case study on 5g

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• Sensors (Basel)

Study and Investigation on 5G Technology: A Systematic Review

Ramraj dangi.

1 School of Computing Science and Engineering, VIT University Bhopal, Bhopal 466114, India; [email protected] (R.D.); [email protected] (P.L.)

Praveen Lalwani

Gaurav choudhary.

2 Department of Applied Mathematics and Computer Science, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Lyngby, Denmark; moc.liamg@7777yrahduohcvaruag

3 Department of Information Security Engineering, Soonchunhyang University, Asan-si 31538, Korea

Giovanni Pau

4 Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Kore University of Enna, 94100 Enna, Italy; [email protected]

Associated Data

Not applicable.

In wireless communication, Fifth Generation (5G) Technology is a recent generation of mobile networks. In this paper, evaluations in the field of mobile communication technology are presented. In each evolution, multiple challenges were faced that were captured with the help of next-generation mobile networks. Among all the previously existing mobile networks, 5G provides a high-speed internet facility, anytime, anywhere, for everyone. 5G is slightly different due to its novel features such as interconnecting people, controlling devices, objects, and machines. 5G mobile system will bring diverse levels of performance and capability, which will serve as new user experiences and connect new enterprises. Therefore, it is essential to know where the enterprise can utilize the benefits of 5G. In this research article, it was observed that extensive research and analysis unfolds different aspects, namely, millimeter wave (mmWave), massive multiple-input and multiple-output (Massive-MIMO), small cell, mobile edge computing (MEC), beamforming, different antenna technology, etc. This article’s main aim is to highlight some of the most recent enhancements made towards the 5G mobile system and discuss its future research objectives.

1. Introduction

Most recently, in three decades, rapid growth was marked in the field of wireless communication concerning the transition of 1G to 4G [ 1 , 2 ]. The main motto behind this research was the requirements of high bandwidth and very low latency. 5G provides a high data rate, improved quality of service (QoS), low-latency, high coverage, high reliability, and economically affordable services. 5G delivers services categorized into three categories: (1) Extreme mobile broadband (eMBB). It is a nonstandalone architecture that offers high-speed internet connectivity, greater bandwidth, moderate latency, UltraHD streaming videos, virtual reality and augmented reality (AR/VR) media, and many more. (2) Massive machine type communication (eMTC), 3GPP releases it in its 13th specification. It provides long-range and broadband machine-type communication at a very cost-effective price with less power consumption. eMTC brings a high data rate service, low power, extended coverage via less device complexity through mobile carriers for IoT applications. (3) ultra-reliable low latency communication (URLLC) offers low-latency and ultra-high reliability, rich quality of service (QoS), which is not possible with traditional mobile network architecture. URLLC is designed for on-demand real-time interaction such as remote surgery, vehicle to vehicle (V2V) communication, industry 4.0, smart grids, intelligent transport system, etc. [ 3 ].

1.1. Evolution from 1G to 5G

First generation (1G): 1G cell phone was launched between the 1970s and 80s, based on analog technology, which works just like a landline phone. It suffers in various ways, such as poor battery life, voice quality, and dropped calls. In 1G, the maximum achievable speed was 2.4 Kbps.

Second Generation (2G): In 2G, the first digital system was offered in 1991, providing improved mobile voice communication over 1G. In addition, Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA) and Global System for Mobile (GSM) concepts were also discussed. In 2G, the maximum achievable speed was 1 Mpbs.

Third Generation (3G): When technology ventured from 2G GSM frameworks into 3G universal mobile telecommunication system (UMTS) framework, users encountered higher system speed and quicker download speed making constant video calls. 3G was the first mobile broadband system that was formed to provide the voice with some multimedia. The technology behind 3G was high-speed packet access (HSPA/HSPA+). 3G used MIMO for multiplying the power of the wireless network, and it also used packet switching for fast data transmission.

Fourth Generation (4G): It is purely mobile broadband standard. In digital mobile communication, it was observed information rate that upgraded from 20 to 60 Mbps in 4G [ 4 ]. It works on LTE and WiMAX technologies, as well as provides wider bandwidth up to 100 Mhz. It was launched in 2010.

Fourth Generation LTE-A (4.5G): It is an advanced version of standard 4G LTE. LTE-A uses MIMO technology to combine multiple antennas for both transmitters as well as a receiver. Using MIMO, multiple signals and multiple antennas can work simultaneously, making LTE-A three times faster than standard 4G. LTE-A offered an improved system limit, decreased deferral in the application server, access triple traffic (Data, Voice, and Video) wirelessly at any time anywhere in the world.LTE-A delivers speeds of over 42 Mbps and up to 90 Mbps.

Fifth Generation (5G): 5G is a pillar of digital transformation; it is a real improvement on all the previous mobile generation networks. 5G brings three different services for end user like Extreme mobile broadband (eMBB). It offers high-speed internet connectivity, greater bandwidth, moderate latency, UltraHD streaming videos, virtual reality and augmented reality (AR/VR) media, and many more. Massive machine type communication (eMTC), it provides long-range and broadband machine-type communication at a very cost-effective price with less power consumption. eMTC brings a high data rate service, low power, extended coverage via less device complexity through mobile carriers for IoT applications. Ultra-reliable low latency communication (URLLC) offers low-latency and ultra-high reliability, rich quality of service (QoS), which is not possible with traditional mobile network architecture. URLLC is designed for on-demand real-time interaction such as remote surgery, vehicle to vehicle (V2V) communication, industry 4.0, smart grids, intelligent transport system, etc. 5G faster than 4G and offers remote-controlled operation over a reliable network with zero delays. It provides down-link maximum throughput of up to 20 Gbps. In addition, 5G also supports 4G WWWW (4th Generation World Wide Wireless Web) [ 5 ] and is based on Internet protocol version 6 (IPv6) protocol. 5G provides unlimited internet connection at your convenience, anytime, anywhere with extremely high speed, high throughput, low-latency, higher reliability and scalability, and energy-efficient mobile communication technology [ 6 ]. 5G mainly divided in two parts 6 GHz 5G and Millimeter wave(mmWave) 5G.

6 GHz is a mid frequency band which works as a mid point between capacity and coverage to offer perfect environment for 5G connectivity. 6 GHz spectrum will provide high bandwidth with improved network performance. It offers continuous channels that will reduce the need for network densification when mid-band spectrum is not available and it makes 5G connectivity affordable at anytime, anywhere for everyone.

mmWave is an essential technology of 5G network which build high performance network. 5G mmWave offer diverse services that is why all network providers should add on this technology in their 5G deployment planning. There are lots of service providers who deployed 5G mmWave, and their simulation result shows that 5G mmwave is a far less used spectrum. It provides very high speed wireless communication and it also offers ultra-wide bandwidth for next generation mobile network.

The evolution of wireless mobile technologies are presented in Table 1 . The abbreviations used in this paper are mentioned in Table 2 .

Summary of Mobile Technology.

Table of Notations and Abbreviations.

1.2. Key Contributions

The objective of this survey is to provide a detailed guide of 5G key technologies, methods to researchers, and to help with understanding how the recent works addressed 5G problems and developed solutions to tackle the 5G challenges; i.e., what are new methods that must be applied and how can they solve problems? Highlights of the research article are as follows.

• This survey focused on the recent trends and development in the era of 5G and novel contributions by the researcher community and discussed technical details on essential aspects of the 5G advancement.
• In this paper, the evolution of the mobile network from 1G to 5G is presented. In addition, the growth of mobile communication under different attributes is also discussed.
• This paper covers the emerging applications and research groups working on 5G & different research areas in 5G wireless communication network with a descriptive taxonomy.
• This survey discusses the current vision of the 5G networks, advantages, applications, key technologies, and key features. Furthermore, machine learning prospects are also explored with the emerging requirements in the 5G era. The article also focused on technical aspects of 5G IoT Based approaches and optimization techniques for 5G.
• we provide an extensive overview and recent advancement of emerging technologies of 5G mobile network, namely, MIMO, Non-Orthogonal Multiple Access (NOMA), mmWave, Internet of Things (IoT), Machine Learning (ML), and optimization. Also, a technical summary is discussed by highlighting the context of current approaches and corresponding challenges.
• Security challenges and considerations while developing 5G technology are discussed.
• Finally, the paper concludes with the future directives.

The existing survey focused on architecture, key concepts, and implementation challenges and issues. In contrast, this survey covers the state-of-the-art techniques as well as corresponding recent novel developments by researchers. Various recent significant papers are discussed with the key technologies accelerating the development and production of 5G products.

2. Existing Surveys and Their Applicability

In this paper, a detailed survey on various technologies of 5G networks is presented. Various researchers have worked on different technologies of 5G networks. In this section, Table 3 gives a tabular representation of existing surveys of 5G networks. Massive MIMO, NOMA, small cell, mmWave, beamforming, and MEC are the six main pillars that helped to implement 5G networks in real life.

A comparative overview of existing surveys on different technologies of 5G networks.

2.1. Limitations of Existing Surveys

The existing survey focused on architecture, key concepts, and implementation challenges and issues. The numerous current surveys focused on various 5G technologies with different parameters, and the authors did not cover all the technologies of the 5G network in detail with challenges and recent advancements. Few authors worked on MIMO (Non-Orthogonal Multiple Access) NOMA, MEC, small cell technologies. In contrast, some others worked on beamforming, Millimeter-wave (mmWave). But the existing survey did not cover all the technologies of the 5G network from a research and advancement perspective. No detailed survey is available in the market covering all the 5G network technologies and currently published research trade-offs. So, our main aim is to give a detailed study of all the technologies working on the 5G network. In contrast, this survey covers the state-of-the-art techniques as well as corresponding recent novel developments by researchers. Various recent significant papers are discussed with the key technologies accelerating the development and production of 5G products. This survey article collected key information about 5G technology and recent advancements, and it can be a kind of a guide for the reader. This survey provides an umbrella approach to bring multiple solutions and recent improvements in a single place to accelerate the 5G research with the latest key enabling solutions and reviews. A systematic layout representation of the survey in Figure 1 . We provide a state-of-the-art comparative overview of the existing surveys on different technologies of 5G networks in Table 3 .

Systematic layout representation of survey.

2.2. Article Organization

This article is organized under the following sections. Section 2 presents existing surveys and their applicability. In Section 3 , the preliminaries of 5G technology are presented. In Section 4 , recent advances of 5G technology based on Massive MIMO, NOMA, Millimeter Wave, 5G with IoT, machine learning for 5G, and Optimization in 5G are provided. In Section 5 , a description of novel 5G features over 4G is provided. Section 6 covered all the security concerns of the 5G network. Section 7 , 5G technology based on above-stated challenges summarize in tabular form. Finally, Section 8 and Section 9 conclude the study, which paves the path for future research.

3. Preliminary Section

3.1. emerging 5g paradigms and its features.

5G provides very high speed, low latency, and highly salable connectivity between multiple devices and IoT worldwide. 5G will provide a very flexible model to develop a modern generation of applications and industry goals [ 26 , 27 ]. There are many services offered by 5G network architecture are stated below:

Massive machine to machine communications: 5G offers novel, massive machine-to-machine communications [ 28 ], also known as the IoT [ 29 ], that provide connectivity between lots of machines without any involvement of humans. This service enhances the applications of 5G and provides connectivity between agriculture, construction, and industries [ 30 ].

Ultra-reliable low latency communications (URLLC): This service offers real-time management of machines, high-speed vehicle-to-vehicle connectivity, industrial connectivity and security principles, and highly secure transport system, and multiple autonomous actions. Low latency communications also clear up a different area where remote medical care, procedures, and operation are all achievable [ 31 ].

Enhanced mobile broadband: Enhance mobile broadband is an important use case of 5G system, which uses massive MIMO antenna, mmWave, beamforming techniques to offer very high-speed connectivity across a wide range of areas [ 32 ].

For communities: 5G provides a very flexible internet connection between lots of machines to make smart homes, smart schools, smart laboratories, safer and smart automobiles, and good health care centers [ 33 ].

For businesses and industry: As 5G works on higher spectrum ranges from 24 to 100 GHz. This higher frequency range provides secure low latency communication and high-speed wireless connectivity between IoT devices and industry 4.0, which opens a market for end-users to enhance their business models [ 34 ].

New and Emerging technologies: As 5G came up with many new technologies like beamforming, massive MIMO, mmWave, small cell, NOMA, MEC, and network slicing, it introduced many new features to the market. Like virtual reality (VR), users can experience the physical presence of people who are millions of kilometers away from them. Many new technologies like smart homes, smart workplaces, smart schools, smart sports academy also came into the market with this 5G Mobile network model [ 35 ].

3.2. Commercial Service Providers of 5G

5G provides high-speed internet browsing, streaming, and downloading with very high reliability and low latency. 5G network will change your working style, and it will increase new business opportunities and provide innovations that we cannot imagine. This section covers top service providers of 5G network [ 36 , 37 ].

Ericsson: Ericsson is a Swedish multinational networking and telecommunications company, investing around 25.62 billion USD in 5G network, which makes it the biggest telecommunication company. It claims that it is the only company working on all the continents to make the 5G network a global standard for the next generation wireless communication. Ericsson developed the first 5G radio prototype that enables the operators to set up the live field trials in their network, which helps operators understand how 5G reacts. It plays a vital role in the development of 5G hardware. It currently provides 5G services in over 27 countries with content providers like China Mobile, GCI, LGU+, AT&T, Rogers, and many more. It has 100 commercial agreements with different operators as of 2020.

Verizon: It is American multinational telecommunication which was founded in 1983. Verizon started offering 5G services in April 2020, and by December 2020, it has actively provided 5G services in 30 cities of the USA. They planned that by the end of 2021, they would deploy 5G in 30 more new cities. Verizon deployed a 5G network on mmWave, a very high band spectrum between 30 to 300 GHz. As it is a significantly less used spectrum, it provides very high-speed wireless communication. MmWave offers ultra-wide bandwidth for next-generation mobile networks. MmWave is a faster and high-band spectrum that has a limited range. Verizon planned to increase its number of 5G cells by 500% by 2020. Verizon also has an ultra wide-band flagship 5G service which is the best 5G service that increases the market price of Verizon.

Nokia: Nokia is a Finnish multinational telecommunications company which was founded in 1865. Nokia is one of the companies which adopted 5G technology very early. It is developing, researching, and building partnerships with various 5G renders to offer 5G communication as soon as possible. Nokia collaborated with Deutsche Telekom and Hamburg Port Authority and provided them 8000-hectare site for their 5G MoNArch project. Nokia is the only company that supplies 5G technology to all the operators of different countries like AT&T, Sprint, T-Mobile US and Verizon in the USA, Korea Telecom, LG U+ and SK Telecom in South Korea and NTT DOCOMO, KDDI, and SoftBank in Japan. Presently, Nokia has around 150+ agreements and 29 live networks all over the world. Nokia is continuously working hard on 5G technology to expand 5G networks all over the globe.

AT&T: AT&T is an American multinational company that was the first to deploy a 5G network in reality in 2018. They built a gigabit 5G network connection in Waco, TX, Kalamazoo, MI, and South Bend to achieve this. It is the first company that archives 1–2 gigabit per second speed in 2019. AT&T claims that it provides a 5G network connection among 225 million people worldwide by using a 6 GHz spectrum band.

T-Mobile: T-Mobile US (TMUS) is an American wireless network operator which was the first service provider that offers a real 5G nationwide network. The company knew that high-band 5G was not feasible nationwide, so they used a 600 MHz spectrum to build a significant portion of its 5G network. TMUS is planning that by 2024 they will double the total capacity and triple the full 5G capacity of T-Mobile and Sprint combined. The sprint buyout is helping T-Mobile move forward the company’s current market price to 129.98 USD.

Samsung: Samsung started their research in 5G technology in 2011. In 2013, Samsung successfully developed the world’s first adaptive array transceiver technology operating in the millimeter-wave Ka bands for cellular communications. Samsung provides several hundred times faster data transmission than standard 4G for core 5G mobile communication systems. The company achieved a lot of success in the next generation of technology, and it is considered one of the leading companies in the 5G domain.

Qualcomm: Qualcomm is an American multinational corporation in San Diego, California. It is also one of the leading company which is working on 5G chip. Qualcomm’s first 5G modem chip was announced in October 2016, and a prototype was demonstrated in October 2017. Qualcomm mainly focuses on building products while other companies talk about 5G; Qualcomm is building the technologies. According to one magazine, Qualcomm was working on three main areas of 5G networks. Firstly, radios that would use bandwidth from any network it has access to; secondly, creating more extensive ranges of spectrum by combining smaller pieces; and thirdly, a set of services for internet applications.

ZTE Corporation: ZTE Corporation was founded in 1985. It is a partially Chinese state-owned technology company that works in telecommunication. It was a leading company that worked on 4G LTE, and it is still maintaining its value and doing research and tests on 5G. It is the first company that proposed Pre5G technology with some series of solutions.

NEC Corporation: NEC Corporation is a Japanese multinational information technology and electronics corporation headquartered in Minato, Tokyo. ZTE also started their research on 5G, and they introduced a new business concept. NEC’s main aim is to develop 5G NR for the global mobile system and create secure and intelligent technologies to realize 5G services.

Cisco: Cisco is a USA networking hardware company that also sleeves up for 5G network. Cisco’s primary focus is to support 5G in three ways: Service—enable 5G services faster so all service providers can increase their business. Infrastructure—build 5G-oriented infrastructure to implement 5G more quickly. Automation—make a more scalable, flexible, and reliable 5G network. The companies know the importance of 5G, and they want to connect more than 30 billion devices in the next couple of years. Cisco intends to work on network hardening as it is a vital part of 5G network. Cisco used AI with deep learning to develop a 5G Security Architecture, enabling Secure Network Transformation.

3.3. 5G Research Groups

Many research groups from all over the world are working on a 5G wireless mobile network [ 38 ]. These groups are continuously working on various aspects of 5G. The list of those research groups are presented as follows: 5GNOW (5th Generation Non-Orthogonal Waveform for Asynchronous Signaling), NEWCOM (Network of Excellence in Wireless Communication), 5GIC (5G Innovation Center), NYU (New York University) Wireless, 5GPPP (5G Infrastructure Public-Private Partnership), EMPHATIC (Enhanced Multi-carrier Technology for Professional Adhoc and Cell-Based Communication), ETRI(Electronics and Telecommunication Research Institute), METIS (Mobile and wireless communication Enablers for the Twenty-twenty Information Society) [ 39 ]. The various research groups along with the research area are presented in Table 4 .

Research groups working on 5G mobile networks.

3.4. 5G Applications

5G is faster than 4G and offers remote-controlled operation over a reliable network with zero delays. It provides down-link maximum throughput of up to 20 Gbps. In addition, 5G also supports 4G WWWW (4th Generation World Wide Wireless Web) [ 5 ] and is based on Internet protocol version 6 (IPv6) protocol. 5G provides unlimited internet connection at your convenience, anytime, anywhere with extremely high speed, high throughput, low-latency, higher reliability, greater scalablility, and energy-efficient mobile communication technology [ 6 ].

There are lots of applications of 5G mobile network are as follows:

• High-speed mobile network: 5G is an advancement on all the previous mobile network technologies, which offers very high speed downloading speeds 0 of up to 10 to 20 Gbps. The 5G wireless network works as a fiber optic internet connection. 5G is different from all the conventional mobile transmission technologies, and it offers both voice and high-speed data connectivity efficiently. 5G offers very low latency communication of less than a millisecond, useful for autonomous driving and mission-critical applications. 5G will use millimeter waves for data transmission, providing higher bandwidth and a massive data rate than lower LTE bands. As 5 Gis a fast mobile network technology, it will enable virtual access to high processing power and secure and safe access to cloud services and enterprise applications. Small cell is one of the best features of 5G, which brings lots of advantages like high coverage, high-speed data transfer, power saving, easy and fast cloud access, etc. [ 40 ].
• Entertainment and multimedia: In one analysis in 2015, it was found that more than 50 percent of mobile internet traffic was used for video downloading. This trend will surely increase in the future, which will make video streaming more common. 5G will offer High-speed streaming of 4K videos with crystal clear audio, and it will make a high definition virtual world on your mobile. 5G will benefit the entertainment industry as it offers 120 frames per second with high resolution and higher dynamic range video streaming, and HD TV channels can also be accessed on mobile devices without any interruptions. 5G provides low latency high definition communication so augmented reality (AR), and virtual reality (VR) will be very easily implemented in the future. Virtual reality games are trendy these days, and many companies are investing in HD virtual reality games. The 5G network will offer high-speed internet connectivity with a better gaming experience [ 41 ].
• Smart homes : smart home appliances and products are in demand these days. The 5G network makes smart homes more real as it offers high-speed connectivity and monitoring of smart appliances. Smart home appliances are easily accessed and configured from remote locations using the 5G network as it offers very high-speed low latency communication.
• Smart cities: 5G wireless network also helps develop smart cities applications such as automatic traffic management, weather update, local area broadcasting, energy-saving, efficient power supply, smart lighting system, water resource management, crowd management, emergency control, etc.
• Industrial IoT: 5G wireless technology will provide lots of features for future industries such as safety, process tracking, smart packing, shipping, energy efficiency, automation of equipment, predictive maintenance, and logistics. 5G smart sensor technology also offers smarter, safer, cost-effective, and energy-saving industrial IoT operations.
• Smart Farming: 5G technology will play a crucial role in agriculture and smart farming. 5G sensors and GPS technology will help farmers track live attacks on crops and manage them quickly. These smart sensors can also be used for irrigation, pest, insect, and electricity control.
• Autonomous Driving: The 5G wireless network offers very low latency high-speed communication, significant for autonomous driving. It means self-driving cars will come to real life soon with 5G wireless networks. Using 5G autonomous cars can easily communicate with smart traffic signs, objects, and other vehicles running on the road. 5G’s low latency feature makes self-driving more real as every millisecond is essential for autonomous vehicles, decision-making is done in microseconds to avoid accidents.
• Healthcare and mission-critical applications: 5G technology will bring modernization in medicine where doctors and practitioners can perform advanced medical procedures. The 5G network will provide connectivity between all classrooms, so attending seminars and lectures will be easier. Through 5G technology, patients can connect with doctors and take their advice. Scientists are building smart medical devices which can help people with chronic medical conditions. The 5G network will boost the healthcare industry with smart devices, the internet of medical things, smart sensors, HD medical imaging technologies, and smart analytics systems. 5G will help access cloud storage, so accessing healthcare data will be very easy from any location worldwide. Doctors and medical practitioners can easily store and share large files like MRI reports within seconds using the 5G network.
• Satellite Internet: In many remote areas, ground base stations are not available, so 5G will play a crucial role in providing connectivity in such areas. The 5G network will provide connectivity using satellite systems, and the satellite system uses a constellation of multiple small satellites to provide connectivity in urban and rural areas across the world.

