introduction to curriculum research

education, community-building and change

What is curriculum? Exploring theory and practice

Curriculum theory and practice.the organization of schooling and further education has long been associated with the idea of a curriculum. but what actually is curriculum, and how might it be conceptualized we explore curriculum theory and practice and its relation to informal education..

Contents : introduction · curriculum as transmission · curriculum as product · curriculum as process · curriculum as praxis · curriculum and context · curriculum and informal education · further reading · links · how to cite this article

The idea of curriculum is hardly new – but the way we understand and theorize it has altered over the years – and there remains considerable dispute as to meaning. It has its origins in the running/chariot tracks of Greece. It was, literally, a course. In Latin curriculum was a racing chariot; currere was to run. A useful starting point for us here might be the definition offered by John Kerr and taken up by Vic Kelly in a standard work on the subject. Kerr defines curriculum as, ‘All the learning which is planned and guided by the school, whether it is carried on in groups or individually, inside or outside the school. (quoted in Kelly 1983: 10; see also, Kelly 1999). This gives us some basis to move on – and for the moment all we need to do is highlight two of the key features:

L earning is planned and guided . We have to specify in advance what we are seeking to achieve and how we are to go about it.

The definition refers to schooling. We should recognize that our current appreciation of curriculum theory and practice emerged in the school and in relation to other schooling ideas such as subject and lesson.

In what follows we are going to look at four ways of approaching curriculum theory and practice:

1. Curriculum as a body of knowledge to be transmitted . 2. Curriculum as an attempt to achieve certain ends in students – product . 3. Curriculum as process . 4. Curriculum as praxis .

It is helpful to consider these ways of approaching curriculum theory and practice in the light of Aristotle’s influential categorization of knowledge into three disciplines: the theoretical , the productive and the practical .

Here we can see some clear links – the body of knowledge to be transmitted in the first is that classically valued as ‘the canon’; the process and praxis models come close to practical deliberation; and the technical concerns of the outcome or product model mirror elements of Aristotle’s characterization of the productive. More this will be revealed as we examine the theory underpinning individual models.

Curriculum as a syllabus to be transmitted

Many people still equate a curriculum with a syllabus. Syllabus, naturally, originates from the Greek (although there was some confusion in its usage due to early misprints). Basically it means a concise statement or table of the heads of a discourse, the contents of a treatise, the subjects of a series of lectures. In the form that many of us will have been familiar with it is connected with courses leading to examinations – teachers talk of the syllabus associated with, say, the Cambridge Board French GSCE exam. What we can see in such documents is a series of headings with some additional notes which set out the areas that may be examined.

A syllabus will not generally indicate the relative importance of its topics or the order in which they are to be studied. In some cases as Curzon (1985) points out, those who compile a syllabus tend to follow the traditional textbook approach of an ‘order of contents’, or a pattern prescribed by a ‘logical’ approach to the subject, or – consciously or unconsciously – a the shape of a university course in which they may have participated. Thus, an approach to curriculum theory and practice which focuses on syllabus is only really concerned with content. Curriculum is a body of knowledge-content and/or subjects. Education in this sense, is the process by which these are transmitted or ‘delivered’ to students by the most effective methods that can be devised (Blenkin et al 1992: 23).

Where people still equate curriculum with a syllabus they are likely to limit their planning to a consideration of the content or the body of knowledge that they wish to transmit. ‘It is also because this view of curriculum has been adopted that many teachers in primary schools’, Kelly (1985: 7) claims, ‘have regarded issues of curriculum as of no concern to them, since they have not regarded their task as being to transmit bodies of knowledge in this manner’.

Curriculum as product

The dominant modes of describing and managing education are today couched in the productive form. Education is most often seen as a technical exercise. Objectives are set, a plan drawn up, then applied, and the outcomes (products) measured. It is a way of thinking about education that has grown in influence in the United Kingdom since the late 1970s with the rise of vocationalism and the concern with competencies. Thus, in the late 1980s and the 1990s many of the debates about the National Curriculum for schools did not so much concern how the curriculum was thought about as to what its objectives and content might be.

It is the work of two American writers Franklin Bobbitt (1918; 1928) and Ralph W. Tyler (1949) that dominate theory and practice within this tradition. In The Curriculum Bobbitt writes as follows:

The central theory [of curriculum] is simple. Human life, however varied, consists in the performance of specific activities. Education that prepares for life is one that prepares definitely and adequately for these specific activities. However numerous and diverse they may be for any social class they can be discovered. This requires only that one go out into the world of affairs and discover the particulars of which their affairs consist. These will show the abilities, attitudes, habits, appreciations and forms of knowledge that men need. These will be the objectives of the curriculum. They will be numerous, definite and particularized. The curriculum will then be that series of experiences which children and youth must have by way of obtaining those objectives. (1918: 42)

This way of thinking about curriculum theory and practice was heavily influenced by the development of management thinking and practice. The rise of ‘scientific management’ is often associated with the name of its main advocate F. W. Taylor. Basically what he proposed was greater division of labour with jobs being simplified; an extension of managerial control over all elements of the workplace; and cost accounting based on systematic time-and-motion study. All three elements were involved in this conception of curriculum theory and practice. For example, one of the attractions of this approach to curriculum theory was that it involved detailed attention to what people needed to know in order to work, live their lives and so on. A familiar, and more restricted, example of this approach can be found in many training programmes, where particular tasks or jobs have been analyzed – broken down into their component elements – and lists of competencies drawn up. In other words, the curriculum was not to be the result of ‘armchair speculation’ but the product of systematic study. Bobbitt’s work and theory met with mixed responses. One telling criticism that was made, and can continue to be made, of such approaches is that there is no social vision or programme to guide the process of curriculum construction. As it stands it is a technical exercise. However, it wasn’t criticisms such as this which initially limited the impact of such curriculum theory in the late 1920s and 1930s. Rather, the growing influence of ‘progressive’, child-centred approaches shifted the ground to more romantic notions of education. Bobbitt’s long lists of objectives and his emphasis on order and structure hardly sat comfortably with such forms.

The Progressive movement lost much of its momentum in the late 1940s in the United States and from that period the work of Ralph W. Tyler, in particular, has made a lasting impression on curriculum theory and practice. He shared Bobbitt’s emphasis on rationality and relative simplicity. His theory was based on four fundamental questions:

1. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?

2. What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes?

3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?

4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained? (Tyler 1949: 1)

Like Bobbitt he also placed an emphasis on the formulation of behavioural objectives.

Since the real purpose of education is not to have the instructor perform certain activities but to bring about significant changes in the students’ pattern of behaviour, it becomes important to recognize that any statements of objectives of the school should be a statement of changes to take place in the students. (Tyler 1949: 44)

We can see how these concerns translate into a nicely-ordered procedure: one that is very similar to the technical or productive thinking set out below.

Step 1 : Diagnosis of need Step 2 : Formulation of objectives Step 3 : Selection of content Step 4 : Organization of content Step 5 : Selection of learning experiences Step 6 : Organization of learning experiences Step 7 : Determination of what to evaluate and of the ways and means of doing it. (Taba 1962)

The attraction of this way of approaching curriculum theory and practice is that it is systematic and has considerable organizing power. Central to the approach is the formulation of behavioural objectives – providing a clear notion of outcome so that content and method may be organized and the results evaluated.

There are a number of issues with this approach to curriculum theory and practice. The first is that the plan or programme assumes great importance. For example, we might look at a more recent definition of curriculum as: ‘A programme of activities (by teachers and pupils) designed so that pupils will attain so far as possible certain educational and other schooling ends or objectives (Grundy 1987: 11). The problem here is that such programmes inevitably exist prior to and outside the learning experiences. This takes much away from learners. They can end up with little or no voice. They are told what they must learn and how they will do it. The success or failure of both the programme and the individual learners is judged on the basis of whether pre-specified changes occur in the behaviour and person of the learner (the meeting of behavioural objectives). If the plan is tightly adhered to, there can only be limited opportunity for educators to make use of the interactions that occur. It also can deskill educators in another way. For example, a number of curriculum programmes, particularly in the USA, have attempted to make the student experience ‘teacher proof’. The logic of this approach is for the curriculum to be designed outside of the classroom or school, as is the case with the National Curriculum in the UK. Educators then apply programmes and are judged by the products of their actions. It turns educators into technicians.

Second, there are questions around the nature of objectives. This model is hot on measurability. It implies that behaviour can be objectively, mechanistically measured. There are obvious dangers here – there always has to be some uncertainty about what is being measured. We only have to reflect on questions of success in our work. It is often very difficult to judge what the impact of particular experiences has been. Sometimes it is years after the event that we come to appreciate something of what has happened. For example, most informal educators who have been around a few years will have had the experience of an ex-participant telling them in great detail about how some forgotten event (forgotten to the worker that is) brought about some fundamental change. Yet there is something more.

In order to measure, things have to be broken down into smaller and smaller units. The result, as many of you will have experienced, can be long lists of often trivial skills or competencies. This can lead to a focus in this approach to curriculum theory and practice on the parts rather than the whole; on the trivial, rather than the significant. It can lead to an approach to education and assessment which resembles a shopping list. When all the items are ticked, the person has passed the course or has learnt something. The role of overall judgment is somehow sidelined.

Third, there is a real problem when we come to examine what educators actually do in the classroom, for example. Much of the research concerning teacher thinking and classroom interaction, and curriculum innovation has pointed to the lack of impact on actual pedagogic practice of objectives (see Stenhouse 1974; and Cornbleth 1990, for example). One way of viewing this is that teachers simply get it wrong – they ought to work with objectives. I think we need to take this problem very seriously and not dismiss it in this way. The difficulties that educators experience with objectives in the classroom may point to something inherently wrong with the approach – that it is not grounded in the study of educational exchanges. It is a model of curriculum theory and practice largely imported from technological and industrial settings.

Fourth, there is the problem of unanticipated results. The focus on pre-specified goals may lead both educators and learners to overlook learning that is occurring as a result of their interactions, but which is not listed as an objective.

The apparent simplicity and rationality of this approach to curriculum theory and practice, and the way in which it mimics industrial management have been powerful factors in its success. A further appeal has been the ability of academics to use the model to attack teachers:

I believe there is a tendency, recurrent enough to suggest that it may be endemic in the approach, for academics in education to use the objectives model as a stick with which to beat teachers. ‘What are your objectives?’ is more often asked in a tone of challenge than one of interested and helpful inquiry. The demand for objectives is a demand for justification rather than a description of ends… It is not about curriculum design, but rather an expression of irritation in the problems of accountability in education. (Stenhouse 1974: 77)

So what are the other alternatives?

Curriculum as process

We have seen that the curriculum as product model is heavily dependent on the setting of behavioural objectives. The curriculum, essentially, is a set of documents for implementation. Another way of looking at curriculum theory and practice is via process. In this sense curriculum is not a physical thing, but rather the interaction of teachers, students and knowledge. In other words, curriculum is what actually happens in the classroom and what people do to prepare and evaluate. What we have in this model is a number of elements in constant interaction. It is an active process and links with the practical form of reasoning set out by Aristotle.

Perhaps the two major things that set this apart from the model for informal education are first, the context in which the process occurs (‘particular schooling situations’); and second, the fact that teachers enter the classroom or any other formal educational setting with a more fully worked-through idea of what is about to happen. Here I have described that as entering the situation with ‘a proposal for action which sets out essential principles and features of the educational encounter’.

This form of words echoes those of Lawrence Stenhouse (1975) who produced one of the best-known explorations of a process model of curriculum theory and practice. He defined curriculum tentatively: ‘A curriculum is an attempt to communicate the essential principles and features of an educational proposal in such a form that it is open to critical scrutiny and capable of effective translation into practice’. He suggests that a curriculum is rather like a recipe in cookery.

It can be criticized on nutritional or gastronomic grounds – does it nourish the students and does it taste good? – and it can be criticized on the grounds of practicality – we can’t get hold of six dozen larks’ tongues and the grocer can’t find any ground unicorn horn! A curriculum, like the recipe for a dish, is first imagined as a possibility, then the subject of experiment. The recipe offered publicly is in a sense a report on the experiment. Similarly, a curriculum should be grounded in practice. It is an attempt to describe the work observed in classrooms that it is adequately communicated to teachers and others. Finally, within limits, a recipe can varied according to taste. So can a curriculum. (Stenhouse 1975: 4-5)

Stenhouse shifted the ground a little bit here. He was not saying that curriculum is the process, but rather the means by which the experience of attempting to put an educational proposal into practice is made available. The reason why he did this, I suspect, is that otherwise there is a danger of widening the meaning of the term so much that it embraces almost everything and hence means very little. For example, in a discussion of the so-called ‘youth work curriculum’ (Newman & Ingram 1989), the following definition was taken as a starting point: ‘those processes which enhance or, if they go wrong, inhibit a person’s learning’. This was then developed and a curriculum became: ‘an organic process by which learning is offered, accepted and internalized’ (Newman & Ingram 1989: 1). The problem with this sort of definition, as Robin Barrow (1984) points out, is that what this does is to widen the meaning of the term to such an extent that it just about becomes interchangeable with ‘education’ itself. More specifically, if curriculum is process then the word curriculum is redundant because process would do very nicely! The simple equation of curriculum with process is a very slap-happy basis on which to proceed.

We also need to reflect on why curriculum theory and practice came into use by educators (as against policy-makers). It was essentially as a way of helping them to think about their work before, during and after interventions; as a means of enabling educators to make judgments about the direction their work was taking. This is what Stenhouse was picking up on.

