cambridge stem cell biology phd

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PhD in Stem Cell Biology

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The Cambridge Stem Cell Institute is a world-leading centre for stem cell research with a mission to transform human health through a deep understanding of stem cell biology. Our scientists study stem cell behaviour, both normal and pathological, and use their findings to improve the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of diseases.

The Institute consists currently of approximately  28 outstanding research groups , working across three key research themes : Stem Cell States, Stem Cells in Disease and Stem Cells & Therapeutics.

Specialist postgraduate training in Stem Cell Biology and Medicine is essential to produce a stream of highly skilled and innovative investigators equipped with a deep understanding of stem cell science and its significance for future medicine.

Our overarching goal is to produce well-trained and rounded PhD postgraduates who have generated significant and original research findings and are fully prepared for an ambitious and challenging career, whether continuing in stem cell science or moving to another profession.

The Institute offers this PhD programme of research under the individual supervision of a principal investigator. During their PhD, students are based in a research group, supported by their primary supervisor and a Postgraduate Education Committee and Postgraduate Student Committee. Students write a thesis, which is examined via an oral examination.

The PhD introduces students to research skills and specialist knowledge. Its main aims are:

• to give students with relevant experience at a first-degree level the opportunity to carry out focused research in the discipline under close supervision; and
• to give students the opportunity to acquire or develop skills and expertise relevant to their research interests.

Learning Outcomes

By the end of their PhD, students should:

• have a thorough knowledge of the literature and a comprehensive understanding of scientific methods and techniques applicable to their own research;
• be able to demonstrate originality in the application of knowledge, together with a practical understanding of how research and enquiry are used to create and interpret knowledge in their field;
• have developed the ability to critically evaluate current research and research techniques and methodologies;
• have self-direction and originality in tackling and solving problems;
• be able to act autonomously in the planning and implementation of research; and 
• have gained oral presentation and scientific writing skills.

Those who wish to progress to the PhD after completing an MPhil, will be required to satisfy their potential supervisor, Head of Department and the Faculty Degree Committee that they have the skills and ability to achieve the higher degree.

The Postgraduate Virtual Open Day usually takes place at the end of October. It’s a great opportunity to ask questions to admissions staff and academics, explore the Colleges virtually, and to find out more about courses, the application process and funding opportunities. Visit the  Postgraduate Open Day  page for more details.

See further the  Postgraduate Admissions Events  pages for other events relating to Postgraduate study, including study fairs, visits and international events.

Key Information

4 years full-time, 4-7 years part-time, study mode : research, doctor of philosophy, wellcome - medical research council cambridge stem cell institute, course - related enquiries, application - related enquiries, course on department website, dates and deadlines:, lent 2024 (closed).

Some courses can close early. See the Deadlines page for guidance on when to apply.

Easter 2024 (Closed)

Michaelmas 2024, easter 2025, funding deadlines.

These deadlines apply to applications for courses starting in Michaelmas 2024, Lent 2025 and Easter 2025.

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The School of Biological Sciences offers postgraduate students the opportunity to work with world leading scientists to expand knowledge and understanding across all aspects of biology.  Our researchers are making advances in animal, human, plant and microbial science, from the molecular and cellular levels through to tissues, organs, whole organisms, populations, ecosystems, biodiversity, and human behaviour.

Postgraduate courses in the biological sciences.

Details of the Masters courses and PhD opportunities in the Biological Sciences can be found on the University of Cambridge Postgraduate Admissions website  and are easily searchable via the online course directory .  In addition, postgraduate applicants can search for funding via the University’s Funding Portal . Potential postgraduate supervisors and their areas of expertise can be accessed via the Postgraduate School of Lifesciences  website.  This site also hosts information on researcher development and funding opportunities for postgraduate students within the Postgraduate School of Life Science, which comprises both the School of Clinical Medicine and the School of Biological Sciences.

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Applicants to taught MPhil courses based in the School of Biological Sciences, who have received a conditional offer of admission to start in October 2023, are eligible to apply for a School of Biological Sciences Master’s Bursary Award in support of their studies here at Cambridge, subject to eligibility criteria. The Bursary Awards, which are aimed at applicants from low-income households with experience of educational disadvantage, provide a top-up maintenance grant (c.£5,000) to support living expenses when a postgraduate Master’s loan or grant is taken with Student Finance England, Student Awards Agency Scotland, Student Finance Wales or Student Finance NI.

