in your main points and examples—and if you can only produce five pages for that assignment, you need to see someone for help—as soon as possible.

Tricks that don’t work

Your instructors are not fooled when you:

• spend more time on the cover page than the essay —graphics, cool binders, and cute titles are no replacement for a well-written paper.
• use huge fonts, wide margins, or extra spacing to pad the page length —these tricks are immediately obvious to the eye. Most instructors use the same word processor you do. They know what’s possible. Such tactics are especially damning when the instructor has a stack of 60 papers to grade and yours is the only one that low-flying airplane pilots could read.
• use a paper from another class that covered “sort of similar” material . Again, the instructor has a particular task for you to fulfill in the assignment that usually relates to course material and lectures. Your other paper may not cover this material, and turning in the same paper for more than one course may constitute an Honor Code violation . Ask the instructor—it can’t hurt.
• get all wacky and “creative” before you answer the question . Showing that you are able to think beyond the boundaries of a simple assignment can be good, but you must do what the assignment calls for first. Again, check with your instructor. A humorous tone can be refreshing for someone grading a stack of papers, but it will not get you a good grade if you have not fulfilled the task.

Critical reading of assignments leads to skills in other types of reading and writing. If you get good at figuring out what the real goals of assignments are, you are going to be better at understanding the goals of all of your classes and fields of study.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

Make a Gift

Do the assignments we give our students evolve over the years, or do we trot out the old standbys with minimal change? Do our students experience variety in their assignments, or do they find themselves completing the same kinds of projects—whether in their degree programs or across the curriculum? The bottom line: there’s more we can do with our assignments, and this collection aims to showcase ones that demonstrate innovation and thoughtful attention to design details.

Each Assignment of Note distills the salient points of a scholarly article on a particular assignment and presents them in an easily digestible format. Some even include an update from the author of the original article about what they’ve learned since the journal article was published.

All the assignments featured in this collection

• address problems and issues that faculty at all types of institutions confront;
• link the assignment design to relevant research and theory;
• can be used with different kinds of content and in a wide range of courses;
• are innovative assignments or creative alternatives to familiar assignments;
• include all the details necessary for you to recreate the assignment; and
• have been assessed for effectiveness in some systematic way.

What about your assignments? Are you using any you’re particularly proud of? Ones that students consistently respond to with enthusiasm? Do share them with us. We’d be happy to consider other assignments for inclusion in this collection, even if they’re not discussed in scholarly articles. (If they are based on assignments you found in scholarship, be sure to send us the references.) Remember that our readership crosses disciplines, so we’re interested in assignment ideas and structures that can be used with different kinds of content. Send us your ideas at [email protected].

—Maryellen Weimer

• Preparing for an Exam: A Study Game Plan
• Exploring How Students Select Group Members
• An Incentive for Note-Taking
• The (Mostly) Unmarked Quiz
• Taking Notes on the Reading
• Responding to Feedback via Cover Letter
• The Rotating Note Taker
• Post-Exam Review Activity 
• The Reading Quiz Shake-up 

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5.3 Taking Notes

Questions to Consider:

• How can you prepare to take notes to maximize the effectiveness of the experience?
• What are some specific strategies you can employ for better note-taking?
• Why is annotating your notes after the note-taking session a critical step to follow?

Beyond providing a record of the information you are reading or hearing, notes help you organize the ideas and help you make meaning out of something about which you may not be familiar, so note-taking and reading are two compatible skill sets. Taking notes also helps you stay focused on the question at hand. Nanami often takes notes during presentations or class lectures so she can follow the speaker’s main points and condense the material into a more readily usable format. Strong notes build on your prior knowledge of a subject, help you discuss trends or patterns present in the information, and direct you toward areas needing further research or reading.

It is not a good habit to transcribe every single word a speaker utters—even if you have an amazing ability to do that. Most of us don’t have that court-reporter-esque skill level anyway, and if we try, we would end up missing valuable information. Learn to listen for main ideas and distinguish between these main ideas and details that typically support the ideas. Include examples that explain the main ideas, but do so using understandable abbreviations.

Think of all notes as potential study guides. In fact, if you only take notes without actively working on them after the initial note-taking session, the likelihood of the notes helping you is slim. Research on this topic concludes that without active engagement after taking notes, most students forget 60–75 percent of material over which they took the notes—within two days! That sort of defeats the purpose, don’t you think? This information about memory loss was first brought to light by 19th-century German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus. Fortunately, you do have the power to thwart what is sometimes called the Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve by reinforcing what you learned through review at intervals shortly after you take in the material and frequently thereafter.

