deforestation essay upsc

Deforestation: A Road to Self-destruction | UPSC Mains Essay Preparation PDF Download

Introduction

• Opening Quote or Phrase:  Start with a powerful quote or phrase to grab attention.
• Context Setting:  Briefly introduce deforestation and its global context.
• Thesis Statement:  Clearly state the essay’s focus on how deforestation leads to self-destruction.
• Preview of Main Points:  Outline the key points that will be discussed.
• Overview of deforestation through the centuries.
• Human activities leading to deforestation.
• Ecological Impact: Effects on biodiversity, ecosystems, and species extinction.
• Climate Change: Contribution to global warming and climate alteration.
• Soil Erosion and Water Cycle Disruption: Effects on soil fertility and hydrological cycle.
• Social and Economic Impact: Effect on indigenous tribes, loss of natural resources, and long-term economic implications.
• Indian Context: Specific examples from India showing the impacts of deforestation.
• Global Examples:  Reference to international cases for a broader perspective.
• Economic Development vs Environmental Conservation: Discuss the balance between growth and sustainability.
• Address common arguments in favor of deforestation and provide rebuttals.
• Legal and Policy Measures: Discuss laws and policies needed or in place to combat deforestation.
• Sustainable Practices: Promote sustainable forestry, agriculture, and urban development.
• Role of Technology and Innovation: How technology can aid in preserving forests.
• Community and Global Cooperation: The importance of collective action.
• Summarization:  Recap the main points made in the essay.
• Restating the Thesis:  Reinforce the idea of deforestation leading to self-destruction.
• Call to Action:  Encourage proactive steps from individuals, communities, and governments.
• Closing Quote or Phrase:  End with a thought-provoking quote or phrase that underscores the essay’s message.

Sample Essay

The following essay serves as a sample for the given topic. Students can add their own ideas and points as well.

Deforestation: A Road to Self-destruction

"In the end, we will conserve only what we love; we will love only what we understand; and we will understand only what we are taught." – Baba Dioum.

In the labyrinth of modern progress, humanity stands at a crossroad where every path carved out of nature's wealth leads to a potential self-constructed demise. Deforestation, a critical aspect of this quandary, exemplifies how our relentless exploitation of forests paves a road to self-destruction. This essay delves into the multifaceted impact of deforestation, particularly underscoring its repercussions on ecological balance, climate, and society, with a special focus on the Indian context.

Historical Perspective of Deforestation

Historically, forests have been the cradle of civilization, nurturing diverse life forms. However, with the advent of industrialization and the insatiable human need for expansion, forests have been incessantly stripped away. This relentless deforestation, driven by activities like logging, urban expansion, and agriculture, has alarmingly reduced the global forest cover.

Impacts of Deforestation

Ecologically, deforestation leads to the loss of biodiversity. It destroys habitats, pushing countless species towards extinction. The Amazon rainforest, often termed the 'lungs of the Earth', has witnessed a staggering loss, deeply impacting global biodiversity. In India, the rapid deforestation in the Western Ghats has endangered several endemic species.

The contribution of deforestation to climate change is undeniable. Trees, as carbon sinks, play a pivotal role in regulating the Earth's temperature. Their removal exacerbates global warming, with far-reaching impacts on weather patterns. The erratic monsoons and rising temperatures in India are partly attributed to extensive deforestation.

Soil erosion and disruption of the water cycle are direct consequences of tree loss. Without roots to anchor the soil and facilitate water absorption, regions become prone to landslides and floods. The Himalayan states in India bear witness to this destructive phenomenon annually.

Socially and economically, deforestation disrupts the lives of indigenous communities who depend on forests for livelihood. The tribal populations in India's forest regions, like the Adivasis, face existential threats due to the loss of their natural habitat.

Case Studies and Examples

In India, the Chipko Movement of the 1970s stands as a testament to the struggle against deforestation. The movement highlighted the importance of forests for ecological balance and local livelihood. Globally, the deforestation of the Borneo rainforest presents a stark picture of biodiversity loss and ecological imbalance.

Counterarguments and Rebuttals

While economic development necessitates resource utilization, it is imperative to strike a balance between growth and sustainability. The argument that deforestation is essential for economic progress is short-sighted. Sustainable forestry and alternative resource avenues can drive economic growth without jeopardizing the environment.

Solutions and Preventive Measures

Legal frameworks like India’s Forest Conservation Act and global treaties play a crucial role in safeguarding forests. Embracing sustainable practices in agriculture and urban planning can significantly reduce the pressure on forests. Technological innovations in resource management and renewable energy can diminish dependency on forest resources. Moreover, global and community cooperation in conservation efforts is crucial for impactful change.

In conclusion, deforestation is a path laden with short-term gains but leads to long-term devastation. It is incumbent upon us, as stewards of the Earth, to rectify this trajectory. As Baba Dioum eloquently stated, understanding and love for our natural world is the cornerstone of its conservation. It is time for concerted global action, informed policy-making, and sustainable lifestyle choices to rewrite our story from self-destruction to sustainable coexistence with nature.

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Deforestation

• Last Updated : 15-Sep-2022
• Environment

• Deforestation results in conversion of forest land to non-forest use.
• Agriculture: As per UNFCCC , agriculture is the direct cause of deforestation. Subsistence farming, commercial agriculture, shifting cultivation and industrial logging all cause deforestation.
• Developmental Projects like hydroelectric projects , reservoirs etc. require immense deforestation.
• Raw Material requirements
• Overgrazing by cattle
• Deforestation is a contributor to global warming, and is often cited as one of the major causes of the enhanced greenhouse effect as it causes carbon stores held in soil to be released.
• Deforestation affects wind flows, water vapor flows and absorption of solar energy thus clearly influencing local and global climate.
• The water cycle is also affected by deforestation. Trees extract groundwater through their roots and release it into the atmosphere. When part of a forest is removed, the trees no longer transpire this water, resulting in a much drier climate.
• Deforestation causes: Increase in the rate of soil erosion. This can further lead to flooding in river and makes the soil susceptible to landslides.
• Removal or destruction of significant areas of forest cover has resulted in a degraded environment with reduced biodiversity.
• Deforestation can destroy genetic variations (such as crop resistance) irretrievably.
• Economic Impacts:
• A short-term economic gain made by conversion of forest to agriculture, or overexploitation of wood products, typically leads to a loss of long-term income and long-term biological productivity.

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Climate Change: Causes and Effects

Last updated on April 2, 2024 by ClearIAS Team

India ranks fifth globally in terms of climate change vulnerability. Due to climate change, India suffered losses of almost 37 billion dollars in 2018 (almost twice what it lost between 1998-2017).

According to MIT, 78 out of India’s 89 urban regions will experience a considerable increase in flash floods if preindustrial temperatures are increased by 2° Celsius.

Sea level rise and stronger cyclones have already been brought on by an increase in sea surface temperature.

Table of Contents

What Is Climate Change?

Climate change means a long-term shift in temperature and weather patterns that may be natural such as through variations in the solar cycle or a result of anthropogenic activities such as carbon emission.

• Since the 1800s, human activities, primarily the combustion of fossil fuels like coal, oil, and gas have been the primary cause of climate change.
• Fossil fuel combustion produces greenhouse gas emissions that serve as a blanket around the earth, trapping heat from the sun and increasing temperatures.
• Carbon dioxide and methane are two prominent greenhouse gas emissions that are contributing to climate change. These are produced, for instance, by burning coal or gasoline.
• Carbon dioxide can also be released during forest and land clearing and Methane is emitted primarily by waste landfills. Among all, the major emitters are energy, industry, transportation, buildings, agriculture, and land use.

Key Findings Related to Climate

• China is the largest emitter of carbon dioxide which comprises 30.60% of the CO2 emission worldwide. China is followed by the USA and India.
• The Earth is now about 1.1°C warmer than it was in the 1800s. The commitment made under the Paris Agreement may not be met.
• By the end of the century, the temperature might rise by as much as 4.4°C if carbon dioxide emissions continue on their current course.
• The levels of greenhouse gases rose to a new height in 2019. The amount of carbon dioxide was 148% of preindustrial levels.
• While sea ice, the Greenland ice sheet, and glaciers have decreased over the same period and permafrost temperatures have climbed, the Arctic has warmed at least twice as fast as the global average.
• Between 2020 and 2030, the world’s production of fossil fuels must drop by around 6% to maintain a 1.5°C trajectory.

Also read:  Planetary Boundaries

Causes of Climate Change

Several anthropogenic activities induce harm to the environment. A few important of them are-

Power Generation

• Burning fossil fuels to provide power and heat accounts for a sizable portion of world emissions. Burning coal, oil, or gas releases carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide, which are still used to produce the majority of power.
• Only a little over a quarter of the world’s electricity is generated by renewable energy sources including wind, solar, and other natural resources.

Manufacturing and Industrial goods

• The manufacturing/industrial sector is one of the leading global producers of greenhouse gas emissions.
• Emissions from manufacturing and industry are mostly the result of burning fossil fuels to create energy for the production of items like textiles, electronics, plastics, cement, iron, and steel.
• Gases are also released during mining and other industrial activities, as well as during construction.
• Some products are also manufactured from chemicals derived from fossil fuels i.e., plastic products.

Deforestation

• A per cent of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions is caused by deforestation, along with agriculture and other changes in land use.
• As per an estimation, nearly 12 million hectares of forests are burned annually. Cutting down forests to make way for farms, pastures, or for other purposes also increases emissions.
• Forests absorb carbon dioxide, hence cutting or destroying forests reduces nature’s capacity to absorb emissions.

Transportation

• Fossil fuels are typically used to power transportation machines. As a result, emissions of greenhouse gases, particularly carbon dioxide, are greatly influenced by the transportation sector.
• In addition, statistics suggest that over the next few years, energy use for transportation will rise significantly.