Doctoral Training Partnership (DTP)

The School of Biological Sciences, in collaboration with several University of Cambridge departments, Partner Institutes and Cambridge colleges and support from the BBSRC, have come together to create funding packages to support students in the biosciences. These BBSRC DTP studentships offer the opportunity to study for a 4-year funded PhD degree and undertake professional development and training opportunities. More information can be found on the Cambridge Biosciences DTP website .

Alexander Crummell Scholarships 2024 (MPhil and PhD)

In collaboration with Queens’ College, Cambridge, the School of Biological Sciences is inviting applications for the Alexander Crummell MPhil and PhD Scholarships. These scholarships are aimed at Home (UK fee rate) students with Black or Black-Mixed ethnicity, applying for an MPhil or PhD degree in a science-based subject at the University of Cambridge. The terms of the award include that you will become a member of Queens’ College, Cambridge. Find out more about about MPhil Scholarships and PhD Scholarships .

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The School of Biological Sciences is committed to enabling a collaborative, inclusive and diverse working and research environment where all individuals can thrive.  We are an open and welcoming community of researchers, staff and students united in our passion for biological research and academic excellence. 

The School is aligned with the University’s Equal Opportunities Policy , committing to a pro-active and inclusive approach to equality, which supports and encourages all under-represented groups, promotes an inclusive culture, and values diversity.  Ongoing challenges such as the global pandemic and the UK’s departure from the European Union will not change this outlook, and we continue our commitment to welcoming students from around the globe to study here in Cambridge. More information for international and EU postgraduate students can be found on the International Students Webpages .

The School of Biological Sciences is committed to widening participation in postgraduate studies at the University of Cambridge. The Experience Postgrad Life Sciences Summer Internship programme offers paid 8-week long research internships to UK and Republic of Ireland residents who are studying at a UK or Republic of Ireland university for their undergraduate bachelor degree.  This is a unique opportunity to interact with both postgraduate students and academics.  You can find out more on the Experiences Postgraduate Life Sciences website .

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Experience postgraduate life sciences, postgraduate study at cambridge, cambridge explained, support for students, international students, mphil in biological sciences.

The MPhil in Biological Sciences by Advanced Study is a full-time programme offering students the opportunity to undertake a period of study and lab-based research in an area of scientific importance and interest. Applications now open!

Cambridge Biosciences DTP PhD Programme

The Cambridge Biosciences Doctoral Training Partnership offers fully funded four-year PhD Studentships in the Life Sciences. The programme focusses on interdisciplinary training, skills development and provides opportunities to work with industry partners.

Postal Address: School of the Biological Sciences 17 Mill Lane Cambridge CB2 1RX Information provided by:     [email protected]

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Wellcome Four-Year (MRes + PhD) Programme in Stem Cell Biology and Medicine

Funded by  Wellcome , this 4-year (MRes + PhD) programme, based at the Cambridge Stem Cell Institute , provides students with an opportunity to spend time in three different labs during their first 'rotation' year, before making a decision about where they would like to undertake their PhD in years 2-4. The programme is suited to students who have not decided on a specific supervisor and do not have their own funding. The programme combines scientific excellence with a commitment to improving the working environment and transition support for trainees. We commit to being part of an evolving community of practitioners who will develop and share practice to bring science and culture together, placing both firmly at the heart of what we do.

For full course details see https://www.stemcells.cam.ac.uk/join-us/students/mres-phd-stem-cell-biology-medicine .

For eligibility information and how to apply, please visit https://www.postgraduate.study.cam.ac.uk/courses/directory/blscpdscb .

All applications must be submitted via the applicant portal by the closing date.

Award details

Contribution towards consumables, travel and training.

Up to two funding top-ups are available to overseas students, to cover their International Fees ( provided by Cambridge Trust and linked only to this Programme ). Applicants wanting to be considered for these overseas fee top-ups, must tick the box in their application to "apply for Cambridge Trust funding".

Extensions are considered on a case-by-case basis. Funding supplements and extensions for medical intermission may also be provided by Wellcome.

To submit the PhD within the 4 years of the Programme (i.e. the 3rd year of the PhD).