If you are a musician, you’ll understand this phenomenon well. When you first attempt a difficult piece of music, you may not remember the chords and notes well at all, but after frequent practice and review, you generate a certain muscle memory and cognitive recall that allows you to play the music more easily.

Note-taking may not be the most glamorous aspect of your higher-education journey, but it is a study practice you will carry throughout college and into your professional life. Setting yourself up for successful note-taking is almost as important as the actual taking of notes, and what you do after your note-taking session is equally significant. Well-written notes help you organize your thoughts, enhance your memory, and participate in class discussion, and they prepare you to respond successfully on exams. With all that riding on your notes, it would behoove you to learn how to take notes properly and continue to improve your note-taking skills.

Analysis Question

Do you currently have a preferred way to take notes? When did you start using it? Has it been effective? What other strategy might work for you?

Preparing to Take Notes

Preparing to take notes means more than just getting out your laptop or making sure you bring pen and paper to class. You’ll do a much better job with your notes if you understand why we take notes, have a strong grasp on your preferred note-taking system, determine your specific priorities depending on your situation, and engage in some version of efficient shorthand.

Like handwriting and fingerprints, we all have unique and fiercely independent note-taking habits. These understandably and reasonably vary from one situation to the next, but you can only improve your skills by learning more about ways to take effective notes and trying different methods to find a good fit.

The very best notes are the ones you take in an organized manner that encourages frequent review and use as you progress through a topic or course of study. For this reason, you need to develop a way to organize all your notes for each class so they remain together and organized. As old-fashioned as it sounds, a clunky three-ring binder is an excellent organizational container for class notes. You can easily add to previous notes, insert handouts you may receive in class, and maintain a running collection of materials for each separate course. If the idea of carrying around a heavy binder has you rolling your eyes, then transfer that same structure into your computer files. If you don’t organize your many documents into some semblance of order on your computer, you will waste significant time searching for improperly named or saved files.

You may be interested in relatively new research on what is the more effective note-taking strategy: handwriting versus typing directly into a computer. While individuals have strong personal opinions on this subject, most researchers agree that the format of student notes is less important than what students do with the notes they take afterwards. Both handwriting notes and using a computer for note-taking have pros and cons.

Managing Note-Taking Systems (Computer, Paper/Pen, Note Cards, Textbook)

Whichever of the many note-taking systems you choose (and new ones seem to come out almost daily), the very best one is the one that you will use consistently. The skill and art of note-taking is not automatic for anyone; it takes a great deal of practice, patience, and continuous attention to detail. Add to that the fact that you may need to master multiple note-taking techniques for different classes, and you have some work to do. Unless you are specifically directed by your instructor, you are free to combine the best parts of different systems if you are most comfortable with that hybrid system.

Just to keep yourself organized, all your notes should start off with an identifier, including at the very least the date, the course name, the topic of the lecture/presentation, and any other information you think will help you when you return to use the notes for further study, test preparation, or assignment completion. Additional, optional information may be the number of note-taking sessions about this topic or reminders to cross-reference class handouts, textbook pages, or other course materials. It’s also always a good idea to leave some blank space in your notes so you can insert additions and questions you may have as you review the material later.

Note-Taking Strategies

You may have a standard way you take all your notes for all your classes. When you were in high school, this one-size-fits-all approach may have worked. Now that you’re in college, reading and studying more advanced topics, your general method may still work some of the time, but you should have some different strategies in place if you find that your method isn’t working as well with college content. You probably will need to adopt different note-taking strategies for different subjects. The strategies in this section represent various ways to take notes in such a way that you are able to study after the initial note-taking session.

Cornell Method

One of the most recognizable note-taking systems is called the Cornell Method , a relatively simple way to take effective notes devised by Cornell University education professor Dr. Walter Pauk in the 1940s. In this system, you take a standard piece of note paper and divide it into three sections by drawing a horizontal line across your paper about one to two inches from the bottom of the page (the summary area) and then drawing a vertical line to separate the rest of the page above this bottom area, making the left side about two inches (the recall column) and leaving the biggest area to the right of your vertical line (the notes column). You may want to make one page and then copy as many pages as you think you’ll need for any particular class, but one advantage of this system is that you can generate the sections quickly. Because you have divided up your page, you may end up using more paper than you would if you were writing on the entire page, but the point is not to keep your notes to as few pages as possible. The Cornell Method provides you with a well-organized set of notes that will help you study and review your notes as you move through the course. If you are taking notes on your computer, you can still use the Cornell Method in Word or Excel on your own or by using a template someone else created.