Food Production

• In addition to deforestation and clearing land for agriculture and grazing, digestion by cows and sheep, production and use of fertilizers and manure, and the use of energy to run farm machinery or fishing boats, typically with fossil fuels, all contribute to the production of food.

Powering Buildings

• Over half of all electricity used worldwide is consumed by residential and commercial structures.
• Energy-related carbon dioxide emissions from buildings have increased over the past few years as a result of rising energy demand for heating and cooling, rising air conditioner ownership, and increased electricity use for lighting, appliances, and connected devices.

Also read: State of Global Climate Report 2023

Effects of Climate Change

Climate change has devastating impacts on us and the environment. The major effects are-

Increase in Temperature

• The global surface temperature rises together with greenhouse gas concentrations. The most recent ten years, 2011 to 2020, have been the warmest on record.
• Higher temperatures worsen heat-related illnesses and make it more challenging to work outside. When the weather is hotter, wildfires start more easily and spread more quickly.

More Severe Storms

• In many areas, destructive storms have increased in intensity and frequency. More moisture evaporates as temperatures rise , aggravating extremely heavy rains and flooding and resulting in more severe storms.
• The warming ocean has an impact on both the intensity and frequency of tropical storms. Warm ocean surface waters are the primary source of cyclones, hurricanes, and typhoons.

Frequent Drought

• Water availability is changing due to climate change, becoming more scarce in many places. In already water-stressed areas, global warming makes water shortages worse.
• It also increases the danger of ecological and agricultural droughts, which can harm crops and make ecosystems more vulnerable.

Warming and Rising Ocean

• The ocean absorbs carbon dioxide, keeping it out of the atmosphere. However, additional carbon dioxide causes the water to become more acidic, endangering coral reefs and marine life.
• It is the property of water that it expands when becomes warmer, therefore as the ocean warms, its volume will rise. Sea levels increase as a result of ice sheet melting, endangering coastal and island communities.

Loss of Species

• Both animals on land and in the ocean are at risk from climate change. As the temperatures rise, these risks rise as well.
• The rate of extinction on the planet is 1,000 times higher now than it has ever been in recorded human history. Within the next few decades, one million species face extinction .
• Threats from climate change include invasive pests and illnesses, forest fires, and harsh weather.

Food Scarcity

• Global hunger and poor nutrition are on the rise for a variety of reasons, including climate change and an increase in extreme weather occurrences. Crops, animals, and fisheries might all be lost or become less effective.
• Marine resources that provide food for billions of people are in danger as a result of the ocean’s increasing acidity.
• Food sources from herding, hunting, and fishing have been hampered in several Arctic regions due to changes in the snow and ice cover.
• Heat stress can reduce available water and grazing areas, which can lower crop output and have an impact on cattle.

Health Hazards

• The single greatest hazard to human health is climate change. Air pollution, sickness, harsh weather, forced relocation, stress on mental health, increasing hunger and inadequate nutrition in areas where people cannot grow or get enough food are only a few of the health effects of climate change.
• 13 million individuals every year are killed by environmental conditions. Extreme weather events increase fatalities and make it challenging for healthcare systems to keep up with the growing number of diseases caused by changing weather patterns.

Read:  Climate Resilient Health Systems;   Climate Change and Health

Deepen Poverty and Displacement

• Climate change makes it easier for people to fall into and stay in poverty.
• Floods have the potential to devastate homes and livelihoods in urban slums. Outdoor jobs may be challenging to perform in the heat. Crops may be impacted by water scarcity.
• Weather-related disasters have uprooted an estimated 23.1 million people annually on average over the previous ten years (2010-2019), leaving millions more at risk of poverty.
• The majority of refugees are from countries that are least able and prepared to adjust to the effects of climate change.

Read:  Impact of climate change on Indian monsoon

Every increase in global warming matters

Numerous UN assessments were endorsed by hundreds of experts and government reviewers who concluded that keeping the increase in global temperature to 1.5°C will help us escape the worst climatic effects and maintain a habitable climate.

However, according to current national climate plans, the average global warming by the end of the century will reach about 3.2°C.

Across the world, emissions that contribute to climate change are produced, yet some countries produce significantly more than others. 3 per cent of global emissions are produced by the 100 countries with the lowest emissions.

68% of the contribution comes from the ten countries with the highest emissions. Everyone must act to combat climate change, but those who contribute most to the issue must be the countries with a larger obligation to do so first.

Read:  Black carbon emissions

Article Written By: Priti Raj

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What is Deforestation | Meaning, Causes, Effects & Prevention

August 30, 2021 by Sandeep

The removal of forests on a large scale is known as ‘Deforestation.’ M. S. Swaminathan was right when he said, “If conservation of natural resources goes wrong, nothing will go right.” Forests are the essential natural resource that we all are blessed with. They not only produce innumerable goods but provide many ecological services that are crucial for all living beings. About one-third of the world’s land area is forested, including closed and open forests.

Problem of Deforestation

The deforestation rate is continuously being reported at rising levels, especially in tropical countries. The total forest area around the world has reduced from 7000 million hectares in 1900 to 2300 million in 2000. This drastic drop in the forest cover is a grave issue and a significant threat to living creatures. The even more startling report was published by the UN, which estimated that in the next 60 years, we would lose more than 90 percent of our tropical forests.

According to the Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change, India: The forested area in India seems to have stabilized since 1982 with about 0.04% decline annually between 1982-90. FAO (1983) estimated that about 1.44 mn hectares of land were brought under afforestation, leading to stabilisation. As per FAO estimates, India’s deforestation rate per unit population is the lowest amongst the major tropical countries. However, there’s way more to go to achieve the targeted 33 percent forest area (as per our National Forest Policy) because deforestation is still rising.

• Loss of primary forests has increased by an alarming rate of 25%.
• Tropical forests are decreasing at an increased rate.
• Each day about 32,000 hectares of forest area is disappearing from Earth, and the disturbing fact is the replacement of primary forests by plantations with much less biodiversity.

Major Causes of Deforestation

• Developmental projects like hydroelectric projects, dam construction, mining activities, etc., result in massive destruction of forests.
• Increasing demand for fuelwood and food due to increasing population creates pressure on forest resources.
• Industries producing boxes, furniture, plywood, and paper heavily depend on forests’ raw material requirements.
• The rapid establishment of industries and urban cities is another reason for increased demand.
• Shifting cultivators practice slash and burn agriculture and are responsible for clearing 5 lakh hectares of forests annually. Overgrazing by cattle and forest fires lead to further degradation of forest lands.
• Mining and its associated activities require the removal of vegetation to a great extent, resulting in defacing topography and destruction of landscape in the area.
• The method of timber extraction is such that it involves cutting large timber trees and about a dozen more trees since they are strongly interlocked with each other.

Effects of Deforestation

We all know how important trees and forests play in our lives. Deforestation will have severe consequences threatening the very existence of living creatures in the long run.

• Loss of trees results in an increasing amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, which, being a greenhouse gas, enhances global warming.
• Deforestation also leads to desertification in plains and landslides in hilly areas.
• It elevates soil erosion and loss of fertility in the soil, further onsets the agricultural production problem.
• The disturbance in the hydrological cycle due to the reduction in the number of trees influences rainfall patterns.
• There is a loss of biodiversity of plants and animals as the wildlife species lose their natural habitat. Forests are the repositories of invaluable gifts of nature in the form of biodiversity, and by destroying these, we will lose many species even before knowing them.
• The dam-building activities break the ecological balance by large-scale destruction of the region’s forests, and disasters like floods and landslides become common. Example:- A total of 1,44,731 hectares of land is submerged by the Sardar Sarovar Dam in Gujarat, out of which 56,547 hectares is the forest land.

Many cases have recorded the ill consequences of deforestation in the past. Be it desertification of hilly regions of Himalayas, disappearing tea gardens in Chhota Nagpur, or the case of waning rainfall in the Udhagamandalam region of Ooty, all had deforestation as the root cause of such problems. The storehouse of species that have evolved over millions of years is lost due to deforestation in a single stroke.

How to Stop Deforestation?

The conservation efforts should be as rapid as the advancement human beings achieve through the exploitation of forest resources to achieve sustainable development in a true sense. Here are few roles that community, government, and the people of the world played and can play to do the same.

Role of Community

• Propagating Environmental Awareness: The community can play an important role in conserving forests by propagating awareness. Because before we all can take up environmental protection, we have to be environmentally educated and aware. It is aptly said, “If you want to act free, first think green.”
• Joint Forest Management: It is an innovative approach in India involving community participation so that rural economy and forest resources are conserved through public involvement.
• Participation in Forest Conservation Events and Movements: People’s participation matters the most, so people should actively participate in Environmental movements. Example:- Sacrifice of 363 Bishnoi men and women who laid down their lives protecting the ‘Khejri’ tree in Rajasthan and the popular ‘Chipko Movement’ of 1973 led by Amrita Devi, who laid her life saying, “If a tree is saved from felling at the cost of one’s head, it should be considered as a cheap bargaining’.
• Concern at the International Level: The establishment of the United Nations Environment Unit and frequent meetings of various nations regarding conversational efforts and awarding of Nobel Prizes to Environmentalists is another example of community participation. Nobel laureate Wangari Maathai gave a beautiful slogan “When we plant new trees, we plant the seeds of peace”.

Government Initiatives

• Role of Ministry: A full-fledged ministry named the Ministry of Environment, Forests (MoEF) was established in 1986 to look after all the environment related issues and framing guidelines, policies, and legislation for environmental protection. It has introduced the concept of ecomark and eco clubs and monitors the forest cover area in the country.
• Environmental Legislation regarding Forest Protection: The constitution of India includes environmental protection as our fundamental duty. Article 48A states that: “The state shall endeavour to protect and improve the environment and safeguard forests and wildlife of the country,” while Article 51A provides: “It shall be the duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers, and wildlife.”
• Forest Conservation Act: The Forest Conservation Act, 1980, deals with the conservation of forests and related aspects. It considers any non-forest activity within a forest area as illegal and makes provision for punishment. There were some amendments made in this act in the year 1990, which further strengthened the law.