4. 5G Technologies

This section describes recent advances of 5G Massive MIMO, 5G NOMA, 5G millimeter wave, 5G IOT, 5G with machine learning, and 5G optimization-based approaches. In addition, the summary is also presented in each subsection that paves the researchers for the future research direction.

4.1. 5G Massive MIMO

Multiple-input-multiple-out (MIMO) is a very important technology for wireless systems. It is used for sending and receiving multiple signals simultaneously over the same radio channel. MIMO plays a very big role in WI-FI, 3G, 4G, and 4G LTE-A networks. MIMO is mainly used to achieve high spectral efficiency and energy efficiency but it was not up to the mark MIMO provides low throughput and very low reliable connectivity. To resolve this, lots of MIMO technology like single user MIMO (SU-MIMO), multiuser MIMO (MU-MIMO) and network MIMO were used. However, these new MIMO also did not still fulfill the demand of end users. Massive MIMO is an advancement of MIMO technology used in the 5G network in which hundreds and thousands of antennas are attached with base stations to increase throughput and spectral efficiency. Multiple transmit and receive antennas are used in massive MIMO to increase the transmission rate and spectral efficiency. When multiple UEs generate downlink traffic simultaneously, massive MIMO gains higher capacity. Massive MIMO uses extra antennas to move energy into smaller regions of space to increase spectral efficiency and throughput [ 43 ]. In traditional systems data collection from smart sensors is a complex task as it increases latency, reduced data rate and reduced reliability. While massive MIMO with beamforming and huge multiplexing techniques can sense data from different sensors with low latency, high data rate and higher reliability. Massive MIMO will help in transmitting the data in real-time collected from different sensors to central monitoring locations for smart sensor applications like self-driving cars, healthcare centers, smart grids, smart cities, smart highways, smart homes, and smart enterprises [ 44 ].

Highlights of 5G Massive MIMO technology are as follows:

• Data rate: Massive MIMO is advised as the one of the dominant technologies to provide wireless high speed and high data rate in the gigabits per seconds.
• The relationship between wave frequency and antenna size: Both are inversely proportional to each other. It means lower frequency signals need a bigger antenna and vise versa.

Pictorial representation of multi-input and multi-output (MIMO).

• MIMO role in 5G: Massive MIMO will play a crucial role in the deployment of future 5G mobile communication as greater spectral and energy efficiency could be enabled.

State-of-the-Art Approaches

Plenty of approaches were proposed to resolve the issues of conventional MIMO [ 7 ].

The MIMO multirate, feed-forward controller is suggested by Mae et al. [ 46 ]. In the simulation, the proposed model generates the smooth control input, unlike the conventional MIMO, which generates oscillated control inputs. It also outperformed concerning the error rate. However, a combination of multirate and single rate can be used for better results.

The performance of stand-alone MIMO, distributed MIMO with and without corporation MIMO, was investigated by Panzner et al. [ 47 ]. In addition, an idea about the integration of large scale in the 5G technology was also presented. In the experimental analysis, different MIMO configurations are considered. The variation in the ratio of overall transmit antennas to spatial is deemed step-wise from equality to ten.

The simulation of massive MIMO noncooperative and cooperative systems for down-link behavior was performed by He et al. [ 48 ]. It depends on present LTE systems, which deal with various antennas in the base station set-up. It was observed that collaboration in different BS improves the system behaviors, whereas throughput is reduced slightly in this approach. However, a new method can be developed which can enhance both system behavior and throughput.

In [ 8 ], different approaches that increased the energy efficiency benefits provided by massive MIMO were presented. They analyzed the massive MIMO technology and described the detailed design of the energy consumption model for massive MIMO systems. This article has explored several techniques to enhance massive MIMO systems’ energy efficiency (EE) gains. This paper reviews standard EE-maximization approaches for the conventional massive MIMO systems, namely, scaling number of antennas, real-time implementing low-complexity operations at the base station (BS), power amplifier losses minimization, and radio frequency (RF) chain minimization requirements. In addition, open research direction is also identified.

In [ 49 ], various existing approaches based on different antenna selection and scheduling, user selection and scheduling, and joint antenna and user scheduling methods adopted in massive MIMO systems are presented in this paper. The objective of this survey article was to make awareness about the current research and future research direction in MIMO for systems. They analyzed that complete utilization of resources and bandwidth was the most crucial factor which enhances the sum rate.

In [ 50 ], authors discussed the development of various techniques for pilot contamination. To calculate the impact of pilot contamination in time division duplex (TDD) massive MIMO system, TDD and frequency division duplexing FDD patterns in massive MIMO techniques are used. They discussed different issues in pilot contamination in TDD massive MIMO systems with all the possible future directions of research. They also classified various techniques to generate the channel information for both pilot-based and subspace-based approaches.

In [ 19 ], the authors defined the uplink and downlink services for a massive MIMO system. In addition, it maintains a performance matrix that measures the impact of pilot contamination on different performances. They also examined the various application of massive MIMO such as small cells, orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) schemes, massive MIMO IEEE 802, 3rd generation partnership project (3GPP) specifications, and higher frequency bands. They considered their research work crucial for cutting edge massive MIMO and covered many issues like system throughput performance and channel state acquisition at higher frequencies.

In [ 13 ], various approaches were suggested for MIMO future generation wireless communication. They made a comparative study based on performance indicators such as peak data rate, energy efficiency, latency, throughput, etc. The key findings of this survey are as follows: (1) spatial multiplexing improves the energy efficiency; (2) design of MIMO play a vital role in the enhancement of throughput; (3) enhancement of mMIMO focusing on energy & spectral performance; (4) discussed the future challenges to improve the system design.

In [ 51 ], the study of large-scale MIMO systems for an energy-efficient system sharing method was presented. For the resource allocation, circuit energy and transmit energy expenditures were taken into consideration. In addition, the optimization techniques were applied for an energy-efficient resource sharing system to enlarge the energy efficiency for individual QoS and energy constraints. The author also examined the BS configuration, which includes homogeneous and heterogeneous UEs. While simulating, they discussed that the total number of transmit antennas plays a vital role in boosting energy efficiency. They highlighted that the highest energy efficiency was obtained when the BS was set up with 100 antennas that serve 20 UEs.

This section includes various works done on 5G MIMO technology by different author’s. Table 5 shows how different author’s worked on improvement of various parameters such as throughput, latency, energy efficiency, and spectral efficiency with 5G MIMO technology.

Summary of massive MIMO-based approaches in 5G technology.

4.2. 5G Non-Orthogonal Multiple Access (NOMA)

NOMA is a very important radio access technology used in next generation wireless communication. Compared to previous orthogonal multiple access techniques, NOMA offers lots of benefits like high spectrum efficiency, low latency with high reliability and high speed massive connectivity. NOMA mainly works on a baseline to serve multiple users with the same resources in terms of time, space and frequency. NOMA is mainly divided into two main categories one is code domain NOMA and another is power domain NOMA. Code-domain NOMA can improve the spectral efficiency of mMIMO, which improves the connectivity in 5G wireless communication. Code-domain NOMA was divided into some more multiple access techniques like sparse code multiple access, lattice-partition multiple access, multi-user shared access and pattern-division multiple access [ 52 ]. Power-domain NOMA is widely used in 5G wireless networks as it performs well with various wireless communication techniques such as MIMO, beamforming, space-time coding, network coding, full-duplex and cooperative communication etc. [ 53 ]. The conventional orthogonal frequency-division multiple access (OFDMA) used by 3GPP in 4G LTE network provides very low spectral efficiency when bandwidth resources are allocated to users with low channel state information (CSI). NOMA resolved this issue as it enables users to access all the subcarrier channels so bandwidth resources allocated to the users with low CSI can still be accessed by the users with strong CSI which increases the spectral efficiency. The 5G network will support heterogeneous architecture in which small cell and macro base stations work for spectrum sharing. NOMA is a key technology of the 5G wireless system which is very helpful for heterogeneous networks as multiple users can share their data in a small cell using the NOMA principle.The NOMA is helpful in various applications like ultra-dense networks (UDN), machine to machine (M2M) communication and massive machine type communication (mMTC). As NOMA provides lots of features it has some challenges too such as NOMA needs huge computational power for a large number of users at high data rates to run the SIC algorithms. Second, when users are moving from the networks, to manage power allocation optimization is a challenging task for NOMA [ 54 ]. Hybrid NOMA (HNOMA) is a combination of power-domain and code-domain NOMA. HNOMA uses both power differences and orthogonal resources for transmission among multiple users. As HNOMA is using both power-domain NOMA and code-domain NOMA it can achieve higher spectral efficiency than Power-domain NOMA and code-domain NOMA. In HNOMA multiple groups can simultaneously transmit signals at the same time. It uses a message passing algorithm (MPA) and successive interference cancellation (SIC)-based detection at the base station for these groups [ 55 ].

Highlights of 5G NOMA technology as follows:

Pictorial representation of orthogonal and Non-Orthogonal Multiple Access (NOMA).

• NOMA provides higher data rates and resolves all the loop holes of OMA that makes 5G mobile network more scalable and reliable.
• As multiple users use same frequency band simultaneously it increases the performance of whole network.
• To setup intracell and intercell interference NOMA provides nonorthogonal transmission on the transmitter end.
• The primary fundamental of NOMA is to improve the spectrum efficiency by strengthening the ramification of receiver.

State-of-the-Art of Approaches

A plenty of approaches were developed to address the various issues in NOMA.

A novel approach to address the multiple receiving signals at the same frequency is proposed in [ 22 ]. In NOMA, multiple users use the same sub-carrier, which improves the fairness and throughput of the system. As a nonorthogonal method is used among multiple users, at the time of retrieving the user’s signal at the receiver’s end, joint processing is required. They proposed solutions to optimize the receiver and the radio resource allocation of uplink NOMA. Firstly, the authors proposed an iterative MUDD which utilizes the information produced by the channel decoder to improve the performance of the multiuser detector. After that, the author suggested a power allocation and novel subcarrier that enhances the users’ weighted sum rate for the NOMA scheme. Their proposed model showed that NOMA performed well as compared to OFDM in terms of fairness and efficiency.

In [ 53 ], the author’s reviewed a power-domain NOMA that uses superposition coding (SC) and successive interference cancellation (SIC) at the transmitter and the receiver end. Lots of analyses were held that described that NOMA effectively satisfies user data rate demands and network-level of 5G technologies. The paper presented a complete review of recent advances in the 5G NOMA system. It showed the comparative analysis regarding allocation procedures, user fairness, state-of-the-art efficiency evaluation, user pairing pattern, etc. The study also analyzes NOMA’s behavior when working with other wireless communication techniques, namely, beamforming, MIMO, cooperative connections, network, space-time coding, etc.

In [ 9 ], the authors proposed NOMA with MEC, which improves the QoS as well as reduces the latency of the 5G wireless network. This model increases the uplink NOMA by decreasing the user’s uplink energy consumption. They formulated an optimized NOMA framework that reduces the energy consumption of MEC by using computing and communication resource allocation, user clustering, and transmit powers.

In [ 10 ], the authors proposed a model which investigates outage probability under average channel state information CSI and data rate in full CSI to resolve the problem of optimal power allocation, which increase the NOMA downlink system among users. They developed simple low-complexity algorithms to provide the optimal solution. The obtained simulation results showed NOMA’s efficiency, achieving higher performance fairness compared to the TDMA configurations. It was observed from the results that NOMA, through the appropriate power amplifiers (PA), ensures the high-performance fairness requirement for the future 5G wireless communication networks.

In [ 56 ], researchers discussed that the NOMA technology and waveform modulation techniques had been used in the 5G mobile network. Therefore, this research gave a detailed survey of non-orthogonal waveform modulation techniques and NOMA schemes for next-generation mobile networks. By analyzing and comparing multiple access technologies, they considered the future evolution of these technologies for 5G mobile communication.

In [ 57 ], the authors surveyed non-orthogonal multiple access (NOMA) from the development phase to the recent developments. They have also compared NOMA techniques with traditional OMA techniques concerning information theory. The author discussed the NOMA schemes categorically as power and code domain, including the design principles, operating principles, and features. Comparison is based upon the system’s performance, spectral efficiency, and the receiver’s complexity. Also discussed are the future challenges, open issues, and their expectations of NOMA and how it will support the key requirements of 5G mobile communication systems with massive connectivity and low latency.

In [ 17 ], authors present the first review of an elementary NOMA model with two users, which clarify its central precepts. After that, a general design with multicarrier supports with a random number of users on each sub-carrier is analyzed. In performance evaluation with the existing approaches, resource sharing and multiple-input multiple-output NOMA are examined. Furthermore, they took the key elements of NOMA and its potential research demands. Finally, they reviewed the two-user SC-NOMA design and a multi-user MC-NOMA design to highlight NOMA’s basic approaches and conventions. They also present the research study about the performance examination, resource assignment, and MIMO in NOMA.

In this section, various works by different authors done on 5G NOMA technology is covered. Table 6 shows how other authors worked on the improvement of various parameters such as spectral efficiency, fairness, and computing capacity with 5G NOMA technology.

Summary of NOMA-based approaches in 5G technology.

4.3. 5G Millimeter Wave (mmWave)

Millimeter wave is an extremely high frequency band, which is very useful for 5G wireless networks. MmWave uses 30 GHz to 300 GHz spectrum band for transmission. The frequency band between 30 GHz to 300 GHz is known as mmWave because these waves have wavelengths between 1 to 10 mm. Till now radar systems and satellites are only using mmWave as these are very fast frequency bands which provide very high speed wireless communication. Many mobile network providers also started mmWave for transmitting data between base stations. Using two ways the speed of data transmission can be improved one is by increasing spectrum utilization and second is by increasing spectrum bandwidth. Out of these two approaches increasing bandwidth is quite easy and better. The frequency band below 5 GHz is very crowded as many technologies are using it so to boost up the data transmission rate 5G wireless network uses mmWave technology which instead of increasing spectrum utilization, increases the spectrum bandwidth [ 58 ]. To maximize the signal bandwidth in wireless communication the carrier frequency should also be increased by 5% because the signal bandwidth is directly proportional to carrier frequencies. The frequency band between 28 GHz to 60 GHz is very useful for 5G wireless communication as 28 GHz frequency band offers up to 1 GHz spectrum bandwidth and 60 GHz frequency band offers 2 GHz spectrum bandwidth. 4G LTE provides 2 GHz carrier frequency which offers only 100 MHz spectrum bandwidth. However, the use of mmWave increases the spectrum bandwidth 10 times, which leads to better transmission speeds [ 59 , 60 ].

Highlights of 5G mmWave are as follows:

Pictorial representation of millimeter wave.

• The 5G mmWave offer three advantages: (1) MmWave is very less used new Band, (2) MmWave signals carry more data than lower frequency wave, and (3) MmWave can be incorporated with MIMO antenna with the potential to offer a higher magnitude capacity compared to current communication systems.

In [ 11 ], the authors presented the survey of mmWave communications for 5G. The advantage of mmWave communications is adaptability, i.e., it supports the architectures and protocols up-gradation, which consists of integrated circuits, systems, etc. The authors over-viewed the present solutions and examined them concerning effectiveness, performance, and complexity. They also discussed the open research issues of mmWave communications in 5G concerning the software-defined network (SDN) architecture, network state information, efficient regulation techniques, and the heterogeneous system.

In [ 61 ], the authors present the recent work done by investigators in 5G; they discussed the design issues and demands of mmWave 5G antennas for cellular handsets. After that, they designed a small size and low-profile 60 GHz array of antenna units that contain 3D planer mesh-grid antenna elements. For the future prospect, a framework is designed in which antenna components are used to operate cellular handsets on mmWave 5G smartphones. In addition, they cross-checked the mesh-grid array of antennas with the polarized beam for upcoming hardware challenges.

In [ 12 ], the authors considered the suitability of the mmWave band for 5G cellular systems. They suggested a resource allocation system for concurrent D2D communications in mmWave 5G cellular systems, and it improves network efficiency and maintains network connectivity. This research article can serve as guidance for simulating D2D communications in mmWave 5G cellular systems. Massive mmWave BS may be set up to obtain a high delivery rate and aggregate efficiency. Therefore, many wireless users can hand off frequently between the mmWave base terminals, and it emerges the demand to search the neighbor having better network connectivity.

In [ 62 ], the authors provided a brief description of the cellular spectrum which ranges from 1 GHz to 3 GHz and is very crowed. In addition, they presented various noteworthy factors to set up mmWave communications in 5G, namely, channel characteristics regarding mmWave signal attenuation due to free space propagation, atmospheric gaseous, and rain. In addition, hybrid beamforming architecture in the mmWave technique is analyzed. They also suggested methods for the blockage effect in mmWave communications due to penetration damage. Finally, the authors have studied designing the mmWave transmission with small beams in nonorthogonal device-to-device communication.

This section covered various works done on 5G mmWave technology. The Table 7 shows how different author’s worked on the improvement of various parameters i.e., transmission rate, coverage, and cost, with 5G mmWave technology.

Summary of existing mmWave-based approaches in 5G technology.

4.4. 5G IoT Based Approaches

The 5G mobile network plays a big role in developing the Internet of Things (IoT). IoT will connect lots of things with the internet like appliances, sensors, devices, objects, and applications. These applications will collect lots of data from different devices and sensors. 5G will provide very high speed internet connectivity for data collection, transmission, control, and processing. 5G is a flexible network with unused spectrum availability and it offers very low cost deployment that is why it is the most efficient technology for IoT [ 63 ]. In many areas, 5G provides benefits to IoT, and below are some examples:

Smart homes: smart home appliances and products are in demand these days. The 5G network makes smart homes more real as it offers high speed connectivity and monitoring of smart appliances. Smart home appliances are easily accessed and configured from remote locations using the 5G network, as it offers very high speed low latency communication.

Smart cities: 5G wireless network also helps in developing smart cities applications such as automatic traffic management, weather update, local area broadcasting, energy saving, efficient power supply, smart lighting system, water resource management, crowd management, emergency control, etc.

Industrial IoT: 5G wireless technology will provide lots of features for future industries such as safety, process tracking, smart packing, shipping, energy efficiency, automation of equipment, predictive maintenance and logistics. 5G smart sensor technology also offers smarter, safer, cost effective, and energy-saving industrial operation for industrial IoT.

Smart Farming: 5G technology will play a crucial role for agriculture and smart farming. 5G sensors and GPS technology will help farmers to track live attacks on crops and manage them quickly. These smart sensors can also be used for irrigation control, pest control, insect control, and electricity control.

Autonomous Driving: 5G wireless network offers very low latency high speed communication which is very significant for autonomous driving. It means self-driving cars will come to real life soon with 5G wireless networks. Using 5G autonomous cars can easily communicate with smart traffic signs, objects and other vehicles running on the road. 5G’s low latency feature makes self-driving more real as every millisecond is important for autonomous vehicles, decision taking is performed in microseconds to avoid accidents [ 64 ].

Highlights of 5G IoT are as follows:

Pictorial representation of IoT with 5G.

• 5G with IoT is a new feature of next-generation mobile communication, which provides a high-speed internet connection between moderated devices. 5G IoT also offers smart homes, smart devices, sensors, smart transportation systems, smart industries, etc., for end-users to make them smarter.
• IoT deals with moderate devices which connect through the internet. The approach of the IoT has made the consideration of the research associated with the outcome of providing wearable, smart-phones, sensors, smart transportation systems, smart devices, washing machines, tablets, etc., and these diverse systems are associated to a common interface with the intelligence to connect.
• Significant IoT applications include private healthcare systems, traffic management, industrial management, and tactile internet, etc.

Plenty of approaches is devised to address the issues of IoT [ 14 , 65 , 66 ].

In [ 65 ], the paper focuses on 5G mobile systems due to the emerging trends and developing technologies, which results in the exponential traffic growth in IoT. The author surveyed the challenges and demands during deployment of the massive IoT applications with the main focus on mobile networking. The author reviewed the features of standard IoT infrastructure, along with the cellular-based, low-power wide-area technologies (LPWA) such as eMTC, extended coverage (EC)-GSM-IoT, as well as noncellular, low-power wide-area (LPWA) technologies such as SigFox, LoRa etc.

In [ 14 ], the authors presented how 5G technology copes with the various issues of IoT today. It provides a brief review of existing and forming 5G architectures. The survey indicates the role of 5G in the foundation of the IoT ecosystem. IoT and 5G can easily combine with improved wireless technologies to set up the same ecosystem that can fulfill the current requirement for IoT devices. 5G can alter nature and will help to expand the development of IoT devices. As the process of 5G unfolds, global associations will find essentials for setting up a cross-industry engagement in determining and enlarging the 5G system.

In [ 66 ], the author introduced an IoT authentication scheme in a 5G network, with more excellent reliability and dynamic. The scheme proposed a privacy-protected procedure for selecting slices; it provided an additional fog node for proper data transmission and service types of the subscribers, along with service-oriented authentication and key understanding to maintain the secrecy, precision of users, and confidentiality of service factors. Users anonymously identify the IoT servers and develop a vital channel for service accessibility and data cached on local fog nodes and remote IoT servers. The author performed a simulation to manifest the security and privacy preservation of the user over the network.

This section covered various works done on 5G IoT by multiple authors. Table 8 shows how different author’s worked on the improvement of numerous parameters, i.e., data rate, security requirement, and performance with 5G IoT.

Summary of IoT-based approaches in 5G technology.

4.5. Machine Learning Techniques for 5G

Various machine learning (ML) techniques were applied in 5G networks and mobile communication. It provides a solution to multiple complex problems, which requires a lot of hand-tuning. ML techniques can be broadly classified as supervised, unsupervised, and reinforcement learning. Let’s discuss each learning technique separately and where it impacts the 5G network.

Supervised Learning, where user works with labeled data; some 5G network problems can be further categorized as classification and regression problems. Some regression problems such as scheduling nodes in 5G and energy availability can be predicted using Linear Regression (LR) algorithm. To accurately predict the bandwidth and frequency allocation Statistical Logistic Regression (SLR) is applied. Some supervised classifiers are applied to predict the network demand and allocate network resources based on the connectivity performance; it signifies the topology setup and bit rates. Support Vector Machine (SVM) and NN-based approximation algorithms are used for channel learning based on observable channel state information. Deep Neural Network (DNN) is also employed to extract solutions for predicting beamforming vectors at the BS’s by taking mapping functions and uplink pilot signals into considerations.