Now that you have the note-taking format generated, the beauty of the Cornell Method is its organized simplicity. Just write on one side of the page (the right-hand notes column)—this will help later when you are reviewing and revising your notes. During your note-taking session, use the notes column to record information over the main points and concepts of the lecture; try to put the ideas into your own words, which will help you not transcribe the speaker’s words verbatim. Skip lines between each idea in this column. Practice the shortcut abbreviations covered in the next section and avoid writing in complete sentences. Don’t make your notes too cryptic, but you can use bullet points or phrases equally well to convey meaning—we do it all the time in conversation. If you know you will need to expand the notes you are taking in class but don’t have time, you can put reminders directly in the notes by adding and underlining the word expand by the ideas you need to develop more fully.

As soon as possible after your note-taking session, preferably within eight hours but no more than twenty-four hours, read over your notes column and fill in any details you missed in class, including the places where you indicated you wanted to expand your notes. Then in the recall column, write any key ideas from the corresponding notes column—you can’t stuff this smaller recall column as if you’re explaining or defining key ideas. Just add the one- or two-word main ideas; these words in the recall column serve as cues to help you remember the detailed information you recorded in the notes column.

Once you are satisfied with your notes and recall columns, summarize this page of notes in two or three sentences using the summary area at the bottom of the sheet. This is an excellent time to get with another classmate or a group of students who all heard the same lecture to make sure you all understood the key points. Now, before you move onto something else, cover the large notes column, and quiz yourself over the key ideas you recorded in the recall column. Repeat this step often as you go along, not just immediately before an exam, and you will help your memory make the connections between your notes, your textbook reading, your in-class work, and assignments that you need to succeed on any quizzes and exams.

The main advantage of the Cornell Method is that you are setting yourself up to have organized, workable notes. The neat format helps you move into study-mode without needing to re-copy less organized notes or making sense of a large mass of information you aren’t sure how to process because you can’t remember key ideas or what you meant. If you write notes in your classes without any sort of system and later come across something like “Napoleon—short” in the middle of a glob of notes, what can you do at this point? Is that important? Did it connect with something relevant from the lecture? How would you possibly know? You are your best advocate for setting yourself up for success in college.

Other note organizing systems may help you in different disciplines. You can take notes in a formal outline if you prefer, using Roman numerals for each new topic, moving down a line to capital letters indented a few spaces to the right for concepts related to the previous topic, then adding details to support the concepts indented a few more spaces over and denoted by an Arabic numeral. You can continue to add to a formal outline by following these rules.

You don’t absolutely have to use the formal numerals and letter, but you have to then be careful to indent so you can tell when you move from a higher level topic to the related concepts and then to the supporting information. The main benefit of an outline is how organized it is. You have to be on your toes when you are taking notes in class to ensure you keep up the organizational format of the outline, which can be tricky if the lecture or presentation is moving quickly or covering many diverse topics.

The following formal outline example shows the basic pattern:

• Protection (supporting info about the concept)
• Family-friendly (supporting info about the concept)

You would just continue on with this sort of numbering and indenting format to show the connections between main ideas, concepts, and supporting details. Whatever details you do not capture in your note-taking session, you can add after the lecture as you review your outline.

Chart or table

Similar to creating an outline, you can develop a chart to compare and contrast main ideas in a note-taking session. Divide your paper into four or five columns with headings that include either the main topics covered in the lecture or categories such as How?, What?, When used?, Advantages/Pros, Disadvantages/Cons, or other divisions of the information. You write your notes into the appropriate columns as that information comes to light in the presentation.

This format helps you pull out the salient ideas and establishes an organized set of notes to study later. (If you haven’t noticed that this reviewing later idea is a constant across all note-taking systems, you should…take note of that.) Notes by themselves that you never reference again are little more than scribblings. That would be a bit like compiling an extensive grocery list so you stay on budget when you shop, work all week on it, and then just throw it away before you get to the store. You may be able to recall a few items, but likely won’t be as efficient as you could be if you had the notes to reference. Just as you cannot read all the many books, articles, and documents you need to peruse for your college classes, you cannot remember the most important ideas of all the notes you will take as part of your courses, so you must review.