Other Preventive Measures

• NGOs in the society can play an important role in spreading awareness among the public and building pressure in government to reduce dam building and mining activities in Forest areas.
• People should act more responsible and avoid ruthless cutting of trees. They should rather pay focus on afforestation activities.
• Government should ensure proper implementation of forest conservation laws and regulations.

Theodore Roosevelt once said, “A nation that destroys its soils destroys itself. Forests are the lungs of our land, purifying the air and giving fresh strength to our people”. Deforestation is a problem that the whole Earth is suffering from. Our cultural values have always taught us to respect nature and worship trees. We need to imbibe those values in our character and protect the trees and ‘Mother Earth.’

The younger generation especially needs to be participative and responsible as they’ll have to bear the outcomes of degraded environment if serious actions are not taken soon. The existence of the human race and other animals highly depends on trees/forests. We need to deal with the deforestation problem as soon as possible by planting many trees and preserving our forests if we want our next generations to have a sanguine and safeguarded future.

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Home > Books > Forest Degradation Around the World

Deforestation in India: Consequences and Sustainable Solutions

Submitted: 05 October 2018 Reviewed: 12 March 2019 Published: 04 October 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.85804

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Forest Degradation Around the World

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Deforestation is one of the most pressing environmental issues that the world is facing currently. It is the conversion of forested land to non-forested land by humans. Deforestation occurs when a land dominated by naturally occurring trees is converted to provide certain services in response to the human demand. The indiscriminate felling of trees has resulted in a reduction of 3.16% in the global forest cover from 1990 to 2015. Although India has seen an increment in the total forest cover of ca. 1%, still there are certain regions in the country that have sought a decrease in the forest cover. The main reasons attributed to the reduction in forest cover are shifting cultivation, rotational felling, other biotic pressures, diversion of forest lands for developmental activities, etc. Continuous illicit cutting of trees has impacted the microclimatic conditions, hydrological cycle, soil quality, biodiversity, etc. of the country, thereby making the country more vulnerable for any uneventful happening. Sustainable forest management practices, alternatives for shifting cultivation, promotion of plantation outside the forest and the usage of certified forest products, etc. are some of the measures that can be adopted to curb the rate of deforestation.

• deforestation
• forest cover
• sustainable solutions

Author Information

Rima kumari.

• Department of Environmental Sciences, Central University of Jharkhand, India

Ayan Banerjee

Rahul kumar.

• Department of Land Resource Management, School of Natural Resource Management, Central University of Jharkhand, India

Purabi Saikia *

Mohammed latif khan.

• Department of Botany, Dr. Harisingh Gour Central University, India

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

1. Background

Forest is a conditional renewable resource which can be regenerated but needs a certain period of time to maintain its sustainable functioning. In India, the forest resources have been found to be depleting at a pace which is much high [ 1 ]. Rapid industrialization, urbanization and over-exploitation have resulted not only in decline but also in permanent loss of forest cover to an alarming rate [ 2 ]. The major driver behind all these factors is the uncontrolled population growth of humans which leads to the dramatic increase in the demand for wood and forest products. The over-exploitation of forest resources has taken place beyond the sustained yields to fulfil the needs of humans, thus bringing a change in the net forest cover [ 2 , 3 ]. With the current rate of population explosion, the world population could be expected to increase from 7.6 billion to about 10 billion in the next 30 to 35 years [ 4 ]. The growing demand for food can be expected to rise by 50% in the given period, and it is a matter of serious concern. Rational utilization and proper management of the forest resources are the most viable ways to prevent mass destruction of forests and large-scale species extinction. It is necessary to find the links between the growing demands and meeting the demands in a sustainable manner. The scope of future studies must focus on the solution to establish this link by incorporating the principles of forestry, restoration ecology and natural resource economics.

Deforestation occurs when a land initially dominated by naturally occurring tree species is converted to provide certain services in response to the human demand. The UN Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) has defined deforestation as the conversion of forest to another land use or the long-term reduction of tree canopy cover below the 10% threshold . Forest areas around the world are majorly cleared for agriculture, logging, mining and large-scale developmental projects. The Food and Agricultural Organization [ 5 ] coordinated the Global Forest Resources Assessment (FRA) which reported a 3.16% decline in the global forest cover from 1990 to 2015, and the total forest cover stands at about 30.6% in the present time compared to 31.6% in 1990. The rate at which the forest cover is declining poses a direct threat in the near future if not checked. With an estimated annual loss of 18.7 million acres, it is evident that future demands on forest resources would certainly lead to immense competition among nations [ 6 ]. Recently, in 2016, a study from the Maryland University reported that 73.4 million acres of the global tree cover were lost. Such a destruction of this essential and self-sustaining resource puts the implementation of the principle of sustainable development as mentioned in the Brundtland Report and Sustainable Development Goals of the 1992 of Rio Earth Summit in the state of question. And, it is an urgency to conserve the forests of which a vital part is already lost.

The value of forest is simple to understand but sometimes tough to quantify. The various values of the forest have been shown in Figure 1 . Forest has a major contribution on the global economy and supports livelihood of the majority of rural populations in the world [ 7 ]. The direct uses of forest are most easy to quantify as it is directly related to economic returns. The indirect use and option value although play a major role in defining the valuation of the forest resources are seldom quantified and are being intangible in nature [ 8 ]. There is also a no-use value of the forest resources which considers leaving the current forest intact as a heritage for the future generation and for satisfaction and happiness of the current population. But, these eco-centric views alone cannot suffice the support for a change in policy and land use pattern. There are some other important values of forests that are difficult to quantify. One of the major roles that forests play is that it acts as a major carbon sink [ 9 , 10 , 11 ]. Plants utilize carbon dioxide in the process of photosynthesis and store it in the form of carbohydrates, and these carbohydrates reach the soil as dead organic matter and contribute to soil carbon sink. When forests are cleared, less CO 2 is absorbed by plants, and atmospheric CO 2 concentration increases with the passage of time due to unavailable sink. Also, there is a marked reduction in soil organic carbon with the loss of vegetation cover, thereby affecting the productivity of the ecosystem. Productivity is believed to be an indicator of carbon assimilation capacity, and hence the more productive the forests are, the more carbon it stores [ 12 , 13 , 14 ]. The tropical forests are among the most productive as well as the most threatened ecosystem in present time with the maximum rate of deforestation. Thus, it is imperative to control the rate of deforestation in order to avoid the adversities associated with it.

Different values of forests ecosystems

2. Impacts of deforestation

The value and functions of forests are immense and diverse. Similarly, the impacts of deforestation are global and commune the whole forest community. One of the major constraints in understanding the true impact of desertification on forests is the inadequacy and imprecise form of data.

2.1 Impacts on global climate

The effect of large-scale deforestation is global, but it is necessary to assess its impacts on microclimate, regional climate and global climate to form a holistic understanding of mechanism [ 15 ]. The association of deforestation with the increased CO 2 concentration in the atmosphere and changes in the mass balances and surface energy can result in climate change at the local and global level [ 16 ]. The change in land use pattern especially the clearing of forest cover affects both hydrometeorological and global CO 2 concentrations leading to more warming as CO 2 readily absorbs infrared radiation [ 17 ]. Clearing tree cover and vegetation leads to increase in albedo of the region as bare soil reflects more solar radiation than vegetation, which again is a factor for altering regional radiation flux [ 15 , 18 ]. One of the noticeable changes in regional climates occurs when the cloud formation shifts to higher elevations from lowland plains as a result of deforestation in the later area [ 19 ]. In a global scale, deforestation leads to warmer and drier weather due to the synergistic effect of reduced evapotranspiration, increased albedo and CO 2 concentration that triggers desertification, loss in biodiversity and melting of polar ice caps, ultimately leading to food insecurity. All these effects are successors of extremes in climate variation that are produced by the large-scale reduction in forest cover [ 20 ]. The estimated quantity of CO 2 added to the atmosphere due to deforestation in the tropics is roughly two billion tonnes [ 21 ]. It is interesting to note that the CO 2 emissions due to clearing of forest will almost be equivalent to 25% of what is added to the atmosphere due to anthropogenic emissions [ 22 ]. The shift in climate is somehow correlated to reducing forest cover. Further researches can clearly define the mechanisms and pathways by which these shifts are progressing and how they can be mitigated.

2.2 Impact on hydrology and soil quality

The global water cycle depends on the amount and distribution of precipitation for which one of the influencing factors is evapotranspiration [ 23 ]. There is a direct effect on drinking water on the basis of quality and quantity, fisheries and aquatic habitats, occurrence of flood and drought, life of dams on account of increase siltation and agriculture due to poor quality irrigation and crop yield [ 24 , 25 ]. It must be recognized that the protective role of forests is operative and has a major impact on urban water resources [ 26 ]. Forests play an important role in maintaining the watersheds [ 27 ]. The degraded or degrading watersheds can be recovered by forestation, but once the forest or vegetation cover is lost, the watershed becomes vulnerable to erosion. This erosion leads to siltation in the downstream areas and consequently reduces the depth of river bed increasing the chances of flood. There are two main effects of deforestation that increase the chances of flooding. One is by reducing the tree fountain effect, i.e. interception and moisture uptake by the trees would cease after deforestation reducing the moisture holding capacity of soil that leads to greater runoff and erosion. And other is by the process of soil compaction and poor soil structure that will lead to reduced organic matter content of soil devoid of vegetation cover [ 28 ]. There are severe long-term effects on soil as a cause of deforestation. During slash-and-burn or shifting cultivation, an area of forests clears and exposes the bare soil to weather extremes of high solar insolation and heavy rainfall [ 29 ]. In the absence of the forest cover and organic matter, soil could not accommodate heavy precipitation, and the fertile layers of soil used to be easily washed away ultimately reduces the long-term productivity. The effect on soil is dependent on the interrelation and synergistic effect of evapotranspiration and infiltration that are directly altered due to loss in vegetation cover [ 23 ].