There are a number of contrasts in this model of curriculum theory and practice as compared with the product model. First, where the product model appeals to the workshop for a model, this process model looks to the world of experimentation.

The idea is that of an educational science in which each classroom is a laboratory, each teacher a member of the scientific community… The crucial point is that the proposal is not to be regarded as an unqualified recommendation but rather as a provisional specification claiming no more than to be worth putting to the test of practice, Such proposals claim to be intelligent rather than correct. (Stenhouse 1975: 142)

Thus, in this sense, a curriculum is a particular form of specification about the practice of teaching. It is not a package of materials or a syllabus of ground to be covered. ‘It is a way of translating any educational idea into a hypothesis testable in practice. It invites critical testing rather than acceptance’ (Stenhouse 1975: 142).

Second, and associated with the above, given the uniqueness of each classroom setting, it means that any proposal, even at school level, needs to be tested, and verified by each teacher in his/her classroom ( ibid : 143). It is not like a curriculum package which is designed to be delivered almost anywhere.

Third, outcomes are no longer the central and defining feature. Rather than tightly specifying behavioural objectives and methods in advance, what happens in this model of curriculum theory and practice is that content and means develop as teachers and students work together.

Fourth, the learners in this model are not objects to be acted upon. They have a clear voice in the way that the sessions evolve. The focus is on interactions. This can mean that attention shifts from teaching to learning. The product model, by having a pre-specified plan or programme, tends to direct attention to teaching. For example, how can this information be got over? A process approach to curriculum theory and practice, it is argued by writers like Grundy (1987), tends towards making the process of learning the central concern of the teacher. This is because this way of thinking emphasizes interpretation and meaning-making. As we have seen each classroom and each exchange is different and has to be made sense of.

However, when we come to think about this way of approaching curriculum in practice, a number of possible problems do arise. The first is a problem for those who want some greater degree of uniformity in what is taught. This approach to the theory of curriculum, because it places meaning-making and thinking at its core and treats learners as subjects rather than objects, can lead to very different means being employed in classrooms and a high degree of variety in content. As Stenhouse comments, the process model is essentially a critical model, not a marking model.

It can never be directed towards an examination as an objective without loss of quality, since the standards of the examination then override the standards immanent in the subject. This does not mean that students taught on the process model cannot be examined, but it does mean that the examinations must be taken in their stride as they pursue other aspirations. And if the examination is a by-product there is an implication that the quality the student shows in it must be an under-estimate of his real quality. It is hence rather difficult to get the weak student through an examination using a process model. Crammers cannot use it, since it depends upon a commitment to educational aims. (Stenhouse 1975: 95)

To some extent variation is limited by factors such as public examinations. The exchange between students and teachers does not float free of the context in which it arises. At the end of the day many students and their families place a high premium on exam or subject success and this inevitably enters into the classroom. This highlights a second problem with the model we have just outlined – that it may not pay enough attention to the context in which learning takes place (more of this later).

Third, there is the ‘problem’ of teachers. The major weakness and, indeed, strength of the process model is that it rests upon the quality of teachers. If they are not up to much then there is no safety net in the form of prescribed curriculum materials. The approach is dependent upon the cultivation of wisdom and meaning-making in the classroom. If the teacher is not up to this, then there will be severe limitations on what can happen educationally. There have been some attempts to overcome this problem by developing materials and curriculum packages which focus more closely on the ‘process of discovery’ or ‘problem-solving’, for example in science. But there is a danger in this approach. Processes become reduced to sets of skills – for example, how to light a bunsen burner. When students are able to demonstrate certain skills, they are deemed to have completed the process. As Grundy comments, the actions have become the ends; the processes have become the product. Whether or not students are able to apply the skills to make sense of the world around them is somehow overlooked (Grundy 1987: 77).

Fourth, we need to look back at our process model of curriculum theory and practice and what we have subsequently discussed, and return to Aristotle and to Freire. The model we have looked at here does not fully reflect the process explored earlier. In particular, it does not make explicit the commitments associated with phronesis. And it is to that we will now turn.

Curriculum as praxis

Curriculum as praxis is, in many respects, a development of the process model. While the process model is driven by general principles and places an emphasis on judgment and meaning making, it does not make explicit statements about the interests it serves. It may, for example, be used in such a way that does not make continual reference to collective human well-being and to the emancipation of the human spirit. The praxis model of curriculum theory and practice brings these to the centre of the process and makes an explicit commitment to emancipation. Thus action is not simply informed, it is also committed. It is praxis.

Critical pedagogy goes beyond situating the learning experience within the experience of the learner: it is a process which takes the experiences of both the learner and the teacher and, through dialogue and negotiation, recognizes them both as problematic… [It] allows, indeed encourages, students and teachers together to confront the real problems of their existence and relationships… When students confront the real problems of their existence they will soon also be faced with their own oppression. (Grundy 1987: 105)

We can amend our ‘curriculum as process’ model to take account of these concerns.

In this approach the curriculum itself develops through the dynamic interaction of action and reflection. ‘That is, the curriculum is not simply a set of plans to be implemented, but rather is constituted through an active process in which planning, acting and evaluating are all reciprocally related and integrated into the process’ (Grundy 1987: 115). At its centre is praxis : informed, committed action.

How might we recognize this? First, I think we should be looking for practice which does not focus exclusively on individuals, but pays careful attention to collective understandings and practices and to structural questions. For example, in sessions which seek to explore the experiences of different cultural and racial groups in society, we could be looking to see whether the direction of the work took people beyond a focus on individual attitudes. Are participants confronting the material conditions through which those attitudes are constituted, for example?

Second, we could be looking for a commitment expressed in action to the exploration of educators’ values and their practice. Are they, for example, able to say in a coherent way what they think makes for human well-being and link this with their practice? We could also be looking for certain values – especially an emphasis on human emancipation.

Third, we could expect practitioners committed to praxis to be exploring their practice with their peers. They would be able to say how their actions with respect to particular interventions reflected their ideas about what makes for the good, and to say what theories were involved.

Curriculum in context

To round off this discussion of curriculum we do need to pay further attention to the social context in which it is created. One criticism that has been made of the praxis model (especially as it is set out by Grundy) is that it does not place a strong enough emphasis upon context. This is a criticism that can also be laid at the door of the other approaches. In this respect the work of Catherine Cornbleth (1990) is of some use. She sees curriculum as a particular type of process. Curriculum for her is what actually happens in classrooms, that is, ‘an ongoing social process comprised of the interactions of students, teachers, knowledge and milieu’ (1990: 5). In contrast, Stenhouse defines curriculum as the attempt to describe what happens in classrooms rather than what actually occurs. Cornbleth further contends that curriculum as practice cannot be understood adequately or changed substantially without attention to its setting or context. Curriculum is contextually shaped. While I may quibble about the simple equation of curriculum with process, what Cornbleth does by focusing on the interaction is to bring out the significance of context.

First, by introducing the notion of milieu into the discussion of curriculum she again draws attention to the impact of some factors that we have already noted. Of especial significance here are examinations and the social relationships of the school – the nature of the teacher-student relationship, the organization of classes, streaming and so on. These elements are what are sometimes known as the hidden curriculum. This was a term credited to Philip W. Jackson (1968) but it had been present as an acknowledged element in education for some time before. For example, John Dewey in Experience and Education referred to the ‘collateral learning’ of attitudes that occur in schools, and that may well be of more long-range importance than the explicit school curriculum (1938: 48). A fairly standard (product) definition of the ‘hidden curriculum’ is given by Vic Kelly. He argues it is those things which students learn, ‘because of the way in which the work of the school is planned and organized but which are not in themselves overtly included in the planning or even in the consciousness of those responsible for the school arrangements (1988: 8). The learning associated with the ‘hidden curriculum’ is most often treated in a negative way. It is learning that is smuggled in and serves the interests of the status quo. The emphasis on regimentation, on bells and time management, and on streaming are sometimes seen as preparing young people for the world of capitalist production. What we do need to recognize is that such ‘hidden’ learning is not all negative and can be potentially liberating. ‘In so far as they enable students to develop socially valued knowledge and skills… or to form their own peer groups and subcultures, they may contribute to personal and collective autonomy and to possible critique and challenge of existing norms and institutions’ (Cornbleth 1990: 50). What we also need to recognize is that by treating curriculum as a contextualized social process, the notion of hidden curriculum becomes rather redundant. If we need to stay in touch with milieu as we build curriculum then it is not hidden but becomes a central part of our processes.

Second, by paying attention to milieu, we can begin to get a better grasp of the impact of structural and socio-cultural process on teachers and students. As Cornbleth argues, economic and gender relations, for example, do not simply bypass the systemic or structural context of curriculum and enter directly into classroom practice. They are mediated by intervening layers of the education system (Cornbleth 1990: 7). Thus, the impact of these factors may be quite different to that expected.

Third, if curriculum theory and practice is inextricably linked to milieu then it becomes clear why there have been problems about introducing it into non-schooling contexts like youth work; and it is to this area which we will now turn.

Curriculum as the boundary between formal and informal education

Jeffs and Smith (1990; 1999) have argued that the notion of curriculum provides a central dividing line between formal and informal education. They contend that curriculum theory and practice was formed within the schooling context and that there are major problems when it is introduced into informal forms of pedagogy.

The adoption of curriculum theory and practice by some informal educators appears to have arisen from a desire to be clear about content. Yet there are crucial difficulties with the notion of curriculum in this context. These centre around the extent to which it is possible to have a clear idea, in advance (and even during the process), of the activities and topics that will be involved in a particular piece of work.

At any one time, outcomes may not be marked by a high degree of specificity. In a similar way, the nature of the activities used often cannot be predicted. It may be that we can say something about how the informal educator will work. However, knowing in advance about broad processes and ethos isn’t the same as having a knowledge of the programme. We must, thus, conclude that approaches to the curriculum which focus on objectives and detailed programmes appear to be incompatible with informal education. ( Jeffs & Smith 1990 : 15)

In other words, they are arguing that a product model of curriculum is not compatible with the emphasis on process and praxis within informal education.

However, process and praxis models of curriculum also present problems in the context of informal education. If you look back at at our models of process and compare them with the model of informal education presented above then it is clear that we can have a similar problem with pre-specification. One of the key feature that differentiates the two is that the curriculum model has the teacher entering the situation with a proposal for action which sets out the essential principles and features of the educational encounter. Informal educators do not have, and do not need, this element. They do not enter with a clear proposal for action. Rather, they have an idea of what makes for human well-being, and an appreciation of their overall role and strategy (strategy here being some idea about target group and broad method e.g. detached work). They then develop their aims and interventions in interaction. And what is this element we have been discussing? It is nothing more nor less than what Stenhouse considers to be a curriculum!

The other key difference is context. Even if we were to go the whole hog and define curriculum as process there remain substantive problems. As Cornbleth (1990), and Jeffs and Smith (1990, 1999) have argued, curriculum cannot be taken out of context, and the context in which it was formed was the school. Curriculum theory and practice only makes sense when considered alongside notions like class, teacher, course, lesson and so on. You only have to look at the language that has been used by our main proponents: Tyler, Stenhouse, Cornbleth and Grundy, to see this. It is not a concept that stands on its own. It developed in relation to teaching and within particular organizational relationships and expectations. Alter the context and the nature of the process alters . We then need different ways of describing what is going on. Thus, it is no surprise that when curriculum theory and practice are introduced into what are essentially informal forms of working such as youth work and community work, their main impact is to formalize significant aspects of the work. One of the main outcome of curriculum experiments within youth work has been work, for example in the field of health promotion, which involve pre-specified activities, visiting workers, regular meetings and so on. Within the language of youth work these are most often called programmes or projects ( Foreman 1990 ). Within a school they would be called a course.

What is being suggested here is that when informal educators take on the language of curriculum they are crossing the boundary between their chosen specialism and the domain of formal education. This they need to do from time to time. There will be formal interludes in their work, appropriate times for them to mount courses and to discuss content and method in curriculum terms. But we should not fall into the trap of thinking that to be educators we have to adopt curriculum theory and practice. The fact that so many have been misled into believing this demonstrates just how powerful the ideas of schooling are. Education is something more than schooling.

We have explored four different approaches to curriculum theory and practice:

Curriculum as a body of knowledge to be transmitted . Curriculum as an attempt to achieve certain ends in students – product . Curriculum as process . Curriculum as praxis .

In a number of respects these different bodies of curriculum theory and practice link to the four main forces in North American curriculum-making in the twentieth century: the liberal educators; the scientific curriculum makers; the developmental/person-centred; and the social meliorists (those that sought more radical social change) (after Kliebart 1987).

We shouldn’t push the similarities too far – but there are some interesting overlaps – and this does alert us both to the changing understanding and to shifting policy orientations over time.

For the moment we are having to operate within a policy environment that prizes the productive and technical. Furthermore, the discourse has become so totalizing that forms of education that do not have a curricula basis are squeezed. The temptation is always there to either be colonized by curriculum theory or adopt ways of describing practice that do not make sense in terms of the processes and commitments involved. Kleibart’s analysis provides us with some hope – things will change. However, there is no guarantee that they will move in a more edifying direction.