Concept Mapping and Visual Note-Taking

One final note-taking method that appeals to learners who prefer a visual representation of notes is called mapping or sometimes mind mapping or concept mapping, although each of these names can have slightly different uses. Variations of this method abound, so you may want to look for more versions online, but the basic principles are that you are making connections between main ideas through a graphic depiction; some can get rather elaborate with colors and shapes, but a simple version may be more useful at least to begin. Main ideas can be circled or placed in a box with supporting concepts radiating off these ideas shown with a connecting line and possibly details of the support further radiating off the concepts. You can present your main ideas vertically or horizontally, but turning your paper long-ways, or in landscape mode, may prove helpful as you add more main ideas.

You may be interested in trying visual note-taking or adding pictures to your notes for clarity. Sometimes when you can’t come up with the exact wording to explain something or you’re trying to add information for complex ideas in your notes, sketching a rough image of the idea can help you remember. According to educator Sherrill Knezel in an article entitled “The Power of Visual Note-taking,” this strategy is effective because “When students use images and text in note-taking, it gives them two different ways to pull up the information, doubling their chances of recall.” Don’t shy away from this creative approach to note-taking just because you believe you aren’t an artist; the images don’t need to be perfect. You may want to watch Rachel Smith’s TEDx Talk called “Drawing in Class” to learn more about visual note-taking.

You can play with different types of note-taking suggestions and find the method(s) you like best, but once you find what works for you, stick with it. You will become more efficient with the method the more you use it, and your note-taking, review, and test prep will become, if not easier, certainly more organized, which can decrease your anxiety.

Practicing Decipherable Shorthand

Most college students don’t take a class in shorthand, once the domain of secretaries and executive assistants, but maybe they should. That almost-lost art in the age of computers could come in very handy during intense note-taking sessions. Elaborate shorthand systems do exist, but you would be better served in your college note-taking adventures to hone a more familiar, personalized form of shorthand to help you write more in a shorter amount of time. Seemingly insignificant shortcuts can add up to ease the stress note-taking can induce—especially if you ever encounter an “I’m not going to repeat this” kind of presenter! Become familiar with these useful abbreviations:

Do you have any other shortcuts or symbols that you use in your notes? Ask your parents if they remember any that you may be able to learn.

Annotating Notes After Initial Note-Taking Session

Annotating notes after the initial note-taking session may be one of the most valuable study skills you can master. Whether you are highlighting, underlining, or adding additional notes, you are reinforcing the material in your mind and memory.

Admit it—who can resist highlighting markers? Gone are the days when yellow was the star of the show, and you had to be very careful not to press too firmly for fear of obliterating the words you were attempting to emphasize. Students now have a veritable rainbow of highlighting options and can color-code notes and text passages to their hearts’ content. Technological advances may be important, but highlighter color choice is monumental! Maybe.

The only reason to highlight anything is to draw attention to it, so you can easily pick out that ever-so-important information later for further study or reflection. One problem many students have is not knowing when to stop. If what you need to recall from the passage is a particularly apt and succinct definition of the term important to your discipline, highlighting the entire paragraph is less effective than highlighting just the actual term. And if you don’t rein in this tendency to color long passages (possibly in multiple colors) you can end up with a whole page of highlighted text. Ironically, that is no different from a page that is not highlighted at all, so you have wasted your time. Your mantra for highlighting text should be  less is more . Always read your text selection first before you start highlighting anything. You need to know what the overall message is before you start placing emphasis in the text with highlighting.

Another way to annotate notes after initial note-taking is underlying significant words or passages. Albeit not quite as much fun as its colorful cousin highlighting, underlining provides precision to your emphasis.

Some people think of annotations as only using a colored highlighter to mark certain words or phrases for emphasis. Actually, annotations can refer to anything you do with a text to enhance it for your particular use (either a printed text, handwritten notes, or other sort of document you are using to learn concepts). The annotations may include highlighting passages or vocabulary, defining those unfamiliar terms once you look them up, writing questions in the margin of a book, underlining or circling key terms, or otherwise marking a text for future reference. You can also annotate some electronic texts.