Deforestation directly increases erosion and siltation rates. There is an increased risk of flooding in Yangtze River basin in China and the major river basins in East Asia and the Amazonian basin [ 23 , 30 ]. The slopes and terrains are more vulnerable to such situations. There are formations of shallow gullies which may be accounted for the concentrated flow of runoff that prevails due to long-term erosion. Cultivation and ploughing along the slopes cause rapid erosion in the areas with less vegetation cover [ 31 ]. In the Loess Plateau, the slopes of steepness greater than 15° showed shallow gully erosion as a result of cultivation activities [ 32 ]. The availability of dead vegetation can reduce the surface runoff from the early season rain and check soil erosion [ 33 ]. It is necessary to sustain the forest and vegetation cover to maintain the soil productivity and water quality of both the surface and underground sources.

2.3 Impact on biological diversity

Forests are very rich in biodiversity and store a vast gene pool, and the majority of species occur in the tropical forests. It consists of two-thirds of all known species and 65% of 10,000 species that are recognized as endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) [ 34 ]. The biodiversity could be regarded as an important asset that is necessary to conserve for future utilization. The World Health Organization states that the traditional people, almost 80% of them, rely on the local biodiversity for traditional medicines. A loss in the biodiversity may directly affect their health care and well-being [ 35 ]. Another most noticeable impact of deforestation is the increasing human-wildlife conflict. The decreasing forest cover is limiting the habitats of many species due to which is forcing them to intrude with human welfare [ 36 ]. There are increasing instances of invasion and animal killing. The northern margin of West Bengal, India, forms a significant portion of the Himalaya Biodiversity Hotspot. The area has observed heavy fragmentation in the last decade, and as a result, there was a huge loss in the agricultural crop and both human and elephant life due to conflicts. There are reports of mortality of 20 elephants and 50 persons annually from this area [ 37 ]. It is also estimated that if deforestation in the Himalayas continue at the current rate, the dense forest cover (>40% canopy cover) will be restricted to 10% of land area in the Indian Himalayas by 2100. This may lead to a significant loss of 366 endemic plants and 35 endemic vertebrates [ 38 ]. The loss in biodiversity is of global concern irrespective of regional and local importance. Conserving the forest and an increase in forest cover certainly find a positive correlation with the increase and sustenance of biodiversity. Conversion of forest land to agricultural fields and other land use could be a threat to major loss in biological diversity in the near future.

2.4 Impact on economic and social welfare

Forests contribute to the world economy in terms of timber production and other forest produces. There are different contributions of forest as a means of direct employment in forestry services and other value-added contributions as recreation and aesthetics. The loss of tropical forest cover annually may account for about 45 billion US dollars [ 39 ]. The destruction of forest eliminates the sources of economic gain directly obtained and also eliminates the potential gain from the resources that the forest sustains as biodiversity, soil and water. Also, the destruction of forest increases the negative externalities in the form of increasing CO 2 concentration, risk of flood and human-wildlife conflict [ 40 ]. The proximity of settlements to protected areas further intensifies the chances of human-wildlife conflict (HWC). It is reported that settled households face high risk of HWC due to their close proximity of the Kanha National Park in Central India [ 41 ]. Deforestation has its social influence in the form of long-term effect. Development is a serious concern for indigenous community as it certainly leads to a change or shift of their culture and tradition. The cultural and religious aspects of the community are seldom preserved amid infrastructural advancement that leads to land and social conflict [ 42 ]. In a study of household survey from rural areas of Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh state of India, it was found that the poorest of the local community gained about 30% of their living from forest produce which was claimed to be even higher than the returns from agriculture. Also, forest provides an option as safety net during the period of crisis in rural areas [ 43 ]. Various ecological services provided by the forests have been lost due to deforestation which in turn has immediate effects on the local communities dependent on these services for their daily needs. The inclusive approach for the sustainable management of forest resource is a vital consideration that considers economy as a subset of the society which in itself is a subset of the environment. Such considerations can help sustaining the constantly declining forest cover and its long-term impacts.

3. Forest cover status in India

The forest cover was found to be increased by ca. 1% for the year 2017 which is 21.54% of the total geographic area when compared to that of forest cover status in 2015 which is a positive sign towards the constant efforts that are being put in to protect the forest ( Figure 2 ). This positive change in the forest cover is mainly attributed to the conservation and management practices that include afforestation activities, participation of local peoples for better protection measures in plantation areas and traditional forest areas, expansion of trees outside forest, etc. Also, with this increase in the forest cover, the country has procured 8th position among the top 10 countries reporting the greatest annual forest area gain. Although there has been an increase in the total forest cover in India, still there are certain regions within the country that has sought a reduction in the same ( Figure 3 ). The main reasons attributed for this reduction are shifting cultivation, rotational felling, other biotic pressures, diversion of forest lands for developmental activities, etc. [ 44 ]. A transition in the various forest cover classes has also occurred over the past. The present status of forest cover (%) of India belonging to various forest cover classes has been shown in Figure 4 . It has been found that there is a reduction in the moderately dense forest and an increment in the open forest depicting degradation of forest cover to some extent. Changes within the forest cover classes result in decrease in the production capacity, thereby leading to forest degradation [ 45 ]. Control and regular check of these activities can help in strengthening the conservatory efforts of forest protection. This is the necessity of the present time to conserve the forests in order to sustain the vital ecosystems and the major carbon sink to combat the effects of global climate change and ultimately maintain the environmental balance.

Forest cover status in India for the last 30 years (1987 to 2017).

MODIS-based land use/land cover map of India for the year (a) 2001 and (b) 2017.

Forest cover (%) of India for the year 2017 (Source: [ 44 ]).

4. Case studies of forest disturbances from different parts of India

Forests are an invaluable resource that is being subjected to so many threats. In order to protect our forests, it is very much necessary to understand the reasons behind their destruction. Differentiating the agents and causes of deforestation will enable in understanding the same [ 36 ]. Several disturbances within the forest directly or indirectly contribute in destruction of the forest. This can be interpreted from the results obtained while surveying in different forest patches in India.

4.1 Disturbances in the forests of Arunachal Pradesh

Arunachal Pradesh is one of the states that has more than 75% forest cover and has the maximum very dense forest cover type [ 44 ]. The state is highly diverse in terms of climate as well as forest cover with tropical, sub-tropical, temperate and alpine forests having higher NDVI (≥7.0) [ 46 ]. However, the pressure on forest resources is consistently increasing with the rise in population, development activities, large number of wood-based industries and unsustainable land use practices resulting in their degradation [ 47 ]. This has also resulted in decrease in the forest cover of the state [ 44 ]. Several disturbances were being observed during the field survey in the forests of Arunachal Pradesh during 2007 to 2010. The major disturbances that were found include lopping, cut stumps, litter collection, soil removal, grazing, fire, NTFP collection and fuelwood collection ( Figure 5 ). Of these, fuelwood collection was found to be the most recurrent activity followed by grazing. Generally, fuelwood collection has not been considered as the major cause of deforestation but leads to the same in certain regions with reduced forest area such as in the Philippines, Thailand and parts of Central America [ 36 ]. Forest fire has also been observed as an occasional event in certain parts of Arunachal Pradesh. Fires are generally used as a tool in clearing the forest for shifting cultivation which is one of the major agricultural practices performed in the state. Fires when used responsibly act as a valuable tool in managing forest and agriculture, but when abused, it can lead to deforestation [ 48 , 49 ]. Other disturbances that can be an indicator of deforestation include NTFP collection and presence of cut stumps in certain forests. Forests of the state are highly diverse in endemic as well as nonendemic species, which need intensive monitoring and management to conserve the species-rich ecosystems from ever increasing anthropogenic pressure and changing climatic conditions [ 50 ].

Major disturbances in the forests of Arunachal Pradesh.

4.2 Disturbances in the forests of Madhya Pradesh

Madhya Pradesh is among one of the states of India which is endowed with rich and diverse forests and comprises the largest forest cover in the country [ 44 ]. This is mainly because of the efforts that the state has put in to conserve and harness this invaluable resource through innovative measures like community participation and decentralization (MP) [ 51 ]. Even after these continuous efforts, there are certain regions within the state where the occurrence of several types of disturbances in the forest has been found. The common disturbances that were being observed during the field survey (2017–2019) include fire, grazing, fuelwood collection, forage removal, litter collection, NTFP collection, lopping, thatch collection, root collection, soil removal, etc. ( Figure 6 ). Among all these fire has been found as the major recurrent type of disturbance in the forests of Madhya Pradesh. Other major disturbances were grazing followed by fuelwood collection. Since every type of deforestation is not intentional but some which are the results of amalgamation of anthropogenic and natural factors like wildfires and subsequent overgrazing can prevent the growth of young trees [ 52 ] and thus eventually degrade the quality and productivity of the forest.

Major disturbances in the forests of Madhya Pradesh.

4.3 Disturbances in the forests of Jharkhand

The name of the state ‘Jharkhand’ itself connotes ‘area of land covered with forests’ and has been exhibiting a unique relation with forests since time immemorial [ 53 ]. During the forest cover assessment [ 44 ], a net increase of 29 sq. km in the forest cover has been observed in the state which is mainly because of the plantation and conservation efforts within recorded forest areas. Although, there was an increment of 314 sq. km in the forest cover within the recorded forest areas, because of the felling of trees outside the forests area, its effect on forest cover has been offset. Also, several types of disturbances can be seen within the forest areas during the field survey (2016–2018), and the major disturbances were fuelwood collection, grazing, forage removal, lopping, cut stumps, thatch collection, root collection, soil removal, litter collection and NTFPs collection ( Figure 7 ). Most of these disturbances were occasional in nature. Although these disturbances are not that recurrent, a regular check is necessary in order to prevent the forests from degrading and in achieving a sustainable forest cover. The forest management strategies should focus on the increasing demands of different timber and non-timber forest produce to conserve the plant diversity of the natural forests of the state [ 54 ].