Curriculum Research: What We Know and Where We Need to Go

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Introduction to Curriculum for Early Childhood Education

(16 reviews)

Jennifer Paris, College of the Canyons

Kristin Beeve, College of the Canyons

Clint Springer, College of the Canyons

Last Update: 2019

Publisher: College of the Canyons

Language: English

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Reviewed by Felix Rodriguez Suero, Lecturer I, University of Texas Rio Grande Valley on 11/9/22

This book addresses a wide range of topics pertaining to curriculum design and inquiry with young children. Learning through Play is a central focus of the book. However, the authors introduce the reader to the most common approaches to early... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 5 see less

Content Accuracy rating: 5

I think that at times the authors rely too much on secondary documents instead of citing scientific research findings directly. However, the authors draw from relevant theories and anecdotes to illustrate what the application of specific pedagogical principles may look like in practice, which I found particularly valuable for education students at the undergraduate level in general.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 5

One of the important contributions of this book is summarizing in one place, theories, principles, and concepts that often demand the use multiple books and articles. This book gives future teachers a good grasp of essential concepts such as transitions, routines, student readiness, assessment, and documentation. In addition to the solid discussion of the traditional literature, future editions could benefit from discussions on the contributions of neuroscience to how we understand young children's learning.

Clarity rating: 5

The authors use a language that is clear and accessible. Some of the articles I assign in my Art Education method courses can be hard to read for some of my undergraduate students. I am considering substituting some of those articles with chapters and sections from this book.

Consistency rating: 4

The organization of the book is consistent throughout the different chapters. The pop-up windows "Vignette" and "Pause and Reflect" add content and experiences that facilitate the connection between theory and practice.

Modularity rating: 5

In my case, not all chapters are useful for the courses I currently teach, but the book structure makes it conducive to assign specific chapters that align with some of my weekly topics.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 5

The book is organized into five large thematic sections. Each section is divided into uneven number of chapters. However, the organization of the text is consistent throughout the different chapters. The book starts with more general theoretical and practical considerations that could be useful to students from different disciplines. Section IV, covering Chapters 7-16 provides insights into specific subject areas.

Interface rating: 2

While the book is comprehensive and useful for introduction to curriculum design and education method courses, the interface of the book could benefit from more elaborate formatting and design. Several images are low resolution, and the format and quality are not consistent. In general, a more professional design could make the book more visually appealing.

Grammatical Errors rating: 5

I did not notice significant grammatical errors.

Cultural Relevance rating: 5

The authors are attentive to how cultural and social factors affect students’ engagement. They intentionally examine learning experiences from diverse cultural settings and discuss how disadvantage students may lack access to technology.

I was expecting more specialized and in-depth discussions on the Creative Arts in Chapter 11. Nonetheless, this book is a great resource to address general curriculum design considerations with young children. I plan to use this book in the future.

Reviewed by Ilfa Zhulamanova, Associate Professor, University of Southern Indiana on 5/19/22

This text brings a comprehensive approach to curriculum making in early childhood education. I really liked the emphasis on play-centered approach to education of young children. read more

This text brings a comprehensive approach to curriculum making in early childhood education. I really liked the emphasis on play-centered approach to education of young children.

The content information is researched-based, unbiased and accurate.

The text consists of best practices experienced and grounded in research for the education of young children. The text is written and/or arranged in such a way that necessary updates will be relatively easy and straightforward to implement.

The text is clearly written, full of examples and visual graphs, charts, tables, and photos. The language is appropriate for the context.

Consistency rating: 5

There is a consistency in organization, terminology and framework of the book which makes it easy to follow. Each chapter begins with objectives and brief introductions. I really like the Pause to Reflect sections included throughout the text.

The text content is divided into sixteen chapters which can be easily and readily divisible into smaller reading sections that can be assigned at different points within the course. Instructors will find this format easy to follow to organize their course.

The content topics are presented in a logical, clear fashion.

Interface rating: 5

The text is free of significant interface issues, including navigation problems, distortion of images/charts.

The book is readable with no grammatical errors.

Cultural Relevance rating: 4

The text book content and images represent diverse population of children and families schools serve today. More information on teaching children with special needs and ESL/ELL students would make this book more appealing to instructors.

Reviewed by Robert Bryant, Adjunct Professor, Dominican University on 4/25/22

The text is readable and complete in scope and Early Childhood responsibilities. read more

The text is readable and complete in scope and Early Childhood responsibilities.

The text shares accurate information that is correct and timely based on current research.

The text is relevant in today's education environment.

The book is readable and compete.

The book focuses on nurturing care and attachment as paths for early learning.

The book has a preface and a table of contents.

The book is organized as a readable book, but also by chapter subject for easy reference on many topics.

The PDF download makes it convenient to use as a reference anywhere.

The book is relevant when compared to current early learning research.

Reviewed by Kimberly McFall, Associate Professor, Marshall University on 1/3/22

The book is arranged in a logical order and includes relevant up-to-date topics. read more

The book is arranged in a logical order and includes relevant up-to-date topics.

The book reflects accurate information

This book includes relevant topics that are arranged in a logical way. One thing that might be helpful is to make sure that terms/topics that are intertwined (technology and culture for example) are also noted in a chapter summary or hyperlinked from the Chapter Objectives sections for easy access/talking points for users.

The book is well written, grounded in research, and easy to read.

The book is consistent with current research, accuracy in data/tables and laid out in a way that the friendly to the user.

Modularity rating: 4

The text features a clearly laid out chapter objective section and chapter headers. I think that it would be made even stronger if the objectives were aligned to the headers or hyperlinked to the sections they support.

This book is well laid out and is scaffolded nicely throughout.

Interface rating: 4

An opportunity for strengthening this book, even more, is to provide hyperlinks from the chapter objects to the sections of the book where each objective is addressed. Also, since the author does such a nice job of supporting the content with cultural and technology references, keywords that are hyperlinked from the table of contents to these topics that are not stand-alone chapters might help users if they want to use this book in part/section.

Professional and accurate without grammatical error

As noted above, easier access to clickable links or noted where to find culturally relevant content would strengthen this area.

This is well thought out book that gives an in-depth look at early childhood education in a practical approach. More information about culturally responsive teaching would make this book a home run. The authors have done an outstanding job providing useful, researched-based information. One glaring issue is the lack of glossary or index and clickable links from Table of Contents and Chapter Objects would be helpful.

Reviewed by Robin Folkerts, Assistant Teacher Educator, Wichita State University on 10/30/21

There is a table of contents which is very helpful and transparent about the contents. I found the information in this text to be very comprehensive and thorough in regards to an introduction to Early Childhood Education. There is no index or... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 4 see less

I have taught this course with another book, and I find that the information in this resource is accurate and up to date. I did not find errors in my review, and I did not find anything that was biased in my opinion.

The topics are relevant, and the vignettes that are added in each chapter are valuable for deeper understanding of real life experiences. It is helpful for Early Childhood Education teacher candidates to have practical and specific examples of how theories are applied. I found the topics covered in this book to be important and well-represented.

The flow of the text is easy to follow. It is helpful to have tables and charts to help clarify information in the text. The objectives at the beginning are also helpful to clarify what is contained in each chapter. I appreciated the multiple lists that were included in the tables. The readability was easy and engaging. I found the tables and charts in the fourth section to be helpful in understanding developmentally what skills students have at certain ages and stages. I particularly enjoyed the chapter on teaching science where it was divided into sub-categories of earth science, life science, and physical science.

I see consistency throughout the resource in regard to text structure and text features. Each chapter begins with the objectives, and is laid out in an easy to read format with headings, tables, and vignettes (in green boxes) and research highlights (in purple boxes). The consistency made it easier to read and follow.

I found this text to be well-organized with text features used to keep information in manageable chunks. Illustrations and tables are used to help clarify information and it flows well for the reader. I especially like the vignettes that were consistently in green boxes. They are well-written and relevant.

I found this resource to be well-organized and easy to follow. It is divided into sections and chapters where the first three sections are more of an introduction, and the fourth section is the real meat and potatoes of curriculum and lesson planning. The final section gives an extension for other age groups.

The interface was exceptional. I downloaded it as a PDF and it was easy to navigate. I had no issues at all with any of the displays or features, and it would not be confusing or distracting to readers. This resource is easy to navigate and consistent in its format.

I did not identify any grammatical errors in my review of this resource. A link was included at the beginning to report any such findings.

While I did not see anything blatant, in comparison to the book that I currently use, there is not an entire chapter dedicated to cultural sensitivity. Rather, it is intertwined within the chapters. There was a piece in an early chapter that talked about including books and materials that are culturally diverse, There was a reference in the Infants and Toddlers chapter about cultural sensitivity as well as working together with families. English Language Learners is also not included as a chapter on its own, but is interwoven into the contents of this resource.

I enjoyed this resource very much, and I will plan to use it with my ECU: Foundations course that I teach. Well Done!

Reviewed by Jennifer Forker, Professor, Hutchinson Community College on 10/18/21

This textbook covers all of the major topics for developing a curriculum in a preschool setting. read more

This textbook covers all of the major topics for developing a curriculum in a preschool setting.

The book breaks down each developmental level expectations in a way that is easy to read and understand.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 4

The textbook focuses on the California Early Learning Standards, but can easily be adapted to your state framework.

The textbook uses phrases that should be common knowledge to all early childhood education professionals.

The chapters are laid out similarly so the student always knows what to expect.

Each subtopic is in its own chapter and can be easily skipped (or added to) if needed.

The book flowed easily from basic theorist knowledge to more in depth procedures on how to incorporate curriculum into your classroom.

The links provided in the footnotes are live and easy to access.

I did not see any grammatical errors.

The photos used were inclusive and representative.

The vignettes provided real life examples of best practices in early childhood education.

Reviewed by Diane Lewis, Adjunct Professor, Northern Essex Community College on 4/6/21

I really like how the book is broken down into sections and works from the understanding how children learn to developing curriculum. I like seeing how to set stage for learning and guiding behavior in classroom. I like how the book wraps up the last 9 chapters with what the curriculum looks like. Concluding with documentation and assessment is a great way to end the students learning. This book will be very helpful in many classes in ECE.

As I was reading I found the information to be accurate and error-free. The author is unbiased.

It will be pretty easy to update what would need to be updated as years go by.

I really liked the clarity and the examples in the chapters. Not much jargon/technical terminology to confuse the reader. Easy to read.

I liked how the book started in the understanding and ended with examples. The text was consistent in how it was written.

Different chapters can be spaced out over the course and also through other courses as well. It can easily be broken down into different sections for easier digestion of the reading. Lots of charts and pictures break up the blocks of text.

Definitely written in a logical and clear fashion. It shows someone how to educate young children.

Although there are images and charts, it is easy to navigate around them or through them. There seems to be a nice lead into the charts or images that makes it so that they are not distracting or confusing to the reader.

I did not find the text to be culturally insensitive or offensive in any way.

I would use this book in a couple of my classes. It has information that I cover in in 3 different classes.

Reviewed by Mary Ellen McGuire-Schwartz, Professor, Rhode Island College on 12/9/20

The text is comprehensive in covering areas of early childhood curriculum. I like the straightforward nature of chapter content with photos, charts, webs, links and other resources. I like the links that are available in each chapter. Some of the links are related to California State Standards and California Child Care Licensing Regulations. It would be good to have links from other states. I would also like more in the text on kindergarten - grade 2 curriculum, cultural competence, equity, Universal Design for Learning, and inclusion .

Content Accuracy rating: 4

The content appears to be very accurate with references and links provided in each chapter. I was not able to check all sources and documentation.

The content is very relevant and straightforward with links that can be updated.

I found the text very clear and to the point.

The text is internally consistent with terminology and framework. My only concern relates to limits of California regulations and standards. Is it possible to add regulations and standards of other states to the text?

There is good organization in text. The text is broken down into small organized sections with headings, subheadings, charts, and webs.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 4

The topics in the text are in general presented in a logical, clear fashion. I would like to see infant-toddler and kindergarten - second grade curriculum connected with the preschool curriculum in a logical order. More focus on both infant-toddler, Birth - 3, and kindergarten through primary curriculum, age 5-8, would add to the flow of the book. Chapters 15 and 16 cover the areas of infants and toddlers and school age curriculum at the end of the book.

The text is very clear and direct. I found no distortions of images or charts. I liked the displays of charts and webs in the book. The appendices were particularly clear and helpful.

Grammatical Errors rating: 4

I found the text grammatically correct but I did not review it with a fine tooth comb.

Cultural Relevance rating: 3

A greater focus on social justice, equity, and cultural competence throughout the book would add to its cultural relevance. More culturally diverse images would also add to the text.

In general, I like the book. It is comprehensive. I would like to see a greater focus on cultural competence, social justice, and equity.

Reviewed by Yolanda Buenafe, Early Childhood Education Faculty and Program Coordinator, Mt. Hood Community College on 8/17/20

The textbook is quite comprehensive as an overall introduction to early childhood curriculum. Content covers theories, curriculum models, developmental span from infancy to school age, and specific curriculum areas. The textbook provides a good foundation for many of our other early childhood courses, where we delve into specific topics and issues. Expansion in a few areas could be further incorporated, as indicated in other criteria sections of this review. There is an appendix section which provides useful supplemental resources. Incorporating an index and glossary would be helpful to have for future revisions of this textbook.

The content is accurate and free of bias, citing theories, research, and child development milestones and principles.

Information presented is relevant to curriculum approaches and content areas which students will need to be knowledgeable of, when considering how to apply and integrate these into their developing teaching practices. Expanding on the topics of DAP, anti-bias curriculum, and intentional teaching would increase the textbook's relevance to current and future competencies for early childhood practitioners.