Realistically, you may end up doing all of these types of annotations at different times. We know that repetition in studying and reviewing is critical to learning, so you may come back to the same passage and annotate it separately. These various markings can be invaluable to you as a study guide and as a way to see the evolution of your learning about a topic. If you regularly begin a reading session writing down any questions you may have about the topic of that chapter or section and also write out answers to those questions at the end of the reading selection, you will have a good start to what that chapter covered when you eventually need to study for an exam. At that point, you likely will not have time to reread the entire selection especially if it is a long reading selection, but with strong annotations in conjunction with your class notes, you won’t need to do that. With experience in reading discipline-specific texts and writing essays or taking exams in that field, you will know better what sort of questions to ask in your annotations.

What you have to keep in the front of your mind while you are annotating, especially if you are going to conduct multiple annotation sessions, is to not overdo whatever method you use. Be judicious about what you annotate and how you do it on the page, which means you must be neat about it. Otherwise, you end up with a mess of either color or symbols combined with some cryptic notes that probably took you quite a long time to create, but won’t be worth as much to you as a study aid as they could be. This is simply a waste of time and effort.

You cannot eat up every smidgen of white space on the page writing out questions or summaries and still have a way to read the original text. If you are lucky enough to have a blank page next to the beginning of the chapter or section you are annotating, use this, but keep in mind that when you start writing notes, you aren’t exactly sure how much space you’ll need. Use a decipherable shorthand and write only what you need to convey the meaning in very small print. If you are annotating your own notes, you can make a habit of using only one side of the paper in class, so that if you need to add more notes later, you could use the other side. You can also add a blank page to your notes before beginning the next class date in your notebook so you’ll end up with extra paper for annotations when you study.

Professional resources may come with annotations that can be helpful to you as you work through the various documentation requirements you’ll encounter in college as well. Purdue University’s Online Writing Lab ( OWL ) provides an annotated sample for how to format a college paper according to guidelines in the Modern Language Association (MLA) manual that you can see, along with other annotations.

Adding Needed Additional Explanations to Notes

Marlon was totally organized and ready to take notes in a designated course notebook at the beginning of every philosophy class session. He always dated his page and indicated what the topic of discussion was. He had various colored highlighters ready to denote the different note purposes he had defined: vocabulary in pink, confusing concepts in green, and note sections that would need additional explanations later in yellow. He also used his own shorthand and an impressive array of symbols to indicate questions (red question mark), highly probable test material (he used a tiny bomb exploding here), additional reading suggestions, and specific topics he would ask his instructor before the next class. Doing everything so precisely, Marlon’s methods seemed like a perfect example of how to take notes for success. Inevitably though, by the end of the hour-and-a-half class session, Marlon was frantically switching between writing tools, near to tears, and scouring his notes as waves of yellow teased him with uncertainty. What went wrong?

As with many of us who try diligently to do everything we know how to do for success or what we think we know because we read books and articles on success in between our course work, Marlon is suffering from trying to do too much simultaneously. It’s an honest mistake we can make when we are trying to save a little time or think we can multitask and kill two birds with one stone.

Unfortunately, this particular error in judgement can add to your stress level exponentially if you don’t step back and see it for what it is. Marlon attempted to take notes in class as well as annotate his notes to get them ready for his test preparation. It was too much to do at one time, but even if he could have done all those things during class, he’s missing one critical point about note-taking.

As much as we may want to hurry and get it over with, note-taking in class is just the beginning. Your instructor likely gave you a pre-class assignment to read or complete before coming to that session. The intention of that preparatory lesson is for you to come in with some level of familiarity for the topic under consideration and questions of your own. Once you’re in class, you may also need to participate in a group discussion, work with your classmates, or perform some other sort of lesson-directed activity that would necessarily take you away from taking notes. Does that mean you should ignore taking notes for that day? Most likely not. You may just need to indicate in your notes that you worked on a project or whatever other in-class event you experienced that date.

Very rarely in a college classroom will you engage in an activity that is not directly related to what you are studying in that course. Even if you enjoyed every minute of the class session and it was an unusual format for that course, you still need to take some notes. Maybe your first note could be to ask yourself why you think the instructor used that unique teaching strategy for the class that day. Was it effective? Was it worth using the whole class time? How will that experience enhance what you are learning in that course?