Major disturbances in the forests of Jharkhand.

5. Joint Forest Management in India: a case study

Forest management and protection by the local communities is an age-old practice in India which can be traced back to the protective nature of the Bishnoi Community of Rajasthan towards the local forest and animals as the black buck. The idea of community-based forest management emerged in an administrative level in the 1970s and 1980s. The declaration of the Government of India in June 1990 marked the establishment of Joint Forest Communities in different India states as per the National Forest Policy of 1988. The Earth Summit of 1992 provided with a clear objective of Sustainable Forest Management to which India responded in a positive way. From an increase in the forest cover, non-timber forest product (NTFP) to conservation of native flora and fauna, a whole new realm of forest management strategy by the collaboration of forest departments and local communities aided in decelerating the degradation of natural forest in India [ 55 ]. The Participatory Forest Management (PFM) is equivalent to an informal contract in which the local communities are allowed to consume a portion of harvest and NTFP if they protect and conserve it for 5–10 years. In India there is no legal authority of the local community on the forest resource where as in other countries as in Nepal the Community Forest User Groups (CFUG) are registered under their Forest Act, 1993 [ 56 ]. It is the positive effort of the local communities of India that the area under Joint Forest Management increased from 22,017,583 ha to 2,144,000 ha in March 2006 with 106,482 recognized Joint Forest Management committees countrywide [ 57 ].

6. Mitigation measures to curb deforestation

Deforestation is a major environmental challenge which has been persistent from the past, and the situation is more worsened at present. Therefore, there is an urgent need to focus on the mitigative measures in order to prevent the distressing effects of deforestation in the near future. In order to alleviate the problem of deforestation, the strategies should be based on the underlying causes of the same. Also, the strategies for mitigating the problem of deforestation require its effective implementation that needs the recognition of the roles of national, state and municipal governments along with the pro-active role of the civil society and private society [ 36 ]. The continuous increase in the human population especially in the developing countries has resulted in enhanced pressure on the forests for human settlements and other land use practices. A reduction in the growth rate of human population plays a crucial role in reducing the practice of deforestation [ 36 ]. Alternatives to slash-and-burn agriculture can be adopted as a strategy to mitigate the deforestation by boosting the agricultural and forestry productions for the shifting cultivators ([ 58 , 59 ]). The sustainable alternatives for slash-and-burn cultivation will assist the poor farmers in leading a better life without destroying additional forests [ 60 ]. Public policies and laws with greater security, accessibility to the minimal inputs required to maintain or enhance food production and an opportunity to the cultivators to market their products will aid in the sustainability of shifting cultivation systems [ 61 ].

Another strategy that can be applied to control the rate of deforestation is through the adoption of sustainable agroforestry, sustainable logging, agro-pastoral production systems, etc. [ 62 ]. The sustainable forest management practices can be promoted only if it is ecologically, economically and socially sustainable [ 36 ]. Agroforestry has been considered as one of the methods to curb deforestation which in turn aid in reduction of CO 2 emissions and mitigation of climate change effect [ 63 , 64 ]. The adoption of agroforestry practices has resulted in an increase in the income of agroforestry adopters as compared to that of non-agroforestry adopters and has also contributed towards improving soil fertility, reducing deforestation and conserving soil and water [ 65 ]. The provision of protected areas is one of the key steps towards an attempt to reduce deforestation which is generally motivated through biodiversity conservation [ 34 ]. Also, the global endeavours to reduce tropical deforestation are dependent heavily on the establishment of protected areas. It has been found that protection reduced deforestation as approximately 10% of the protected forests would have been deforested if they would have not been protected [ 66 ]. Tropical protected areas reduced deforestation which was liable for around one-tenth of total anthropogenic carbon emissions, thus playing a significant role in mitigating the effects of climate change and protecting biodiversity and ecosystem services [ 67 ]. Similarly, a total loss of 15.4% in the unprotected mangrove cover was compensated by the 15.7% rise in the protected mangrove cover (protected by government as per Ramsar Convention) which resulted in a net increase of 13.3% in mangrove cover across India in the last 25 years [ 68 ]. Implementation of forest certification can be among one of the strategies to control deforestation around the world. Forest certification is a process through which the producers identify their products in the marketplace and receive greater market accessibility and higher prices for their products by fulfilling certain stringent sustainable forestry standards [ 69 ]. Certification has played an important role in protecting Penten forests from 1986 to 2007, and the certified forests experience 20 times less deforestation than non-certified areas [ 70 ]. Thus, certification of forest can play a major role in controlling deforestation since the timber certification was found to be negatively related with deforestation, i.e. the increase in the certification process has resulted in a declination in the deforestation rate [ 71 ].

7. Role of Indian government in forest conservation

The Indian Forest Act, 1927: The act is an amalgamation of laws relating to forests, the transit of forest produce and the duty leviable on timber and other forest produces. It defines the procedures for declaring an area of a reserved forest, a protected forest or a village forest by the state government. With the amendment in the Act in 2012, it also prohibited the fresh clearances in forests and setting fire in a reserved forest.

Forest Conservation Act, 1980 (with an amendment in 1988): The main purpose of the proposition of this act was to conserve the forests and to look into the matters connected therewith or ancillary or incidental thereto. With the implementation of this act, a prior approval of the Central Government is required for any sort of diversion of forest areas for the non-forestry purposes.

[ 73 ]: The establishment of the National Forest Policy was also among one of the steps taken by the Government of India in order to ensure compensatory afforestation, essential environmental safeguards, sustainable utilization, maintenance, restoration and enhancement of forest areas.

Wildlife Protection Act, 1972: The wildlife protection act was enacted basically to protect wild animals, birds and plants and for matters connected therewith or ancillary or incidental thereto with a view to ensure the ecological and environmental security of the country.

The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006: The act was framed with the purpose to recognize and vest the forest rights and occupation in forest land in forest dwelling scheduled tribes and other traditional forest dwellers who have been residing in such forests for generations but whose rights could not be recorded. These recognized rights of the forest dwelling scheduled tribes and other traditional forest dwellers include the responsibilities and authority for sustainable use, conservation of biodiversity and maintenance of ecological balance which in turn aid in strengthening the conservation regime of the forests while ensuring livelihood and food security of the forest dwellings scheduled tribes and other traditional forest dwellers.

Apart from these laws, the Government of India has also established Forest Survey of India (FSI), an organization under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, whose primary work is to gather and evaluate the country’s forest wealth through a nationwide survey to measure forest areas [ 74 ]. This in turn aids in determining the factors and drivers behind the loss or gain in forest cover of any particular region in India. Another council, i.e. the Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA), was established by the Government of India in 2009 as a National Advisory Council under the chairmanship of the Union Minister of Environment, Forest and Climate Change for the monitoring, technical assistance and evaluation of compensatory afforestation activities. This was particularly meant to promote afforestation and regeneration activities as a way of compensating for forest land diverted to non-forest uses [ 75 ]. Certain scheme such as Integrated Forest Protection Scheme (IFPS) was being formulated by the government to save the forests from fire. The scheme was designed by combining the forest fire protection and management technique along with forest conservation. Various other missions and programmes such as the National Mission for a Green India (NMGI) and National Afforestation Programme (NAP) were also being launched by the Government of India where the main aim of NMGI was to improve the quality of five million hectares of degraded forests and to bring another five million hectares of non-forest areas under forest cover through social and farm forestry. On the other hand, the NAP was launched with the objective to develop the forest resources with people’s participation, with a focus on improving the livelihood of the forest-fringe communities, especially the poor [ 75 ].

The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change has been optimistic in strengthening the role of women in conservation of forest at local community levels since long. The National Forest Policy [ 73 ], for the first time, acknowledged the necessity of including woman members in forestry schemes. The Joint Forest Management Policy of 1990 mandated woman representatives not less than 40% in general body and 50% in executive body of the local forestry institutions like the JFM committee. Later in 2002, the Biodiversity Authority of India reframing the local biodiversity management committee structure mandated the reservation of one-third of its members as women. Thus, this understanding of the role of women in the local-level conservation measures and implementation of related rules has aided in improving the management of forest in rural regions of the country [ 76 ].

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Environmental pollution and degradation.

World is facing severe problem of environmental degradation due to rapid increase in population and economic development that weakens the environmental resource.

Environment Pollution

Environment pollution is worldwide issue and it has adverse impact on the health of human populations (Fereidoun et al, 2007). Universal environmental pollution, including greenhouse gas emissions and acid deposition, as well as water pollution and waste management is deliberated as global public health problems, which should be examined from manifold perspectives such as social, economic, legislation, and environmental engineering systems, as well as lifestyle habits helping health promotion and reinforcing environmental systems to repel adulteration (Loux, 2011). It is observed that the problems of environmental pollution is intense in the developing world, where traditional sources of pollution such as industrial emissions, poor sanitation, insufficient waste management, polluted water supplies and exposures to indoor air pollution from biomass fuels affect humans (Samet, 2001). Recently, modern pollutants have emerged which are associated with traffic congestion and the use of modern chemicals in the home, in food, for water treatment and for pest control. Air Pollution has emerged as growing global issue among environmentalists and researchers especially in developed countries since the decade of 1960 (Kan, 2009). It affects human and animal lives, natural ecosystems and the man-made environment. The main pollutants found in the air people breathe include, particulate matter, PAHs, lead, ground-level ozone, heavy metals, sulphur dioxide, benzene, carbon monoxide and nitrogen dioxide (European Public Health Alliance, 2009). Air pollution in urban areas has numerous health impact such as a shorter lifespan for city inhabitants (Progressive Insurance, 2005).