The text is written in a clear manner, utilizing terminology that is pertinent and essential to those in the early childhood field. The theoretical aspects were described in a straightforward and understandable way, and further enhanced with diagrams, tables, and other visuals.

The textbook is consistent with its format of outlining objectives, followed by a concise and clear introduction of the chapter/topic, and providing vignettes and reflection questions in each chapter to connect theory with practical application. Terminology is consistent throughout the text.

The chapters cover the content areas well without being overly lengthy and include essential and relevant subtopics. In the chapters that address the various subject/curriculum areas, developmental milestones and skills for preschool ages four to five are nicely outlined in tables. For a more integrated approach emphasizing the continuum from the infant stage to school age, I would suggest that the tables include skills/milestones from infancy to school age in each of these curriculum areas, which would require revision or renaming of the ‘preschool’ planning section to include a broader scope. An additional recommendation would be to place the chapter on infant and toddler curriculum before the section/chapters on preschool curriculum. This would emphasize the adult-child interactions as central to infant and toddler curriculum, and then proceed to the more specific curriculum content chapters, providing information on how math, science, literacy, social science concepts can be identified and supported in everyday routines and explorations with infants and toddlers.

Overall the topics in each chapter are organized in a clear and systematic manner with guiding principles presented at the beginning of the chapters, followed by vignettes that bring these concepts 'to life.' The chapters end with reflection questions, providing the reader/student with a personal connection to the chapter content. Adding a more defined chapter on anti-bias curriculum in section 1 would highlight the importance of our awareness of incorporating anti-bias curriculum throughout formal and informal planning. One additional recommendation is to include a subtopic or section on managing group times in the chapter for 'Guiding Behavior and Managing the Classroom, as this is a vital skill that all teachers will need for guiding children's learning and self regulation.

The interface presented well. The visual diagrams and tables were displayed well, and enhances the written text on the respective topics. Navigation was smooth, with only one broken link at the time of this review (to the Australian Government Department of Education).

No grammatical errors were detected.

There are several vignettes presented throughout the textbook which reflect the growing diversity in our early childhood classrooms, which I found to be culturally sensitive and relevant to the experiences of our current practitioners. As mentioned earlier in this review, I suggest adding an additional chapter specific to anti-bias curriculum and cultural responsiveness.

Of all the OER textbooks written for early childhood education, I have found this Introduction to Curriculum for ECE textbook to be the best thus far. It is a compilation of all the essential information we would want to impart to our early childhood education students about what curriculum encompasses. There is a balance of theory presented in a clear and understandable manner, blended with numerous vignettes and reflection questions to support our students in their emerging teaching practices. The content provides a good foundation for knowledge of curriculum, along with many opportunities for rich discussion based on real life scenarios.

Reviewed by Maryam Sharifian, Assistant Professor, James Madison University on 7/31/20

The chapters are very well developed with achievable and comprehensive objectives. The content of each chapter unfolds each objective and provides opportunities to reflect with examples and thoughtful scenarios. Chapters are matching one another... read more

The content is accurate, error free and unbiased.

Content is up to-date but not referring to the most recent studies to make it more relevant. The technology section is not comprehensive and needs more relevant and up to date strategies to provide a better understanding of the importance of utilizing appropriate technology and developing required skills in ECE. In addition, building family school community relationship is a critical factor in ECE that should be more highlighted and extended throughout the content.

The content is explicit and understandable. It is easy to follow each section and build connection between chapters.

The book is developed based on a strong consistent framework. This framework creates clarity and prevents unexpected expectations from the reader.

The authors used objectives as overall outline to create clear subheads for each chapter. Their method helps readers in understanding the content and instructors in planning teaching content.

The authors developed a great organizational layout to break down each section and keep it consistent.

There is no major interface issue. The images are not distracting, however, they do not add any significant values to the text.

The text contains no grammatical errors.

This book has a universal approach in presenting the content. The examples and scenarios are inclusive. Authors are intentional in emphasizing the importance of culturally responsive teaching. The content is developed based on children who are culturally diverse, linguistically diverse, diverse in ability, and from diverse socioeconomic backgrounds.

Introduction to Curriculum for Early Childhood Education is a great vehicle to prepare future early childhood teachers through a clear and consistent content.

Reviewed by Adkins Vernita, Associate Professor, California State University, Dominguez Hills on 7/25/20

This is a very comprehensive text covering pertinent topics in early childhood education from understanding how children learn to the appropriate setting for their learning to the curriculum topics that cover their complete educational development. read more

The content is relevant, accurate and unbiased.

The text is a compilation of current best practices experienced and grounded in research for the education of children.

It is easily read and does provide an appropriate context for use of educational terminology.

The text is consistent in use of its terminology and framework.

Each chapter presents objectives, frameworks, theories, reflections/vignettes and examples of practical applications on the chapter topic.

The topics in the text and in each chapter are presented with a comprehensive overview to specific applications.

There are no features that are distorted that may distract or confuse the reader.

There are no grammatical errors evident in the text.

Examples and pictures within the text are inclusive of a variety of races, ethnicities, and backgrounds.

This early childhood education text is clearly and beautifully written and presented with research based, comprehensive and practical information on the development and instruction of children addressing their early education environment with appropriate learning strategies.

Reviewed by John Cipora, Adjunct Instructor, Holyoke Community College on 6/30/20

I found this text to be supremely comprehensive in scope, as well as fully current and progressive in tone and intent. To my mind, it would make an ideal foundational work for undergraduate programs in early childhood education. It is sufficiently broad in topical coverage as to have utility across multiple courses, from Foundations or Early Childhood Development through Ethical and Professional Standards or Children with Special Needs. At the same time, specific sections or chapters provide sufficient depth to serve as excellent pathways of entry into dynamic and evolving topical arenas such as Diversity and Multiculturalism or Infants and Toddlers: Learning through Relationships. An index would be a useful addition to this excellent work.

I found the content to be entirely accurate, bias-free, and appropriately current in the selection of supporting resources incorporated throughout. A salient attribute of the authors' approach is the presentation of nuanced advocacy (toward full inclusion, for instance, or the need to engage families) in very matter-of-fact fashion. Rather than taking a prescriptive tone, so typical in overview college texts, the sensibility is collegial, engaging, and welcoming: content is introduced and consistently reinforced in a manner that invites readers who may be new to the field to participate in optimal, dynamic, and creative ways.

I found that the early chapters provide exemplary grounding of fundamental educational frameworks in such engaging, expansive, and globally relevant fashion that everything that follows flows logically and consistently from those introductory passages. Such clarity of concept and logic of sequencing affords a seamless structure to which future essential changes can be made in organic, authentic fashion as core professional concepts get refined or added. In the vernacular of the moment, the authors have created a 'living document' which captures central current best practices while being open to creative amplification going forward.

In my view, the writing throughout is accessible while appropriately academic, and richly informative while never being pedantic or turgid. The enthusiasm and expertise of the authors shines through in lucid prose and evocative, relevant, often inspired selection of supporting photographs and figures. The tone is inviting along with being professional; the always-implicit, often-explicit expectation is that optimal professionalism is a given, at all times and in all contexts. The reader is guided to the fundamental recognition that, while every practitioner can and should enhance their competencies, there is a baseline of excellence to which each person who enters an early childhood education center as a professional needs to adhere: a most appropriate metaview, in short.

The authors have deftly managed to frame the entire work in such a way as to be infused with a single authorial voice--no small accomplishment for a work with multiple contributors. The clarity of the format, recursive but never simply repetitive, serves as an intuitively-navigable sequence of guideposts. Consequently, the reader is provided an opportunity to construct their own incrementally-enriched, coherently guided, and pedagogically interconnecting gestalt. Whether a student works through this text in sequence or in a more complex, topically-guided manner, the thematic underpinnings of the content are consistently made evident.

This is one of the most appealing attributes of the text: while the authors have rendered a field-wide overview in clear and comprehensible fashion, they have also managed to produce individual segments, whether sections or chapters, that are fully self-contained. To my mind, a dedicated practitioner--faculty member or student--could choose any such item with which to begin a unit of study, with equally substantive results. Thus, the work affords marvelously wide pathways via which to access desired content, whatever the particular curriculum of the institution choosing to use its exemplary range of opportunities.

This could be my favorite attribute of this textbook: after working through the first fifty pages or so, I realized that the organization of material was so lucid that it was perfectly seamless. It simply makes exquisite sense, providing an exemplary compendium of essential information while remaining transparent as to overall goals and intent of the overall document. The term 'reflective practitioners' kept surfacing for me: the creators understand the field, are confident as to the depth and range of their insights, and convey their expertise and enthusiasm in an entirely appropriate, coherent, and connected fashion.

This aspect of the work is particularly noteworthy, perhaps because, in its clarity, simplicity, and comprehensive nature, it is virtually invisible if one isn't specifically focused on it. Essential guiding items such as 'Pause to Reflect,' 'Vignettes,' 'Teacher Tips,' or 'Research Highlights' are emphasized without being intrusive: they flow easily into the rest of the content, welcome amplifications without being unduly distracting from the overall forward direction of the passage. The choice of placing a significant bank of relevant but secondary supporting content into an appendix is an example of a navigational decision that makes great sense. Figures available here include such items as classroom floor plans, charts of developmental metrics across domains or of salient developmental sequences, and CSEFELS tables, all of which are valuable but which would have been distracting had they been embedded in their entirety in the text proper.

As suggested above, the prose style is vivid, dynamic, and highly effective. I found no instances of content presentation that were anything less than lucid, direct, and exemplary: all that is essential is included, while nothing extraneous has been retained.

Again, the authors have been exemplars of presenters in this regard. Concepts of diversity or multiculturalism have been interwoven in every section of the text, in smooth, seamless fashion that makes such respect and inclusion perfectly matter of fact--as of course they should be. I so appreciated the full range of topics and concepts that this integrative approach subsumed, across dimensions of race and ethnicity, countries of origin, home languages, socioeconomic status, and religious beliefs as well as those less typically incorporated such as differently-abled individuals or those presenting with the full range of gender identifications or sexual orientation preferences. These presentations of equity and equality emerged consistently both in text and images.

I plan to begin using this text as soon as possible in my upcoming courses in the field, whether in blended or online modalities. My students will benefit both conceptually and economically.

Reviewed by Caitlin Malloy, Associate Lecturer, University of Massachusetts Boston on 6/29/20

This textbook provides a comprehensive summary of curriculum planning for preschool-aged (3-to 5-year old) children. With only a chapter truly dedicated to infant/toddler and early elementary-aged children, instructors who are teaching student teachers seeking a broader license (e.g., PreK-2 or Birth-5) will need to supplement the text in these areas. The book assumes a basic knowledge of child development (though a summary of developmental milestones is provided in the Appendices), and would be most useful to students who have yet had little exposure to early childhood classrooms.

The book does not have a glossary or a ‘References’ section.

The content is accurately presented, and examples illustrate the diverse demographics of students that may be encountered in a United States preschool context. The authors cite recent work from prominent scholars in the field, or research that is considered to be ‘seminal’ – together, these provide a sound summary of relevant knowledge.

One concern is that diversity/anti-bias curriculum is treated as a separate curricular area; for example, in the Preface, it is listed as one of the specific domains to plan for (separate from literacy or science). Current best practices in anti-bias curriculum planning emphasize how considerations of diversity should be embedded across all curriculum areas (in other words, as part of language and math), not as a separate domain of its own. Anti-bias curriculum is discussed, but is presented as a way to support History and Social Sciences, instead of as something that should be included in all areas of curriculum planning.

The information presented is generally relevant, given the quality and recency of the works cited. However, as pointed out earlier, the approach to discussing anti-bias work detracts from the relevance, as well-integrated anti-bias work is central to high quality early education in our current society.

The language is clear and accessible. Summary tables and charts were particularly helpful for aiding comprehension of text.

The terminology is used consistently throughout the text, and the presentation of the material is structured similarly in all chapters, making it easy to navigate.

The text is broken down into logical and manageable sections that could be divided if relevant for the course or instructor. The subheadings are very helpful in orienting the reader to the goals of each section.

Generally, the organization of the book is logical and easy to follow. The only suggestion would be to add a section about diversity/anti-bias in Chapter 1 to emphasize how these topics are relevant across all of the curricular areas (i.e., in the same way that the authors discuss technology and media in the first chapter, to describe how it pervades various developmental domains).

The text is easy to read on a screen, and the photos, tables, etc. are clearly displayed. It would have been helpful to add a ‘landmark’ on each page naming the chapter title/topic, to facilitate browsing the resources provided in the book. For example, if a reader references Appendix C following its mention in the text, the reader may then have difficulty finding their way back up to the chapter to continue reading.

The textbook is well-written, with no noticeable grammatical errors.

Some forms of diversity are quite visible throughout the textbook; for example, there are examples, anecdotes, and photos of children who are linguistically-, culturally-, racially- and neuro-diverse. However, the approach to explaining anti-bias curricular approaches is limited (which seems particularly problematic in light of the racism-related uprisings occurring at the time that this review was completed).

Throughout the text, the authors reference licensing requirements, curriculum frameworks, etc. for the state of California. Instructors planning to use this text with students working towards licensure in other states will need to be prepared to clarify, adapt, or supplement with their own state guidelines, requirements, standards, etc.