If you use an ereader or ebooks to read texts for class or read articles from the Internet on your laptop or tablet, you can still take effective notes. Depending on the features of your device, you have many choices. Almost all electronic reading platforms allow readers to highlight and underline text. Some devices allow you to add a written text in addition to marking a word or passage that you can collect at the end of your note-taking session. Look into the specific tools for your device and learn how to use the features that allow you to take notes electronically. You can also find apps on devices to help with taking notes, some of which you may automatically have installed when you buy the product. Microsoft’s OneNote, Google Keep, and the Notes feature on phones are relatively easy to use, and you may already have free access to those.

Taking Notes on Non-Text Items (i.e., Tables, Maps, Figures, etc.)

You may also encounter situations as you study and read textbooks, primary sources, and other resources for your classes that are not actually texts. You can still take notes on maps, charts, graphs, images, and tables, and your approach to these non-text features is similar to when you prepare to take notes over a passage of text. For example, if you are looking at the following map, you may immediately come up with several questions. Or it may initially appear overwhelming. Start by asking yourself these questions:

• Who is the intended audience?
• Where is it?
• What time period does it depict?
• What does the map’s legend (the explanation of symbols) include?
• What other information do I need to make sense of this map?

You may want to make an extra copy of a graphic or table before you add annotations if you are dealing with a lot of information. Making sense of all the elements will take time, and you don’t want to add to the confusion.

Returning to Your Notes

Later, as soon as possible after the class, you can go back to your notes and add in missing parts. Just as you may generate questions as you’re reading new material, you may leave a class session or lecture or activities with many questions. Write those down in a place where they won’t get lost in all your other notes.

The exact timing of when you get back to the notes you take in class or while you are reading an assignment will vary depending on how many other classes you have or what other obligations you have in your daily schedule. A good starting place that is also easy to remember is to make every effort to review your notes within 24 hours of first taking them. Longer than that and you are likely to have forgotten some key features you need to include; must less time than that, and you may not think you need to review the information you so recently wrote down, and you may postpone the task too long.

Use your phone or computer to set reminders for all your note review sessions so that it becomes a habit and you keep on top of the schedule.

Your personal notes play a significant role in your test preparation. They should enhance how you understand the lessons, textbooks, lab sessions, and assignments. All the time and effort you put into first taking the notes and then annotating and organizing the notes will be for naught if you do not formulate an effective and efficient way to use them before sectional exams or comprehensive tests.

The whole cycle of reading, note-taking in class, reviewing and enhancing your notes, and preparing for exams is part of a continuum you ideally will carry into your professional life. Don’t try to take short cuts; recognize each step in the cycle as a building block. Learning doesn’t end, which shouldn’t fill you with dread; it should help you recognize that all this work you’re doing in the classroom and during your own study and review sessions is ongoing and cumulative. Practicing effective strategies now will help you be a stronger professional.

What resources can you find about reading and note-taking that will actually help you with these crucial skills? How do you go about deciding what resources are valuable for improving your reading and note-taking skills?

The selection and relative value of study guides and books about note-taking vary dramatically. Ask your instructors for recommendations and see what the library has available on this topic. The following list is not comprehensive, but will give you a starting point for books and articles on note-taking in college.

• College Rules!: How to Study, Survive, and Succeed in College, by Sherri Nist-Olejnik and Jodi Patrick Holschuh. More than just note-taking, this book covers many aspects of transitioning into the rigors of college life and studying.
• Effective Note-taking, by Fiona McPherson. This small volume has suggestions for using your limited time wisely before, during, and after note-taking sessions.
• How to Study in College, by Walter Pauk. This is the book that introduced Pauk’s note-taking suggestions we now call the Cornell Method. It is a bit dated (from the 1940s), but still contains some valuable information.
• Learn to Listen, Listen to Learn 2: Academic Listening and Note-taking, by Roni S. Lebauer. The main point of this book is to help students get the most from college lectures by watching for clues to lecture organization and adapting this information into strong notes.
• Study Skills: Do I Really Need this Stuff?, by Steve Piscitelli. Written in a consistently down-to-earth manner, this book will help you with the foundations of strong study skills, including time management, effective note-taking, and seeing the big picture.
• “What Reading Does for the Mind,” by Anne Cunningham and Keith Stanovich, 1998, https://www.aft.org/sites/default/files/periodicals/cunningham.pdf
• Adler, Mortimer J. and Charles Van Doren. How to Read a Book: The Classic Guide to Intelligent Reading. NY: Simon & Schuster, 1940 .
• Berns, Gregory S., Kristina Blaine, Michael J. Prietula, and Brandon E. Pye. Brain Connectivity. Dec 2013.ahead of print http://doi.org/10.1089/brain.2013.0166

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Access for free at https://openstax.org/books/college-success/pages/1-introduction

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• Publication date: Mar 27, 2020
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Assignment Problem: Meaning, Methods and Variations | Operations Research

After reading this article you will learn about:- 1. Meaning of Assignment Problem 2. Definition of Assignment Problem 3. Mathematical Formulation 4. Hungarian Method 5. Variations.