In unsupervised Learning, where the user works with unlabeled data, various clustering techniques are applied to enhance network performance and connectivity without interruptions. K-means clustering reduces the data travel by storing data centers content into clusters. It optimizes the handover estimation based on mobility pattern and selection of relay nodes in the V2V network. Hierarchical clustering reduces network failure by detecting the intrusion in the mobile wireless network; unsupervised soft clustering helps in reducing latency by clustering fog nodes. The nonparametric Bayesian unsupervised learning technique reduces traffic in the network by actively serving the user’s requests and demands. Other unsupervised learning techniques such as Adversarial Auto Encoders (AAE) and Affinity Propagation Clustering techniques detect irregular behavior in the wireless spectrum and manage resources for ultradense small cells, respectively.

In case of an uncertain environment in the 5G wireless network, reinforcement learning (RL) techniques are employed to solve some problems. Actor-critic reinforcement learning is used for user scheduling and resource allocation in the network. Markov decision process (MDP) and Partially Observable MDP (POMDP) is used for Quality of Experience (QoE)-based handover decision-making for Hetnets. Controls packet call admission in HetNets and channel access process for secondary users in a Cognitive Radio Network (CRN). Deep RL is applied to decide the communication channel and mobility and speeds up the secondary user’s learning rate using an antijamming strategy. Deep RL is employed in various 5G network application parameters such as resource allocation and security [ 67 ]. Table 9 shows the state-of-the-art ML-based solution for 5G network.

The state-of-the-art ML-based solution for 5G network.

Highlights of machine learning techniques for 5G are as follows:

Pictorial representation of machine learning (ML) in 5G.

• In ML, a model will be defined which fulfills the desired requirements through which desired results are obtained. In the later stage, it examines accuracy from obtained results.
• ML plays a vital role in 5G network analysis for threat detection, network load prediction, final arrangement, and network formation. Searching for a better balance between power, length of antennas, area, and network thickness crossed with the spontaneous use of services in the universe of individual users and types of devices.

In [ 79 ], author’s firstly describes the demands for the traditional authentication procedures and benefits of intelligent authentication. The intelligent authentication method was established to improve security practice in 5G-and-beyond wireless communication systems. Thereafter, the machine learning paradigms for intelligent authentication were organized into parametric and non-parametric research methods, as well as supervised, unsupervised, and reinforcement learning approaches. As a outcome, machine learning techniques provide a new paradigm into authentication under diverse network conditions and unstable dynamics. In addition, prompt intelligence to the security management to obtain cost-effective, better reliable, model-free, continuous, and situation-aware authentication.

In [ 68 ], the authors proposed a machine learning-based model to predict the traffic load at a particular location. They used a mobile network traffic dataset to train a model that can calculate the total number of user requests at a time. To launch access and mobility management function (AMF) instances according to the requirement as there were no predictions of user request the performance automatically degrade as AMF does not handle these requests at a time. Earlier threshold-based techniques were used to predict the traffic load, but that approach took too much time; therefore, the authors proposed RNN algorithm-based ML to predict the traffic load, which gives efficient results.

In [ 15 ], authors discussed the issue of network slice admission, resource allocation among subscribers, and how to maximize the profit of infrastructure providers. The author proposed a network slice admission control algorithm based on SMDP (decision-making process) that guarantees the subscribers’ best acceptance policies and satisfiability (tenants). They also suggested novel N3AC, a neural network-based algorithm that optimizes performance under various configurations, significantly outperforms practical and straightforward approaches.

This section includes various works done on 5G ML by different authors. Table 10 shows the state-of-the-art work on the improvement of various parameters such as energy efficiency, Quality of Services (QoS), and latency with 5G ML.

The state-of-the-art ML-based approaches in 5G technology.

4.6. Optimization Techniques for 5G

Optimization techniques may be applied to capture NP-Complete or NP-Hard problems in 5G technology. This section briefly describes various research works suggested for 5G technology based on optimization techniques.

In [ 80 ], Massive MIMO technology is used in 5G mobile network to make it more flexible and scalable. The MIMO implementation in 5G needs a significant number of radio frequencies is required in the RF circuit that increases the cost and energy consumption of the 5G network. This paper provides a solution that increases the cost efficiency and energy efficiency with many radio frequency chains for a 5G wireless communication network. They give an optimized energy efficient technique for MIMO antenna and mmWave technologies based 5G mobile communication network. The proposed Energy Efficient Hybrid Precoding (EEHP) algorithm to increase the energy efficiency for the 5G wireless network. This algorithm minimizes the cost of an RF circuit with a large number of RF chains.

In [ 16 ], authors have discussed the growing demand for energy efficiency in the next-generation networks. In the last decade, they have figured out the things in wireless transmissions, which proved a change towards pursuing green communication for the next generation system. The importance of adopting the correct EE metric was also reviewed. Further, they worked through the different approaches that can be applied in the future for increasing the network’s energy and posed a summary of the work that was completed previously to enhance the energy productivity of the network using these capabilities. A system design for EE development using relay selection was also characterized, along with an observation of distinct algorithms applied for EE in relay-based ecosystems.

In [ 81 ], authors presented how AI-based approach is used to the setup of Self Organizing Network (SON) functionalities for radio access network (RAN) design and optimization. They used a machine learning approach to predict the results for 5G SON functionalities. Firstly, the input was taken from various sources; then, prediction and clustering-based machine learning models were applied to produce the results. Multiple AI-based devices were used to extract the knowledge analysis to execute SON functionalities smoothly. Based on results, they tested how self-optimization, self-testing, and self-designing are done for SON. The author also describes how the proposed mechanism classifies in different orders.

In [ 82 ], investigators examined the working of OFDM in various channel environments. They also figured out the changes in frame duration of the 5G TDD frame design. Subcarrier spacing is beneficial to obtain a small frame length with control overhead. They provided various techniques to reduce the growing guard period (GP) and cyclic prefix (CP) like complete utilization of multiple subcarrier spacing, management and data parts of frame at receiver end, various uses of timing advance (TA) or total control of flexible CP size.

This section includes various works that were done on 5G optimization by different authors. Table 11 shows how other authors worked on the improvement of multiple parameters such as energy efficiency, power optimization, and latency with 5G optimization.

Summary of Optimization Based Approaches in 5G Technology.

5. Description of Novel 5G Features over 4G

This section presents descriptions of various novel features of 5G, namely, the concept of small cell, beamforming, and MEC.

5.1. Small Cell

Small cells are low-powered cellular radio access nodes which work in the range of 10 meters to a few kilometers. Small cells play a very important role in implementation of the 5G wireless network. Small cells are low power base stations which cover small areas. Small cells are quite similar with all the previous cells used in various wireless networks. However, these cells have some advantages like they can work with low power and they are also capable of working with high data rates. Small cells help in rollout of 5G network with ultra high speed and low latency communication. Small cells in the 5G network use some new technologies like MIMO, beamforming, and mmWave for high speed data transmission. The design of small cells hardware is very simple so its implementation is quite easier and faster. There are three types of small cell tower available in the market. Femtocells, picocells, and microcells [ 83 ]. As shown in the Table 12 .

Types of Small cells.

MmWave is a very high band spectrum between 30 to 300 GHz. As it is a significantly less used spectrum, it provides very high-speed wireless communication. MmWave offers ultra-wide bandwidth for next-generation mobile networks. MmWave has lots of advantages, but it has some disadvantages, too, such as mmWave signals are very high-frequency signals, so they have more collision with obstacles in the air which cause the signals loses energy quickly. Buildings and trees also block MmWave signals, so these signals cover a shorter distance. To resolve these issues, multiple small cell stations are installed to cover the gap between end-user and base station [ 18 ]. Small cell covers a very shorter range, so the installation of a small cell depends on the population of a particular area. Generally, in a populated place, the distance between each small cell varies from 10 to 90 meters. In the survey [ 20 ], various authors implemented small cells with massive MIMO simultaneously. They also reviewed multiple technologies used in 5G like beamforming, small cell, massive MIMO, NOMA, device to device (D2D) communication. Various problems like interference management, spectral efficiency, resource management, energy efficiency, and backhauling are discussed. The author also gave a detailed presentation of all the issues occurring while implementing small cells with various 5G technologies. As shown in the Figure 7 , mmWave has a higher range, so it can be easily blocked by the obstacles as shown in Figure 7 a. This is one of the key concerns of millimeter-wave signal transmission. To solve this issue, the small cell can be placed at a short distance to transmit the signals easily, as shown in Figure 7 b.

Pictorial representation of communication with and without small cells.

5.2. Beamforming

Beamforming is a key technology of wireless networks which transmits the signals in a directional manner. 5G beamforming making a strong wireless connection toward a receiving end. In conventional systems when small cells are not using beamforming, moving signals to particular areas is quite difficult. Beamforming counter this issue using beamforming small cells are able to transmit the signals in particular direction towards a device like mobile phone, laptops, autonomous vehicle and IoT devices. Beamforming is improving the efficiency and saves the energy of the 5G network. Beamforming is broadly divided into three categories: Digital beamforming, analog beamforming and hybrid beamforming. Digital beamforming: multiuser MIMO is equal to digital beamforming which is mainly used in LTE Advanced Pro and in 5G NR. In digital beamforming the same frequency or time resources can be used to transmit the data to multiple users at the same time which improves the cell capacity of wireless networks. Analog Beamforming: In mmWave frequency range 5G NR analog beamforming is a very important approach which improves the coverage. In digital beamforming there are chances of high pathloss in mmWave as only one beam per set of antenna is formed. While the analog beamforming saves high pathloss in mmWave. Hybrid beamforming: hybrid beamforming is a combination of both analog beamforming and digital beamforming. In the implementation of MmWave in 5G network hybrid beamforming will be used [ 84 ].

Wireless signals in the 4G network are spreading in large areas, and nature is not Omnidirectional. Thus, energy depletes rapidly, and users who are accessing these signals also face interference problems. The beamforming technique is used in the 5G network to resolve this issue. In beamforming signals are directional. They move like a laser beam from the base station to the user, so signals seem to be traveling in an invisible cable. Beamforming helps achieve a faster data rate; as the signals are directional, it leads to less energy consumption and less interference. In [ 21 ], investigators evolve some techniques which reduce interference and increase system efficiency of the 5G mobile network. In this survey article, the authors covered various challenges faced while designing an optimized beamforming algorithm. Mainly focused on different design parameters such as performance evaluation and power consumption. In addition, they also described various issues related to beamforming like CSI, computation complexity, and antenna correlation. They also covered various research to cover how beamforming helps implement MIMO in next-generation mobile networks [ 85 ]. Figure 8 shows the pictorial representation of communication with and without using beamforming.

Pictorial Representation of communication with and without using beamforming.

5.3. Mobile Edge Computing

Mobile Edge Computing (MEC) [ 24 ]: MEC is an extended version of cloud computing that brings cloud resources closer to the end-user. When we talk about computing, the very first thing that comes to our mind is cloud computing. Cloud computing is a very famous technology that offers many services to end-user. Still, cloud computing has many drawbacks. The services available in the cloud are too far from end-users that create latency, and cloud user needs to download the complete application before use, which also increases the burden to the device [ 86 ]. MEC creates an edge between the end-user and cloud server, bringing cloud computing closer to the end-user. Now, all the services, namely, video conferencing, virtual software, etc., are offered by this edge that improves cloud computing performance. Another essential feature of MEC is that the application is split into two parts, which, first one is available at cloud server, and the second is at the user’s device. Therefore, the user need not download the complete application on his device that increases the performance of the end user’s device. Furthermore, MEC provides cloud services at very low latency and less bandwidth. In [ 23 , 87 ], the author’s investigation proved that successful deployment of MEC in 5G network increases the overall performance of 5G architecture. Graphical differentiation between cloud computing and mobile edge computing is presented in Figure 9 .

Pictorial representation of cloud computing vs. mobile edge computing.

6. 5G Security

Security is the key feature in the telecommunication network industry, which is necessary at various layers, to handle 5G network security in applications such as IoT, Digital forensics, IDS and many more [ 88 , 89 ]. The authors [ 90 ], discussed the background of 5G and its security concerns, challenges and future directions. The author also introduced the blockchain technology that can be incorporated with the IoT to overcome the challenges in IoT. The paper aims to create a security framework which can be incorporated with the LTE advanced network, and effective in terms of cost, deployment and QoS. In [ 91 ], author surveyed various form of attacks, the security challenges, security solutions with respect to the affected technology such as SDN, Network function virtualization (NFV), Mobile Clouds and MEC, and security standardizations of 5G, i.e., 3GPP, 5GPPP, Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), Next Generation Mobile Networks (NGMN), European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI). In [ 92 ], author elaborated various technological aspects, security issues and their existing solutions and also mentioned the new emerging technological paradigms for 5G security such as blockchain, quantum cryptography, AI, SDN, CPS, MEC, D2D. The author aims to create new security frameworks for 5G for further use of this technology in development of smart cities, transportation and healthcare. In [ 93 ], author analyzed the threats and dark threat, security aspects concerned with SDN and NFV, also their Commercial & Industrial Security Corporation (CISCO) 5G vision and new security innovations with respect to the new evolving architectures of 5G [ 94 ].

AuthenticationThe identification of the user in any network is made with the help of authentication. The different mobile network generations from 1G to 5G have used multiple techniques for user authentication. 5G utilizes the 5G Authentication and Key Agreement (AKA) authentication method, which shares a cryptographic key between user equipment (UE) and its home network and establishes a mutual authentication process between the both [ 95 ].

Access Control To restrict the accessibility in the network, 5G supports access control mechanisms to provide a secure and safe environment to the users and is controlled by network providers. 5G uses simple public key infrastructure (PKI) certificates for authenticating access in the 5G network. PKI put forward a secure and dynamic environment for the 5G network. The simple PKI technique provides flexibility to the 5G network; it can scale up and scale down as per the user traffic in the network [ 96 , 97 ].

Communication Security 5G deals to provide high data bandwidth, low latency, and better signal coverage. Therefore secure communication is the key concern in the 5G network. UE, mobile operators, core network, and access networks are the main focal point for the attackers in 5G communication. Some of the common attacks in communication at various segments are Botnet, message insertion, micro-cell, distributed denial of service (DDoS), and transport layer security (TLS)/secure sockets layer (SSL) attacks [ 98 , 99 ].

Encryption The confidentiality of the user and the network is done using encryption techniques. As 5G offers multiple services, end-to-end (E2E) encryption is the most suitable technique applied over various segments in the 5G network. Encryption forbids unauthorized access to the network and maintains the data privacy of the user. To encrypt the radio traffic at Packet Data Convergence Protocol (PDCP) layer, three 128-bits keys are applied at the user plane, nonaccess stratum (NAS), and access stratum (AS) [ 100 ].

7. Summary of 5G Technology Based on Above-Stated Challenges

In this section, various issues addressed by investigators in 5G technologies are presented in Table 13 . In addition, different parameters are considered, such as throughput, latency, energy efficiency, data rate, spectral efficiency, fairness & computing capacity, transmission rate, coverage, cost, security requirement, performance, QoS, power optimization, etc., indexed from R1 to R14.

Summary of 5G Technology above stated challenges (R1:Throughput, R2:Latency, R3:Energy Efficiency, R4:Data Rate, R5:Spectral efficiency, R6:Fairness & Computing Capacity, R7:Transmission Rate, R8:Coverage, R9:Cost, R10:Security requirement, R11:Performance, R12:Quality of Services (QoS), R13:Power Optimization).

8. Conclusions

This survey article illustrates the emergence of 5G, its evolution from 1G to 5G mobile network, applications, different research groups, their work, and the key features of 5G. It is not just a mobile broadband network, different from all the previous mobile network generations; it offers services like IoT, V2X, and Industry 4.0. This paper covers a detailed survey from multiple authors on different technologies in 5G, such as massive MIMO, Non-Orthogonal Multiple Access (NOMA), millimeter wave, small cell, MEC (Mobile Edge Computing), beamforming, optimization, and machine learning in 5G. After each section, a tabular comparison covers all the state-of-the-research held in these technologies. This survey also shows the importance of these newly added technologies and building a flexible, scalable, and reliable 5G network.

9. Future Findings

This article covers a detailed survey on the 5G mobile network and its features. These features make 5G more reliable, scalable, efficient at affordable rates. As discussed in the above sections, numerous technical challenges originate while implementing those features or providing services over a 5G mobile network. So, for future research directions, the research community can overcome these challenges while implementing these technologies (MIMO, NOMA, small cell, mmWave, beam-forming, MEC) over a 5G network. 5G communication will bring new improvements over the existing systems. Still, the current solutions cannot fulfill the autonomous system and future intelligence engineering requirements after a decade. There is no matter of discussion that 5G will provide better QoS and new features than 4G. But there is always room for improvement as the considerable growth of centralized data and autonomous industry 5G wireless networks will not be capable of fulfilling their demands in the future. So, we need to move on new wireless network technology that is named 6G. 6G wireless network will bring new heights in mobile generations, as it includes (i) massive human-to-machine communication, (ii) ubiquitous connectivity between the local device and cloud server, (iii) creation of data fusion technology for various mixed reality experiences and multiverps maps. (iv) Focus on sensing and actuation to control the network of the entire world. The 6G mobile network will offer new services with some other technologies; these services are 3D mapping, reality devices, smart homes, smart wearable, autonomous vehicles, artificial intelligence, and sense. It is expected that 6G will provide ultra-long-range communication with a very low latency of 1 ms. The per-user bit rate in a 6G wireless network will be approximately 1 Tbps, and it will also provide wireless communication, which is 1000 times faster than 5G networks.

Acknowledgments

Author contributions.

Conceptualization: R.D., I.Y., G.C., P.L. data gathering: R.D., G.C., P.L, I.Y. funding acquisition: I.Y. investigation: I.Y., G.C., G.P. methodology: R.D., I.Y., G.C., P.L., G.P., survey: I.Y., G.C., P.L, G.P., R.D. supervision: G.C., I.Y., G.P. validation: I.Y., G.P. visualization: R.D., I.Y., G.C., P.L. writing, original draft: R.D., I.Y., G.C., P.L., G.P. writing, review, and editing: I.Y., G.C., G.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

This paper was supported by Soonchunhyang University.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

5G use cases: 31 examples that showcase what 5G is capable of

5G use cases are increasing in number, and in this post we take a look at the most innovative projects around the world today.

5G use cases tend to rely on the increased speed and consistency of 5G, as well as the latency reductions it offers, and they promise to disrupt both traditional and digital sectors. And there are a plethora of opportunities for 5G technology over the coming months, years and decades.  

5G use cases will pave the way for automated vehicles, smart cities, automated factories, and a new wave of business communications. According to the results of a study by Accenture, 79% of businesses worldwide believe that 5G will have a significant impact on their organisation. And 57% of those believe that it will be revolutionary.

 5G use cases across sectors 

According to small business portal Bytestart , 5G will allow communication between a million devices per square kilometre (compared with 100,000 for 4G). The enabling of these IoT sensors, combined with speed and low latency, will lead to many benefits across a range of business and prosumer activities. 

IoT connectivity will lead to fully integrated smart cities, which will be essential as urban populations grow. The United Nations (UN) predicts that 68 percent of the world’s population will be living in urban areas by 2050, which will place increasing  pressure on our cities, such as pollution, crime, overcrowding, congestion, and social disorder.

There are already some amazing 5G use cases out there. That's what this feature is all about - the ways in which 5G is already being used across the globe. Because 5G networks are still being rolled out, many of these use cases are actually in the test or proof-of-concept phase, using prototype networks, devices or other technology. But the idea of gathering them here is to show the huge future potential of 5G technology .

1. Smart cities

Network operators are already looking to showcase what can be achieved with 5G technology , and one such 5G use case is the Alba Iulia Smart City , which has been developed in conjunction with Orange, and has seen congestion monitoring, parking sensors, and smart waste management introduced in the Romanian city. 

Smart factories will also be enabled by 5G, including more robots in production lines, and drones in last mile delivery. It will also enable car to car communication around hazards and incidents, as well as fully automated cars. 

2. Autonomous vehicles

The CTO of Waymo , which started life as the Google Self-Driving Car Project in 2009, believes that 5G is a crucial “enabler”, when it comes to developing the company’s autonomous car fleets.

“I think it’ll help in terms of communication [and with] latency and bandwidth,” explains Dmitri Dolgov, Waymo’s CTO. “Our cars still have to rely on onboard computation for anything that is safety-critical, but 5G will be an accelerator.”

O2 has also now announced a project to trial driverless cars in London using its 5G network. The UK's second-biggest phone network has partnered with the Smart Mobility Living Lab - a research organisation comprised of experts from the Transport Research Laboratory (TRL), DG Cities, Cisco, and Loughborough University - to develop what it claims to be the ‘most advanced driverless testbed in the world’. 

The organisation is based in Greenwich as well as the Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park. The aim is to develop a road management system with the focus on a 10 percent reduction in the time that motorists spend in traffic. Other figures include a positive benefit to the economy of £880m a year from improved productivity as well as the reduction of CO2 emissions by 370,000 metric tonnes a year.

At the Consumer Electronics Show in January 2020, Samsung and BMW showcased the companies' efforts in connected cars, revealing the 5G TCU (Telematics Control Unit). The TCU will be included in the BMW iNext, coming in 2021. The iNext will include technology from Samsung subsidiary Harman. The companies are talking up the benefits of the technology as not only enabling greater levels of autonomy but also detailed and specific information such as whether there's something in your blind spot.

Elsewhere, Huawei, in partnership with Thailand National Broadcasting and Telecommunication Communication (NBTC) and Siriraj Hospital, has launched a new project to use 5G-powered self-driving vehicles to deliver medical supplies.

According to data from the UK’s Office for National Statistics, jobs such as bus drivers and hospital porters are particularly at risk from catching Covid-19 whilst at work, with both jobs in the top 20% when it comes to exposure. And this scheme enables the transportation of goods around the Siriraj Hospital campus in Thailand, where workers face a similar risk to those in the UK. In the initial stage of the project, driverless vehicles will be used to transport and distribute medicines, which will be delivered via a contactless system, which will help reduce workload and infection risk among frontline workers. 

3. Improved viewing experience at sporting events

Connectivity is increasingly important at sporting events with, as an example, the average Bundesliga match attracting 43,000 spectators, who consume an average of 500GB – a figure which has risen by 50 percent over the past 12 months,.

Because of this, some sporting organisations fear that spectators will stay at home if they can't stay connected. However, existing mobile and Wi-Fi networks lack the capacity for such densely-populated environments, which is why venues and operators are so excited about 5G. Research from Amdocs and Ovum suggests 91 percent of the world’s leading mobile operators plan to hold trials of 5G sporting experiences at stadiums, with the likes of Verizon announcing the 5G availability at selected NFL stadiums.

This will not only increase fan satisfaction, but also enable new experiences. The German FA plans to let fans view data insights in real time – such as how fast a player is sprinting – using Augmented Reality. 