Reviewed by Maureen Provost, Associate Professor of Early Childhood and Elementary Education, Mount Wachusett Community College on 6/23/20

The text covers most areas and ideas of the subject appropriately. Although NAEYC was referenced throughout, they have a new position statement on equity. Race, poverty, social inequities, and the importance of teaching these topics in early childhood needs to be integrated in the text. The text does not have an effective index/glossary. Additionally, at the bottom of each page it would be helpful to write which content area is being covered. For example, in chapter 10 which covers Science add Ch. 10 and the word Science at the bottom of the page.

The content presented in the text is error free, unbiased, cited,and backed with solid research.

Some of the information is and will be important to the field of early education forever, such as theories, theorists, and child development. Brain research, AAP recommendations for media usage, ways to embed diversity, and trauma informed care were not adequately covered nor up to date. It is essential especially during this moment in history that we adhere to what we know is best for children. Although our students will be learning remotely, and are reaching out to families virtually, they need to be sure that parents/families understand the harm of too much media exposure.Although family involvement was mentioned at the end of each chapter in section IV, knowing that parents are children's first teachers and the importance of community involvement in early childhood education there should be a chapter dedicated to this topic.

Clarity rating: 4

The writing was clear, full of examples both with graphics, webs, charts, and photos. The language was appropriate for the context. Again, for any student that may struggle, such as an English Language Learner, a glossary of terms may be useful.

The framework for each section is consistent. Students will enjoy this easy to follow format. A strength of the text is that each section and chapter began with objectives and an introduction. This format was followed throughout.

For the most part the text could be easily and readily divisible into smaller reading sections. The vignettes and reflection boxes could be used as an assignment within themselves. The questions and scenarios posed would lead to further reflection by students.

Section IV: Infants should be discussed before toddlers, then preschoolers, and finally school age children. As a reader, and instructor I struggled with the order of this section in the text. The remaining topics are presented in a logical, clear fashion.

The interface was issue free. The charts, photos, and other display features are excellent.

The text is well written and with no noticeable grammatical errors.

Early educators set the foundation for human's life. It is imperative that we teach and address topics of anti-racism, anti-bias, multicultural education, equality, social justice, and celebrating differences in our classrooms with our students so that they can teach the children in their classrooms. This cannot be an add-on to what we are teaching at any level, rather we must integrate these messages in all that we do.

First and foremost, thank you to the authors for creating and making your text available for our students. I have been teaching early childhood and elementary education courses for more than 25 years and I will be using your text in the coming year; supplementing it with the important topics, and new information and research from our field as discussed in my review and aligning with state and national standards.

Reviewed by Jacquelynne Chase, Assistant Professor of Elementary and Early Childhood Education, Bridgewater State University on 5/27/20

Comprehensiveness was overall strong, but there were some areas that I felt should have been explored with more depth. For example, approaching social justice topics and those that are deemed “uncomfortable” that small children often times ask were not fully addressed. I would recommend supplementing this book with "Black Ants and Buddhists: Thinking Critically and Teaching Differently in the Primary Grades" by Mary Cowhey to fully address social justice education in the early childhood grades. I think that more about home-school partnerships would have benefitted this text as well. What about the role of home visits?

After reviewing this text, it was clear to me that the information presented was accurate. I did not disagree with any of the statements that were made. In addition, the citations that were throughout the text substantiated the claims satisfactorily. I greatly appreciated the balanced perspective the authors provided by including the work of many different development and education theorists. From Piaget, to Dewey, there was satisfactory breadth. One point for consideration is while intentional teaching methods is highlighted, I think that unintentional teaching should also be highlighted. There are a myriad of implicitly learned skills that children learn while participating in their explicit learning experiences. Implicit learning could be a great way to then discuss inquiry-based learning.

Relevance was achieved in this text as the citations were well-connected. Also, the sources used to compile the information presented were all fairly recent. I appreciate that when citations that were not within the past few years were seminal pieces that have not been recreated due to their high regard in the field. With the increase of educational research on the importance of social justice education and multicultural understandings, I saw this as an area that hinders its relevance. In addition, as I am writing this review in the middle of the Covid-19 pandemic, I would be remiss if I did not also mention that technology is not emphasized more with specific resource options and parental recommendations to continue the learning at home. If a future teacher is reading this text and they need to teach remotely, I have to wonder if this text helps with the remote teaching mind-set. This isn't to say that the author could have anticipated the widespread need to teach remotely, but future in-class usage should pose these questions to think beyond the text.

I was impressed by the writing style in this textbook because I found it incredibly approachable and clear. The complex ideas pertaining to cognitive development were delineated and I was able to read through dense topics with ease. I think students would benefit from this writing style.

I would consider this text to be consistent in how it presents information. The writing did not show any biases and provided balanced perspective throughout. The language used throughout was academic and did not include colloquial phrasing consistently throughout it. With an introductory text like this, it is essential to offer consistent terminology usage to reinforce students' understandings of such terms to increase their comfort and familiarity with using the terms correctly.

Modularity was an area of improvement for this text. Some topics needed more detail and others needed less to be more even. This would have, in turn, supported the organizational structure of the text. For example, section 2 that was about setting the stage for play did not integrate the routine and expectations practice that is a major portion of "the first six weeks of school" that many schools use as a standard. Behavioral expectations and routine should be further highlighted. One area that there was a great deal of information that may have offered too much depth was health and safety. Arguably, this could be integrated thought the book as health and safety need to be considered in all aspects of early child hood education. The order of the topics covered built upon one another appropriately, however.

The organization of this book, as mentioned in regard to the modularity, is appropriate. The ideas build upon one another from chapter to chapter. Th chapters also nicely refer to ideas presented early in the text to further reinforce understanding. For example, to fully understand the importance of the learning environment and play-based learning, as discussed in sections 2 and 3, the reader has to have a full understanding of theoretical implications, as outlined in part 1.

Interface was approachable and eye-catching. It was not overwhelming. The amount of images was appropriate. They supported the information and each served an ample purpose.

Grammatical errors were not present to me. As previously mentioned, the writing style of clear and cohesive.

Cultural Relevance rating: 2

Cultural relevance was a final area that I think warrants revision. I think that bringing in cultural implications may add to the well-roundedness of this text. As previously mentioned, the text would benefit from multicultural education and social justice education recommendations. Since Dewey is mentioned as a seminal theorist, his work is an ideal connection to helping shape future citizens through the democratizing of education. Future citizens need to foster multicultural understandings and it is integral that the process begins in their most influential years: early childhood.

I think that this text would make a great course text for an introductory-level course on early childhood education. If the students have taken a course in development of educational psychology, they may find the theoretical portion repetitive, but it serves as a helpful refresher. This text could be used as a foundational text for a course, but to provide ample insight into early childhood education, I would recommend the instructor use supplementary readings to fill in the lacking areas outlined in my review, like multicultural education and social justice education.

Reviewed by Holly McCartney, Professor, James Madison University on 4/4/20

The text covers all areas and ideas of the subject appropriately and provides an effective index and/or glossary. Response: The book does cover the subject well, however there is no index or glossary. read more

Content is accurate, error-free and unbiased.

Content is up-to-date, but not in a way that will quickly make the text obsolete within a short period of time. The text is written and/or arranged in such a way that necessary updates will be relatively easy and straightforward to implement. Some sources are from 2000 but still relevant today.

The text is written in lucid, accessible prose, and provides adequate context for any jargon/technical terminology used. I found the text easy to read with no jargon un explained.

The text is internally consistent in terms of terminology and framework. This text is very consistent in layout and framework – very easy to navigate

The text is easily and readily divisible into smaller reading sections that can be assigned at different points within the course (i.e., enormous blocks of text without subheadings should be avoided). The text should not be overly self-referential, and should be easily reorganized and realigned with various subunits of a course without presenting much disruption to the reader. Response: All of the above were noted in this text. Photos provide additional breaks in readings and there are “pause and reflect” questions for the reader to consider. Vignettes also offer readers opportunities to apply and clarify what is in the chapter.

Well organized by chapters & headings.

The text is free of significant interface issues, including navigation problems, distortion of images/charts, and any other display features that may distract or confuse the reader. I did not find any interface issues or concerns.

The text contains no grammatical errors, at least none that I could find in my reading.

The text is not culturally insensitive or offensive in any way. It should make use of examples that are inclusive of a variety of races, ethnicities, and backgrounds. All examples, photos and vignettes were diverse in the text.

One major omission: I could not find a glossary or index anywhere in the text. In text citations had no references to refer to either.

Section I: Understanding How Children Learn

Chapter 1: Foundations in Early Childhood Curriculum: Connecting Theory & Practice
Chapter 2: The Importance of Play and Intentional Teaching

Section II: Developing Curriculum to Support Children's Learning

Chapter 3: The Cycle of Curriculum Planning
Chapter 4: Developing Curriculum for a Play Centered Approach

Section III: Setting the Stage for Children's Learning

Chapter 5: Setting the Stage for Play: Environments
Chapter 6: Guiding Behavior and Managing the Classroom

Section IV: Planning for Children's Learning

Introduction to Planning for Preschoolers
Chapter 7: Social and Emotional Development
Chapter 8: Language and Literacy
Chapter 9: Mathematics
Chapter 10: Science
Chapter 11: Creative Arts
Chapter 12: History & Social Science
Chapter 13: Physical Development
Chapter 14: Health and Safety
Introduction to Planning for Other Ages
Chapter 15: What Curriculum Looks Like for Infants and Toddlers
Chapter 16: What Curriculum Looks Like for School-Age Children

Section V: Making Children's Learning Visible

Chapter 17: Documentation and Assessment

Ancillary Material

About the book.

Welcome to learning about how to effectively plan curriculum for young children. This textbook will address:

Developing curriculum through the planning cycle
Theories that inform what we know about how children learn and the best ways for teachers to support learning
The three components of developmentally appropriate practice
Importance and value of play and intentional teaching
Different models of curriculum
Process of lesson planning (documenting planned experiences for children)
Physical, temporal, and social environments that set the stage for children’s learning
Appropriate guidance techniques to support children’s behaviors as the self-regulation abilities mature.
Physical development
Language and literacy
Creative (the visual and performing arts)
Diversity (social science and history)
Health and safety
How curriculum planning for infants and toddlers is different from planning for older children
Supporting school-aged children’s learning and development in out-of-school time through curriculum planning
Making children’s learning visible through documentation and assessment

About the Contributors

Jennifer Paris

Kristin Beeve

Clint Springer

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An introduction to curriculum research and development Hardcover – January 1, 1975

Print length 248 pages
Language English
Publisher Heinemann
Publication date January 1, 1975
ISBN-10 9780435808501
ISBN-13 978-0435808501
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ASIN ‏ : ‎ 0435808508
Publisher ‏ : ‎ Heinemann (January 1, 1975)
Language ‏ : ‎ English
Hardcover ‏ : ‎ 248 pages
ISBN-10 ‏ : ‎ 9780435808501
ISBN-13 ‏ : ‎ 978-0435808501
Item Weight ‏ : ‎ 15.5 ounces
Best Sellers Rank: #6,413,565 in Books ( See Top 100 in Books )

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Lawrence stenhouse.

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An introduction to curriculum research and deve...

An introduction to curriculum research and development

Lawrence Stenhouse Published in 1975 in London by Heinemann

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Comprehensive introduction to clinical research.

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Epistemic Goals and Practices in Biology Curriculum—the Philippines and Japan

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Published: 10 May 2024

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Denis Dyvee Errabo ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4084-5142 1 , 2 , 3 ,
Keigo Fujinami 2 na1 &
Tetsuo Isozaki 2 na1

Despite cultural differences, the Philippines–Japan partnership is developing an intentional teaching curriculum with parallel standards. However, disparities among their respective educational systems have prompted inequalities. As education plays a critical role in collaboration, we explored the Epistemic Goals (EGs) and Epistemic Practices (EPs) in the biology curriculum, with the research question: How do the epistemic goals and practices of the biology curriculum transmit knowledge and skills in the Philippines and Japan? Using an ethnographic design, we conducted two iterative explorations of EGs and EPs. First, we examined the curriculum policy to determine its EGs. Using the A-B-C-D protocol, we employed discourse analysis to evaluate knowledge and skills in the biology grade-level standards. Second, we examined the articulation of goals in classroom teaching practices. We conducted classroom immersion and observed classes to determine EPs and supported our observations through interviews, synthesizing the data using inductive content analysis. Our findings revealed that the Philippines’ EGs were to transmit factual knowledge enhanced by basic science skills, and their EPs were audio-visual materials, gamified instructions, guided inquiry, posing questions, and learning-by-doing. In comparison, Japan’s EGs were to provide a solid foundation of theoretical and metacognitive knowledge, integrated science skills, and positive attitudes. Its EPs involved cultivating lasting learning, observation, investigation, experimentation, collaborative discussion, and reflective thinking. Our study makes a meaningful contribution by shedding light on crucial ideologies and cultural identities embedded in Biology curricula and teaching traditions.

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Introduction

The cultural and educational connections within the Philippines-Japan collaboration establish the basis for developing long-lasting relationships between individuals. Despite cultural differences, both countries continue to develop an intentional teaching curriculum with parallel standards. According to Joseph ( 2010 ), the most effective way to demonstrate cultural ideology is through school curriculum. The term "curriculum" refers to different areas of education, such as the content taught in schools, learning methods, teacher approaches, and student progress assessment (Schiro, 2013 ). Understanding the basic components of an effective curriculum is critical to academic achievement.