Overseas candidates who receive the Cambridge Trust overseas top-up, will be required to complete an annual report to the Trust.

Eligibility

Applicants for this course should have achieved a UK Good II.i Honours Degree ( check International Qualification equivalencies here).

In addition to receiving at least a good II.i honours degree, applicants should hold ( or expect to be awarded ) a degree in a  relevant subject area  and have a passion for scientific research .

Application Process

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MRes and PhD Studentships in Stem Cell Biology & Medicine within the Cambridge Stem Cell Institute (4 years)

Country : United Kingdom

Location : Cambridge

Organisation : Cambridge Stem Cell Institute

The University of Cambridge is exceptional in the depth and diversity of its research in Stem Cell Biology and has a dynamic and interactive research community that is ranked amongst the foremost in the world. Applications are now being accepted for places on the Wellcome Four-Year PhD Programme in Stem Cell Biology and Medicine, to commence in October 2021. Applicants are welcomed from any country, culture, socio-economic background or university and should demonstrate both a passion for scientific research and a desire to learn about Stem Cell Biology. By bringing together members of both the Schools of Biology and Medicine, this four-year PhD programme enables students on the programme to take advantage of the strength and breadth of stem cell research available in Cambridge, plus the opportunity to complete their research in one of the 25 host laboratories in Cambridge.

Course Outline

The first year MRes degree gives the students an opportunity to complete three different rotation projects in research laboratories, under the supervision of a dedicated Principal Investigator. In addition, students are required to attend weekly Stem Cell Discussion Courses , participate in both presentation sessions and an annual symposium and complete a Personal Researcher Development Training programme. New postgraduate students at the CSCI will become members of the Postgraduate School of the Life Sciences , which organise and promote many further training opportunities. Towards the end of the third rotation project, students are expected to choose a laboratory for their PhD thesis research. Students will prepare a PhD Research Proposal which will form part of the assessment towards the MRes in Stem Cell Biology. Successful completion of the MRes will then lead onto the fully-funded three-year PhD, in a host laboratory.

Further details can be found at: https://www.stemcells.cam.ac.uk/join-us/Students/MRes-PhD_Programme .

These fully-funded studentships commence in October 2021. The funding includes the University Composition Fee (at Home (UK) rate), a travel and consumables budget and a stipend at the Wellcome rate (see here ). International students can apply for a Cambridge Trust Scholarship during the application process to cover the difference between the 'Home' and 'Overseas' Fee rate. Other funding opportunities are also available. Further information can be found here: https://www.postgraduate.study.cam.ac.uk/funding/university-funds

Application

Further details on the application process can be found here: https://www.postgraduate.study.cam.ac.uk/courses/directory/blscpdscb/apply

Informal course-specific enquiries can be sent to: [email protected]

Postgraduate Admissions queries can be sent to: [email protected]

The closing date for receipt of applications is: 7 January 2021. Short-listed applicants will be invited to interview the week commencing 25 January 2021. You will be interviewed by a panel from the Cambridge Stem Cell Institute.

The University actively supports equality, diversity and inclusion and encourages applications from all sections of society.

The University has a responsibility to ensure that all employees are eligible to live and work in the UK.

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PhD in Stem Cell Biology

University of cambridge, different course options.

• Key information

Course Summary

Tuition fees, entry requirements, similar courses at different universities, key information data source : idp connect, qualification type.

PhD/DPhil - Doctor of Philosophy

Subject areas

Cell Biology

Course type

The Cambridge Stem Cell Institute is a world-leading centre for stem cell research with a mission to transform human health through a deep understanding of stem cell biology. Our scientists study stem cell behaviour, both normal and pathological, and use their findings to improve the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of diseases.

The Institute consists of 28 outstanding research groups, working across three key research themes: Stem Cell States, Stem Cells in Disease and Stem Cells & Therapeutics.

Specialist postgraduate training in Stem Cell Biology and Medicine is essential to produce a stream of highly skilled and innovative investigators equipped with a deep understanding of stem cell science and its significance for future medicine.

Our overarching goal is to produce well-trained and rounded PhD graduates who have generated significant and original research findings and are fully prepared for an ambitious and challenging career, whether continuing in stem cell science or moving to another profession.