Air pollution is also responsible for climate change due to the enhanced greenhouse effect, acid rain, and the depletion of the ozone layer that constitute important global environmental problems. Mishra stated that fast growth in urban population, increasing industrialization, and rising demands for energy and motor vehicles are the deteriorating air pollution levels (2003). He further said that other factors, such as poor environmental ruling, less efficient technology of production, jammed roads, and age and poor maintenance of automobiles also increase pollution level. It is established that air pollution is caused of ill health and death by natural and man-made sources. Major man-made sources of ambient air pollution include tobacco smoke, combustion of solid fuels for cooking, heating, home cleaning agents, insecticides industries, automobiles, power generation, poor environmental regulation, less efficient technology of production, congested roads, and age and poor maintenance of cars and other automobiles. The natural sources include furnaces and waste disposals, forest and agricultural fires (European Public Health Alliance, 2009). Air pollution occurs both outdoors and indoors and is caused by human activities and natural mechanisms. Outdoor air pollution is described as the discharge of numerous air pollutants in to the atmosphere, in concentrations that threaten the health of living organisms or upset the function of the environment as a system leading to human health damages in various ways. Indoor air pollution is defined as the amount of chemical, biological and physical contaminants in the air inside a building. Indoor air pollution is more dangerous as compared to outdoor air pollution. Some of indoor air pollutant sources in houses including building materials, pressed wood products and furniture, central heating and cooling systems, several personal care or household cleaning products, painting colours, solvents, heating or cooking appliances (stoves, wood and gas burning fireplaces, gas heaters), tobacco smoke, office machines and other products used in daily activities (EPA, 2007).

Consequences of Air Pollution: Air pollution cause many health issues. It is found that CO2 is a good transmitter of sunlight, but it also partially restricts infrared radiation going back from the earth into space, which produces the greenhouse effect that prevents a drastic cooling of the Earth during the night. Increasing the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere strengthens this effect and is expected to result in a warming of the Earth’s surface. Air pollution has harmful impact on plant life. Sulphur di oxide is considered as most harmful pollutant (Rao, 1989).

Effect of pollutant on plants (Source: Rao, 1989)

Air pollution monitoring is very necessary to control pollution. These techniques collect data by scientists to enable them to make informed decisions to manage overall quality of environment.

Air pollution monitoring and source categorization (Source: Bhola, et, al., 2010)

Water pollution: Water pollution is also a matter of concern for human life. Polluted water comprises of Industrial discharged wastes, sewage water, rain water pollution (Ashraf et al, 2010). Water can also be polluted by agriculture or households cause damage to human health or the environment. (European Public Health Alliance, 2009). This water pollution adversely impacts the health and quality of soils and vegetation (Carter, 1985). Pollutants in water include a wide range of chemicals, pathogens, and physical chemistry or sensory changes. Many of the chemical substances are toxic or even carcinogenic. Pathogens can obviously produce waterborne diseases in either human or animal hosts. The effects of water pollution are major cause of death for humans at global scale. Furthermore, water pollution affects oceans, lakes, rivers, and drinking water (Scipeeps, 2009). A drinking water contained a fluoride content ranging from 5.26 to 26.32 milligrams per litre and this is too high as compared to the World Health Organization�s standard of 0.6 to 1.7 milligram per litre (Rizvi, 2000). It has been found that Paper and pulp mills consume large amount of water and discharge liquid and solid waste products into the environment. The liquid waste is usually high in biological oxygen demand, suspended solids, and chlorinated organic compounds such as dioxins (World Bank, 1999).

Types of water pollution:

Treatment of water pollution: There are many ways by which water pollution can be treated such as industrial treatment, denitrification, septic tank, and ozone waste water treatment. Before raw sewage can be carefully released back into the environment, it must be treated properly in a water treatment plant. In a water treatment plant, sewage goes through a number of chambers and chemical processes to reduce the amount and toxicity of the waste. Denitrification is an ecological approach to avert the leaching of nitrates in soil, and stops ground water pollution with nutrients. Septic tanks treat sewage at the place where it is located and used to treat sewage from an individual building. Untreated sewage from a property flows into the septic tank and the solids are separated from the liquid. Environmentalists use Biological processes to degrade the solid matter. Another method to treat water pollution is well known Ozone wastewater treatment. An ozone generator break down pollutants in the water source. The generators convert oxygen into ozone using Ultraviolet radiation and Electric discharge field. There are numerous advantages of ozone to treat wastewater such as this technique kills bacteria successfully, oxidizes substances such as iron and sulphur. There are some drawbacks of adopting ozone to treat wastewater such as it requires energy in the form of electricity, cost money and cannot work when the power is lost and cannot remove dissolved minerals and salts.

Water pollution treatment

Land/ Solid waste Pollution: This type of pollution also shake environment. Inadequate management of solid waste is one of the main causes of environmental pollution (Kimani, 2007). Land pollution is one of the main forms of environmental calamity in current situation (Khan, 2004). Causes of Land Pollution include Mining and quarrying, Sewage waste, Household Garbage and Industrial Waste. Consequences of Land Pollutants are dangerous such as extermination of wild life. In land pollution, acid rain kills trees and other plants and vegetation that provides food and shelter is destroyed. It can seriously disturb the balance of nature, and, in extreme cases, can cause human mortalities. Pesticides can damage crops; kill vegetation and poison birds, animals, and fish. Most pesticides kill or damage life forms other than those intended. To prevent Land Pollution, it is advised that more and more land should be brought under farming. Trees should be planted everywhere. Waste matter should be disposed immediately and avoid drilling the Land for more underground water. People must avoid using more chemical fertilizers and Pesticides. Noise pollution, soil pollution and light pollution also harm the environment at an alarming rate. Causes of Noise Pollution include aircraft noise, noise of cars, buses, and trucks, vehicle horns, loudspeakers, and industry noise, as well as high-intensity sonar effects which are extremely harmful for the environment, noise from construction and civil engineering works. Extreme noise pollution occurs due to technical advancement and the motor vehicle, which is responsible for about ninety percent of all undesirable noise internationally. Effects of Noise Pollution are Hearing Loss, High Blood Pressure, Stress, Sleep Disturbance, Colour Blindness. To Avoid Noise Pollution, the Government should ensure the new machines that should be noise proof. Air ports must be away from residential area. Do not sound horn symbol is to be in school roads. Soil pollution is described as the impurity of soil of a particular region. Soil pollution mainly is a result of penetration of damaging pesticides and insecticides, which deteriorate the soil quality, thus making it contaminated and unfit for use later. Main causes of soil pollution include Industrial wastes such as harmful gases and chemicals, agricultural pesticides, fertilizers and insecticides, ignorance towards soil management and related systems, unfavourable and harmful irrigation practices, improper septic system and management and maintenance of the same, leakages from sanitary sewage, acid rains, when fumes released from industries get mixed with rains, fuel leakages from automobiles, that get washed away due to rain and seep into the nearby soil, improper waste management techniques, which are characterized by release of sewage into the large dumping grounds and nearby streams or rivers. Light pollution is described as excessive and incorrect artificial light (Mizon, 2002). It is caused due to extreme use of artificial lights by humans. The powerful artificial light which are used to brightens offices, factories, sports stadium, street, parks and sometime even housing complexes obscure the night sky.

The four components of light pollution are often combined and may intersect:

• Urban Sky Glow: The brightening of the night sky over inhabited areas.
• Light Trespass: Light falling where it is not intended, wanted, or needed.
• Glare: Excessive brightness which causes visual discomfort. High levels of glare can decrease visibility.
• Clutter: Bright, confusing, and excessive groupings of light sources, commonly found in over-lit urban areas. The proliferation of clutter contributes to urban sky glow, trespass, and glare.

Plethora of environmental studies have shown that environmental pollutants have various adversarial health effects. The most important harmful effects are prenatal disorders, infant mortality, respiratory disorders, allergy, malignancies, cardiovascular disorders, and increase in stress oxidative, endothelial dysfunction, mental disorders, and various other harmful effects. Though, short-term effects of environmental pollutants are usually underlined, wide range of hazards of air pollution from early life and their possible implication on chronic non-communicable diseases of adulthood should be underscored. Many studies have demonstrated that environmental particulate exposure has been linked to increased risk of morbidity and mortality from many diseases, organ disturbances, cancers, and other chronic diseases (Kargarfard, 2011). Consequently, experts advised to take immediate action and control the pollution. Otherwise, the waste products from consumption, heating, agriculture, mining, manufacturing, transportation, and other human activities will damage the environment.

Environmental Degradation

Environmental degradation is a consequence of the active inter play of socio-economic, institutional and technological actions. Environmental degradation is a process through which the natural environment is compromised in some way, decreasing biological diversity and health of the environment. Environmental degradation is described as the worsening of physical components of the environment brought in by human activities to such an extent that it cannot be set right by self-regulatory mechanism of environment. This process can be completely natural in origin, or it can be fast-tracked or caused by human activities. Many global organizations identify environmental degradation as major threats to communities, planets. Environmental changes may be driven by numerous factors such as economic development, population growth, and urbanization, intensification of agriculture, more energy use and transportation. Poverty is also major issue which creates environmental problems. The economics of environmental pollution, depletion and degradation of resources has been ignored as compared to the issues of growth and expansion. India is also facing problems of environmental degradation because of the considerable increase in its population.

Factors that Led Environmental Degradation

There are basically two factors namely: 1. Natural factors such as drought, storms on sea, land and deserts such as hurricanes, tornadoes, carina and volcanic eruptions. These factors lead to land degradation through erosion. 2. Human factors which include deforestation, industrialization and urbanization. These factors lead to water, air and land pollution.