4. Better crowd management at sporting venues

Verizon and Cisco are partnering to deliver a number of new capabilities to stadiums, such as the ability to use analytics to estimate waiting times at gates, restrooms and concession stands. Supporters will also have the ability to access digital signage, and via a mobile app they will also get tailored updates, information on crowd density, and tips on the best ways to avoid crowds and maintain social distancing.

To deliver these new 5G capabilities, venues in Cisco’s Sports and Entertainment portfolio will be able to access Verizon 5G Ultra Wideband with mobile edge computing (MEC) capabilities. Cisco innovations, which will be able to tap into Verizon’s MEC include Cisco DNA Spaces for secure location analytics; Cisco switching and data center technology; connected venue analytics; and more.

5. Sports broadcasting

Sports broadcasting is arguably the most developed use case for 5G to date, with ready-made innovations driving efficiencies and unlocking a raft of creativity options. 5G-enabled cameras eliminate the need to use cables, making it easier to cover sports that take place over a wide area. Fox Sports has trialled 5G at golf’s US Open (with Intel, AT&T, and Ericsson) allowing its team to cover more of the course, while 5G was used to capture some events at the 2018 Winter Olympics. In the UK, BT Sport is able to join football fans in the pub before the game, travel on the team bus, capture the game, and do post-match interviews using the same camera.

Meanwhile, 5G-enabled remote production enables video feeds to be sent back to a central hub, rather than an outside broadcast truck. This massively reduces costs and allows production teams to work across multiple events in a single day. Already, the likes of Verizon and Sony have joined forces to demonstrate how 5G can enhance live sports broadcasts.

6. 5G drones

Verizon wants to be the first telco to use 5G to enable a million connected flights of 5G drones to take place. That's some ambition, but the idea has some backing since Verizon bought Skyward in 2016 - an organisation specializing in drone operations for businesses and enterprises. 

Skyward provides drone operators with detailed mapping while operating industrial drones plus there are also tools for overseeing multiple drones in action and, basically, work out what needs to go where. 

Verizon's plan is to enable as many drones as possible to be connected and to transmit video footage in real-time but also to relay back other intelligence such as levels of stock in a warehouse situation

“We've already started testing connected drones on 5G on the Verizon Network,” said Mariah Scott, president of  Skyward . “We knew early on that connectivity would be critical for drones. And now 5G Ultra Wideband will usher in a new era in aviation, where we connect and integrate drones into the national airspace.” 

Elsewhere, Irish startup  Manna has partnered with Cubic Telecom to fly delivery 5G-connected delivery drones in Ireland and England by the end of 2020. It is currently testing the tech at a base in Pontypool, Wales. 

The intention is for the drones to charge $1 per delivery. Each drone will have three batteries on board, meaning that they can make five deliveries per hour. Even so, that doesn't seem that profitable to us, but Manna believes that by keeping the drones flying as much as possible it can make it work. 

7. Immersive entertainment 

Verizon showcased its 5G tech in real-time rendering of effects from Star Wars: The Rise of Skywalker. The network partnered with Walt Disney Studios’ StudioLAB for a demo at the premiere afterparty in in Hollywood where guests were able to interact with Sith troopers in real-time.

Two actors played the troopers working in a remote location 15 miles away. Those who took part in the demo could approach a screen and interact with the two Sith troopers. The troopers were able to react in real-time. 

“Both the StudioLAB and Verizon believe 5G will fundamentally change everything about how entertainment media is created, distributed and consumed,” said Nicki Palmer, chief product development officer at Verizon. 

“The speed and low latency of 5G can unlock incredible creative capabilities,” added Ben Havey at Disney Studios StudioLAB. “We want to give storytellers early access to this new technology so they can continue to bring unparalleled experiences to audiences around the world.”

In November EE streamed a 360-degree augmented reality (AR) Bastille concert from Birmingham New Street station to Edinburgh and Liverpool. 

As well as being covered by various media outlets, the stunt wasn't just for fun - the event will be featured in a new EE brand campaign by Saatchi & Saatchi 

Members of the public in Edinburgh and Liverpool could watch the gig on devices provided by EE reps including the Samsung Galaxy Fold 5G and some AR glasses. Of course, AR visuals surrounded the band which could be seen on the glasses.

EE has used other music stars to promote 5G - it held a gig with Stormzy on the River Thames to promote the launch of its 5G network. The network also sponsors the Glastonbury Festival each year. 

8. Overground trains

Virgin Trains has been testing out 5G-powered Wi-Fi on its trains. The company believes it is the first railway company to trial the new tech. The trial happened on services between London Euston and Birmingham New Street, and between London Euston and Manchester Piccadilly. 

However, Virgin Trains hasn't yet said if and when it plans to offer 5G-powered Wi-Fi on board its trains. 

The  Vodafone 5G  network was used to provide the 5G service - the red network has installed 5G in key transport locations including Birmingham New Street station. 

Virgin says the speeds seen were up to ten times faster than current on-board Wi-Fi. 

9. Going underground

Whilst companies such as Virgin Trains are looking to get 5G into the UK's biggest stations, a private and public sector consortium, led by Cisco, has gone underground to test 5G use cases on the Glasgow Subway.

5G RailNext  has announced a pioneering new project to explore new 5G use cases for underground commuters, by setting up a unique private 5G network to connect passengers travelling by train on Scotland’s historic Glasgow Subway.

5G RailNext is a private and public sector consortium led by Cisco, and it includes companies and organisations across the technology, marketing and transport sectors, including the University of Strathclyde, Ampletime, Sublime, Strathclyde Partnership for Transport, and Glasgow City Council. And as part of the UK Government's £200 million 5G Testbeds & Trials Programme, it aims to maximise the opportunities around 5G applications and services.

10. Manufacturing 

With 5G networks using URLLC (Ultra-Reliable and Low Latency Communications) latency can theoretically reduce that to a single millisecond, essentially rendering the issue of latency meaningless. The advantages to manufacturers are many; think high-precision assembly lines where all machines and robots are perfectly in sync in real-time, the mass-adoption of the Internet of Things (IoT), and even humans controlling machines via touch. However, the first generation of 5G networks tend to offer around 10ms latency, so, for now, latency is still an issue. Expect second-gen 5G networks to be mostly about reducing latency.

5G in a manufacturing context is not about making use of publicly available 5G connections as used by consumers. No, 5G for industry is about constructing custom-made, private 5G networks that essentially bring alive the idea of an Intelligent or ‘smart’ factory. Also known as Industry 4.0, this is about abandoning the old ways to embrace connected systems to encourage more streamlined automation in a closed environment. With the Internet of Things (IoT) in full deployment and connected sensors on every machine, the aim is to predict problems, see problems emerge in real-time, and reduce production downtime. The secret sauce will be AI-capable analytics software to crunch real-time data on every machine and piece of equipment.

11. Smart factories

In the US, mobile network Verizon has partnered with specialist glass maker Corning to investigate how 5G can improve the factory environment. 

The maker of Corning Gorilla Glass (used on vast numbers of smartphones) are looking at how 5G can improve control across a factory environment on a large scale by tracking supplies across the whole complex, autonomous vehicles - so they can be called in from other parts of the facility - as well as moving product around. 

"As artificial intelligence starts using this data and improving our process, making our processes more efficient, that's when we're going to start seeing the value,"  says Claudio Mazzalli, Corning's vice president of technology. 

Could it actually save Corning money? "We are not speculating right now, but I can tell you that this question is a very important question for us. We don't want to start just adding devices everywhere if we don't see the value."

12. Connected cows and calving

Traditional industries such as agriculture will use 5G sensors to collate real-time information about fertilisation, livestock, and moisture needs, helping to conserve energy. And we are already seeing the emergence of smart farms, with services such as the MooCall calving sensor and app now being powered by 5G. MooCall is a sensor that attaches to the tail of cows, and then alerts farmers when a cow is about to give birth (cows move their tails more just before and during labour).  

“With the growing prevalence of IoT and 5G, we expect to see increasing innovation in the agricultural sector,” says Anne Sheehan, Director, Vodafone Business. “By using digital tools, farmers can gain better control over processes such as raising livestock and growing crops, improving overall productivity, efficiency and financial performance … technologies such as IoT and 5G must be viewed as a priority for the farming sector.”

13. Healthcare

The health industry will offer remote diagnosis and operations, as well as e-health and responsive wearables, and AI assistants might help people with disabilities. Companies such as the interactive physiotherapy specialist Immersive Rehab are already looking at how 5G can improve their offering, and 5G is being used in various trials such as the Liverpool 5G Testbed .

5G has even made its way into the operating theatre, when Telefónica, with the help of a hospital in Malaga, already presented the first assistance system for surgery that runs entirely on  5G technology . The howcase took place at the IV Advanced Digestive Endoscopy Conference, where Telefónica broadcast medical training sessions live, and in 4K quality. It achieved this with “almost no latency,” according to Telefónica .

Elsewhere, O2 has developed a deal with Samsung and the NHS to test out “smart ambulances” equipped with  5G technology .  O2 will test the technology on six ambulances  which will allow for new services such as real-time video technology and high-quality scanners (read the full story here ).

14. Construction

The construction industry has always looked at new technologies as a way to improve safety and working practices, and 5G is no different. 

KT and Hyundai Engineering & Construction have announced that they will work together to build  5G networks  at construction sites, with a aim to develop construction and automation technology.Using 5G infrastructure, we could see autonomous construction robots, and  5G  will also be used to improve other technologies with better productivity and monitoring at construction sites.

KT will help Hyundai to build these 5G networks at its construction sites. The trials of the 5G solutions will commence later this year. If the trial all goes to plan, then the two companies aim to apply their technologies to many more construction sites next year. 

KT has said that its 5G technologies will provide "ultra-fast data transmission speeds and ultra-low latency with top notch security". And the companies have both said that the development of autonomous robots will give Hyundai the opportunity to carry out work on sites with limited to no human access (read the full story here ).

15. Energy preservation

There are many interesting user case studies, but the increased use of 5G connected drones or autonomous unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) for service or production delivery is one with some very interesting permutations. One of these might help with disaster relief situations via the sharing of real time data. They could help with search and rescue missions and deliver medical help, according to OnQ a blog from US telecom operator Qualcomm. And 5G drones can also be used as small cells to prevent gaps in 5G coverage.  

Another interesting end result of 5G is the huge potential for energy savings. Including all the currently unconnected, energy consuming devices via 5G IoT connections into the grid will allow for better management of energy. 

Where there are outages, 5G and smart grid technology can help with early diagnosis, speeding up repairs and reducing down time. Smart lighting will see street lights dimmed when no one is present, again saving power. 

In fact, a recent McKinsey report, Future proofing infrastructure in a fast changing world, argued that cities deploying a range of smart solutions could cut greenhouse gas emissions by 10–15 percent.   

16. IP broadcasting

The broadcasting industry is currently looking at whether 5G technology can deliver both linear, and nonlinear broadcasts, whilst supporting them with enhanced media services (EMS), which are a combination of both. (‘Linear media’ refers to conventional TV or radio channels where programmes such as news, sport, entertainment and documentaries are scheduled by a service provider to be viewed at the time of transmission; whereas ‘nonlinear media’ is a type of media content that is offered on-demand at the request of the user.)

In 2019, a consortium of European broadcasting companies – led by virtualized media production company, Nevion – received a grant of €2 million from the European Union to create a remote production studio, powered by 5G technology. The project, known as VIRTUOSA , was selected from a list of 225 applications, and it has announced that it has taken its first technical step, opening an IP-based production studio, at Nevion’s Service Operations Center (SOC) in Gdansk, Poland. 

This initial phase involves setting up an IP-based studio, built on industry standards (SMPTE ST 2110 and NMOS) and integrating equipment from multiple vendors, including: video cameras, a vision mixer, and a server from Sony; a multiviewer from TAG Video Systems; an audio mixer from Stagetec; a media analyzer from Telestream; IP switches from Mellanox; a PTP-compliant time and frequency synchronization from Meinberg; software-defined media nodes from Nevion; and all of it managed by an orchestration and SDN control system from Nevion.

17. 5G-powered studio lighting

Telia, together with the government-owned subscription station TV2 Denmark, and leading lighting company BB&S, has developed a partnership to showcase 5G-connected lamps, which can be used in TV and film production, and could one day transform the broadcasting industry.

Telia is a Swedish multinational telecommunications company, and mobile network provider, which operates in Sweden, Finland, Norway, Denmark, Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia. And as a ‘Tier 1 network’ operator, it is particularly focussed on 5G, and its ability to deliver new services.

And Telia has worked closely with TV2 and BB&S to test how 5G networking could be employed to improve lightning set-up and cost efficiency in broadcasting.

Since it was founded in 1999, BB&S Lighting has worked with numerous broadcasting clients around the world, and on movie projects such as Star Wars - The last Jedi, Interstellar, Alien: Covenant, Pirates of Caribbean, and Independence Day 2. 

These set-ups can consist of 100s of lamps, every one of which needs to be connected with a power and a control cable. But using 5G, lights can be managed remotely, in real-time, providing huge efficiency and cost benefits.

18. Oil and gas

Centrica Storage and Vodafone have entered a partnership that will build the “gas plant of the future” at their Easington site, providing a 5G-ready mobile private network (MPN) for the facility, which will be the first of its kind in the UK’s oil and gas sector.

The new 5G infrastructure will enable Centrica Storage to automate, monitor, and centralize much of its critical maintenance and engineering operations. Real-time data will enable Centrica Storage to monitor its facility, streamline operational resources, and reduce costs. And the 5G network will even improve safety, enabling engineers to use virtual reality headsets to undertake training and critical maintenance tasks.

The 5G mobile private network will be built by Vodafone using Ericsson equipment, and will enable a number of industrial 5G use cases, such as connecting workers to digital data and applications across the entire site, increasing productivity whilst reducing cost, and all in a much safer environment.

19. Communication

Although the first wave of video calls over 5G will be on phones (which is why most 5G phones have better front cameras), in the long term expect full HD, 4K and even 8K video streams to be exchanged between 5G-enabled augmented reality (AR) devices and virtual reality (VR) headsets. With 5G’s ability to stream high capacity data packets in real-time, video-calling applications are about to get super-charged and go 360°.

And once video calling over 5G has improved, expect another giant leap to be made with the advent of live 3D holographic phone calls. Last year UK network operator Vodafone conducted the UK’s first live holographic call using 5G technology, with England and Manchester City Women’s footballer Steph Houghton using 5G tech to make a holographic call from Manchester. She appeared as a live 3D hologram on stage in front of an audience at Vodafone’s UK HQ in Newbury. European network operator Cosmote in Greece has also used the same tech to ‘holoport’ musicians in different physical locations on to a virtual stage where they played a piece of music together. 3D holographic calls require about four times as much data as a streamed 4K video – itself pretty data-intensive – though 5G’s low latency is just as important. In the long term the tech has potential applications for medical imaging, video conferencing and gaming.

20. Quality control

Logistics company Ice Mobility is testing on Verizon’s on-site 5G Edge platform, integrated with Microsoft Azure.

“When I heard that [Verizon] were partnering with Microsoft, it kind of sealed the deal for me,” said Mike Mohr, CEO of Ice Mobility.  “We have always been a Microsoft house for everything we do in our business, and so it became a natural selection at that point.

Ice Mobility is using 5G and MEC to help with computer vision assisted product packing. By gathering data on product packing errors, in what is essentially real-time, the company has the potential to improve on-site quality assurance and save 15% to 30% in processing time.

“The goal is to make sure that the customers have the right product on their shelves when they need to sell it, and one of the ways we've always achieved this by making sure we double check every single shipment so that it has the right product in the box,” said Mohr. 

“We're improving our quality control process through computer vision. We were able to do this by installing a high definition camera above every one of our pick lines. These cameras are powered by the 5G network, matching the data for a particular order to what the high definition camera is looking at inside the box. This validates that it's the right materials, and flags it up if it's not. The mech is that it literally knows the entire journey of the box.”

21. Empowering the high street

Verizon has partnered with TechUnited:NJ – an organization set up to help empower entrepreneurs and innovators in the New Jersey area – to create the “5G Impact Challenge”, which aims to provide a number of small businesses with new ways to use 5G technology, from solving operational pain points to improving the shopping experience for customers.

"In times like these, the world leans on technology to help us stay connected,” said TJ Fox, president of business markets at Verizon. “This is especially true for our local communities and retail shops, which is why Verizon has joined in this effort to show small businesses how 5G connectivity can open the door to new and immersive solutions as a way to interact with customers."

TechUnited worked with Verizon to select five small businesses within Verizon’s 5G Ultra Wideband mobility service footprint.

“Without the help of technology, we wouldn’t still be in business today,” said Dominic Yun, owner of SOHO Flower & Garden. “Prior to COVID, we had a website but didn’t do online sales. Thankfully, we were able to quickly shift to online orders which helped us stay afloat."

The companies selected for the “5G Impact Challenge” received Inseego MiFi M2100 5G hotspots and Samsung Galaxy S10 5G phones , as well as access to Verizon’s suite of small business services.

One of the most innovative 5G use cases in the scheme involved giving visitors to SOHO Flower & Garden the opportunity to view flowers in an augmented reality environment, so they could see how they were going to look before deciding to purchase them.

22. 5G use cases in port authorities

In 2020, Zeebrugge, one of the world’s busiest ports, with 45.8 million tons of goods annually transshipped through its docks, announced the completion of the first phase of a 5G-ready, industrial-grade private wireless network for the port.

By implementing the  Nokia Digital Automation Cloud  platform Zeebrugge hopes to streamline the logistical challenge of moving and tracking almost one million tons of goods each week. And the new platform will provide private wireless connectivity to more than 100 endpoints across the entire port operations. 

The network is now being used for connectivity with tugboats, air pollution detectors, security cameras and quay sensors. And this partnership will enable Zeebrugge to deliver a range of new and enhanced 5G use cases to improve the port’s operational performance, and also showcase Zeebrugge as a leader in port transformation and digitalization.

And in January 2021, Terminal 5 of the Port of Seattle joined Zeebrugge in utilizing Nokia's DAC platform, working with Tideworks Technology, a provider of terminal operating technology for maritime facilities, to deploy Nokia Digital Automation Cloud (DAC) at Terminal 5, which is part of the Northwest Seaport Alliance, one of the largest container gateways in North America. 

The LTE/5G private wireless network will be used to augment Wi-Fi, for enhanced redundancy and availability, and will support cable-free port and terminal operations using overlapping LTE Bands (B53 and B48). And it will be a valuable addition to Nokia’s growing list of industrial 5G use cases.

The introduction of an industrial-grade LTE/5G private wireless network will, the companies say, deliver major increases in efficiency, worker safety and terminal handling performance by “reducing the complexity of port flow”.

“These use cases illustrate the benefits of private wireless in a port or intermodal terminal operation,” said Matt Young, vice president of US Enterprise Sales, Nokia Cloud and Networking Services.

The new network will deliver connectivity indoors, and out across Terminal 5 operations, cranes, trucks and lifts, with Nokia DAC also being incorporated into ruggedized tablets and smartphones for comms and inventory applications.

23. Improving education facilities with 5G

Nova Southeastern University is a private Hispanic-serving multi-campus research university, with around 20,000 students, and its main campus in Fort Lauderdale-Davie, Florida, which has partnered with  Mobilitie  to deliver 5G to its students. 

“We’re thrilled to provide our students, faculty and staff with an ultra-fast, state-of-the-art wireless network across our Davie campus,” said Tom West, Chief Information Officer of NSU.

This partnership with Mobilitie, the largest privately-held wireless infrastructure firm in the US, will enable the deployment of a cutting-edge 5G network across the Davie, Florida campus of Nova Southeastern University.

The 5G network will cover the 314-acre campus, including offices, classrooms, the library, residence halls, computer labs and athletic facilities, providing 5G access to students and faculty.

24. Transforming tourist attractions

Azoomee/Da Vinci , a media company focussing on children’s entertainment, has released a new Augmented Reality (AR) experience, which enables young visitors to Vienna’s Rathaus building to experience digitally enhanced environments as they move through the building.

"Azoomee’s work in this space has been especially noted for the way it combines new technology with the city’s heritage." City of Vienna spokesperson.

“We’ve been very impressed with the quality of contributions to Vienna’s challenge to find new 5G use cases, but Azoomee’s work in this space has been especially noted for the way it combines new technology with the city’s heritage,” said Dipl.-Vw. Klemens Himpele, chief information officer (CIO) der Stadt Wien. “The way its AR app transforms the Rathaus into a digital environment that combines both fun and learning for children is the perfect example of what we hope to achieve with 5G. We are excited by the possibilities that this AR experience could be adapted to other locations both in Vienna and beyond.”

The Azoomee/Da Vinci  AR app enables kids to see historical figures jumping on trampolines, playing football, and performing skateboard tricks, whilst also transforming the landscape, even placing some rooms underwater, with sub-aquatic creatures swimming around features and furniture.

25. 5G-powered service bots

 At the 2021t Mobile World Congress (MWC) in Shanghai, OrionStar, a company specialising in robotics tech, launched three service robots that include Qualcomm technology, enabling 5G connectivity and enhanced AI processing capabilities.

Powered by AI tech, OrionStar’s 5G Robotic Coffee Master served up beverages to attendees visiting Qualcomm Technologies’ booth at MWC Shanghai 2021. And based on the Qualcomm Snapdragon X55 5G Modem-RF System, this 5G bot can make 1,000 cups of coffee every day.

Elsewhere, the OrionStar Restaurant Service Robot roamed the convention floor, delivering beverages to guests. Whilst the 5G HomeBot was on display at the ‘5G mmWave’ booth, where it used Qualcomm’s Robotics Platform to answer questions from guests, conduct live Q&As, and provide personalized tours.

26. 5G IoT via nanosatellite 

Open Cosmos , a UK company that specializes in satellite-based technology, has launched two commercial nanosatellites, one of which is a 5G IoT satellite for telecom operator Sateliot – the first of its kind to provide continuous IoT connectivity, merging satellite and terrestrial networks under the 5G protocol.

Both nanosatellites were created entirely at the Open Cosmos HQ in Harwell, known as the heart of the UK’s space industry, with the company having dedicated £4 million in R&D to the project, courtesy of funding from the UK Space Agency and European Space Agency.

“These launches mark a major milestone for Open Cosmos, demonstrating the capacity of low-cost satellites to provide IoT connectivity to remote parts of the world and collect data,” said Rafel Jordá, founder and CEO of Open Cosmos. “With £300bn of wider UK GDP supported by satellite services, Open Cosmos is key to unlocking these services and making them more accessible for businesses and governments across the world."

27. 5G-in-a-box

5G isn't merely an iterative change in existing network technology; it's a step change of an update, which enables a plethora of new opportunities, especially for the industrial sector. 

One challenge, though, is how you test whether 5G is the right technology for you, without a massive commercial investment?