The Institute offers this PhD programme of research under an individual supervision of a principal investigator. During their PhD, the students are based in a research group, supported by their primary supervisor and a Postgraduate Education Committee and Postgraduate Student Committee. Students write a thesis, which is examined via an oral examination.

The PhD introduces students to research skills and specialist knowledge. Its main aims are: to give students with relevant experience at a first-degree level the opportunity to carry out focused research in the discipline under close supervision; and to give students the opportunity to acquire or develop skills and expertise relevant to their research interests.

UK fees Course fees for UK students

For this course (per year)

International fees Course fees for EU and international students

Applicants for this course should have achieved a UK II.i Honours Degree.

Nutrition and Metabolic Disorders (MRes)

University of roehampton, msc cellular pathology, manchester metropolitan university, skin science and stem cell biology msc, university of bradford, msc molecular cell biology, nottingham trent university, cell biology - msc, university of kent.

Developmental and Stem Cell Biology (4 years) MPhil/PhD

London, Bloomsbury

This programme offers a unique environment with one of the largest and strongest concentrations of high-quality developmental and stem cell biologists anywhere in the world. Students working in the laboratories are welcomed into vibrant groups of enthusiasts, and exposed to a wealth of expertise in an extraordinarily open and collaborative scientific community.

UK tuition fees (2024/25)

Overseas tuition fees (2024/25), programme starts, applications accepted.

Applications open

• Entry requirements

A minimum of an upper second-class UK Bachelor’s degree in an appropriate subject or an overseas qualification of an equivalent standard, or a recognised Master’s degree in an appropriate subject.

The English language level for this programme is: Level 2

UCL Pre-Master's and Pre-sessional English courses are for international students who are aiming to study for a postgraduate degree at UCL. The courses will develop your academic English and academic skills required to succeed at postgraduate level.

Further information can be found on our English language requirements page.

If you are intending to apply for a time-limited visa to complete your UCL studies (e.g., Student visa, Skilled worker visa, PBS dependant visa etc.) you may be required to obtain ATAS clearance . This will be confirmed to you if you obtain an offer of a place. Please note that ATAS processing times can take up to six months, so we recommend you consider these timelines when submitting your application to UCL.

Equivalent qualifications

Country-specific information, including details of when UCL representatives are visiting your part of the world, can be obtained from the International Students website .

International applicants can find out the equivalent qualification for their country by selecting from the list below. Please note that the equivalency will correspond to the broad UK degree classification stated on this page (e.g. upper second-class). Where a specific overall percentage is required in the UK qualification, the international equivalency will be higher than that stated below. Please contact Graduate Admissions should you require further advice.

About this degree

This programme provides training at the interface between developmental and stem cell biology. It includes a first year with rotations in three laboratories, also active, small group training in key skills including good writing, experimental design, reviewing papers and many modern techniques.

Who this course is for

Our PhD programme will provide you with the opportunities to develop the analytical and research skills you need to answer the scientific questions of our time.

What this course will give you

The groups at UCL are world-leading, generating seminal contributions to their fields of study. 

This four-year programme comprises three lab rotations and a taught component in the first year, providing the basis for an informed choice and an excellent platform for progression in the research project in years two to four.

The foundation of your career

UCL is an internationally recognised and respected institution. A graduate degree from UCL opens up numerous national and international employment opportunities. Our students work with renowned mentors and are immersed in research at the cutting-edge of basic and biomedical science, emerging well-trained and well-rounded with outstanding skills, poised to take up posts in leading groups around the world. Most of our graduate students pursue very successful careers in science and medicine. Two of our recent students have been awarded the  Beddington Medal .

Employability

Many of our recent graduates have taken up postdoctoral positions, e.g. at UCL, the Francis Crick Institute, the University of Edinburgh and the California Institute of Technology.  Others have taken up analyst, consultant and specialist positions at Amazon, Costello Medical in London, Merck Ventures BV in Amsterdam and the Boston Consulting Group in Berlin.

UCL and its extended network of research institutes are located in the centre of London and are surrounded by numerous other research institutions, including the Francis Crick Institute and the Sainsbury Wellcome Centre for Neural Circuits and Behaviour. Students are encouraged to meet and collaborate extensively with members of these institutions.