Types of Environmental Degradation

Types of environmental degradation:

Deforestation

Deforestation is the process of clearance of forests by logging and/or burning. Deforestation occurs due to many reasons that include trees or derived charcoal are used as, or sold, for fuel or as a commodity, while cleared land is used as grassland for livestock, plantations of commodities, and settlements. The exclusion of trees without sufficient reforestation has resulted in harm to habitat, biodiversity loss and dryness. It has adversative impacts on bio-sequestration of atmospheric carbon dioxide. Deforested regions characteristically sustain substantial adverse soil erosion and frequently damage into wasteland.

Causes of deforestation: There are several causes of current deforestation such as dishonesty of government institutions, the unfair distribution of wealth and power, population growth and overpopulation, and urbanization. Globalization is also major cause of deforestation, though there are cases in which the impacts of globalization have supported localized forest recuperate.

It is the process by which a species, genus, or family, becomes extinct no longer existing and living in the world. It is the elimination and annihilation of something that previously existed in the world. In the arena of biology, it denotes specifically to the end of an evolutionary line, or a branch on the tree of life. The extinction of a species can have significant consequences for an ecosystem and even for the physical environment and climate, often leading to further extinctions.

Desertification:

Desertification is the ruin of land in waterless and dry sub-humid areas due to many factors such as climatic changes and human activities. Desertification results primarily from man-made activities. It is mainly caused by overgrazing, over drafting of groundwater and diversion of water from rivers for human consumption and industrial use, all of these processes are fundamentally driven by overpopulation. Main effect of desertification is reduced biodiversity and weakened productive capacity, for example, by transition from land dominated by shrub lands to non-native grasslands.

Causes of desertification: Desertification occurs due to numerous factors, primarily anthropogenic causes, which began in the Holocene era and continues today. The primary reasons for desertification are overgrazing, over-cultivation, increased fire frequency, water impoundment, deforestation, over drafting of groundwater, increased soil salinity, and global climate change. Multilevel set of causes of Desertification (Source: Camilla Toulmin, 1993)

Emission is process in which human or natural forces discharge chemicals or other substances into the environment. Emission leads to pollution such as emission is caused when chemicals are released into the air. Many natural processes cause emissions. When a volcano explodes, it lets out acid, and acid, ash, and many toxic gases. When fires break out in forests, they release smoke, soot, carcinogenic hydrocarbons, dioxins, and carbon dioxide.

Erosion is the procedure of weathering and carriage of solids in the natural environment or their source and deposits them elsewhere. It generally occurs due to transport by wind, water, or ice, by down-slope creep of soil and other material under the force of gravity; or by living organisms, such as burrowing animals, in the case of bio-erosion. A certain amount of erosion is natural and, it is good for the ecosystem. Erosion is different from weathering, which is the process of chemical or physical breakdown of the minerals in the rocks, although the two processes may occur simultaneously.

Causes of environmental degradation

Due to increased activities of humans and release of harmful chemicals, environmental conditions deteriorated and impact on human health. There are many causes of environmental degradation. The speedy population growth and economic development in country are degrading the environment through the unrestrained growth of urbanization and industrialization, expansion and intensification of agriculture, and the obliteration of natural surroundings. Main reason of environmental degradation in India is unparalleled growth of population, which is unfavourably affecting the natural resources and environment. The increasing population and the environmental deterioration face the challenge of continued development without environmental damage. Population impacts on the environment is mainly through the use of natural resources and production of wastes and is related with environmental stresses like loss of biodiversity, air and water pollution and increased pressure on arable land. Another major cause of environmental degradation pointed out by environmentalists is Poverty. The circular link between poverty and environment is a tremendously complex phenomenon. Inequality may raise unsustainability because the poor, who rely on natural resources more than the rich, deplete natural resources faster as they have no real prospects of gaining access to other types of resources. Moreover, degraded environment can quicken the process of destitution, again because the poor depend directly on natural assets. It has been observed that poor people migrate to urban areas due to lack of opportunities for profitable employment in villages and the ecological stresses. Extra-large cities are emerging and urban slums are expanding. Such rapid and unplanned development of cities has resulted in ruin of urban environment. It has broadened the gap between demand and supply of infrastructural services such as energy, housing, transport, communication, education, water supply and sewerage and recreational amenities, thus depleting the valuable environmental resource base of the cities. The result is the growing trend in worsening of air and water quality, generation of wastes, the proliferation of slums and undesirable land use changes, all of which contribute to urban poverty. There are some economic factors that lead to environmental degradation. Environmental degradation is the consequence of market failure, that is, the non-existent or poorly functioning markets for environmental goods and services. In this framework, environmental degradation is a particular case of consumption or production externalities reflected by divergence between private and social costs (or benefits). Market misrepresentations created by price controls and subsidies may exacerbate the achievement of environmental objectives. Transport activities intensely effects on the environment such as air pollution, noise from road traffic and oil spills from marine shipping. Transport infrastructure in India has expanded significantly in terms of network and services. Thus, road transport accounts for a major share of air pollution load in cities such as Delhi. Port and harbour projects mainly impact on sensitive coastal eco systems. Their construction affects hydrology, surface water quality, fisheries, coral reefs and mangroves to varying degrees. Effect of agricultural development on the environment ascend from farming activities which contribute to soil erosion, land salination and loss of nutrients.

Effects of Environmental Degradation

1. Impact on Human Health: Human health is greatly impacted by the environmental degradation. Areas exposed to toxic air pollutants can cause respiratory problems like pneumonia and asthma. Most of people loss their life due to indirect effects of air pollution. 2. Loss of Biodiversity: Biodiversity is vital to sustain balance of the ecosystem in the form of combating pollution, restoring nutrients, protecting water sources and stabilizing climate. Deforestation, global warming, overpopulation and pollution are few of the major causes for loss of biodiversity. 3. Ozone Layer Depletion: Ozone layer is responsible to shield earth from detrimental ultraviolet rays. The presence of chlorofluorocarbons, hydro chlorofluorocarbons in the atmosphere is causing the ozone layer to deplete. As it will deplete, it will emit harmful radiations back to the earth. 4. Loss for Tourism Industry: Speedy activities of tourism industry is also responsible for the worsening of environment that rely on tourists for their daily livelihood. Environmental damage in the form of loss of green cover, loss of biodiversity, huge landfills, increased air and water pollution can be a big turn off for most of the travellers. 5. Economic Impact: The huge cost that a nation may have to borne due to environmental degradation can have huge economic impact in terms of restoration of green cover, cleaning up of landfills and protection of endangered species. The economic impact can also be in terms of loss of tourism industry. The potentials of human economic activity leading to regional and world-wide conflicts especially as the emission of dangerous gases into the atmosphere (environmental degradation) results in changes in agriculture production and inaccessibility of resources eventually causing food scarcities.

Impact of environmental degradation (Source: Chalecki, 2003)

To summarize, Pollution is due to harmful substances or products into the environment. There are several types of pollutions in the environment such as Water Pollution, Air Pollution, Soil Pollution, land pollution. Environmental degradation is the collapse of the earth or worsening of the environment through consumption of assets such as air, water and soil, the destruction of environments and the annihilation of wildlife.

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Mangrove Ecosystem

Facts for prelims (ffp).

Source: NIE

  Context: The first global mangrove assessment by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), warns of the imminent collapse of South India’s mangrove ecosystems due to pollution, deforestation, and coastal development.

• Unlike the ecosystems in western and eastern India , those in the south are highly vulnerable to collapse, threatened further by rising sea levels and severe storms linked to climate change.

The IUCN Red List of Ecosystems (RLE) has assessed mangrove ecosystems globally for the first time, revealing alarming findings.

• Half of the assessed global mangrove ecosystems are at risk of collapse, with nearly 20% classified as high risk.
• Major threats include climate change, deforestation, development, pollution, and dam construction.
• Climate change alone jeopardizes one-third of assessed mangrove
• Sea-level rise is predicted to submerge 25% of global mangrove area in the next 50 years.
• Without significant intervention, by 2050, climate change and sea-level rise could lead to the loss of  1.8 billion tonnes of stored carbon and expose 2.1 million lives to coastal flooding.
• Indian mangroves vary in status : Andaman and Bay of Bengal are classified as Least Concern, while South India is Critically Endangered, and West India is Vulnerable.

Mangroves play a crucial role in disaster risk reduction , carbon sequestration, and supporting biodiversity and fisheries.

Initiatives for Mangroves:

• Mangrove Breakthrough : Introduced at UNFCCC COP27 by UN High-Level Climate Champions and Global Mangrove Alliance (GMA).
• Global Mangrove Alliance (GMA) was established at the World Ocean Summit in 2018.
• Mangrove Alliance for Climate : Led by UAE in collaboration with Indonesia.
• Mangrove Initiative for Shoreline Habitats & Tangible Incomes (MISHTI ).
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The Impact of Deforestation on Desertification: an Urgent Environmental Challenge

This essay discusses the crucial role of forests in maintaining biodiversity, climate stability, and soil fertility, and highlights the severe consequences of deforestation, particularly its contribution to desertification. It explains how deforestation disrupts ecological balances, leading to soil erosion, reduced rainfall, and increased temperatures, which in turn degrade arable land. The essay emphasizes the social and environmental impacts, including food insecurity and global dust storms, and advocates for comprehensive strategies like reforestation, sustainable land management, and agroforestry to mitigate these challenges and preserve ecosystems.

How it works

In the intricate choreography of Earth’s ecosystems, every element performs a unique role, contributing to the harmonious symphony of life. Among these, forests stand as majestic guardians of biodiversity, climate stability, and soil fertility. Yet, in the relentless march of human progress, vast swathes of these green giants are sacrificed at an alarming pace. Deforestation, driven by a complex web of factors including agricultural expansion, logging, and urban sprawl, unleashes a ripple effect with consequences that reverberate far beyond the borders of cleared land.

One of the most pressing repercussions is the exacerbation of desertification, an insidious environmental challenge that threatens to transform fertile landscapes into barren wastelands.