Improving the Philippines’ curriculum is a significant and urgent matter given the considerable challenges they face in academic achievement. According to the Program for International Student Assessment (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2023 ), Filipino students exhibit relatively lower levels of achievement in critical academic domains such as science, mathematics, and reading (OECD, 2023 ). In contrast, the educational system in Japan is highly regarded for its exceptional quality and performance, consistently achieving top ranks among global academic systems. The 2022 PISA assessment shows that Japanese students consistently demonstrate superior performance compared with the average in their respective subject areas (OECD, 2023 ).

The disparities in outcomes and rankings between the education systems in Japan and the Philippines prompt an intriguing inquiry: what distinguishes Japanese education and how can we draw insights from its curricular practices to enhance the quality of education in the Philippines? This inquiry is of utmost importance as we aim to improve the educational outcomes and opportunities for Filipino students through an effective, quality curriculum. Moreover, it is essential to acknowledge the substantial research gap in curriculum studies regarding curricular benchmarks. This gap provides a valuable opportunity to gain insight into the unique educational system strategies.

Background of the Study

Examining the Epistemic Goals (EGs) and Epistemic Practices (EPs) of the biology curricula requires fundamental inquiries regarding the Nature of Science (NoS), the methodologies scientists employ in knowledge acquisition, and the scientific frameworks of understanding. Brock and Park ( 2022 ) argue that there has been a longstanding emphasis in science education on comprehending the NoS and the processes and undertakings of knowledge production. These essential elements are integrated as important learning goals in global science education curricula and policy documents (Leden & Hansson, 2019 ; Olson, 2018 ; Park et al., 2020 ).

EGs play a crucial role in establishing the fundamental and structural knowledge framework, including the required skills and attitudes. It encompasses the essential cognitive abilities that are pivotal for comprehension, academic engagement, and learning. It represents knowledge seeking, comprehension, and construction, particularly within the framework of the NoS (Chinn et al., 2011 ). Similarly, EGs enable individuals to explore their own beliefs about knowledge, as emphasized by Cho et al. ( 2011 ), with a significant influence on how individuals develop epistemic values and academic achievement. This includes improving advanced literacy skills, making informed decisions, and promoting a lifelong dedication to continuous learning.

Similarly, McDevitt et al. ( 1994 ) discuss how EPs involve various personal inquiry methods. The practices discussed by Hofer ( 2001 ) relate to the personal justification of knowledge acquisition. Personal justification of epistemic beliefs occurs through reliable processes when individual and social practices are considered within the epistemological framework (Chinn et al., 2011 ). According to Goldman ( 1999 ), considerable research has been dedicated to studying reliable belief formation processes, particularly concerning specific practices within scientific inquiry, arguing that practices, as opposed to errors and ignorance, have a relatively positive effect on knowledge. Furthermore, utilizing EPs include exploring external sources of information and engaging in active cognitive construction processes, as elucidated by Muis and Franco ( 2009 ). Hence, scientific inquiry is developed as a core emphasis to raise awareness, cultivate independent thinking skills, question assumptions, and make informed judgments.

Theoretical Framework

This study anchors its theoretical framework in the earlier work of Berland et al. ( 2016 ) on Epistemologies in Practice (EIP). Two epistemic folds define this framework.

First, the EIP defines epistemic goals for student knowledge acquisition, referring to the NoS as a means of understanding scientific development (Lederman, 2002 ). It entails an epistemological investigation of the fundamental features of reality such as the essence of truth, the process of justification, and the distinction between knowledge as a manifestation of capabilities and as a collection of factual information (Knight et al., 2014 ).

Moreover, defining goals is intimately connected to the epistemic dimensions; hence, this study examines how students use epistemic considerations when constructing scientific knowledge. This approach offers an analytical lens for understanding student involvement in scientific practices, which is vital to classroom and learning engagement. Berland et al. ( 2016 ) conducted a study identifying four noteworthy epistemic considerations: nature , generality , justification , and audience .

Nature explores an extensive range of knowledge. Fundamental to this consideration is the nature of knowledge (knowledge is) and that of knowing (knowledge acquisition) (Lederman, 2007 ; Schiefer et al., 2022 ). Generality delves into complex interconnections, forming an understanding using scientific concepts and facts. For instance, a phenomenon of interest can be comprehensively understood and explained within the scientific community by examining specific contexts and conditions utilizing scientific theories (Lewis & Belanger, 2015 ). Hence, this act of knowledge generation is crucial to thoroughly comprehending observed events and phenomena (Beeth & Hewson, 1999 ).

Next, justification underscores the necessity for logical reasoning to substantiate our conceptual comprehension. It is the systematic process that employs factual information and evidence, particularly that obtained from experiments, to substantiate assertions (Peffer & Ramezani, 2019 ). This practice links evidence with knowledge to assess essential claims and facilitates meaningful discussion (McNeill et al., 2006 ; Osborne et al., 2004 ). Finally, the audience dimension orients students' knowledge and the usefulness of their understanding (Berland et al., 2016 ). It is also relevant regarding how students perceive and derive meaning from the material, and how they develop a comprehensive understanding of it (Berland & Reiser, 2009 ; Paretti, 2009 ). The combined impact of these epistemic factors intricately shapes and defines the goals that guide the pursuit of epistemic knowledge.

Second, EIP includes essential practices in the classroom and learning community. In addition to acquiring discipline-specific knowledge, Peffer and Ramezani ( 2019 ) argue that demonstrating proficiency in scientific methodologies leads to developing a sophisticated epistemological understanding of concepts relevant to the NoS and scientific knowledge. Since the NoS is an essential element of inquiry in practice, epistemology and the NoS are inextricably linked (Deng et al., 2011 ). By exploring the NoS, we can gain insight into the fundamental elements that define scientific investigation, including its fundamental principles, underlying assumptions, and the methodologies of scientific pursuit.

According to Greene et al. ( 2016 ), NoS can be used interchangeably with concepts such as personal epistemology and epistemic cognition, which explore how individuals conceptualize knowledge. Personal epistemology reflects epistemological beliefs, reflective judgments, ways of knowing, and reflection (Hofer, 2001 ), whereas epistemic cognition is the examination of knowledge, particularly the evaluation of the essential components of justification and related concepts of objectivity, subjectivity, rationality, and truth (Moshman, 2014 ).

Furthermore, Lederman et al. ( 2002 ), referred NoS to the epistemology and sociology of science – understanding science as a way of knowing, and the values and beliefs inherent in scientific knowledge and its development. It encompasses various philosophical presuppositions, including values, development, conceptual inventions, consensus-building in the scientific community, and distinguishing scientific knowledge (Lederman, 1992 ; Smith & Wenk, 2006 ; Tsai, 2007 ). The close connection between an individual's cognitive framework and the philosophical foundations of the NoS becomes evident when we recognize that these concepts have a shared identity.

Research Question

In this study we analyzed the EGs and EPs in the Biology curriculum. Specifically, we address the question: How do the epistemic goals and practices of the Biology curriculum transmit knowledge and skills in the Philippines and Japan?

Research Design

We employed an ethnography design to examine the EGs and EPs of the biology curricula. Ethnography comprehensively explores the historical, cultural, and political aspects of knowledge evident in the educational traditions and practices of the countries under study (Hout, 2004 ). It involves systematically observing individuals, locations, concepts, written records, and behaviors (Savage, 2000 ) to document routine occurrences and identify opportunities for improvement (Dixon-Woods et al., 2019 ).

Research Strategies

We investigated two iterative cases of EGs and EPs. First, to determine the framework guiding the scope and implementation of EGs, we examined the Biology Grade Level Standards (BGLSs). In this context, EGs refer to the instructions’ specific statements and purposes that outline what students are expected to learn as they interact with the curriculum (Orr et al., 2022 ; Print, 1993 ).

According to Plowright ( 2011 ), the standards within a curriculum serve as its policies. A curriculum is inherently governed by the power and knowledge structures that stem from and circulate within sociocultural and political domains (Ball et al., 2012 ). As an artifact, it embodies culture, design, and learning (Hodder, 2000 ) and is associated with socio-material factors, discursive frameworks, policies, and performativity frameworks (Horan et al., 2014 ; Kalantzis & Cope, 2020 ; Maguire et al., 2011 ).

Second, we engaged in classroom immersion for observational (teaching) research (Sheal, 1989 ) to investigate the EPs. Teaching observation is an unbiased measure that allows us to gain a thorough, firsthand understanding of teaching practice (Desimone, 2009 ). Being physically present in the learning environment provides a unique opportunity to directly observe the teaching methods and strategies in real-time, including their application and usefulness (Granström et al., 2023 ). In addition to helping us identify opportunities for unique learning practices and ways to improve education (Sullivan et al., 2012 ), it provided a better understanding and appreciation of each country's cultural and pedagogical intricacies.

Data Collection and Gathering Procedures

This longitudinal study is part of an ongoing two-year community inquiry project. Our ongoing immersion began in the last quarter of 2022. The first iteration of the case focuses on the documented policies based on the BGLS. Policy materials were obtained from the websites of the Philippines Department of Education (DepEd) and the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology (MEXT) ( 2006 ) in Japan. In the Philippines, science education goals are carefully designed with each grade level having its own standards that differentiate biology from other specialized areas of science, such as earth science, chemistry, and physics. The curriculum goals are divided into objectives customized for each grade level, thus ensuring a smooth and logical learning progression.

In contrast, science education in Japan follows a standardized set of overarching objectives that cover essential scientific concepts such as energy, particles (matter), life, and the earth. These objectives are outlined in the study course and provide a comprehensive framework that includes a range of knowledge, skills, and attitudes. The framework clearly outlines the overall objectives, making it possible to identify those specific to different scientific concepts.

The collected BGLSs were analyzed in the subsequent stages below.

Curriculum Matching and Mapping

Table 1 shows the curriculum matching results for both countries. DepEd and MEXT developed, implemented, and monitored the goals of the biology curriculum at the elementary (grades (G) 3–6), junior high (G7–G10), and lower secondary (G7–G9) levels. Employing Hale’s ( 2007 ) curriculum mapping protocol, to map EGs in the BGLS. Essential mapping was used to ascertain specific competencies, including detailed knowledge and abilities that students are expected to acquire.

Syntactic Analysis and Transformation

We expound upon these goals by examining their syntax. Syntax is a methodological analysis of the structure of sentences or statements (Foorman et al., 2016 ), including aspects such as word order, and structure. First, we investigated the verb-content-context and transformed it into Anderson and Krathwohl’s ( 2001 ) A-B-C-D protocol. As shown in Table 2 , a sample goal is divided into four distinct components.

Component A pertains to the intended audience , typically comprising students; component B relates to expected behavior or cognitive faculties component C pertains to the conditions necessary to demonstrate capabilities, and component D relates to the degree to which a behavior must be performed.

Classroom Immersion and Teaching Observation

We coordinated the immersion and teaching observation (IATO) with Philippine and Japanese school administrators. We were granted permission to conduct observations at three schools in Japan and two in the Philippines between January and December 2023. In August 2023, we conducted teaching observations in three classrooms in the Philippines. We further observed ten classrooms, which were predominantly held between November and December in Japan. Our observations encompass various aspects such as imparting subject knowledge, fostering skills, critical thinking abilities, and instilling specific values. Inside the classrooms, we were able to capture photographs and take detailed field notes, which allowed us to thoroughly document the interactions within each dynamic learning environment. By engaging in visual and observational documentation, we created a thorough record of the EPs. For ethical considerations, we deliberately chose not to incorporate any photographs of the students in this manuscript.

Interviews and Focus Group Discussions

After completing IATO, we conducted interviews with the educators to clarify the EPs. This dialogue dramatically improved our understanding of the factors influencing pedagogical decision-making by facilitating the exchange of ideas and perspectives. It also provided valuable context, enhancing our observations and enriching the quality of the observational data collected.

Data Analysis

Using discourse analysis (DA) and curriculum coding, we examined the explicit words that indicate EGs (knowledge and skills), which go beyond signs and signifiers by becoming “practices that methodically produce the objects of which they speak” (Foucault, 1972 , p. 49) at the expense of meaning formation (Khan & MacEachen, 2021 ).

We analyzed EGs based on the explicit BGLSs in the form of knowledge-using behavior and condition . Behavior referred to the knowledge dimension, and condition referred to content (scope of knowledge). To establish a connection between behavior and the cognitive domain, it is imperative to systematically categorize and classify individual cognitive verbs or processes based on their unique characteristics and underlying theoretical frameworks. This allows the development of personalized knowledge about cognitive tasks while contributing to a more organized understanding of cognitive functioning. Using Bloom’s Taxonomy of Objectives as revised by Anderson and Krathwohl ( 2001 ), we coded each behavior against the cognitive domains. Each cognitive domain uses active verbs arranged hierarchically. The first aspect is remembering , which facilitates quick recall (i.e., recognition). The second aspect is understanding , which allows one to make sense of knowledge/information (i.e., description). The third aspect is applying , which is a demonstration method/procedure (i.e., classification). The fourth aspect is analyzing , which enables breaking down the structure of one’s understanding into parts and pieces of information (i.e., differentiation). The fifth aspect is evaluating , which entails making use of one’s judgment based on parameters such as conditions (i.e., conclusion). Finally, the sixth aspect is creating , which involves putting together pieces of information to create cohesive and holistic knowledge (i.e., development).