You will have the opportunity to attend divisional seminars relevant to your research and participate fully in the activities of the research group to which you belong, including participating in meetings of the group and presenting data to the group as required. You will also be encouraged to take advantage of subject-specific national or international meetings and conferences every year to showcase your work and to meet and discuss your work with your peers in related areas. These meetings provide a valuable way to make contacts for future career opportunities.

Teaching and learning

PhD students work closely with their supervisor and the research team, usually in daily contact. The considerable deepening of knowledge and understanding of the research area that is characteristic of PhD study requires constant self-directed study and participation in the discussion of research methods, data analysis and interpretation.  

Throughout the PhD programme, regularly scheduled progression points are used to review academic progress. This will take the form of either a report or a meeting and is overseen by a Thesis Committee, comprised of a secondary supervisor and a thesis chair. The student is also expected to meet regularly with their supervisor and/or supervision team to oversee progress. Students are required to undertake training in statistics, transferable skills, research ethics, and skills appropriate to their studies. These are provided by the Faculty or through the UCL Doctoral School. 

The student would be expected to commit to a minimum of 36.5 hours per week, as consistent with a full-time post at UCL. This time frame also includes self-directed learning. The demands of a PhD may also necessitate additional out-of-hours work to accommodate a project’s need, e.g., data collection.

Research areas and structure

• Cell fate determination and pattern formation
• Cell migration
• Cell signalling and signal transduction mechanisms
• Early development (e.g. fertilisation, gastrulation, embryonic induction)
• Evolution and development
• Gastrulation
• Induction, tissue interactions
• Left-right asymmetry
• Live imaging
• Morphogenesis, tissue patterning
• Neural development and neural cell biology
• Regeneration and repair
• Stem cell biology
• Tissue engineering

Research environment

This programme provides an exceptional setting, boasting one of the most extensive gatherings of developmental and stem cell biologists found anywhere globally. For more details please see our Departmental website

Research areas

This programme includes a first year with a taught component and rotations in 3 laboratories, providing the basis for an informed choice and an excellent platform for progression in the research project in years 2-4. You will be trained in key skills including good writing, experimental design, reviewing papers and many modern techniques appropriate to the project.

• First year: 3 rotations of 3 months each in different laboratories, and a weekly journal club, overseen by all supervisors on the programme.  At the end of each rotation, you will be required to write a report and give a presentation.
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Low Intracellular Iron Levels May Keep Blood Stem Cells Young

Removing excess iron from aging mouse blood-forming cells enhances their regenerative capacity..

Alejandra Manjarrez is a freelance science journalist who contributes to The Scientist . She has a PhD in systems biology from ETH Zurich and a master’s in molecular biology from Utrecht University.

View full profile.

Learn about our editorial policies.

ABOVE: Keeping intracellular iron levels low may help blood stem cells maintain their regenerative potential. © iStock,  darnellvfx

H ematopoietic stem cells give rise to all blood cells in the body. Most of the time they are not dividing. Rather, they serve as a reserve for the times when the body needs rapid blood formation. “One of the reasons why we have this kind of cellular Swiss bank account [is to protect] the cellular integrity,” said Britta Will , a stem cell biologist at the Albert Einstein College of Medicine. Each cell division may harm the cells’ DNA and other macromolecules, so the very demanding task of daily blood cell production is instead accomplished by more committed descendants, namely progenitor blood cells that can differentiate into specific cell types. 

As individuals age, this cellular bank is not as readily available as in youth; the capacity of blood stem cells to self-renew declines. This reduced ability to replenish diverse blood cell types may result in impaired immune surveillance and contribute to the development of aging-associated cancers or other degenerative diseases. In a study published in Cell Stem Cell , Will and her colleagues showed that young mouse hematopoietic stem cells tightly regulate iron homeostasis to keep intracellular iron levels low, a capacity which may be lost during aging. 1 Furthermore, when researchers subjected them to additional iron restriction by using iron chelators, these cells activated a molecular response that is linked to their regenerative capacity. A treatment for intermittently removing excess iron in mice over the course of 13 months prevented the age-associated decline in these cells’ function. 

A serendipitous finding some years ago led Will and her colleagues to determine that a drug used to treat a condition associated with low blood platelet count also chelated, or removed, iron from hematopoietic stem cells. This stimulated regenerative function in mouse and human cells. 2 Interested in exploring this phenomenon further, the team monitored the available pool of iron and protein expression in blood stem cells of two- to three-month-old mice. 