Desertification, the gradual degradation of once-arable land into parched desert, poses a formidable threat to global sustainability. While often associated with naturally dry regions like the Sahel in Africa or the arid expanses of the American Southwest, desertification knows no boundaries, creeping stealthily into fertile landscapes and transforming them into inhospitable terrain. Deforestation emerges as a key catalyst in this process, disrupting delicate ecological balances and setting in motion a chain of destructive events.

The nexus between deforestation and desertification is intricate, intertwined with the complex dynamics of climate, soil, and vegetation. Trees, with their sprawling root systems, serve as anchors, holding soil in place and protecting it from erosion. Yet, as forests are razed, this natural defense mechanism is stripped away, leaving soil vulnerable to the erosive forces of wind and water. The consequences are dire, with topsoil—the lifeblood of ecosystems—being washed away, leading to land degradation and diminished fertility.

Moreover, forests play a crucial role in regulating local climates, influencing rainfall patterns and atmospheric moisture levels. The loss of tree cover disrupts these finely tuned systems, often resulting in decreased precipitation and heightened temperatures in affected areas. This climatic upheaval further exacerbates the challenges posed by deforestation, pushing ecosystems to the brink of collapse and hastening the encroachment of deserts.

The repercussions of deforestation-induced desertification extend far beyond environmental realms, exacting a heavy toll on human societies. Communities reliant on agriculture for sustenance and livelihoods find themselves increasingly vulnerable as fertile land succumbs to encroaching deserts. Crop yields dwindle, water sources run dry, and once-vibrant ecosystems teeter on the brink of collapse. The resulting food insecurity, compounded by heightened competition for dwindling resources, can fuel social unrest and deepen existing inequalities.

Furthermore, desertification transcends political boundaries, emerging as a global challenge with far-reaching implications. Dust storms, born from degraded landscapes, can traverse continents, carrying with them not only soil but also pollutants and pathogens. These atmospheric migrations have been linked to respiratory ailments, agricultural losses, and disruptions in global climate patterns, underscoring the interconnectedness of Earth’s ecosystems.

Addressing the intertwined crises of deforestation and desertification demands a comprehensive, multi-faceted approach. Efforts to curb deforestation must be prioritized, encompassing both conservation measures and sustainable land management practices. Reforestation initiatives, aimed at restoring degraded landscapes and preserving biodiversity hotspots, offer a glimmer of hope in the fight against desertification.

Moreover, holistic land management strategies, informed by indigenous wisdom and scientific knowledge, can help mitigate the impacts of desertification while bolstering ecosystem resilience. Agroforestry practices, which integrate trees into agricultural systems, not only enhance soil fertility and water retention but also provide additional sources of income for rural communities. Similarly, restoring degraded ecosystems through afforestation and rewilding efforts can help reverse the tide of desertification while sequestering carbon and mitigating climate change.

At the core of these endeavors lies a profound appreciation for the intrinsic value of Earth’s ecosystems and a steadfast commitment to their preservation. By forging partnerships across sectors and harnessing the collective wisdom of diverse stakeholders, we can chart a course toward a more sustainable future—one where forests flourish, deserts recede, and the delicate balance of life is preserved. The impact of deforestation on desertification serves as a poignant reminder of the urgent need to redefine our relationship with the natural world and embrace stewardship over exploitation. Only through concerted action and unwavering dedication can we hope to address this pressing environmental challenge and secure a thriving planet for generations to come.

Cite this page

The Impact of Deforestation on Desertification: An Urgent Environmental Challenge. (2024, May 28). Retrieved from https://papersowl.com/examples/the-impact-of-deforestation-on-desertification-an-urgent-environmental-challenge/

"The Impact of Deforestation on Desertification: An Urgent Environmental Challenge." PapersOwl.com , 28 May 2024, https://papersowl.com/examples/the-impact-of-deforestation-on-desertification-an-urgent-environmental-challenge/

PapersOwl.com. (2024). The Impact of Deforestation on Desertification: An Urgent Environmental Challenge . [Online]. Available at: https://papersowl.com/examples/the-impact-of-deforestation-on-desertification-an-urgent-environmental-challenge/ [Accessed: 29 May. 2024]

"The Impact of Deforestation on Desertification: An Urgent Environmental Challenge." PapersOwl.com, May 28, 2024. Accessed May 29, 2024. https://papersowl.com/examples/the-impact-of-deforestation-on-desertification-an-urgent-environmental-challenge/

"The Impact of Deforestation on Desertification: An Urgent Environmental Challenge," PapersOwl.com , 28-May-2024. [Online]. Available: https://papersowl.com/examples/the-impact-of-deforestation-on-desertification-an-urgent-environmental-challenge/. [Accessed: 29-May-2024]

PapersOwl.com. (2024). The Impact of Deforestation on Desertification: An Urgent Environmental Challenge . [Online]. Available at: https://papersowl.com/examples/the-impact-of-deforestation-on-desertification-an-urgent-environmental-challenge/ [Accessed: 29-May-2024]

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• Desertification

Desertification [UPSC Environment & Ecology Notes]

This article shares details on the meaning of desertification, the 7 different causes behind desertification, and the harmful effects of desertification like an increase in poverty, hunger, fall in farm outputs, etc.

Desertification is a topic in the Geography as well as environment & ecology sections of the UPSC syllabus. This makes the topic of desertification crucial as it is a part of GS Papers I and III. Aspirants would find this article very helpful while preparing for the IAS Exam .

What is Desertification?

Desertification is the degradation process by which a fertile land changes itself into a desert by losing its flora and fauna, this can be caused by drought, deforestation, climate change, human activities or improper agriculture. Desertification is a process of degradation of the land. It occurs because of man-made activities and climate change. Desertification takes place when a particular type of biome converts into a desert biome. 

Desertification Causes

• Overgrazing
• Deforestation
• Farming Practices
• Urbanization and other types of land development
• Climate Change
• Stripping the land of resources
• Natural Disasters

Desertification Impacts

• Farming becomes difficult or even impossible in the area
• Flooding chances are more
• Hunger – because of no farming
• Poor quality of water
• Overpopulation
• Poverty as a result of the above

Steps To Reduce Desertification

Given below are the steps which may help in reducing Desertification:

• Focus on Water management. Rainwater harvest must be done, water that can be reused must not be left out as waste
• Reforestation and tree regeneration
• Buttressing the soil through the use of sand fences, shelter belts, woodlots and windbreaks
• Better and hyper-fertilization of soil through planting
• The residue from pruned trees can be used to provide mulching for fields thus increasing soil water retention and reducing evaporation

UPSC Aspirants can refer to the links below for exam preparation:

Desertification in India

• Population growth, removal of wood, overgrazing, soil erosions, etc. are all important factors that have caused desertification in India.
• According to the Government’s data recently presented to the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), India lost 31%, or 5.65 million hectares, of grassland area in a decade.
• As per reports, over 105 million hectares or about 32% of India’s areas have degraded.
• Between 2003-2005 and 2011-2013, 26 states witnessed an increase in the level of desertification in India.

Measures Taken To Curb Desertification in India

Multiple steps and measures have been taken by the concerned authorities regarding curbing desertification in India. Discussed below are the same:

• A Command Area Development Programme was launched in 1974 which is coordinated by the Ministry of Water Resources for its implementation in various states of the country. It aims to improve the irrigational potential through water management.
• In 1989-90, Integrated Watershed Management Programme was launched, which was later renamed as Haryali Guidelines in 2013, and then, subsumed under Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana.
• Implemented by the Ministry of Rural Development, the Desert Development Programme was launched in 1995 to minimize the effects of drought in areas across the country.
• India also became a signatory to the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) in 1994
• The National Afforestation Programme was implemented by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change in the year 2000.
• In 2001, the National Action Programme to Combat Desertification was implemented by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change.
• The Desertification and Land Degradation Atlas of India was released by ISRO in 2016 to combat desertification and land degradation.

Measures Taken To Curb Desertification Globally

Desertification is an issue for people across the globe and multiple steps have been taken to curb it. Given below are the steps which have been taken globally to curb  desertification:

• Goal 15 of Sustainable Development Goals (SDG), 2030 declares that “we are determined to protect the planet from degradation, including through sustainable consumption and production.”
• The Bonn Challenge has been taken up according to which 150 million hectares of the world’s deforested and degraded land is expected to be restored by 2020 and around  350 million hectares to be restored by 2030.
• United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) was established in 1994.
• Apart from this, every year, June 17 is observed as the World Day to Combat Desertification and Drought.

Desertification – Latest News

• Recently, the World Day to Combat Desertification and Drought was observed on June 17th. The theme for 2019 is ‘Let’s Grow the Future Together’ to encourage people against depleting the land of its inbuilt resources
• For years, commentators have questioned the popularity of sugarcane in arid, drought-prone Marathwada. When farmers reluctantly shifted to tur in 2016, the state government had the opportunity to promote better crop planning, as per water experts. But things didn’t pan out on expected lines. If things continue unchanged, water-stressed regions such as Marathwada could be heading towards desertification, as per opinions shared by experts.
• According to statistics, China has 2.61 million square kilometres of desert, meaning more than a quarter of the country’s land is either degraded or lost to sand. However, thanks to decades-long efforts to combat desertification, China has achieved substantial progress in sand control and ecological protection.

Desertification UPSC Question Example

Consider the following statements:

• Desertification makes land fertile.
• Desertification is always a natural process.

Which of the above statements is/are correct?

• Both 1 and 2
• None of the above

Frequently Asked Questions related to Desertification

What are the main causes of desertification, what are the effects of desertification, how can desertification be stopped, where is desertification a problem, how does desertification affect the economy.

Relevant Links

The above details would help candidates prepare for UPSC 2024 .

Candidates preparing for the Civil Service exam can refer to the below-given links, for more information related to climate change, environment and ecology, water scarcity, and various Government of India schemes to tackle the problem of Climate change.

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