Thankfully, Singte is one company addressing this problem, with the launch of GENIE, the world’s first portable 5G platform. This new 5G technology will allow enterprises to experience 5G’s capabilities and trial use cases at their own premises.

GENIE creates an independent 5G network at any location where it is deployed, without the need for prior installation of equipment or infrastructure. And it has been designed to be compact and transportable, coming in a suitcase-sized container, which consists of a 5G network control kit and a standing mount with 5G radio antenna. 

28. 5G 'digital twin' technology

Digital twin technology, as it sounds, enables you to create a digital version of a physical object or environment, which can then be interacted with remotely. This could entail the virtual recreation of a work space, where people could train safely using VR equipment, or, as is the case at Hyperbat, one of the UK’s largest independent vehicle battery manufacturers, it can be used to create ‘digital twins’ of products, which can be manipulated and viewed using VR headsets.

The Coventry-based company has partnered with BT, Ericsson and NVIDIA, to enable remote teams to connect, collaborate, and interact using a virtual 3D engineering model. And this digital twin project will be a world-first, which will allow design and engineering teams to walk around, and interact with, a 3D life-size model in real time. 

Hyperbat colleagues in different locations will be able to work with a 1:1 product scale hologram of the design in-situ on the factory floor, review designs in real time, and manage workflows much more effectively.

29. 5G in airports

China is currently pushing ahead of western countries with its 5G roll-out, and it has now announced the world's first wall-to-wall gigabit 5G available in an airport.

China Mobile Chengdu used Huawei's 5G distributed Massive MIMO solution to deliver 5G in the new Chengdu Tianfu International Airport. Huawei's field tests showed that the user-perceived rate across the check-in areas exceeded 1Gbps, with the single-user rate increasing by 26% on average over common 5G networks, up to a peak of 1.25Gbps.

With major airlines like Chengdu Tianfu International Airport launching 5G-based smart travel services, such as VIP recognition, luggage tracking, and AR map navigation, to improve travel experience, high 5G speed is essential. In using Huawei's digital indoor small cells combined with 5G distributed Massive MIMO software functions, Chengdu Tianfu International Airport certainly achieves this.

30. World’s first 5G substation

Constellation, a smart substation trial from  UK Power Networks , will utilize  Vodafone 5G  connectivity to help make them more efficient, and enable the freeing up of capacity for clean energy, in a bid to help reach the UK’s target of net zero carbon emissions by 2050.

UK Power Networks is the UK’s biggest electricity distributor, delivering power to more than eight million homes and businesses across London, the South East, and the East of England. (Electricity network operators, unlike energy suppliers, who focus on selling electricity, take care of the maintenance and operation of power lines and substations.)

The Constellation project is a world-first in 5G use cases, and will connect parts of the UK’s electricity network with high-speed 5G connectivity, with computers being installed in electricity substations so they can communicate with each other in real-time to improve efficiency.

Initially the Constellation project team will select multiple testing locations across UK Power Networks areas in the south-east of England, and at the University of Strathclyde’s Power Networks Demonstration Centre. And the companies say that it could save 63,702 tonnes of CO2 by 2050, which is the equivalent of 38,607 return flights from London to New York. 

31. Indoor farm monitoring

AeroFarms and Nokia Bell Labs have announced that they have formed a multi-year partnership to combine their expertise and expand their joint capabilities in cutting-edge networking, autonomous systems, and integrated machine vision and machine learning technologies to identify and track plant interactions at the most advanced levels.

Nokia Bell Labs, the industrial research arm of Nokia, will contribute its ground-breaking autonomous drone control and orchestration systems, private wireless 5G networks, robust image and sensor data pipelines, and innovative artificial intelligence (AI) enabled mobile sensor technologies. Meanwhile, AeroFarms, a Certified B Corporation and global leader in indoor vertical farming, will contribute its commercial growing expertise, comprehensive environmental controls, an agriculture-focused data platform, and machine vision core foundation. This combination of innovative technologies allows AeroFarms to reach the next level of imaging insights that further enhance its capabilities as an industry-leading operator of world-class, fully connected smart vertical farms that grow the highest quality plants all year round. 

How should you get 5G ready? 

Prosumers and business owners will need to swap their old phones for a 5G ready version. There are already several 5G smartphones on the market, and EE markets five of them (the Oppo Reno 5G, Samsung Galaxy S10 5G , LG V50 ThinQ  5G, the OnePlus 7 Pro  5G and  Huawei Mate 20 X 5G ). You can also pre-order the Samsung Galaxy Note 10 Plus. Similarly, you will also need a 5G plan, either from one of the big telecoms operators, or an MVNO. We are likely to see more offerings from mobile operators as 5G develops.  

• Discover the best 5G networks in the UK and US
• Get your hands on the hottest 5G phones
• Millimeter wave : the secret sauce behind 5G
• The complete guide to 5G security
• We reveal the latest 5G use cases
• Discover the truth behind 5G dangers
• 5G towers : everything you need to know

Nicola Brittain is a freelance journalist with expertise in technology, telecoms, media and finance. She worked as news and analysis editor at Computing Magazine, and more recently has freelanced for Diginomica, Investment Week and Portfolio Adviser. She is currently writing a novel. 

In the tech world and beyond, new 5G applications are being discovered every day. From driverless cars to smarter cities, farms, and even shopping experiences, the latest standard in wireless networks is poised to transform the way we interact with information, devices and each other. What better time to take a closer look at how humans are putting 5G to use to transform their world.

What is 5G?

5G (fifth-generation mobile technology) is the newest standard for cellular networks. Like its predecessors, 3G, 4G and 4G LTE, 5G technology uses radio waves for data transmission. However, due to significant improvements in latency, throughput and bandwidth, 5G is capable of much faster download and upload speeds than previous networks.

How is 5G different from other wireless networks?

Since its release in 2019, 5G broadband technology has been hailed as a breakthrough technology with big implications for both consumers and businesses. Primarily, this is due to its ability to handle large volumes of data generated by complex devices using its networks.

As mobile technology has expanded over the years, the amount of data users generate every day has increased exponentially. Currently, other transformational technologies like artificial intelligence (AI), the Internet of Things (IoT ) and machine learning (ML) require much faster speeds to function than 3G and 4G networks offer. Enter 5G, with its lightning-fast data transfer capabilities that allow newer technologies to function in the way they were designed to.

Here are some of the biggest differences between 5G and previous wireless networks.

• Physical footprint: The transmitters used in 5G technology are smaller than in predecessors’ networks, allowing for discrete placement in out-of-the-way places. Furthermore, “cells”—geographical areas that all wireless networks require for connectivity—in 5G networks are smaller and require less power to run than in previous generations.
• Error rates: 5G’s adaptive Modulation and Coding Scheme (MCS), a schematic that WiFi devices use to transmit data, is more powerful than ones in 3G and 4G networks. This makes 5G’s Block Error Rate (BER)—a metric of error frequency—much lower.
• Bandwidth: By utilizing a broader spectrum of radio frequencies than previous wireless networks, 5G networks can transmit on a much wider range of bandwidths. This increases the number of devices they can support at any given time.
• Lower latency: 5G’s low latency , a measurement of the time it takes data to travel from one location to another, is a significant upgrade over previous generations. This means routine activities like downloading a file or working in the cloud is going to be much faster with a 5G connection than a connection on a different network.

How does 5G work?

Like all wireless networks, 5G networks are separated into geographical areas known as cells. Within each cell, wireless devices—such as smartphones, PCs and IoT devices—connect to the internet via radio waves transmitted between an antenna and a base station. The technology that underpins 5G is essentially the same as in 3G and 4G networks, but due to its lower latency, 5G networks are capable of delivering much faster download speeds—in some cases as high as 10 gigabits per second (Gbps).

As more and more devices are built for 5G speeds, demand for 5G connectivity is growing. Today, many popular Internet Service Providers (ISPs), such as Verizon, Google and AT&T, offer 5G networks to homes and businesses. According to Statista, more than 200 million homes and businesses have already purchased it with that number expected to at least double by 2028 (link resides outside ibm.com).

Let’s take a look at three areas of technological improvement that have made 5G so unique.

New telecom specifications

The 5G NR (New Radio) standard for cellular networks defines a new radio access technology (RAT) specification for all 5G mobile networks. The 5G rollout began in 2018 with a global initiative known as the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3FPP) that defined a new set of standards to steer the design of devices and applications for use on 5G networks.

The initiative was a success, and 5G networks began to grow swiftly in the ensuing years. Today, 45% of networks worldwide are 5G compatible, with that number forecasted to rise to 85% by the end of the decade according to a recent report by Ericsson  (link resides outside ibm.com).

Independent virtual networks (network slicing)

On 5G networks, network operators can offer multiple independent virtual networks (in addition to public ones) on the same infrastructure. Unlike previous wireless networks, this new capability allows users to do more things remotely with greater security than ever before. For example, on a 5G network, enterprises can create use cases or business models and assign them their own independent virtual network, dramatically improving the user experience for their employees by adding greater customizability and security.

Private networks

In addition to network slicing, creating a 5G private network can also enhance personalization and security features over those available on previous generations of wireless networks. Global businesses seeking more control and mobility for their employees increasingly turn to private 5G network architectures rather than public networks they’ve used in the past.

5G use cases

Now that we better understand how 5G technology works, let’s take a closer look at some of the exciting applications it’s enabling.

Autonomous vehicles

From taxi cabs to drones and beyond, 5G technology underpins most of the next-generation capabilities in autonomous vehicles. Until the 5G cellular standard came along, fully autonomous vehicles were a bit of a pipe dream due to the data transmission limitations of 3G and 4G technology. Now, 5G’s lightning-fast connection speeds have made transport systems for cars, trains and more much faster than previous generations, transforming the way systems and devices connect, communicate and collaborate.

Smart factories

5G, along with AI and ML, is poised to help factories become not only smarter but more automated, efficient and resilient. Today, many mundane but necessary tasks associated with equipment repair and optimization are being turned over to machines thanks to 5G connectivity paired with AI and ML capabilities. This is one area where 5G is expected to be highly disruptive, impacting everything from fuel economy to the design of equipment lifecycles and how goods arrive at our homes.

For example, on a busy factory floor, drones and cameras connected to smart devices utilizing the IoT can help locate and transport something more efficiently than in the past and prevent theft. Not only is this better for the environment and consumers, but it also frees up employees to dedicate their time and energy to tasks that are more suited to their skill sets.

Smart cities

The idea of a hyper-connected urban environment that uses 5G network speeds to spur innovation in areas like law enforcement, waste disposal and disaster mitigation is fast becoming a reality. Some cities already use 5G-enabled sensors to track traffic patterns in real time and adjust signals, helping guide the flow of traffic, minimize congestion and improve air quality.

In another example, 5G power grids monitor supply and demand across heavily populated areas and deploy AI and ML applications to “learn” what times energy is in high or low demand. This process has been shown to significantly impact energy conservation and waste, potentially reducing carbon emissions and helping cities reach sustainability goals.

Smart healthcare

Hospitals, doctors and the healthcare industry as a whole already benefit from the speed and reliability of 5G networks every day. One example is the area of remote surgery that uses robotics and a high-definition live stream connected to the internet via a 5G network. Another is the field of mobile health, where 5G gives medical workers in the field quick access to patient data and medical history, enabling them to make smarter decisions, faster, and potentially save lives.

Lastly, as we saw during the pandemic, contact tracing and the mapping of outbreaks are critical to keeping populations safe. 5G’s ability to deliver of volumes of data swiftly and securely allows experts to make more informed decisions that have ramifications for everyone.

Better employee experiences

5G paired with new technological capabilities won’t just result in the automation of employee tasks, it will dramatically improve them and the overall employee experience . Take virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR), for example. VR (digital environments that shut out the real world) and AR (digital content that augments the real world) are already used by stockroom employees, transportation drivers and many others. These employees rely on wearables connected to a 5G network capable of high-speed data transfer rates that improve several key capabilities, including the following:

• Live views: 5G connectivity provides live, real-time views of equipment, events and even people. One way in which this feature is being used in professional sports is to allow broadcasters to remotely call a sporting event from outside the stadium where the event is taking place.
• Digital overlays: IoT applications in a warehouse or industrial setting allow workers equipped with smart glasses (or even just a smartphone) to obtain real-time insights from an application, including repair instructions or the name and location of a spare part.
• Drone inspections: Right now, one of the leading causes of employee injury is inspection of equipment or project sites in remote and potentially dangerous areas. Drones, connected via 5G networks, can safely monitor equipment and project sites and even take readings from hard-to-reach gauges.

Edge computing

Edge c omputing, a computing framework that allows computations to be done closer to data sources, is fast becoming the standard for enterprises. According to this Gartner white paper (link resides outside ibm.com), by 2025, 75% of enterprise data will be processed at the edge (compared to only 10% today). This shift saves businesses time and money and enables better control over large volumes of data. It would be impossible without the new speed standards generated by 5G technology. 

Ultra-reliable edge computing and 5G enable the enterprise to achieve faster transmission speeds, increased control and greater security over massive volumes of data. Together, these twin technologies will help reduce latency while increasing speed, reliability and bandwidth, resulting in faster, more comprehensive data analysis and insights for businesses everywhere.

5G solutions with IBM Cloud Satellite

5G presents big opportunities for the enterprise, but first, you need a platform that can handle its speed. IBM Cloud Satellite lets you deploy and run apps consistently across on-premises, edge computing and public cloud environments on a 5G network. And it’s all enabled by secure and auditable communications within the IBM Cloud.

More from Cloud

Optimize observability with ibm cloud logs to help improve infrastructure and app performance.

5 min read - There is a dilemma facing infrastructure and app performance—as workloads generate an expanding amount of observability data, it puts increased pressure on collection tool abilities to process it all. The resulting data stress becomes expensive to manage and makes it harder to obtain actionable insights from the data itself, making it harder to have fast, effective, and cost-efficient performance management. A recent IDC study found that 57% of large enterprises are either collecting too much or too little observability data.…

Private cloud use cases: 6 ways private cloud brings value to enterprise business

7 min read - As cloud computing continues to transform the enterprise workplace, private cloud infrastructure is evolving in lockstep, helping organizations in industries like healthcare, government and finance customize control over their data to meet compliance, privacy, security and other business needs.  According to a report from Future Market Insights (link resides outside ibm.com), the global private cloud services market is forecast to grow to USD 405.30 billion by 2033, up from USD 92.64 billion in 2023.  What is a private cloud? A private cloud is…

Hyperscale vs. colocation: Go big or go rent?

9 min read - Here’s the situation: You’re the CIO or similarly empowered representative of an organization. Different voices within your business are calling attention to the awesome scalability and power of hyperscale computing, which you’ve also noticed with increasing interest. Now the word comes down from on high that you’ve been tasked with designing and implementing your company’s hyperscale computing solution—whatever that should be. Your organization already has an ambitious agenda in mind for whatever IT infrastructure you wind up choosing. The company…

IBM Newsletters

MIT Technology Review

• Newsletters

How to accelerate the world into the 5G era

The innovative yet consumer-centric groundwork enabling 5G smartphones to empower users en masse.

Provided by vivo

Demand for 5G smartphones is reaching an all-time high

In 2021, consumers and institutions alike are fast-tracking a digital revolution in an unprecedented era of social distancing and remote work—a trend that may continue long after the pandemic subsides.

The time is ripe for many commercialized products and services to ride the wave of unparalleled high-speed connectivity and minimal latency enabled by 5G. Yet, the technology at the forefront of them all is without a doubt the smartphone. By combining mobile telephone and computing functions within a singular multi-purpose device, smartphones have brought about a profound scale of mobility and accessibility with one-stop services that empower consumers across every aspect of their daily lives.

Some may look back fondly on the good old days of the mobile phone, when voice calls and text messaging were all we had access to, in the absence of addictive social media platforms and the seemingly endless barrage of notifications we receive nowadays. Nonetheless, the instantaneous connectivity of ever-improving mobile networks and increasingly diverse applications of smartphones will undeniably continue to bring value to users.

According to a forecast by vivo, one of the leading smartphone makers, demand for 5G devices is catching up to the entirety of the smartphone market as researchers recorded exponential growth between 2020 and 2021.

Another report, published by Gartner, showed that the worldwide demand for smartphones with 5G capabilities more than doubled this year. “In 2020, consumers reduced spending on smartphones, but the availability of new products will see users drive significant uptick in demand in 2021. Lower-end 5G smartphones, which are becoming more prevalent outside China, are poised to drive more momentum for 5G smartphones in 2021 across all regions,” said Anshul Gupta, senior research director at Gartner.

How did we get to where we are today, and how did smartphone brands take us here? 

Defining the fifth generation

5G is the latest global wireless standard, otherwise known as the 5th generation of cellular mobile communication technology. Compared to 4G LTE technology, 5G increases flux density a hundredfold and connection density tenfold. This allows for a new kind of digital infrastructure that can connect virtually everything and everyone via peak data transmission speeds with minimal latency to provide a uniform experience to us all, culminating in higher efficiency and optimized performance to empower new user experiences.

Hundreds of thousands of industries are becoming integrated, owing to the reliable and streamlined network between machines, devices, and other digital objects. With many creative applications ranging from augmented reality/virtual reality experiences to vehicle-to-everything driverless cars and many more, 5G will provide humankind with the foundation to establish smart cities with comprehensive internet-of-things technologies that can efficiently restructure our lived environments and redefine our everyday lifestyles.

It goes without saying that 5G can facilitate limitless applications, on both industrial and consumer levels. For tech-savvy individuals accustomed to heavy device usage loads, 5G will be game-changing by elevating their collective digital devices into powerful, cloud-synced gateways capable of tapping into the most resource-intensive applications and data streams. Many industries are currently undergoing paradigm shifts as enterprises and countries race to propel society into the next phase of technological transformation.

Gearing up for the 5G race – a deep dive with vivo

The 5G technical standard was formed by a series of innovative R&D efforts led by companies such as vivo. The 5G products or services consumers are presented with today are actually a refined conglomeration of technologies formulated by the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP), a consortium of international telecom standards organizations that provide a stable platform for collaboration.

As the entire world becomes familiar with the limitless possibilities of contemporary mobile communications technology, consumers are looking to arm themselves with devices that contain cutting-edge capabilities in order to complement their connected and fast-paced daily lifestyles.

Corporations and governments are both racing to gear up in preparation for the new digital gold rush. Unbeknownst to many, battles are fought and alliances are formed every day as companies cannibalize each other in the race to hold the most patents for 5G technologies.

Vivo, one of the top players, has participated in the 3GPP 5G standard formulation for over five years. As one of many companies that set their sights on 5G technology, vivo established special 5G task forces back in December 2016 across Beijing and Shenzhen, China. One month later, vivo made its debut at the 2017 3GPP meeting. Since then, vivo has submitted over 5,000 5G proposals to the 3GPP, leading to 15 technical features and getting three technical projects approved. With more than 100 global standard experts staffed at its communication research institute, vivo now holds over 3,000 patents for 5G inventions.

User-oriented innovation

As a leading smartphone company with in-depth R&D capabilities, vivo is dedicated to accelerating the empowerment of consumers en masse in this new era by designing cutting-edge 5G smartphones that are available at every price point. Having amassed over 400 million users worldwide, vivo has a deep understanding of evolving consumer demands and strives to bridge users with the digital world by becoming one of the leading contributors to 5G technology in the industry.

“The main gateway for consumers to indulge in the new digital era must be the most accessible, portable, cost-effective, and readily available digital device of them all: the smartphone. A leader in both smartphone manufacturing and 5G connectivity, vivo has been designing a diverse lineup of products that are ready for the next generation of connectivity to bring joy to users worldwide at modest price points,” says Rakesh Tamrakar, 5G standards expert at vivo. 

Tamrakar has 20 years of experience in the mobile communications industry. He is one of the lead delegates representing vivo in the 3GPP, holds numerous patents, and has chaired multiple 3GPP RAN1 sessions (which specify the physical layer of radio interfaces) that led to the successful standardization of MIMO, NR on unlicensed spectrum technologies. Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO) is a key 5G technology that increases throughput and signal-to-noise ratio, while NR is a new radio interface and radio access technology for cellular networks. He has authored and contributed numerous technical papers on the subject of 3GPP RAN1 in 3G, 4G, and 5G standards.

“Brought to life by our strong R&D network across nine innovation centers and supported by research teams across the globe, vivo knows consumers best within the industry. We focus on innovations in hardware design and the software ecosystem to improve terminal performance and user experiences. Putting end users at the center of everything we do, vivo invests heavily into 5G connectivity to reach the stage of product realization and getting this technology into the hands of consumers,” he adds.

5G research, standardization, and industrialization by vivo

Vivo’s unique user-oriented innovation is the genesis behind its numerous patented contributions to 5G standards, many of which have been universally acclaimed at the 3GPP meeting and are currently already being adapted for everyday smartphone users.

One of vivo’s most notable contributions includes the standardization and performance enhancement of Rel-17 multi-SIM technology. Previously, an incoming voice call from one competing 5G SIM card would interrupt the data flow of the other, resulting in abysmal performance as one would cancel the other. Having discovered early on that consumers had a preference for 5G smartphones with dual-SIM card slots for greater flexibility in different usage scenarios, vivo researchers successfully sought to negate the clash, leading to the existence of multi-SIM 5G smartphones on the market today.  

The initial implementation of 5G technology was initially found to be quite resource-draining compared to devices running on 4G. However, consumers had grown accustomed to the substantial usage time allowed by previous smartphones.

Always innovating with the user in mind, the Rel-16 terminal power-saving technology patented by vivo manages to simplify terminal actions. It lowers normal energy consumption by creating a new “dozing” state, allowing the device software to become inactive while the hardware becomes idle. 5G smartphones can now intelligently catch every chance to take a rest, thereby prolonging battery life.

Additionally, vivo underwent algorithm and system optimization to facilitate this technology, combined with 120-watt fast charging to ensure complete user satisfaction with their devices. Select vivo smartphones are housed with a superconducting carbon fiber liquid cooling system to prevent device overheating, which is especially prevalent during intensive multimedia entertainment or e-sports usage scenarios.

Another issue raised by 5G technology is the increasing number of antennas and components installed inside a smartphone. However, users are relentless in their pursuit for ultra-thin smartphones encased in sleek metallic exteriors. Never one to disappoint, vivo’s proprietary 3D stack design uniquely encases all of this industry-leading technology to allow new 5G smartphones to be even slimmer than its 4G predecessors.

6G visionary

As 5G commercial networks are gradually deployed around the world and progressively advanced devices increasingly permeate every aspect of our livelihoods, thought leaders of the mobile industry are already looking forward to its next generation: 6G.