Table 3 presents the coding of EGs using knowledge types. First, with the verb describe , we classified a wide range of behaviors from focus and recall to perception and processing to problem-solving and decision-making and compared and categorized the respective verbs based on characteristics derived from cognitive traits. In this context, the term be describes the understanding of information by employing the knowledge of principles. After determining behaviors using verbs, we further classified them into Anderson and Krathwohl’s ( 2001 ) types of knowledge (ToK). Each behavior is determined using the following: (1) familiarity with concepts, which necessitates acquiring factual knowledge (fk) , specifically knowledge of revealed facts; (2) conceptual knowledge (ck) encompassing the comprehension of ideas, associations, and operations; (3) procedural knowledge (pk), pertaining to the investigation methodology and knowledge acquisition within scientific inquiry; and (4) meta-cognitive knowledge (mck) , which denotes a more advanced level of comprehension pertaining to an individual’s understanding of cognition, self-awareness, and self-regulation. In Table 3 , remembering falls under fk , illustrating the knowledge of details/elements .

Similarly, we assessed EGs based on explicit standards in the form of practical skills (PSs) using condition and degree categories. Condition revealed the scope of knowledge and the degree of skill development. We examined the degree by selecting skills based on Gott and Duggan’s ( 1995 ) classification. These PSs were classified according to Finley ( 1983 ) Science skills . The first is Basic Science skills (BSs) , which cover fundamental scientific processes, including observation, classification, measurement, prediction, inference-making, and communication. Second, Integrated Science skills (ISs) are composites (two or more BSs) with fundamental scientific process competencies. Integrated science skills are uniformly identified as a control variable combined with interpreting, hypothesizing, and experimenting to form a cohesive approach.

Table 4 presents the coding of conditions and degrees. We underlined PSs (i.e., investigating) for ease of identification. Each skill is coded according to its degree of development. Finally, we classified the underlying skills as ISs .

Furthermore, we analyzed IATO data using inductive content analysis (ICA). ICA is a social inquiry method grounded in epistemology that depicts the reality of practice. For example, by examining learning delivery, one can identify replicable and valid strategies that can be used to draw inferences from the data (Krippendorff, 2019 ). We utilized Marying's ( 2000 ) ICA protocol to effectively organize, refine, and establish significant categories in teaching practice, ensuring that our observations and field notes were aligned.

Epistemic Goals and Practices – the Philippines

Table 5 presents the EGs and ToK in the Philippines context, utilizing behavior and condition . Regarding behavior , the data revealed a wide range of knowledge, primarily encompassing the domains of remembering and understanding. This trend indicates that the EGs emphasize acquiring crucial and foundational knowledge to develop fk , namely the specific details, elements, and principles of biology. Furthermore, this trend was consistently evident in G3, G4, G7, G8, and G9. However, we found variations in knowledge offerings for G5, G6, and G9. Higher order behavior incorporates mck in G5. This approach involves generating and cultivating strategic knowledge about health-promotion and hygienic practices. During G6, ck was presented to deliver life science principles, whereas during G9, more profound pk was presented. During G9, students were involved in the knowledge acquisition of scientific inquiry.

The condition suggests a progression of goals from elementary to junior high school. Fundamental principles of biology, such as the components and functions of living organisms, are systematically introduced in the early stages of education. For instance, as students progressed to higher grades, they were presented with more advanced concepts related to the organization and functioning of the human body.

Table 6 shows the degree-related goals and PSs in the Philippines. The data indicates that most elementary-level skills (G3–G6) involved classification, investigation, and communication. The acquisition of proficiency in classification and communication skills are imperative for developing a solid foundation for scientific literacy, commonly known as BSs . This investigation enabled a comprehensive scientific inquiry encompassing extensive processes. Investigative skills in G5 and advancements in classification improve the exploration and comprehension of biological phenomena, a combination of skills commonly referred to as ISs .

Additionally, we acknowledge the skills alignment with the proficiencies exhibited in junior high school. Where the use of condition and degree in the syntax did not effectively express practical skills, we resorted to observing behavior as an indicator of the skill dimension. Both the G7 and G8 levels of the curriculum employed the term recognize . In contrast, at the G9 level, the term familiar was used, implying the incorporation of students’ sensory abilities, such as sight or visual perception. These BSs enable students to cultivate their power of observation.

During our IATO, we identified recurring themes to indicate the EPs in the Philippines.

Audio-Visual Materials

We frequently noticed how adept educators were in using audio-visual materials (AVM) to leverage their instruction. Strategically integrating AVM materials led to more engaging and interactive multimedia content for students while stimulating their auditory and visual faculties. Interestingly, we found that the use of AVM also encourages inclusivity within the classroom. By supporting diverse learning preferences, AVM fostered wider understanding, retention, and promoted significant learning experiences.

Gamified Instruction

Several students actively participated in thrilling learning experiences. We observed a gamified strategy that effectively utilized game elements to optimize student engagement. Teachers incorporated gamified experiences, including quick recall sessions, critical thinking exercises, and formative assessments. The interactive nature of gamified experiences captured students’ attention, transforming ordinary learning activities into intellectually stimulating tasks. Therefore, sparked greater motivation, and consistent engagement.

Guided Inquiry

Students demonstrated scientific exploration consistent along with the structured guidance by their teachers. Curiosity prompted students to ask scientific questions and uncover practical solutions. This increased their interest and understanding to learning, while honing important abilities such as inquiry, critical thinking, and decision-making.

Posing Questions

We observed the art of posing thought-provoking questions. Posing questions tapped into students' inherent curiosity while stimulating their interest and motivation. Teachers often asked questions to probe student understanding and ask critical questions. Students learned self-regulation, critical inquiry, and advanced learning while providing relevant, accurate, and thorough knowledge through this guided process.

Learning-By-Doing

We witnessed a learning experience in which the students were active participants. They were engaged in dynamic discussions that provided them with first-hand encounters toward understanding. During this period, students actively engaged in observing phenomena and scientific processes. Through hands-on experiences, engaged learners assume responsibility for their own understanding. They skillfully implement acquired knowledge while effectively connecting theoretical ideas to real-life situations.

Epistemic Goals and Practices – Japan

Table 7 presents the EGs and ToK by incorporating behavior and condition . Japan has a standardized overall objective (goals) from elementary to lower secondary/junior high schools. The objective is to construct a layer: in elementary school science, each grade’s objectives fall under the subject’s overall objectives and that of lower secondary school science. Under the “objectives of science as a subject,” the first (energy and particles) and second (life and earth) fields have their own objectives, and each unit of the two fields has objectives based on the upper levels. This classification includes knowledge, abilities, and attitudes. We observed a comparable classification between the elementary and lower secondary levels. Within this categorization, there is remarkable uniformity in behavior, which illustrates the knowledge pattern. Students acquire knowledge, abilities, and attributes through higher cognitive learning, specifically in the form of creation. Each form of mck then contributes to the development of strategic knowledge, knowledge of cognitive tasks, and self-knowledge from G3–G9.

This condition entails a deeper understanding of living things, the structure of movement, the continuity of life, and the structure and function of the body. Various biology concepts facilitate scientific inquiry with the objective of advancing the understanding and acquisition of metacognitive knowledge. These objectives were designed to enhance proficiency in employing scientific methods, specifically in conducting scientific inquiry into natural objects, experiencing objects, and understanding phenomena. Furthermore, the process of developing student understanding is facilitated by their direct engagement with objects and phenomena, while honing their attitudes toward scientific inquiry.

Table 8 shows the degree-related EGs and PSs in Japan. The goals consist of knowledge, abilities, and attitude, and demonstrate the consistency of learning development across the elementary and lower secondary school levels. Irrespective of the concept being considered, skill development follows a standardized approach from G3 to G9. PSs are uniform across various learning domains, like all knowledge derived from active demonstration, including observations, experiments, and other scientific activities. Similarly, we noted that student abilities were centered around a repetitive mode of inquiry. The students employ and hone their skills to enhance their comprehension of biological principles. Furthermore, cultivating a positive attitude toward nature, life, and the environment requires consistent practice and refining one’s abilities. By employing observation, experimentation, and other practical work, students cultivate a positive disposition toward scientific inquiry and conducting scientific inquiries.

Our IATO in different schools, helped us determine recurring themes to indicate the EPs in Japan.

Cultivating Lasting Learning

Japanese teachers cultivate lasting learning. They began their lessons by writing the learning goals which are grounded on shared responsibility, to develop a sense of direction and purpose. They introduce real-world problems that allow students to connect their prior understanding. During active learning activities, the teachers gathered students’ observations and methodically arranged them on classroom boards. Such visual representations served as a valuable reference for ongoing discussions, reflection, and knowledge construction. It depicted patterns and variation that can elicit further scientific inquiries. Similarly, it promotes data-driven practice towards generating conclusions and generalizations. This approach bolstered students' capacity for analysis and cultivated a more profound comprehension of biology.

Observation, Investigation, and Experimentation

We observed learners utilizing their senses to examine organisms. They engaged in direct interactions under meticulously replicated conditions in the classroom or laboratory. They participated in a wide range of scientific activities and performed experiments. They diligently adhered to scientific methodologies and precisely recorded their discoveries to enhance understanding of diverse scientific phenomena and processes through practical activities.

Collaborative Discussion

All classes were encouraged to participate in micro-discussions. This allowed the students to ask questions, seek clarification, and enhance their understanding in a smaller and supportive environment. It was crucial for students with advanced understanding to take the lead and facilitate the discussion. Collaborative discussions were instrumental to learning from peers and affirming understanding, while expressing their thoughts and beliefs leading to collective empowerment and collaborative learning.

Reflective Thinking

The classes were adept in reflective thinking. This method encouraged students to carefully review what they had learned and evaluate if their present experiences met the learning objectives. Teachers designed purposeful queries to prompt reflection. While the students were provided ample time to ponder and participate in creating a tranquil environment for introspection.

Epistemic Goals – the Philippines and Japan

In the Philippines, EGs focus on transmitting fk . Both fk and ck are crucial for cognitive proficiency advancement (Schraw, 2006 ) and for helping students perform better in school (Idrus et al., 2022 ). Having a solid foundation of fk is essential for comprehending biological concepts. Thus, these goals aid in the development of critical thinking skills and enhancing students’ self-confidence. Moreover, this knowledge helps individuals navigate their surroundings, make informed choices, and contribute to a knowledgeable and enlightened society. Fk leverages ck , in contrast to the mere acquisition of information; fostering critical thinking skills and facilitating the transfer of learning, adaptability, and effective problem-solving.

The Philippines’ EGs mainly involve transmitting scientific skills essential for establishing scientific literacy and active participation in scientific investigations. Individuals with such skills can confidently observe, communicate, measure, hypothesize, analyze data, solve issues, and navigate the life sciences. Improving and refining these skills increases scientific comprehension and builds crucial life skills such as critical thinking, problem-solving, and communication.

In contrast, EGs in Japan center on transmitting mck , which is critical for cognitive development and learning. This knowledge can govern and regulate all aspects of knowledge or processes and can be applied to any cognitive pursuit, including learning (Flavell, 1979 ). This enables individuals to control their learning, adjust their strategies, participate in metacognitive processes, and apply their knowledge to new situations.

Japan’s EGs transmit highly integrated skills that provide a comprehensive and interdisciplinary approach to scientific inquiry. Such skills foster a holistic comprehension of broader issues and the cultivation of analytical and reasoning abilities, ideation, and advanced learning. Padilla ( 1990 ) posits that acquiring expertise is imperative for the development, experimentation, and execution of scientific research. Acquiring integrated scientific processing skills enables individuals to proficiently address complex challenges, contribute meaningfully to scientific advancement, and have a considerable impact on their understanding of biology.

Epistemic Practices – the Philippines and Japan

Epistemic practices in the Philippines capitalize on timely and relevant learner-centered pedagogy. The strategic integration of AVM resulted in an engaging and interactive classroom. AVM are designed to cater to diverse learning styles and stimulate learners’ auditory and visual faculties. AVM or multimedia inside the classroom consists of more than one medium aided by technology (Kapi et al., 2017 ; Abdulrahaman et al., 2020 ) and is used to improve understanding (Guan et al., 2018 ). Shaojie et al. ( 2022 ) found that AVM input can enrich learners' understanding of the content and motivate them to actively participate in listening comprehension activities by providing more authentic language input that is richer in multimodal cultural and situational contexts. Moreover, AVM promotes inclusivity by accommodating diverse learning preferences and enhancing comprehension and retention. This drives students’ eagerness to learn, while simplifying and adding excitement to the learning process (Rasul et al., 2011 ). AVM found to enhance student motivation and engagement (Dichev & Dicheva, 2017 ), as well as improve positive learning outcomes (Zainuddin, 2023 ), thus positively impacting student focus and concentration. Integrating gamified elements proved effective in capturing students' attention and foster a higher level of engagement.

It was also evident that the students exhibited a proactive and experiential approach toward scientific exploration. According to Kong ( 2021 ), this educational phenomenon promotes engagement and eventually leads to classroom success. The students demonstrated genuine and inherent curiosity and displayed a sincere interest in biology. Wang et al. ( 2022 ) argue that inquiries and epistemological beliefs form the foundation of scientific literacy. The teachers' adept organization and support effectively nurtured this curiosity. Students’ inherent inquisitiveness, under the guidance of the teacher's intentional mentorship, fostered an atmosphere conducive to purposeful inquiry and thus a heightened comprehension of biology. Based on Lin et al. ( 2011 ) and Jack et al. ( 2014 ), advancing toward scientific understanding and the application of scientific knowledge promotes interest in learning science.