The researchers found that the young cells activated key proteins to sense, transport, and store iron, tightly restricting its intracellular availability. When the researchers further restricted iron by using iron chelators, blood stem cells activated a limited iron response that encompassed iron import and mobilization to correct this deficit. The researchers found that this molecular response to iron restriction contributed to the cells’ regenerative function, while inhibiting it reduced this capacity. 

Single cell RNA sequencing analyses and other molecular techniques revealed the mechanism behind this link. Iron limitation increased the expression of Tat-interacting protein 60 kD (Tip60), an enzyme that epigenetically regulates gene expression. The researchers found that Tip60-dependent gene regulation during iron restriction led to increased fatty acid metabolism, which plays an important role in the self-renewal of these blood-forming cells. 3  

But as cells age, they may lose their ability to maintain iron homeostasis. To determine whether pharmacological iron limitation could help cells retain their regenerative capabilities during aging, Will and her colleagues injected six-month-old mice with an iron chelator for five consecutive days, repeating the treatment every four weeks for 13 months. At the end of the treatment, the hematopoietic stem cells from the treated aged mice showed a 10-fold increase in their blood formation capacity compared to those from untreated mice. “This was really, really striking,” said Will, who has received funds from Novartis Pharmaceuticals, which holds the patent on some iron chelators used in this study.    

While previous works suggested that iron may guide stem cell fate, the data in this new paper are interesting as they provide insight into the link between iron and age in blood stem cells, stated Pekka Katajisto , a stem cell biologist at the University of Helsinki and Karolinska Institute who did not participate in the study. 

However, researchers have a long way to go before considering manipulating iron levels in healthy individuals to renew or rejuvenate hematopoietic stem cells, Katajisto added. As of now, scientists do not know how the approach could harm other tissues. Yet, for specific diseases involving the hematopoietic system, “maybe this might be an interesting avenue to go,” Katajisto said.

• Kao, Y-R, et al. An iron rheostat controls hematopoietic stem cell fate . Cell Stem Cell . 2024;31(3):378-397
• Kao, Y-R, et al. Thrombopoietin receptor–independent stimulation of hematopoietic stem cells by eltrombopag . Sci Transl Med . 2018;10(458):eaas9563
• Ito, K & Suda, T. Metabolic requirements for the maintenance of self-renewing stem cells . Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol . 2014;15(4):243-56

Related cell biology Research Resources

The Scientist ’s Journal Club: Neuroscience and Cell Biology

Illuminating Specimens Through Live Cell Imaging

Exploring Stem Cell Strategies for Spinal Cord Repair

EDITORIAL article

This article is part of the research topic.

Stem Cell Technologies meet Stem Cell Biology to Shine New Light into Tropical Infectious Diseases

Editorial: Stem Cell Technologies meet Stem Cell Biology to Shine New Provisionally Accepted

• 1 School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, United Kingdom
• 2 Department of Life Sciences, Aberystwyth University, United Kingdom

The final, formatted version of the article will be published soon.

Stem Cell lines (iPSC) can be derived from blood cells or fibroblasts. These iPSCs can be cultured 120 and stored indefinitely and differentiated into different cell types relevant to the study of parasites: 121 erythrocytes, cardiomyocytes, trophoblasts. Organoids can also be generated from iPSCs to provide 122 tridimensional niches mimicking the natural environments where these parasites dwell. The potential 123for replicating these advances in the vectors involved in the transmission of these diseases is also 124 being developed. Understanding of stem and proliferative cells in multicellular metazoan parasites is 125becoming a new field leading to the better understanding of the biology of these parasites and hence 126 revealing targets for novel control strategies. 127

Keywords: Embryonic Stem Cells, Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells, Organoids, parasite stem cells, tropical infectious parasites, Protozoan parasites, Metazoan parasites, vectors

Received: 03 Apr 2024; Accepted: 09 Apr 2024.

Copyright: © 2024 Pance and Rinaldi. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

* Correspondence: Dr. Alena Pance, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, United Kingdom Dr. Gabriel Rinaldi, Department of Life Sciences, Aberystwyth University, Aberystwyth, United Kingdom

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