Vivo is part of a select few that hold the extensive expertise and in-depth understanding of consumer needs in order to turn this vision into a reality. Along with leading companies, research groups, and academic institutions, this combined elite collective is expected to reach a consensus on the ideation and requirements for this future generation of connectivity. To kickstart this exciting new era, the vivo Communications Research Institute (VCRI) released two white papers in late 2020 that break down the facets of 6G technology. Providing a diverse set of hypothetical scenarios and case studies, vivo communication standard experts have analyzed how the sixth generation will embody much more than technological transformation as it merges our physical and digital worlds.

“Currently, mobile infrastructure is still relatively isolated from the physical world, existing solely as an auxiliary tool for consumer usage. An extreme degree of seamlessness will be required to dynamically connect our physical surrounding with the omnipresent digital systems. In 2030 and beyond, 6G standard technologies will begin to foster a ubiquitous, sophisticated, real-time, and fully integrated digital world. This new realm will revolutionize thousands of industries with an extraordinary variety of applications to result in an efficient, sustainable, and eco-friendly future world,” says Tamrakar.  

6G communication systems will comprise many device terminals to realize the agile perception and accurate control between digital systems with our physical domain; this is comparable to the nerve endings that perceive essential information from every inch of the human body for our central nervous system to take responsive measures. As such, a large number of harmoniously connected and intelligent terminals in the form of smartphones or wearable devices will be fundamentally required in order for the entire IoE (internet-of-everything) system to be effective. To that end, vivo has launched a smartwatch, wireless earbuds, and Jovi AI assistant to introduce users to its own flourishing digital ecosystem.

Notwithstanding all of this exhaustive groundwork laid by technology companies, the 5G race and the 6G marathon are far from over. Nonetheless, affordable smartphones with innovative features will continue to act as the interface for everyday users to engage with the all-encompassing network infrastructure, to accelerate the impending intelligent transformation of society.

Keep Reading

Most popular, large language models can do jaw-dropping things. but nobody knows exactly why..

And that's a problem. Figuring it out is one of the biggest scientific puzzles of our time and a crucial step towards controlling more powerful future models.

• Will Douglas Heaven archive page

The problem with plug-in hybrids? Their drivers.

Plug-in hybrids are often sold as a transition to EVs, but new data from Europe shows we’re still underestimating the emissions they produce.

• Casey Crownhart archive page

The AI Act is done. Here’s what will (and won’t) change

The hard work starts now.

• Melissa Heikkilä archive page

Advancing AI innovation with cutting-edge solutions  

Power your business transformation with proven AI services and infrastructure.

• Lachlan Ainley archive page

Stay connected

Get the latest updates from mit technology review.

Discover special offers, top stories, upcoming events, and more.

Thank you for submitting your email!

It looks like something went wrong.

We’re having trouble saving your preferences. Try refreshing this page and updating them one more time. If you continue to get this message, reach out to us at [email protected] with a list of newsletters you’d like to receive.

The Voice of 5G & LTE for the Americas

Select a Language: Spanish | Portuguese

5G Use Cases

With nearly 87 percent of the world connected to 4G LTE or better mobile technologies, 5G is emerging as a source of commercial solutions for smart connectivity. This paper outlines a framework for evaluating 5G use cases, such as Fixed Wireless Access (FWA) or private 5G networks (P5G) based on industry and consumer supply and demand.

The paper’s 2×2 matrix framework categorizes 5G applications into four quadrants. Each quadrant represents a unique combination of market readiness and technological development, offering valuable insights into the current and future landscape of 5G. The quadrants clarify successful case studies, unmet pain points, uncertain future considerations, and latent potential of any 5G use case.  

Additionally, key topics covered include:

• a consumer perspective on historical telecommunications use cases
• a new lens for evaluating 5G use cases
• the role of network architecture and technology
• 5G Fixed Wireless Access
• private 5G Networks
• recommendations for assessing 5G use cases

According to Paul Bongaarts, Senior Member of Technical Staff, T-Mobile US and working group co-leader of the briefing paper stated, “The 5G ecosystem is maturing and new, groundbreaking use cases are beginning to emerge. With standalone networks growing, 5G continues to be at the forefront of innovation and bringing new applications and solutions to life.”

"With the increasing adoption of Standalone (SA) 5G networks, we are witnessing a shift in the industry that is leading the way to a significant transformation. SA deployments can simplify networks by eliminating 4G dependency and accelerating 5G expansion in industrial applications, FWA, and private networks. As a result, we expect to experience the full potential of 5G in these domains.” Prashanth Devaraj, Director of Technology, Networks Business, Samsung Electronics America

Executive Summary

Curious about 5g, explore the wireless industry's latest topics in our white papers..

The Evolution of 5G Spectrum

Developing a comprehensive roadmap for new commercially available spectrum is necessary to ensure the successful deployment of future mobile networks. Balancing both licensed and unlicensed spectrum is vital for the

3GPP Technology Trends

The transformative potential of 3GPP’s current trends and technologies are focused on positively reshaping our daily lives. ‘3GPP Technology Trends’ provides a detailed overview of the 3rd Generation Partnership Project

Energy Efficiency and Sustainability in Mobile Communications Networks

In a world grappling with the significant challenge of climate change, the telecommunication sector emerges as a pivotal player in the quest for sustainability. With the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate

© 2024 5G Americas. All Rights Reserved.

Sign up to receive our announcements

• Back to stores
• Find a Verizon Store
• Request a Store Appointment
• Australia (eng)
• Deutschland (de)
• France (fr)
• Great Britain (eng)
• Netherlands (eng)
• Singapore (eng)
• Shop all mobile
• Shop all deals
• Red Hot Deals
• Internet and mobile bundle
• Veteran and military offers
• Smartphones
• Check device compatibility
• Rugged phones
• Certified pre-owned devices
• Basic phones
• Desk and conference phones
• Trade in your device
• Shop all devices
• Shop all plans
• Business Unlimited plans
• Bring your own device
• Device protection plans
• International services
• Mobile hotspots
• Smartwatches
• Public Sector devices
• eSIM devices
• Shop all Business Internet
• Fios Business Internet deals
• Check internet availability
• Fios Business Internet
• 5G Business Internet
• LTE Business Internet
• Internet Dedicated
• Business Broadband
• Jetpacks and hotspots
• Routers & extenders
• Internet speed test
• TechTeam support
• Internet usage calculator
• All solutions
• All products
• Mobile plans
• Phones and devices
• Connected laptops
• Business Internet
• Tech support
• Internet security solution
• Managed network services
• Virtual network services
• Connectivity
• Edge solutions
• Network consulting
• CPE and Subscription Services
• Network and cloud security
• Threat detection and response
• Web security
• Advanced security operations center (SOC) services
• Cyber risk management
• Mobile threat defense
• Mobile device management
• Rapid Response Retainer
• Webex Cloud Communications
• Webex Suite
• Verizon Calling Solutions for Microsoft Teams
• VoIP phone services
• Push to Talk Plus
• Field Force Manager
• Business & Enterprise Messaging
• Cloud contact center
• Voice security
• Customer engagement
• Customer experience consulting
• Voice services
• Voice API solutions
• IoT devices
• IoT networks
• IoT platform and services
• Iot applications
• Connected assets
• Smart cities and communities
• Connected commerce
• Application and device security
• ThingSpace platform
• GPS Fleet Tracking software
• GPS Equipment tracking
• AI dashcam solutions
• Accelerated access
• Cashierless checkout
• Crowd analytics
• Quality assurance for production
• Quality assurance for warehouse
• Future-ready worksites
• Efficient operations
• Connected workforces
• Data security
• Digital intelligence
• Enhanced patient experiences
• Data security and privacy
• Remote care
• Connected vehicles
• Unified technology
• Immersive vehicle experiences
• Connected factories
• Stronger supply chains
• Network automation
• Enterprise connectivity
• Enhanced customer experiences
• Data protection
• Better infrastructure
• Protect critical data
• Personalized customer experiences
• Real-time innovation
• Intelligent venues
• Connected athletes
• Enhance experiences
• Data and IP protection
• Connected smart grids
• Federal Government
• Public Safety
• State & Local Government
• All Industries
• Business internet
• Verizon Mobile for Microsoft Teams
• Private 5G Network
• 5G Edge computing
• 5G Ultra Wideband
• 2023 DBIR for Public Sector
• Improving business intelligence
• Evolving customer experiences
• Enhancing workforce productivity
• Enabling agility via automation
• 5G use cases
• 5G for Public Sector
• Private MEC
• Cloud service providers
• 5G Edge solutions
• Immersive experiences
• Building customer trust
• Contact center technology
• Upgrading IT infrastructure
• Digital transformation services
• Business continuity
• Growing your small business
• Network as a Service
• Social engineering defense
• Understanding security risk
• Data Breach Investigations Report
• Defending from core to edge
• Protecting your small business
• Managing cyber risk
• Reimagining your workplace
• Working remotely
• Securing remote work
• Cloud contact center solutions
• 2023 Payment Security Report
• Why choose us
• Executive Briefing Program
• Looking Glass
• Awards and recognition
• Small Business
• Public Sector
• All events and webinars
• Distance learning
• Edge & why it matters
• Improving CX
• Network-as-a-Service
• New workplace
• Public safety
• Security strategies
• Cybersecurity news and events
• Mobile Security Index report
• Payment Security Report
• Gartner recognition
• Verizon Partner Network
• Fleet management solutions
• Secure fleet vehicle management
• HOPE Agency turns to Verizon
• ABP builds the port of the future
• Cintas pulls off an IT upgrade
• Fujifilm steps up its cybersecurity
• All stories
• All insights
• Business Resources and Industry Insights
• Business Case Studies
• Verizon's Eight Currencies of 5G Provides True 5G for Businesses

The business case  for true 5G

Advancing the next generation of healthcare powered by 5G

Introduction

5G networks have the potential to revolutionize the way we work and do business. A Gartner survey reveals two-thirds of organizations intend to deploy 5G by 2020.1 But, in the race to deliver 5G at scale, some carriers are investing more in hype than innovation. While there will always be a race to establish leadership and position, trying to do so through hype alone creates two serious risks.

First, it creates confusion in the market and undersells the reality of 5G. Rebranding a 4G LTE Advanced network as a 5G service leaves customers with an experience less than the promise and potential of 5G. This perception of 5G as merely “a faster version of 4G” may be difficult to overcome as 5G networks come online.

Second, it has the potential to stall technology innovation and investment in 5G by commercial partners, due to lackluster network performance. These partnerships are critical to bringing actual 5G use cases to life in their respective industries.

In order to help business customers and partners overcome these real or perceived risks, Verizon has committed to only labeling networks as 5G if they meet the following criteria: if new device hardware connects to the network using new radio technology to deliver new capabilities. Our commitment to this transparency was recently shared by Kyle Malady, Chief Technology Officer at Verizon.2 Not only did he make this promise, but he called for others to follow this path.

Gartner study reveals two-thirds of organizations intend to deploy 5G by 2020. 1

As you work to differentiate between investments in hype versus investments in innovation, you should know that Verizon is building a 5G network that will eventually allow businesses to:

• Drive enhanced productivity
• Create new revenue streams
• Harness massive amounts of data that will improve operations
• Provide secure, mission-critical services
• Respond more quickly to changing business dynamics
• Deliver better value to customers

Anything less should call into question the motivations of the carrier or provider.

“When we say ‘5G,’ we mean 5G.”

—Kyle Malady, Verizon Chief Technology Officer

A better model: Eight Currencies of 5G

There are eight core currencies—or attributes—that you should consider when evaluating a 5G network. A network that

delivers better capabilities in each of the eight currencies will be a network that provides a true platform for innovation.

1. Throughput

Verizon has reached speeds of 1.45 gigabits per second in 4G LTE Advanced.3 5G speeds have the potential to be many times faster than today’s 4G LTE network. 5G networks will one day offer peak data rates of up to 10 Gbps.

2. Service deployment

Network virtualization (i.e., using software to perform network functions) enables service application deployment without having to install additional hardware, reducing typical service deployment time from 6 months to 90 minutes.

3. Mobility

We’ve tested 5G network handoff techniques to enable passengers in fast-moving vehicles and trains to stay connected  while moving. 5G technology is designed to enable devices that are traveling up to 500 kph (310 mph) to stay connected to the network. 4

4. Connected devices

5G will eventually be capable of supporting up to 1 million devices in a square kilometer. With so much new data from  these devices, a whole new world of services opens up.

5. Energy efficiency

5G will eventually have lower energy requirements for network operations (up to 90% less than 4G). 5G can enable edge computing—shifting complex computing to the network’s edge—saving time and processing energy on end users’ devices. 5

6. Data volume

The 5G standard is designed to handle up to 10 TB/s/km .2,6 This means the 5G network will eventually be able to carry  a massive amount of data for a lot of simultaneous users.

Latency is the time it takes for data to travel from the user over the network to the central processor and back again.  4G LTE currently offers 40 to 50 ms latency. Verizon 5G Ultra Wideband should eventually offer less than 10 ms end-to-end response times. 7, 8

8. Reliability

Verizon offers the most reliable 4G LTE network in the nation—ranked #1 in overall network performance in the U.S. by  RootMetrics, 12 times in a row. 9 Verizon is bringing that same expertise and focus as we architect and build our 5G Ultra Wideband network.

Like what you’re reading?

If you’d like to receive new articles, solutions briefs, whitepapers and more—just let us know.

Thank you for signing up.

A roadmap for today and tomorrow.

As Verizon 5G networks are rolled out, we will communicate and update business leaders on our work so you are able to take full advantage. In the meantime, the roadmap for businesses is clear.

First, if you are not currently using Verizon’s 4G LTE network, we recommend doing so immediately. This gives you instant access to the largest and most reliable 4G LTE network in the United States and opens the door for critical use cases that are actionable today. And, as there are currently no plans to sunset Verizon 4G LTE, this is an investment in the long-term value of your business.

Second, as Verizon 5G networks are rolled out in markets where you do business, we recommend working with us to  establish pilot programs or proofs of concept that allow you to realize the full value of 5G in your business.

4G LTE technologies compatible with 5G environments

• Category 1 (CAT-1)—Ideal for rich IoT applications – Uses fewer network resources and has better battery life than most smart devices
• LTE Category M1 (CAT-M1)—Shares capacity with other LTE devices – Uses fewer network resources and has better battery life than CAT-1 devices
• Narrowband IoT (NB-IoT)—Does not share capacity with other LTE devices – Less bandwidth, low data rate and better battery life than CAT-M1

What does it take to build a 5G Ultra Wideband network?

There are five network elements that are required to build out the Verizon 5G Ultra Wideband network.

Fiber 

Verizon has spent years deploying a massive fiber network while densifying its 4G LTE network with fiber-fed small  cells. Verizon has also agreed to spend $1.05 billion on new fiber-optic cable from Corning from 2018 to 2020. 11

Small-cell deployment

Verizon has spent years densifying our 4G LTE network. Many 4G locations will be used for 5G. We have built relationships with municipalities of all sizes to accelerate network deployment.

Millimeter spectrum holdings

Verizon has secured a large portfolio of millimeter-wave spectrum, through company and license acquisitions, to help  ensure that customers receive the best 5G network experience.

Edge computing

We have network locations nationwide that are ideally suited to house edge computing resources. Computing at the edge  will deliver access to the tools, power and expertise to deploy at scale.

Virtualization

Virtualization began taking hold in 4G networks as a component of LTE Advanced evolution, but it will be critical as  5G networks roll out. Decoupling of software and hardware functionality instead of adding or upgrading single-purpose hardware leads to more flexibility, faster delivery of services, greater scalability and significant cost efficiency in networks. Using software-defined networking (SDN) and network function virtualization (NFV), some of the radio access network (RAN) and core network physical infrastructure is replaced with software. This also allows for an increase in interoperability using common-off-the-shelf (COTS) hardware.

You’ll find an always-current list of cities with Verizon 5G Ultra Wideband at verizonwireless.com/5g/coverage-map/

For information on 5G Home availability, visit verizonwireless.com/5g/home/

For more information

Reach out to your Verizon Wireless business specialist or visit verizonwireless.com/biz/5g

1 Gartner Press Release, “Gartner Survey Reveals Two-Thirds of Organizations Intend to Deploy 5G by 2020.” December 18, 2018.

https://www.gartner.com/en/newsroom/press-releases/2018-12-18-gartner-survey-reveals-two-thirds-of-organizations-in

2 verizon.com/about/news/when-we-say-5g-we-mean-5g

3 In six-channel carrier aggregation

4 https://www.itu.int/md/R15-SG05-C-0040/en

5 verizon.com/about/our-company/5g/how-5g-will-pull-cloud-closer

6 https://5g-ppp.eu/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/5G-Vision-Brochure-v1.pdf

7 Latency improvements are due to lower latency in the 5G radio access network and the extension of the core network closer to end users.

8 verizon.com/about/news/verizon-ceo-hans-vestberg-keynotes-2019-consumer-electronics-show

9 Based on RootMetrics® by IHS Markit’s RootScore® Reports: 1H 2019. Tested with best commercially available smartphones on four national mobile networks  across all available network types. Experiences may vary. RootMetrics awards are not an endorsement of Verizon.

10 verizon.com/about/news/verizon-agrees-105-billion-three-year-minimum-purchase-agreement-corning-next-generation

Network details & coverage maps at vzw.com. © 2020 Verizon. FL6790120

Let's get started.

Choose your country to view contact details.

• Select Country...
• United States
• Netherlands
• New Zealand
• Switzerland
• United Kingdom

Call for Sales.

1-888-789-1223

Or we'll call you.

Existing customers, sign in to your business account or explore other support options .

Customer Support

If you are already a Verizon customer, we have several options to help you get the support you need.

Enterprise, government and education customers

Fios, internet and phone customers

Small and medium business wireless customers

• Voice and collaboration
• Contact centers and CX
• Internet of Things
• Fleet management
• Solutions by industry
• Business Devices
• Business Unlimited
• Mobile deals
• Internet deals
• Contact overview
• Request a call
• Wireless store appointment
• Virtual appointment
• Real estate inquiry form
• Support overview
• Register for My Business
• Store locator
• Fios order status
• Tasks without logging in
• Verizon Enterprise Center
• Public Sector support
• Accessibility
• Wholesale and reselling
• Partner network
• Systems Integrator partners
• Technology partners
• For property managers
• Device trade-in
• Wireless return policy
• Refer a business
• Our company
• Corporate responsibility
• Verizon Foundation
• Why Verizon
• Resources and insights
• Report a security vulnerability
• WEA Compatibility
• Service Guide
• facebook-official

• Sign up for email alerts
• Terms & Conditions
• Privacy Policy
• California Privacy Notice
• Health Privacy Notice
• About Our Ads
• Open Internet

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

• View all journals
• My Account Login
• Explore content
• About the journal
• Publish with us
• Sign up for alerts
• Review Article
• Open access
• Published: 16 March 2021

5G mobile networks and health—a state-of-the-science review of the research into low-level RF fields above 6 GHz

• Ken Karipidis   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7538-7447 1 ,
• Rohan Mate 1 ,
• David Urban 1 ,
• Rick Tinker 1 &
• Andrew Wood 2  

Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology volume  31 ,  pages 585–605 ( 2021 ) Cite this article

161k Accesses

63 Citations

366 Altmetric

Metrics details

The increased use of radiofrequency (RF) fields above 6 GHz, particularly for the 5 G mobile phone network, has given rise to public concern about any possible adverse effects to human health. Public exposure to RF fields from 5 G and other sources is below the human exposure limits specified by the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP). This state-of-the science review examined the research into the biological and health effects of RF fields above 6 GHz at exposure levels below the ICNIRP occupational limits. The review included 107 experimental studies that investigated various bioeffects including genotoxicity, cell proliferation, gene expression, cell signalling, membrane function and other effects. Reported bioeffects were generally not independently replicated and the majority of the studies employed low quality methods of exposure assessment and control. Effects due to heating from high RF energy deposition cannot be excluded from many of the results. The review also included 31 epidemiological studies that investigated exposure to radar, which uses RF fields above 6 GHz similar to 5 G. The epidemiological studies showed little evidence of health effects including cancer at different sites, effects on reproduction and other diseases. This review showed no confirmed evidence that low-level RF fields above 6 GHz such as those used by the 5 G network are hazardous to human health. Future experimental studies should improve the experimental design with particular attention to dosimetry and temperature control. Future epidemiological studies should continue to monitor long-term health effects in the population related to wireless telecommunications.

Similar content being viewed by others

Smartphones enabled up to 58 s strong-shaking warning in the M7.8 Türkiye earthquake

Francesco Finazzi, Rémy Bossu & Fabrice Cotton

SpatialData: an open and universal data framework for spatial omics

Luca Marconato, Giovanni Palla, … Oliver Stegle

A fully integrated wearable ultrasound system to monitor deep tissues in moving subjects

Muyang Lin, Ziyang Zhang, … Sheng Xu

Introduction

There are continually emerging technologies that use radiofrequency (RF) electromagnetic fields particularly in telecommunications. Most telecommunication sources currently operate at frequencies below 6 GHz, including radio and TV broadcasting and wireless sources such as local area networks and mobile telephony. With the increasing demand for higher data rates, better quality of service and lower latency to users, future wireless telecommunication sources are planned to operate at frequencies above 6 GHz and into the ‘millimetre wave’ range (30–300 GHz) [ 1 ]. Frequencies above 6 GHz have been in use for many years in various applications such as radar, microwave links, airport security screening and in medicine for therapeutic applications. However, the planned use of millimetre waves by future wireless telecommunications, particularly the 5th generation (5 G) of mobile networks, has given rise to public concern about any possible adverse effects to human health.

The interaction mechanisms of RF fields with the human body have been extensively described and tissue heating is the main effect for RF fields above 100 kHz (e.g. HPA; SCENHIR) [ 2 , 3 ]. RF fields become less penetrating into body tissue with increasing frequency and for frequencies above 6 GHz the depth of penetration is relatively short with surface heating being the predominant effect [ 4 ].

International exposure guidelines for RF fields have been developed on the basis of current scientific knowledge to ensure that RF exposure is not harmful to human health [ 5 , 6 ]. The guidelines developed by the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) in particular form the basis for regulations in the majority of countries worldwide [ 7 ]. In the frequency range above 6 GHz and up to 300 GHz the ICNIRP guidelines prevent excessive heating at the surface of the skin and in the eye.

Although not as extensively studied as RF fields at lower frequencies, a number of studies have investigated the effects of RF fields at frequencies above 6 GHz. Previous reviews have reported studies investigating frequencies above 6 GHz that show effects although many of the reported effects occurred at levels greater than the ICNIRP guidelines [ 1 , 8 ]. Given the public concern over the planned roll-out of 5 G using millimetre waves, it is important to determine whether there are any related adverse health consequences at levels encountered in the environment. The aim of this paper is to present a state-of-the-science review of the bioeffects research into RF fields above 6 GHz at low levels of exposure (exposure below the occupational limits of the ICNIRP guidelines). A meta-analysis of in vitro and in vivo studies, providing quantitative effect estimates for each study, is presented separately in a companion paper [ 9 ].