Meaning of Assignment Problem:

An assignment problem is a particular case of transportation problem where the objective is to assign a number of resources to an equal number of activities so as to minimise total cost or maximize total profit of allocation.

The problem of assignment arises because available resources such as men, machines etc. have varying degrees of efficiency for performing different activities, therefore, cost, profit or loss of performing the different activities is different.

Thus, the problem is “How should the assignments be made so as to optimize the given objective”. Some of the problem where the assignment technique may be useful are assignment of workers to machines, salesman to different sales areas.

Definition of Assignment Problem:

ADVERTISEMENTS:

Suppose there are n jobs to be performed and n persons are available for doing these jobs. Assume that each person can do each job at a term, though with varying degree of efficiency, let c ij be the cost if the i-th person is assigned to the j-th job. The problem is to find an assignment (which job should be assigned to which person one on-one basis) So that the total cost of performing all jobs is minimum, problem of this kind are known as assignment problem.

The assignment problem can be stated in the form of n x n cost matrix C real members as given in the following table:

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As he is prone to do, Justin Verlander strapped the Houston Astros to his back on Sunday before Houston’s bats finally backed up its ace during a 9-3 win against the Detroit Tigers at Comerica Park.

The victory secured a series win and salvaged a 3-3 road trip. A critical 10-game homestand looms for a Houston team still seeking some stability. Seven of the 10 games are against American League West opponents, offering the club its best chance at gaining ground from the cellar.

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Dana Brown must consider all options

Most clubhouses have at least one television always tuned to MLB Network, so general manager Dana Brown had no choice but to back a ballclub that may be listening. Saying he “can’t predict any scenario” in which the Astros sell at the trade deadline is one of the only acceptable responses to a question that isn’t going away, even after a respectable road trip.

"No. No, I can't envision that. This ballclub is too good." – Astros GM Dana Brown on if he envisions a scenario where the team is a seller #MLBNow | #Relentless pic.twitter.com/0kEEULJUoW — MLB Now (@MLBNow) May 7, 2024

Since 1901, only seven teams have started a season 15-25 and finished with a winning record. Just three of them made the playoffs, though a third wild-card spot and an underperforming American League West give the Astros more hope than other teams mired in their situation.

Brown shouldn’t declare the season dead on May 7, but refusing to acknowledge the possibility of a selloff — even privately — is almost as misguided. Before the season, both The Athletic’s Keith Law and MLB Pipeline ranked Houston’s farm system 27th out of 30 teams. Infusing more talent is crucial, and part of the reason owner Jim Crane hired Brown in the first place.

Nothing Crane has done during his ownership tenure suggests he’s about to offer the type of extension it will take to retain Kyle Tucker , who launched his league-leading 13th home run on Sunday. Alex Bregman ’s brutal start also won’t stop agent Scott Boras from seeking the sort of deal Crane has never been willing to give.

If the Astros can’t engineer a turnaround and enter July with realistic playoff chances, it would be a dereliction of duty not to dangle one or both of those players during the trade deadline. Pitchers Verlander and Ryan Pressly are obvious candidates, too, but both have no-trade clauses in their contracts and would prefer to stay in Houston.

Since his franchise’s golden era began, Crane has reiterated: “While I’m here, the window is always going to be open.” His stance means much more than anything Brown will utter across the next three months.

Barring a total collapse, it’s difficult to envision Crane softening on such a strong statement and conceding, especially while carrying the largest payroll during his ownership tenure. He resides in a city and owns a franchise well-versed in this exact situation. The last team to start 15-25 and make the playoffs? The 2005 National League champion Houston Astros.

Yordan Alvarez ’s run production problem

Since April 10, Alvarez has taken 33 plate appearances with runners in scoring position. He has one hit: a game-tying single down the right-field line during Friday’s 5-2 win against the Tigers.