Finally, educators' ability to pose thought-provoking questions has become important in the classroom. Each teacher's inquiries shaped classroom dynamics and fostered students' curiosity, critical thinking, and academic growth (Salmon & Barrera, 2021 ). Hilsdon ( 2010 ) states that insightful inquiries can lead to critical thinking by efficiently probing comprehension. Students actively participate in dynamic discussions and take responsibility for their learning.

Conversely, EPs in Japan use advanced methods to create a highly engaged and learning environment, outperforming traditional education. Teacher techniques included collaborative conversations, reflective thinking, and strategic use of thought-provoking questions throughout our classroom visits. This fostered active participation that encouraged students to critically engage and reflect on their learning. Higher-order thinking skills are essential for conceptual and disciplinary understanding (Heron & Palfreyman, 2023 ). These skills enable students to examine, synthesize, and evaluate information beyond fundamental knowledge.

Barlow et al. ( 2020 ) noted that in extensive research, empirical evidence is consistent, indicating that students who actively engage with learning materials and participate in the educational process demonstrate increased levels of engagement and achieve significantly greater learning outcomes. Similarly, Wang et al. ( 2022 ) argue that metacognitive skills help students learn and perform better. Furthermore, metacognition, or higher learning, also prepares learners for higher education (Stanton et al., 2021 ).

Reflective breaks were thoughtfully included in classroom immersion. Teachers set aside times for students to reflect. It reflects Japan's educational philosophy, which emphasizes learning, internalizing, and synthesizing knowledge to improve metacognition (Hanya et al., 2014 ). Kolb ( 1984 ) successfully linked reflection to experiential learning. The Japanese way of active learning transfer incorporates collaborative discussion and reflective dialogue. Dewey ( 1993 ) argues that reflective thinking examines beliefs, requiring careful examination of reporting, relating, reasoning, and reconstructing knowledge (Ryan, 2013 ).

We conducted ethnographic research examining two iterative cases of EGs and EPs of biology curriculum in the Philippines and Japan. We analyzed how these curricula effectively transmit valuable knowledge and skills. We found that the EGs in the Philippines were primarily grounded in disseminating factual knowledge with a specific emphasis on enhancing health and environmental awareness. Knowledge acquisition transitions from factual to conceptual as students progress to junior high school. EGs emphasize the utilization of basic science skills , particularly for exploring and comprehending various biological concepts. Alternatively, EPs prioritize learner-centered approaches that are both timely and relevant. These EPs include using AVM, gamified instruction, guided inquiry, thought-provoking questions, and hands-on learning experience.

However, EGs in Japan differed, focusing on a reliable means of imparting meta-cognitive knowledge . Students are equipped with problem-solving abilities and empowered to acquire integrated science skills to effectively engage in scientific inquiry. Implementing EPs fosters a sustainable learning environment and cultivates lasting learning, observation, investigation, experimentation, collaborative discussion, and reflective thinking.

Our findings shed light on the distinct and prioritized elements of biology standards and its EGs and EPs, making it a valuable addition to the current body of literature. Examining the realm of curriculum can improve comprehension, spark significant conversations, and enable informed decisions across cultures and borders. This research invites educators, policymakers, and stakeholders to embrace varied educational approaches to build a global community exploring knowledge and skills across national lines.

Limitations and Implications

The scope of this study is limited to a DA of the EGs and an ICA of the EPs. Our study provides insights into the development of policies and interventions that can address gaps in EGs and Eps. They can be used as a foundation for improving the biology curriculum in line with educational objectives and societal needs. Educators can also derive advantages from the findings of this study by engaging in professional development programs specifically designed to equip them with the essential skills and knowledge required to effectively implement learner-centric methodologies and integrate innovative teaching practices seamlessly. In addition, this study's cross-cultural benchmarks provide the potential for collaborative initiatives among educational institutions. Gaining insight into both commonalities and distinctions in EGs and EPs can foster cooperative endeavors aimed at improving global educational benchmarks.

Data Availability

The data have been made accessible in the results.

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Open Access funding provided by Hiroshima University. This research was financially supported by the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) KAKENHI program under Grant Number 22KF0274.

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Keigo Fujinami and Tetsuo Isozaki contributed equally to this work.

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International Research Fellow, Japan Society for the Promotion of Science Postdoctoral Fellowship (Standard), Tokyo, Japan

Denis Dyvee Errabo

Graduate School of Humanities and Social Science, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima, Japan

Denis Dyvee Errabo, Keigo Fujinami & Tetsuo Isozaki

Department of Science Education, Bro. Andrew Gonzales FSC College of Education, De La Salle University, Manila, Philippines

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Errabo, D.D., Fujinami, K. & Isozaki, T. Epistemic Goals and Practices in Biology Curriculum—the Philippines and Japan. Res Sci Educ (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11165-024-10170-9

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Published : 10 May 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s11165-024-10170-9

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(PDF) Curriculum research: Toward a framework for "research-based
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PDF Curriculum Research: What We Know and Where We Need to Go
Rigorous research confirms that curricular choices matter Multiple research studies meeting the highest bar for methodological rigor find substantial learning impacts from the adoption of specific curricula. The impact on student learning can be profound. Curriculum is a critical factor in student academic success. The What Works Clearinghouse ...
An Introduction To Curriculum Research And Development
An Introduction To Curriculum Research And Development by L. Stenhouse. Publication date 1975 Topics education, curriculum, development, research Collection opensource Language English. A major problem of mounting courses of study in curriculum and teaching has been the lack of a satisfactory British text-book. There are American text-books ...
(PDF) Introduction to 'CURRICULUM'
means. ' race course' and in education it means 'work field. of students' or 'race course of students'. The word. course means curriculum and race refers to. students experiences and ...
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An Introduction to curriculum research and development. Collation. 248 p. Material type. book. Year of publication. 1975. ISBN. -435-80850-8.
What is curriculum? Exploring theory and practice
Ross, A. (2000) Curriculum: Construction and critique, London: Falmer Press. 187 + xiii pages. Helpful overview of the history of curriculum development in Britain. Stenhouse, L. (1975) An Introduction to Curriculum Research and Development, London: Heinemann. 248 + viii pages. Classic statement of a process approach to the theory and practice ...
An Introduction to Curriculum Research and Development
Books. An Introduction to Curriculum Research and Development. Lawrence Stenhouse. Pearson Education, 1975 - Education - 248 pages. Intended for teachers and students, this is an introduction to school curriculum research and development.
Curriculum Research: What We Know and Where We Need to Go
» Research comparing one curriculum to another is very rare and, therefore, not usually actionable. The overarching conclusions from the Johns Hopkins' review are that curriculum is deeply important, that a teacher's or district's choice of curriculum can substantially impact student learning, and that-as a result-the paucity of evidence upon ...
Teachers and students as researchers: rebuilding curriculum ...
Action research (Kemmis, 2009; Kemmis & McTaggart, 1988; Kemmis, McTaggart & Nixon, 2014) continues to be a key methodology for Australian (and other) teachers engaged in curriculum inquiry: conducted for a qualification; or as part of whole-school or -faculty initiatives; and/or for professional development associated with a funded project ...
An Introduction to Curriculum Research and Development
An Introduction to Curriculum Research and Development Lawrence Stenhouse Snippet view - 1975. Bibliographic information. Title: An Introduction to Curriculum Research and Development Heinemann educational books: Author: Lawrence Stenhouse: Publisher: Heinemann, 1984: Length: 248 pages : Export Citation:
Undergraduate Research in the University Curriculum: An ...
The introduction of an Undergraduate Research Opportunities Program (UROP) in the Science, ... For example, Science makes available up to 20% of curriculum for either research-based or industry-based learning; and FASS has just launched five industry tracks (10% of curriculum space) in its newly revised curriculum in 2019. Even so, at least in ...
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An introduction to curriculum research and development Bookreader Item Preview ... Curriculum planning Publisher London : Heinemann Collection inlibrary; printdisabled; internetarchivebooks Contributor Internet Archive Language English. viii, 248 p. ; 23 cm Bibliography: p. [224]-239
Integrating Research into the Undergraduate Curriculum: 1. Early
Introduction to Neuroscience Courses likely occur early in the curriculum, serving as an excellent opportunity to introduce students to research. A six-week research project has been integrated into such a course at Hope College; this experience has varied in format since it was first described ( Chase and Barney, 2009 ).
An Introduction to Curriculum Studies
Originally published in 1979 with a second edition in 1985. A basic text for students of education and teachers who are coming to terms for the first time with the nature of the curriculum. It introduces the reader to the professional field that is of concern to all engaged in the practical enterprise of education in a way which provides a ...
Introduction to Curriculum for Early Childhood Education
The textbook is quite comprehensive as an overall introduction to early childhood curriculum. Content covers theories, curriculum models, developmental span from infancy to school age, and specific curriculum areas. The textbook provides a good foundation for many of our other early childhood courses, where we delve into specific topics and issues.
Chapter IX: Curriculum Research: Problems, Techniques, and Prospects
Gage NL. "Paradigms for Research on Teaching.". Handbook of Research on Teaching 1963 Chicago Rand McNally & Co 94-141 A project of the American Educational Research Association, a department of the National Education Association. Chapter 3.
Lawrence Stenhouse: Research Methodology
the same time, greatly strengthen the particular research community (CARE) of which he was a leading member and provide a basis for teacher development. He indicated the path he was himself to take, in An Introduction to Curriculum Research and Development. Long-term improvement of education through the utilization of
An introduction to curriculum research and development
Intended for teachers and students, this is an introduction to school curriculum research and development. (source: Nielsen Book Data) Subjects. Subjects Curriculum planning. Bibliographic information. Note Imprint covered by label: Holmes & meier Publishers, New York. ISBN 0435808508 : L5.50 ($17.50 U.S.).
An introduction to curriculum research and development
Intended for teachers and students, this is an introduction to school curriculum research and development. Read more Report an issue with this product or seller. Previous page. Print length. 248 pages. Language. English. Publisher. Heinemann. Publication date. January 1, 1975. ISBN-10. 9780435808501. ISBN-13. 978-0435808501.
An Introduction to Curriculum Research and Development
Books. An Introduction to Curriculum Research and Development. Lawrence Stenhouse. Pearson Education, 1975 - Curriculum planning - 248 pages. Intended for teachers and students, this is an introduction to school curriculum research and development.
An introduction to curriculum research and development
Our web pages use cookies—information about how you interact with the site. When you select "Accept all cookies," you're agreeing to let your browser store that data on your device so that we can provide you with a better, more relevant experience.
An introduction to curriculum research and development
a An introduction to curriculum research and development. 260: a London : b Heinemann, c 1975. 300: a VIII, 248 p. 650: 7: a Curriculum planning. 2 lcsh: 852: 4: x PP b PP55 c PPW j PPW.ARC.09839 p 000000022366: 920: a book: CRD: a PPW19950210: Z30-1: l RUG01 L RUG01 m BOOK x PP 1 PP55 2 PPW 3 PPW.ARC.09839 5 000000022366 8 19950210 f 31 F ...
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The structured research curriculum offers training for residents in methodology of clinical research and study design. Residents who would like to pursue patient-oriented clinical investigation and research projects are encouraged to apply for this four-week course offered during the PGY-2 year. The Comprehensive Introduction to Clinical ...
Epistemic Goals and Practices in Biology Curriculum—the ...
Research Design. We employed an ethnography design to examine the EGs and EPs of the biology curricula. Ethnography comprehensively explores the historical, cultural, and political aspects of knowledge evident in the educational traditions and practices of the countries under study (Hout, 2004).It involves systematically observing individuals, locations, concepts, written records, and ...
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Introduction. Languages are an integral part of the curriculum. Learning a language is 'a liberation from insularity and provides an opening to other cultures'. ... overview of research' and ...
Welcome to the Purdue Online Writing Lab
The Online Writing Lab at Purdue University houses writing resources and instructional material, and we provide these as a free service of the Writing Lab at Purdue.
An introduction to curriculum research and development
Movements and institutions in curriculum development Problems in the utilization of curriculum research and development Performers: ISBN -435-80851-6 Pbk : 2.25.
Full article: Firefighters or deputy lead learners? Organizational
Introduction. This study utilizes data from research investigating New South Wales (NSW) secondary deputy principals across three education systems: the government, Catholic and independent systems (Leaf, Citation 2023).Across Australia, all three education systems are regulated by federal and state governments; the government system is the largest Australian education system, the NSW ...

What is curriculum? Exploring theory and practice

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Epistemic Goals and Practices in Biology Curriculum—the Philippines and Japan

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Introduction

Background of the Study

Theoretical Framework

Research Question

Research Design

Research Strategies

Data Collection and Gathering Procedures

Curriculum Matching and Mapping

Syntactic Analysis and Transformation

Classroom Immersion and Teaching Observation

Interviews and Focus Group Discussions

Data Analysis

Epistemic Goals and Practices – the Philippines

Audio-Visual Materials

Gamified Instruction

Guided Inquiry

Posing Questions

Learning-By-Doing

Epistemic Goals and Practices – Japan

Cultivating Lasting Learning

Observation, Investigation, and Experimentation

Collaborative Discussion

Reflective Thinking

Epistemic Goals – the Philippines and Japan

Epistemic Practices – the Philippines and Japan

Limitations and Implications

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