The state-of-the-science review included a comprehensive search of all available literature and examined the extent, range and nature of evidence into the bioeffects of RF fields above 6 GHz, at levels below the ICNIRP occupational limits. The review consisted of biomedical studies on low-level RF electromagnetic fields from 6 GHz to 300 GHz published at any starting date up to December 2019. Studies were initially found by searching the databases PubMed, EMF-Portal, Google Scholar, Embase and Web of Science using the search terms “millimeter wave”, “millimetre wave”, “gigahertz”, “GHz” and “radar”. We further searched major reviews published by health authorities on RF and health [ 2 , 3 , 10 , 11 ]. Finally, we searched the reference list of all the studies included. Studies were only included if the full paper was available in English.

Although over 300 studies were considered, this review was limited to experimental studies (in vitro, in vivo, human) where the stated RF exposure level was at or below the occupational whole-body limits specified by the ICNIRP (2020) guidelines: power density (PD) reference level of 50 W/m 2 or specific absorption rate (SAR) basic restriction of 0.4 W/kg. Since the PD occupational limits for local exposure are more relevant to in vitro studies, and since these limits are higher, we have included those studies with PD up to 100–200 W/m 2 , depending on frequency. The review included studies below the ICNIRP general public limits that are lower than the occupational limits.

The review also included epidemiological studies (cohort, case-control, cross-sectional) investigating exposure to radar but excluded studies where the stated radar frequencies were below 6 GHz. Epidemiological studies on radar were included as they represent occupational exposure below the ICNIRP guidelines. Case reports or case series were excluded. Studies investigating therapeutical outcomes were also excluded unless they reported specific bio-effects.

The state-of-the-science review appraised the quality of the included studies, but unlike a systematic review it did not exclude any studies based on quality. The review also identified gaps in knowledge for future investigation and research. The reporting of results in this paper is narrative with tabular accompaniment showing study characteristics. In this paper, the acronym “MMWs” (or millimetre waves) is used to denote RF fields above 6 GHz.

The review included 107 experimental studies (91 in vitro, 15 in vivo, and 1 human) that investigated various bioeffects, including genotoxicity, cell proliferation, gene expression, cell signalling, membrane function and other effects. The exposure characteristics and biological system investigated in experimental studies for the various bioeffects are shown in Tables  1 – 6 . The results of the meta-analysis of the in vitro and in vivo studies are presented separately in Wood et al. [ 9 ].

Genotoxicity

Studies have examined the effects of exposing whole human or mouse blood samples or lymphocytes and leucocytes to low-level MMWs to determine possible genotoxicity. Some of the genotoxicity studies have looked at the possible effects of MMWs on chromosome aberrations [ 12 , 13 , 14 ]. At exposure levels below the ICNIRP limits, the results have been inconsistent, with either a statistically significant increase [ 14 ] or no significant increase [ 12 , 13 ] in chromosome aberrations.

MMWs do not penetrate past the skin therefore epithelial and skin cells have been a common model of examination for possible genotoxic effects. DNA damage in a number of epithelial and skin cell types and at varied exposure parameters both below and above the ICNIRP limits have been examined using comet assays [ 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 ]. Despite the varied exposure models and methods used, no statistically significant evidence of DNA damage was identified in these studies. Evidence of genotoxic damage was further assessed in skin cells by the occurrence of micro-nucleation. De Amicis et al. [ 18 ] and Franchini et al. [ 19 ] reported a statistically significant increase in micro-nucleation, however, Hintzsche et al. [ 15 ] and Koyama et al. [ 16 , 17 ] did not find an effect. Two of the studies also examined telomere length and found no statistically significant difference between exposed and unexposed cells [ 15 , 19 ]. Last, a Ukrainian research group examined different skin cell types in three studies and reported an increase in chromosome condensation in the nucleus [ 20 , 21 , 22 ]; these results have not been independently verified. Overall, there was no confirmed evidence of MMWs causing genotoxic damage in epithelial and skin cells.

Three studies from an Indian research group have examined indicators of DNA damage and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in rats exposed in vivo to MMWs. The studies reported DNA strand breaks based on evidence from comet assays [ 23 , 24 ] and changes in enzymes that control the build-up of ROS [ 24 ]. Kumar et al. also reported an increase in ROS production [ 25 ]. All the studies from this research group had low animal numbers (six animals exposed) and their results have not been independently replicated. An in vitro study that investigated ROS production in yeast cultures reported an increase in free radicals exposed to high-level but not low-level MMWs [ 26 ].

Other studies have looked at the effect of low-level MMWs on DNA in a range of different ways. Two studies reported that MMWs induce colicin synthesis and prophage induction in bacterial cells, both of which are suggested as indicative of DNA damage [ 27 , 28 ]. Another study suggested that DNA exposed to MMWs undergoes polymerase chain reaction synthesis differently than unexposed DNA [ 29 ], although no statistical analysis was presented. Hintzsche et al. reported statistically significant occurrence of spindle disturbance in hybrid cells exposed to MMWs [ 30 ]. Zeni et al. found no evidence of DNA damage or alteration of cell cycle kinetics in blood cells exposed to MMWs [ 31 ]. Last, two studies from a Russian research group examined the protective effects of MMWs where mouse blood leukocytes were pre-exposed to low-level MMWs and then to X-rays [ 32 , 33 ]. The studies reported that there was statistically significant less DNA damage in the leucocytes that were pre-exposed to MMWs than those exposed to X-rays alone. Overall, these studies had no independent replication.

Cell proliferation

A number of studies have examined the effects of low-level MMWs on cell proliferation and they have used a variety of cellular models and methods of investigation. Studies have exposed bacterial cells to low-level MMWs alone or in conjunction with other agents. Two early studies reported changes in the growth rate of E. coli cultures exposed to low-level MMWs; however, both of these studies were preliminary in nature without appropriate dosimetry or statistical analysis [ 34 , 35 ]. Two studies exposed E. coli cultures and one study exposed yeast cell cultures to MMWs alone, and before and after UVC exposure [ 36 , 37 , 38 ]. All three studies reported that MMWs alone had no significant effect on bacterial cell proliferation or survival. Rojavin et al., however, did report that when E. coli bacteria were exposed to MMWs after UVC sterilisation treatment, there was an increase in their survival rate [ 36 ]. The authors suggested this could be due to the MMW activation of bacterial DNA repair mechanisms. Other studies by an Armenian research group reported a reduction in E. coli cell growth when exposed to MMWs [ 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 ]. These studies reported that when E.coli cultures were exposed to MMWs in the presence of antibiotics, there was a greater reduction in the bacterial growth rate and an increase in the time between bacterial cell division compared with antibiotics exposure alone. Two of these studies investigated if these effects could be due to a reduction in the activity of the E. coli ATPase when exposed to MMWs. The studies reported exposure to MMWs in combination with particular antibiotics changed the concentration of H + and K + ions in the E.coli cells, which the authors linked to changes in ATPase activity [ 43 , 44 ]. Overall, the results from studies on cell proliferation of bacterial cells have been inconsistent with different research groups reporting conflicting results.

Studies have also examined how exposure to low-level MMWs could affect cell proliferation in yeast. Two early studies by a German research group reported changes in yeast cell growth [ 46 , 47 ]. However, another two independent studies did not report any changes in the growth rate of exposed yeast [ 48 , 49 ]. Furia et al. [ 48 ] noted that the Grundler and Keilmann studies [ 46 , 47 ] had a number of methodical issues, which may have skewed their results, such as poor exposure control and analysis of results. Another study exposed yeast to MMWs before and after UVC exposure and reported that MMWs did not change the rates of cell survival [ 37 ].

Studies have also examined the possible effect of low-level MMWs on tumour cells with some studies reporting a possible anti-proliferative effect. Chidichimo et al. reported a reduction in the growth of a variety of tumour cells exposed to MMWs; however, the results of the study did not support this conclusion [ 50 ]. An Italian research group published a number of studies investigating proliferation effects on human melanoma cell lines with conflicting results. Two of the studies reported reduced growth rate [ 51 , 52 ] and a third study showed no change in proliferation or in the cell cycle [ 53 ]. Beneduci et al. also reported changes in the morphology of MMW exposed cells; however, the authors did not present quantitative data for these reported changes [ 51 , 52 ]. In another study by the same Italian group, Beneduci et al. reported that exposure to low-level MMWs had a greater than 40% reduction in the number of viable erythromyeloid leukaemia cells compared with controls; however, there was no significant change in the number of dead cells [ 54 ]. More recently, Yaekashiwa et al. reported no statistically significant effect in proliferation or cellular activity in glioblastoma cells exposed to low-level MMWs [ 55 ].

Other studies did not report statistically significant effects on proliferation in chicken embryo cell cultures, rat nerve cells or human skin fibroblasts exposed to low-level MMWs [ 55 , 56 , 57 ].

Gene expression

Some studies have investigated whether low-level MMWs can influence gene expression. Le Queument et al. examined a multitude of genes using microarray analyses and reported transient expression changes in five of them. However, the authors concluded that these results were extremely minor, especially when compared with studies using microarrays to study known pollutants [ 58 ]. Studies by a French research group have examined the effect of MMWs on stress sensitive genes, stress sensitive gene promotors and chaperone proteins in human glial cell lines. In two studies, glial cells were exposed to low-level MMWs and there was no observed modification in the expression of stress sensitive gene promotors when compared with sham exposed cells [ 59 , 60 , 61 ]. Further, glial cells were examined for the expression of the chaperone protein clusterin (CLU) and heat shock protein HSP70. These proteins are activated in times of cellular stress to maintain protein functions and help with the repair process [ 60 ]. There was no observed modification in gene expression of the chaperone proteins. Other studies have examined the endoplasmic reticulum of glial cells exposed to MMWs [ 62 , 63 ]. The endoplasmic reticulum is the site of synthesis and folding of secreted proteins and has been shown to be sensitive to environmental insults [ 62 ]. The authors reported that there was no elevation in mRNA expression levels of endoplasmic reticulum specific chaperone proteins. Studies of stress sensitive genes in glial cells have consistently shown no modification due to low-level MMW exposure [ 59 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 ].

Belyaev and co-authors have studied a possible resonance effect of low-level MMWs primarily on Escherichia Coli (E. coli) cells and cultures. The Belyaev research group reported that the resonance effect of MMWs can change the conformation state of chromosomal DNA complexes [ 64 , 65 , 66 , 67 , 68 , 69 , 70 , 71 , 72 , 73 , 74 ]; however, most of these experiments were not temperature controlled. This resonance effect was not supported by earlier experiments on a number of different cell types conducted by Gandhi et al. and Bush et al. [ 75 , 76 ].

The results of Belyaev and co-workers have primarily been based on evidence from the anomalous viscosity time dependence (AVTD) method [ 77 ]. The research group argued that changes in the AVTD curve can indicate changes to the DNA conformation state and DNA-protein bonds. Belyaev and co-workers have reported in a number of studies that differences in the AVTD curve were dependent on several parameter including MMW characteristics (frequency, exposure level, and polarisation), cellular concentration and cell growth rate [ 69 , 71 , 72 , 73 , 74 ]. In some of the Belyaev studies E. coli were pre-exposed to X-rays, which was reported to change the AVTD curve; however, if the cells were then exposed to MMWs there was no longer a change in the AVTD curve [ 64 , 65 , 66 , 67 ]. The authors suggested that exposure to MMWs increased the rate of recovery in bacterial cells previously exposed to ionising radiation. The Belyaev group also used rat thymocytes in another study and they concluded that the results closely paralleled those found in E. coli cells [ 67 ]. The studies on the DNA conformation state change relied heavily on the AVTD method that has only been used by the Balyaev group and has not been independently validated [ 78 ].

Cell signalling and electrical activity

Studies examining effects of low-level MMWs on cell signalling have mainly involved MMW exposure to nervous system tissue of various animals. An in vivo study on rats recorded extracellular background electrical spike activity from neurons in the supraoptic nucleus of the hypothalamus after MMW exposure [ 79 ]. The study reported that there were changes in inter-spike interval and spike activity in the cells of exposed animals when compared with controls. There was also a mixture of significant shifts in neuron population proportions and spike frequency. The effect on the regularity of neuron spike activity was greater at higher frequencies. An in vitro study on rat cortical tissue slices reported that neuron firing rates decreased in half of the samples exposed to low-level MMWs [ 80 ]. The width of the signals was also decreased but all effects were short lived. The observed changes were not consistent between the two studies, but this could be a consequence of different brain regions being studied.

In vitro experiments by a Japanese research group conducted on crayfish exposed the dissected optical components and brain to MMWs [ 81 , 82 ]. Munemori and Ikeda reported that there was no significant change in the inter-spike intervals or amplitude of spontaneous discharges [ 81 ]. However, there was a change in the distribution of inter-spike intervals where the initial standard deviation decreased and then restored in a short time to a rhythm comparable to the control. A follow-up study on the same tissues and a wide range of exposure levels (many above the ICNIRP limits) reported similar results with the distribution of spike intervals decreasing with increasing exposure level [ 82 ]. These results on action potentials in crayfish tissue have not been independently investigated.

Mixed results were reported in experiments conducted by a US research group on sciatic frog nerve preparations. These studies applied electrical stimulation to the nerve and examined the effect of MMWs on the compound action potentials (CAPs) conductivity through the neurological tissue fibre. Pakhomov et al. found a reduction in CAP latency accompanied by an amplitude increase for MMWs above the ICNIRP limits but not for low-level MMWs [ 83 ]. However, in two follow-up studies, Pakhomov et al. reported that the attenuation in amplitude of test CAPs caused by high-rate stimulus was significantly reduced to the same magnitude at various MMW exposure levels [ 84 , 85 ]. In all of these studies, the observed effect on the CAPs was temporal and reversible, but there were implications of a frequency specific resonance interaction with the nervous tissue. These results on action potentials in frog sciatic nerves have not been investigated by others.

Other common experimental systems involved low-level MMW exposure to isolated ganglia of leeches. Pikov and Siegel reported that there was a decrease in the firing rate in one of the tested neurons and, through the measurement of input resistance in an inserted electrode, there was a transient dose-dependent change in membrane permeability [ 86 ]. However, Romanenko et al. found that low-level MMWs did not cause suppression of neuron firing rate [ 87 ]. Further experiments by Romanenko et al. reported that MMWs at the ICNIRP public exposure limit and above reported similar action potential firing rate suppression [ 88 ]. Significant differences were reported between MMW effects and effects due to an equivalent rise in temperature caused by heating the bathing solution by conventional means.

Membrane effects

Studies examining membrane interactions with low-level MMWs have all been conducted at frequencies above 40 GHz in in vitro experiments. A number of studies investigated membrane phase transitions involving exposure to a range of phospholipid vesicles prepared to mimic biological cell membranes. One group of studies by an Italian research group reported effects on membrane hydration dynamics and phase transition [ 89 , 90 , 91 ]. Observations included transition delays from the gel to liquid phase or vice versa when compared with sham exposures maintained at the same temperature; the effect was reversed after exposure. These reported changes remain unconfirmed by independent groups.

A number of studies investigated membrane permeability. One study focussed on Ca 2+ activated K + channels on the membrane surface of cultured kidney cells of African Green Marmosets [ 92 ]. The study reported modifications to the Hill coefficient and apparent affinity of the Ca 2+ by the K + channels. Another study reported that the effectiveness of a chemical to supress membrane permeability in the gap junction was transiently reduced when the cells were exposed to MMWs [ 93 , 94 ]. Two studies by one research group reported increases in the movement of molecules into skin cells during MMW exposure and suggested this indicates increased cell membrane permeability [ 21 , 91 ]. Permeability changes based on membrane pressure differences were also investigated in relation to phospholipid organisation [ 95 ]. Although there was no evidence of effects on phospholipid organisation on exposed model membranes, the authors reported a measurable difference in membrane pressure at low exposure levels. Another study reported neuron shrinkage and dehydration of brain tissues [ 96 ]. The study reported this was due to influences of low-level MMWs on the cellular bathing medium and intracellular water. Further, the authors suggested this influence of MMWs may have led to formation of unknown messengers, which are able to modulate brain cell hydration. A study using an artificial axon system consisting of a network of cells containing aqueous phospholipid vesicles reported permeability changes with exposure to MMWs by measuring K + efflux [ 97 ]. In this case, the authors emphasised limitations in applying this model to processes within a living organism. The varied effects of low-level MMWs on membrane permeability lack replication.

Other studies have examined the shape or size of vesicles to determine possible effects on membrane permeability. Ramundo-Orlando et al., reported effects on the shape of giant unilamellar vesicles (GUVs), specifically elongation, attributed to permeability changes [ 98 ]. However, another study reported that only smaller diameter vesicles demonstrated a statistically significant change when exposed to MMWs [ 99 ]. A study by Cosentino et al. examined the effect of MMWs on the size distributions of both large unilamellar vesicles (LUVs) and GUVs in in vitro preparations [ 100 ]. It was reported that size distribution was only affected when the vesicles were under osmotic stress, resulting in a statistically significant reduction in their size. In this case, the effect was attributed to dehydration as a result of membrane permeability changes. There is, generally, lack of replication on physical changes to phospholipid vesicles due to low-level MMWs.

Studies on E. coli and E. hirae cultures have reported resonance effects on membrane proteins and phospholipid constituents or within the media suspension [ 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 ]. These studies observed cell proliferation effects such as changes to cell growth rate, viability and lag phase duration. These effects were reported to be more pronounced at specific MMW frequencies. The authors suggested this could be due to a resonance effect on the cell membrane or the suspension medium. Torgomyan et al. and Hovnanyan et al. reported similar changes to proliferation that they attributed to changes in membrane permeability from MMW exposure [ 43 , 45 ]. These experiments were all conducted by an Armenian research group and have not been replicated by others.

Other effects

A number of studies have reported on the experimental results of other effects. Reproductive effects were examined in three studies on mice, rats and human spermatozoa. An in vivo study on mice exposed to low-level MMWs reported that spermatogonial cells had significantly more metaphase translocation disturbances than controls and an increased number of cells with unpaired chromosomes [ 101 ]. Another in vivo study on rats reported increased morphological abnormalities to spermatozoa following exposure, however, there was no statistical analysis presented [ 102 ]. Conversely, an in vitro study on human spermatozoa reported that there was an increase in motility after a short time of exposure to MMWs with no changes in membrane integrity and no generation of apoptosis [ 103 ]. All three of these studies looked at different effects on spermatozoa making it difficult to make an overall conclusion. A further two studies exposed rats to MMWs and examined their sperm for indicators of ROS production. One study reported both increases and decreases in enzymes that control the build-up of ROS [ 104 ]. The other study reported a decrease in the activity of histone kinase and an increase in ROS [ 105 ]. Both studies had low animal numbers (six animals exposed) and these results have not been independently replicated.

Immune function was also examined in a limited number of studies focussing on the effects of low-level MMWs on antigens and antibody systems. Three studies by a Russian research group that exposed neutrophils to MMWs reported frequency dependant changes in ROS production [ 106 , 107 , 108 ]. Another study reported a statistically significant decrease in antigen binding to antibodies when exposed to MMWs [ 109 ]; the study also reported that exposure decreased the stability of previously formed antigen–antibody complexes.

The effect on fatty acid composition in mice exposed to MMWs has been examined by a Russian research group using a number of experimental methods [ 110 , 111 , 112 ]. One study that exposed mice afflicted with an inflammatory condition to low-level MMWs reported no change in the fatty acid concentrations in the blood plasma. However, there was a significant increase in the omega-3 and omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid content of the thymus [ 110 ]. Another study exposed tumour-bearing mice and reported that monounsaturated fatty acids decreased and polyunsaturated fatty acids increased in both the thymus and tumour tissue. These changes resulted in fatty acid composition of the thymus tissue more closely resembling that of the healthy control animals [ 111 ]. The authors also examined the effect of exposure to X-rays of healthy mice, which was reported to reduce the total weight of the thymus. However, when the thymus was exposed to MMWs before or after exposure to X-rays, the fatty acid content was restored and was no longer significantly different from controls [ 112 ]. Overall, the authors reported a potential protective effect of MMWs on the recovery of fatty acids, however, all the results came from the same research group with a lack of replication from others.

Physiological effects were examined by a study conducted on mice exposed to WWMs to assess the safety of police radar [ 113 ]. The authors reported no statistically significant changes in the physiological parameters tested, which included body mass and temperature, peripheral blood and the mass and cellular composition, and number of cells in several important organs. Another study exposing human volunteers to low-level MMWs specifically examined cardiovascular function of exposed and sham exposed groups by electrocardiogram (ECG) and atrioventricular conduction velocity derivation [ 114 ]. This study reported that there were no significant differences in the physiological indicators assessed in test subjects.

Other individual studies have looked at various other effects. An early study reported differences in the attenuation of MMWs at specific frequencies in healthy and tumour cells [ 115 ]. Another early study reported no effect in the morphology of BHK-21/C13 cell cultures when exposed to low-level MMWs; the study did report morphological changes at higher levels, which were related to heating [ 116 ]. One study examined whether low-level MMWs induced cancer promotion in leukaemia and Lewis tumour cell grafted mice. The study reported no statistically significant growth promotion in either of the grafted cancer cell types [ 117 ]. Another study looked at the activity of gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase enzyme in rats after treatment with hydrocortisone and exposure to MMWs [ 118 ]. The study reported no effects at exposures below the ICNIRP limit, however, at levels above authors reported a range of effects. Another study exposed saline liquid solutions to continuous low and high level MMWs and reported temperature oscillations within the liquid medium but lacked a statistical analysis [ 119 ]. Another study reported that low-level MMWs decrease the mobility of the protozoa S. ambiguum offspring [ 120 ]. None of the reported effects in all of these other studies have been investigated elsewhere.

Epidemiological studies

There are no epidemiological studies that have directly investigated 5 G and potential health effects. There are however epidemiological studies that have looked at occupational exposure to radar, which could potentially include the frequency range from 6 to 300 GHz. Epidemiological studies on radar were included as they represent occupational exposure below the ICNIRP guidelines. The review included 31 epidemiological studies (8 cohort, 13 case-control, 9 cross-sectional and 1 meta-analysis) that investigated exposure to radar and various health outcomes including cancer at different sites, effects on reproduction and other diseases. The risk estimates as well as limitations of the epidemiological studies are shown in Table  7 .