Among Astros, only Yainer Diaz has taken more at-bats than Alvarez with runners in scoring position across that 28-game span. Since it began, Alvarez’s OPS has plummeted 259 points from 1.038 to .779. It never dipped below .895 last season.

The situation epitomizes the Astros’ first 40 games. Houston has the sport’s second-highest batting average but has been outscored by 13 other teams. Getting the club’s best hitter a bevy of at-bats with runners in scoring position should be its foremost goal. The Astros are accomplishing it — and Alvarez isn’t coming through.

Entering Sunday, Alvarez had a minus-5 batter run value with runners in scoring position, according to Baseball Savant. Last season, it was 28. Alvarez is hitting .157 with runners in scoring position this season. A .231 expected batting average suggests there isn’t much bad luck involved, either.

Dissecting Alvarez’s issues with runners in scoring position is difficult and also arrives with the caveat of a small sample size. His 15.2 percent whiff rate with runners in scoring position is lower than his 22.9 percent career clip while his 92.8 mph average exit velocity is in line with his 93 mph season average. A 39.4 percent hard-hit rate, however, is far lower than his usual clip.

All season, manager Joe Espada has bemoaned a lack of plate discipline during run-scoring situations. Entering Sunday’s game, Alvarez had swung at 27 of the 87 pitches he saw out of the strike zone with runners in scoring position — a 31 percent clip almost identical to his overall 30.8 percent chase rate this season. That, it should be noted, is elevated from Alvarez’s career 26.6 percent rate.

Last season, Alvarez had a 28.4 chase rate with runners in scoring position. Perhaps he, like so many in this lineup, is feeling the pressure of a poor start and trying to compensate. All 176 of Alvarez’s plate appearances have arrived from either the second or third spots in the batting order. Espada isn’t about to move him, either, putting the onus on a preseason MVP candidate to discover a way to clutch up.

Farewell to two homegrown success stories?

The Astros drafted Corey Julks and Brandon Bielak three rounds apart in 2017, part of a 42-man draft class that’s already produced 13 major-league players. Neither signed for more than $150,000 and both were overshadowed by more noticeable names taken beforehand.

Both Julks and Bielak ascended to viable major-league players: a testament to Houston’s amateur scouting and player development. The team designated both players for assignment this weekend and each stands a decent chance of catching on with another club, be it via a waiver claim or small trade.

Julks grew up in The Woodlands, a Houston suburb, before playing three seasons at the University of Houston. His inclusion on the team’s Opening Day roster last season — and subsequent April success — represented a feel-good story for both the franchise and the city that houses it.

Still, Julks is 28 and sported a career .650 OPS against major-league pitching. Joey Loperfido passed him on the organization’s outfield hierarchy, Pedro León is threatening to do the same, and top prospect Jacob Melton may be in Triple A soon.

At full strength, Houston already has two right-handed hitting outfielders on its 26-man roster: Chas McCormick and Jake Meyers . Utilityman Mauricio Dubón ’s increased time in the outfield only furthered a logjam Julks could not crack.

Julks has outperformed at Triple A and has two minor-league option years remaining, which will increase his value to 29 other teams. Teams are always searching for pitching depth and Bielak’s respectable numbers at the major-league level — a 4.65 ERA in 191 2/3 innings — may entice some clubs.

However, Bielak is out of minor-league options, one of the primary reasons he made Houston’s Opening Day roster as a swingman. The team is already bereft of pitching depth and did not want to risk losing Bielak on waivers so early in the season.

Activating Cristian Javier on Saturday forced them to confront that scenario. The Astros could have optioned Shawn Dubin to Triple A and kept Bielak on the major-league roster, but Dubin’s ability to handle multiple innings with higher-upside stuff must have appealed to an Astros team that’s already put Dubin in a few high-leverage situations this season.

Bielak never got those chances, perhaps the first sign that his days were numbered. José Urquidy ’s impending return from the injured list could force either Spencer Arrighetti or Hunter Brown to the bullpen, too, taking the place Bielak once occupied.

(Photo of Yordan Alvarez: Paul Sancya / Associated Press)

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Chandler Rome is a Staff Writer for The Athletic covering the Houston Astros. Before joining The Athletic, he covered the Astros for five years at the Houston Chronicle. He is a graduate of Louisiana State University. Follow Chandler on Twitter @ Chandler_Rome