Three large cohort studies investigated mortality in military personnel with potential exposure to MMWs from radar. Studies reporting on over 40-year follow-up of US navy veterans of the Korean War found that radar exposure had little effect on all-cause or cancer mortality with the second study reporting risk estimates below unity [ 121 , 122 ]. Similarly, in a 40-year follow-up of Belgian military radar operators, there was no statistically significant increase in all-cause mortality [ 123 , 124 ]; the study did, however, find a small increase in cancer mortality. More recently in a 25-year follow-up of military personnel who served in the French Navy, there was no increase in all-cause or cancer mortality for personnel exposed to radar [ 125 ]. The main limitation in the cohort studies was the lack of individual levels of RF exposure with most studies based on job-title. Comparisons were made between occupations with presumed high exposure to RF fields and other occupations with presumed lower exposure. This type of non-differential misclassification in dichotomous exposure assessment is associated mostly with an effect measure biased towards a null effect if there is a true effect of RF fields. If there is no true effect of RF fields, non-differential exposure misclassification will not bias the effect estimate (which will be close to the null value, but may vary because of random error). The military personnel in these studies were compared with the general population and this ‘healthy worker effect’ presents possible bias since military personnel are on average in better health than the general population; the healthy worker effect tends to underestimate the risk. The cohort studies also lacked information on possible confounding factors including other occupational exposures such as chemicals and lifestyle factors such as smoking.

Several epidemiological studies have specifically investigated radar exposure and testicular cancer. In a case-control study where most of the subjects were selected from military hospitals in Washington DC, USA, Hayes et al. found no increased risk between exposure to radar and testicular cancer [ 126 ]; exposure to radar was self-reported and thus subject to misclassification. In this study, the misclassification was likely non-differential, biasing the result towards the null. Davis and Mostofi reported a cluster of testicular cancer within a small cohort of 340 police officers in Washington State (USA) where the cases routinely used handheld traffic radar guns [ 127 ]; however, exposure was not assessed for the full cohort, which may have overestimated the risk. In a population-based case-control study conducted in Sweden, Hardell et al. did not find a statistically significant association between radar work and testicular cancer; however, the result was based on only five radar workers questioning the validity of this result [ 128 ]. In a larger population-based case control study in Germany, Baumgardt-Elms et al. also reported no association between working near radar units (both self-reported and expert assessed) and testicular cancer [ 129 ]; a limitation of this study was the low participation of identified controls (57%), however, there was no difference compared with the characteristics of the cases so selection bias was unlikely. In the cohort study of US navy veterans previously mentioned exposure to radar was not associated with testicular cancer [ 122 ]; the limitations of this cohort study mentioned earlier may have underestimated the risk. Finally, in a hospital-based case-control study in France, radar workers were also not associated with risk of testicular cancer [ 130 ]; a limitation was the low participation of controls (37%) with a difference in education level between participating and non-participating controls, which may have underestimated this result.

A limited number of studies have investigated radar exposure and brain cancer. In a nested case-control study within a cohort of male US Air Force personnel, Grayson reported a small association between brain cancer and RF exposure, which included radar [ 131 ]; no potential confounders were included in the analysis, which may have overestimated the result. However, in a case-control study of personnel in the Brazilian Navy, Santana et al. reported no association between naval occupations likely to be exposed to radar and brain cancer [ 132 ]; the small number of cases and lack of diagnosis confirmation may have biased the results towards the null. All of the cohort studies on military personnel previously mentioned also examined brain cancer mortality and found no association with exposure to radar [ 122 , 124 , 125 ].

A limited number of studies have investigated radar exposure and ocular cancer. Holly et al. in a population-based case-control study in the US reported an association between self-reported exposure to radar or microwaves and uveal melanoma [ 133 ]; the study investigated many different exposures and the result is prone to multiple testing. In another case-control study, which used both hospital and population controls, Stang et al. did not find an association between self-reported exposure to radar and uveal melanoma [ 134 ]; a high non-response in the population controls (52%) and exposure misclassification may have underestimated this result. The cohort studies of the Belgian military and French navy also found no association between exposure to radar and ocular cancer [ 124 , 125 ].

A few other studies have examined the potential association between radar and other cancers. In a hospital-based case-control study in Italy, La Vecchia investigated 14 occupational agents and risk of bladder cancer and found no association with radar, although no risk estimate was reported [ 135 ]; non-differential self-reporting of exposure may have underestimated this finding if there is a true effect. Finkelstein found an increased risk for melanoma in a large cohort of Ontario police officers exposed to traffic radar and followed for 31 years [ 136 ]; there was significant loss to follow up which may have biased this result in either direction. Finkelstein found no statistically significant associations with other types of cancer and the study reported a statistically significant risk estimate just below unity for all cancers, which is reflective of the healthy worker effect [ 136 ]. In a large population-based case-control study in France, Fabbro-Peray et al. investigated a large number of occupational and environmental risk factors in relation to non-Hodgkin lymphoma and found no association with radar operators based on job-title; however, the result was based on a small number of radar operators [ 137 ]. The cohort studies on military personnel did not find statistically significant associations between exposure to radar and other cancers [ 122 , 124 , 125 ].

Variani et al. conducted a recent systematic review and meta-analysis investigating occupational exposure to radar and cancer risk [ 138 ]. The meta-analysis included three cohort studies [ 122 , 124 , 125 ] and three case-control studies [ 129 , 130 , 131 ] for a total sample size of 53,000 subjects. The meta-analysis reported a decrease in cancer risk for workers exposed to radar but noted the small number of studies included with significant heterogeneity between the studies.

Apart from cancer, a number of epidemiological studies have investigated radar exposure and reproductive outcomes. Two early studies on military personnel in the US [ 139 ] and Denmark [ 140 ] reported differences in semen parameters between personnel using radar and personnel on other duty assignments; these studies included only volunteers with potential fertility concerns and are prone to bias. A further volunteer study on US military personnel did not find a difference in semen parameters in a similar comparison [ 141 ]; in general these type of cross-sectional investigations on volunteers provide limited evidence on possible risk. In a case-control study of personnel in the French military, Velez de la Calle et al. reported no association between exposure to radar and male infertility [ 142 ]; non-differential self-reporting of exposure may have underestimated this finding if there is a true effect. In two separate cross-sectional studies of personnel in the Norwegian navy, Baste et al. and Møllerløkken et al. reported an association between exposure to radar and male infertility, but there has been no follow up cohort or case control studies to confirm these results [ 143 , 144 ].

Again considering reproduction, a number of studies investigated pregnancy and offspring outcomes. In a population-based case-control study conducted in the US and Canada, De Roos et al. found no statistically significant association between parental occupational exposure to radar and neuroblastoma in offspring; however, the result was based on a small number of cases and controls exposed to radar [ 145 ]. In another cross-sectional study of the Norwegian navy, Mageroy et al. reported a higher risk of congenital anomalies in the offspring of personnel who were exposed to radar; the study found positive associations with a large number of other chemical and physical exposures, but the study involved multiple comparisons so is prone to over-interpretation [ 146 ]. Finally, a number of pregnancy outcomes were investigated in a cohort study of Norwegian navy personnel enlisted between 1950 and 2004 [ 147 ]. The study reported an increase in perinatal mortality for parental service aboard fast patrol boats during a short period (3 months); exposure to radar was one of many possible exposures when serving on fast patrol boats and the result is prone to multiple testing. No associations were found between long-term exposure and any pregnancy outcomes.

There is limited research investigating exposure to radar and other diseases. In a large case-control study of US military veterans investigating a range of risk factors and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Beard et al. did not find a statistically significant association with radar [ 148 ]; the study reported a likely under-ascertainment of non-exposed cases, which may have biased the result away from the null. The cohort studies on military personnel did not find statistically significant associations between exposure to radar and other diseases [ 122 , 124 , 125 ].

A number of observational studies have investigated outcomes measured on volunteers in the laboratory. They are categorised as epidemiological studies because exposure to radar was not based on provocation. These studies investigated genotoxicity [ 149 ], oxidative stress [ 149 ], cognitive effects [ 150 ] and endocrine function [ 151 ]; the studies generally reported positive associations with radar. These volunteer studies did not sample from a defined population and are prone to bias [ 152 ].

The experimental studies investigating exposure to MMWs at levels below the ICNIRP occupational limits have looked at a variety of biological effects. Genotoxicity was mainly examined by using comet assays of exposed cells. This approach has consistently found no evidence of DNA damage in skin cells in well-designed studies. However, animal studies conducted by one research group reported DNA strand breaks and changes in enzymes that control the build-up of ROS, noting that these studies had low animal numbers (six animals exposed); these results have not been independently replicated. Studies have also investigated other indications of genotoxicity including chromosome aberrations, micro-nucleation and spindle disturbances. The methods used to investigate these indicators have generally been rigorous; however, the studies have reported contradictory results. Two studies by a Russian research group have also reported indicators of DNA damage in bacteria, however, these results have not been verified by other investigators.

The studies of the effect of MMWs on cell proliferation primarily focused on bacteria, yeast cells and tumour cells. Studies of bacteria were mainly from an Armenian research group that reported a reduction in the bacterial growth rate of exposed E. coli cells at different MMW frequencies; however, the studies suffered from inadequate dosimetry and temperature control and heating due to high RF energy deposition may have contributed to the results. Other authors have reported no effect of MMWs on E. coli cell growth rate. The results on cell proliferation of yeast exposed to MMWs were also contradictory. An Italian research group that has conducted the majority of the studies on tumour cells reported either a reduction or no change in the proliferation of exposed cells; however, these studies also suffered from inadequate dosimetry and temperature control.

The studies on gene expression mainly examined two different indicators, expression of stress sensitive genes and chaperone proteins and the occurrence of a resonance effect in cells to explain DNA conformation state changes. Most studies reported no effect of low-level MMWs on the expression of stress sensitive genes or chaperone proteins using a range of experimental methods to confirm these results; noting that these studies did not use blinding so experimental bias cannot be excluded from the results. A number of studies from a Russian research group reported a resonance effect of MMWs, which they propose can change the conformation state of chromosomal DNA complexes. Their results relied heavily on the AVTD method for testing changes in the DNA conformation state, however, the biological relevance of results obtained through the AVTD method has not been independently validated.

Studies on cell signalling and electrical activity reported a range of different outcomes including increases or decreases in signal amplitude and changes in signal rhythm, with no consistent effect noting the lack of blinding in most of the studies. Further, temperature contributions could not be eliminated from the studies and in some cases thermal interactions by conventional heating were studied and found to differ from the MMW effects. The results from some studies were based on small sample sizes, some being confined to a single specimen, or by observed effects only occurring in a small number of the samples tested. Overall, the reported electrical activity effects could not be dismissed as being within normal variability. This is indicated by studies reporting the restoration of normal function within a short time during ongoing exposure. In this case there is no implication of an expected negative health outcome.

Studies on membrane effects examined changes in membrane properties and permeability. Some studies observed changes in transitions from liquid to gel phase or vice versa and the authors implied that MMWs influenced cell hydration, however the statistical methods used in these studies were not described so it is difficult to examine the validity of these results. Other studies observing membrane properties in artificial cell suspensions and dissected tissue reported changes in vesicle shape, reduced cell volume and morphological changes although most of these studies suffered from various methodological problems including poor temperature control and no blinding. Experiments on bacteria and yeast were conducted by the same research group reporting changes in membrane permeability, which was attributed to cell proliferation effects, however, the studies suffered from inadequate dosimetry and temperature control. Overall, although there were a variety of membrane bioeffects reported, these have not been independently replicated.

The limited number of studies on a number of other effects from exposure to MMWs below the ICNIRP limits generally reported little to no consistent effects. The single in vivo study on cancer promotion did not find an effect although the study did not include sham controls. Effects on reproduction were contradictory that may have been influenced by opposing objectives of examining adverse health effects or infertility treatment. Further, the only study on human sperm found no effects of low-level MMWs. The studies on reproduction suffered from inadequate dosimetry and temperature control, and since sperm is sensitive to temperature, the effect of heating due to high RF energy deposition may have contributed to the studies showing an effect. A number of studies from two research groups reported effects on ROS production in relation to reproduction and immune function; the in vivo studies had low animal numbers (six animals per exposure) and the in vitro studies generally had inadequate dosimetry and temperature control. Studies on fatty acid composition and physiological indicators did not generally show any effects; poor temperature control was also a problem in the majority of these studies. A number of other studies investigating various other biological effects reported mixed results.

Although a range of bioeffects have been reported in many of the experimental studies, the results were generally not independently reproduced. Approximately half of the studies were from just five laboratories and several studies represented a collaboration between one or more laboratories. The exposure characteristics varied considerably among the different studies with studies showing the highest effect size clustered around a PD of approximately 1 W/m 2 . The meta-analysis of the experimental studies in our companion paper [ 9 ] showed that there was no dose-response relationship between the exposure (either PD or SAR) and the effect size. In fact, studies with a higher exposure tended to show a lower effect size, which is counterfactual. Most of the studies showing a large effect size were conducted in the frequency range around 40–55 GHz, representing investigations into the use of MMWs for therapeutic purposes, rather than deleterious health consequences. Future experimental research would benefit from investigating bioeffects at the specific frequency range of the next stage of the 5 G network roll-out in the range 26–28 GHz. Mobile communications beyond the 5 G network plan to use frequencies higher than 30 GHz so research across the MMW band is relevant.

An investigation into the methods of the experimental studies showed that the majority of studies were lacking in a number of quality criteria including proper attention to dosimetry, incorporating positive controls, using blind evaluation or accurately measuring or controlling the temperature of the biological system being tested. Our meta-analysis showed that the bulk of the studies had a quality score lower than 2 out of a possible 5, with only one study achieving a maximum quality score of 5 [ 9 ]. The meta-analysis further showed that studies with a low quality score were more likely to show a greater effect. Future research should pay careful attention to the experimental design to reduce possible sources of artefact.

The experimental studies included in this review reported PDs below the ICNIRP exposure limits. Many of the authors suggested that the resulting biological effects may be related to non-thermal mechanisms. However, as is shown in our meta-analysis, data from these studies should be treated with caution because the estimated SAR values in many of the studies were much higher than the ICNIRP SAR limits [ 9 ]. SAR values much higher than the ICNIRP guidelines are certainly capable of producing significant temperature rise and are far beyond the levels expected for 5 G telecommunication devices [ 1 ]. Future research into the low-level effects of MMWs should pay particular attention to appropriate temperature control in order to avoid possible heating effects.

Although a systematic review of experimental studies was not conducted, this paper presents a critical appraisal of study design and quality of all available studies into the bioeffects of low level MMWs. The conclusions from the review of experimental studies are supported by a meta-analysis in our companion paper [ 9 ]. Given the low-quality methods of the majority of the experimental studies we infer that a systematic review of different bioeffects is not possible at present. Our review includes recommendations for future experimental research. A search of the available literature showed a further 44 non-English papers that were not included in our review. Although the non-English papers may have some important results it is noted that the majority are from research groups that have published English papers that are included in our review.

The epidemiological studies on MMW exposure from radar that has a similar frequency range to that of 5 G and exposure levels below the ICNIRP occupational limits in most situations, provided little evidence of an association with any adverse health effects. Only a small number of studies reported positive associations with various methodological issues such as risk of bias, confounding and multiple testing questioning the result. The three large cohort studies of military personnel exposed to radar in particular did not generally show an association with cancer or other diseases. A key concern across all the epidemiological studies was the quality of exposure assessment. Various challenges such as variability in complex occupational environments that also include other co-exposures, retrospective estimation of exposure and an appropriate exposure metric remain central in studies of this nature [ 153 ]. Exposure in most of the epidemiological studies was self-reported or based on job-title, which may not necessarily be an adequate proxy for exposure to RF fields above 6 GHz. Some studies improved on exposure assessment by using expert assessment and job-exposure matrices, however, the possibility of exposure misclassification is not eliminated. Another limitation in many of the studies was the poor assessment of possible confounding including other occupational exposures and lifestyle factors. It should also be noted that close proximity to certain very powerful radar units could have exceeded the ICNIRP occupational limits, therefore the reported effects especially related to reproductive outcomes could potentially be related to heating.

Given that wireless communications have only recently started to use RF frequencies above 6 GHz there are no epidemiological studies investigating 5 G directly as yet. Some previous epidemiological studies have reported a possible weak association between mobile phone use (from older networks using frequencies below 6 GHz) and brain cancer [ 11 ]. However, methodological limitations in these studies prevent conclusions of causality being drawn from the observations [ 152 ]. Recent investigations have not shown an increase in the incidence of brain cancer in the population that can be attributed to mobile phone use [ 154 , 155 ]. Future epidemiological research should continue to monitor long-term health effects in the population related to wireless telecommunications.

The review of experimental studies provided no confirmed evidence that low-level MMWs are associated with biological effects relevant to human health. Many of the studies reporting effects came from the same research groups and the results have not been independently reproduced. The majority of the studies employed low quality methods of exposure assessment and control so the possibility of experimental artefact cannot be excluded. Further, many of the effects reported may have been related to heating from high RF energy deposition so the assertion of a ‘low-level’ effect is questionable in many of the studies. Future studies into the low-level effects of MMWs should improve the experimental design with particular attention to dosimetry and temperature control. The results from epidemiological studies presented little evidence of an association between low-level MMWs and any adverse health effects. Future epidemiological research would benefit from specific investigation on the impact of 5 G and future telecommunication technologies.

Wu T, Rappaport TS, Collins CM. Safe for generations to come: considerations of safety for millimeter waves in wireless communications. IEEE Micro Mag. 2015;16:65–84.

Article   Google Scholar  

Health protection agency (HPA). Health effects from radiofrequency electromagnetic fields: the report of the independent advisory group on non-ionising radiation (AGNIR). HPA. 2012; RCE 20.

Scientific committee on emerging and newly identified health risks (SCENHIR). Potential health effects of exposure to electromagnetic fields (EMF). Euro Comm. 2015; 1831-4783.

Australian radiation protection and nuclear safety agency (ARPANSA). Radiation protection standard for maximum exposure levels to radiofrequency fields—3 kHz to 300 GHz. Radiation Protection Series 3. ARPANSA; 2002.

International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP). ICNIRP guidelines for limiting exposure to electromagnetic fields (100 KHz to 300 GHz). Health Phys. 2020;118:483–524.

Article   CAS   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Institute of electrical and electronics engineers (IEEE). IEEE standard for safety levels with respect to human exposure to electric, magnetic, and electromagnetic fields, 0 Hz to 300 GHz. IEEE 2019; C95.1.

Stam R. Comparison of international policies on electromagnetic fields (power frequency and radiofrequency fields). National institute for public health and the environment, RIVM 2018.

Simkó M, Mattsson MO. 5G Wireless communication and health effects—a pragmatic review based on available studies regarding 6 to 100 GHz. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2019;16:3406.

Article   PubMed Central   CAS   Google Scholar  

Wood A, Mate R, Karipidis K. Meta-analysis of in vitro and in vivo studies of the biological effects of low-level millimetre waves. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41370-021-00307-7 .

International commission on non-Ionizing radiation protection (ICNIRP). Exposure to high frequency electromagnetic fields, biological effects and health consequences (100 kHz-300 GHz). ICNIRP 2009; 978-3-934994-10-2.

International agency for research on cancer (IARC). IARC monographs: non-ionizing radiation, part 2: radiofrequency electromagnetic fields. IARC 2013;102:1–460.

Google Scholar  

Garaj-Vrhovac V, Horvat D, Koren Z. The relationship between colony-forming ability, chromosome aberrations and incidence of micronuclei in V79 Chinese hamster cells exposed to microwave radiation. Mutat Res Lett. 1991;263:143–9.

Article   CAS   Google Scholar  

Garaj-Vrhovac V, Fučić A, Horvat D. The correlation between the frequency of micronuclei and specific chromosome aberrations in human lymphocytes exposed to microwave radiation in vitro. Mutat Res Lett. 1992;281:181–6.

Korenstein-Ilan A, Barbul A, Hasin P, Eliran A, Gover A, Korenstein R. Terahertz radiation increases genomic instability in human lymphocytes. Radiat Res. 2008;170:224–34.

Hintzsche H, Jastrow C, Kleine-Ostmann T, Kärst U, Schrader T, Stopper H. Terahertz electromagnetic fields (0.106 THz) do not induce manifest genomic damage in vitro. PloS One. 2012;7:e46397.

Koyama S, Narita E, Shimizu Y, Suzuki Y, Shiina T, Taki M, et al. Effects of long-term exposure to 60 GHz millimeter-wavelength radiation on the genotoxicity and heat shock protein (Hsp) expression of cells derived from human eye. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2016;13:802.

Koyama S, Narita E, Suzuki Y, Shiina T, Taki M, Shinohara N, et al. Long-term exposure to a 40-GHz electromagnetic field does not affect genotoxicity or heat shock protein expression in HCE-T or SRA01/04 cells. J Radiat Res. 2019;60:417–23.

Article   CAS   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

De Amicis A, De Sanctis S, Di Cristofaro S, Franchini V, Lista F, Regalbuto E, et al. Biological effects of in vitro THz radiation exposure in human foetal fibroblasts. Mutat Res Genet Toxicol Environ Mutagen. 2015;793:150–60.

Franchini V, Regalbuto E, De Amicis A, De Sanctis S, Di Cristofaro S, Coluzzi E, et al. Genotoxic effects in human fibroblasts exposed to microwave radiation. Health Phys. 2018;115:126–39.

Shckorbatov YG, Grigoryeva NN, Shakhbazov VG, Grabina VA, Bogoslavsky AM. Microwave irradiation influences on the state of human cell nuclei. Bioelectromagnetics. 1998;19:414–9.

Shckorbatov YG, Pasiuga VN, Kolchigin NN, Grabina VA, Batrakov DO, Kalashnikov VV. The influence of differently polarised microwave radiation on chromatin in human cells. Int J Radiat Biol. 2009;85:322–9.

Shckorbatov YG, Pasiuga VN, Goncharuk EI, Petrenko TP, Grabina VA, Kolchigin NN, et al. Effects of differently polarized microwave radiation on the microscopic structure of the nuclei in human fibroblasts. J Zhejiang Univ Sci B. 2010;11:801–5.

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Paulraj R, Behari J. Single strand DNA breaks in rat brain cells exposed to microwave radiation. Mutat Res. 2006;596:76–80.

Kesari KK, Behari J. Fifty-gigahertz microwave exposure effect of radiations on rat brain. Appl Biochem Biotechnol. 2009;158:126.

Kumar S, Kesari KK, Behari J. Evaluation of genotoxic effects in male Wistar rats following microwave exposure. Indian J Exp Biol. 2010;48:586–92.

PubMed   Google Scholar  

Crouzier D, Perrin A, Torres G, Dabouis V, Debouzy JC. Pulsed electromagnetic field at 9.71 GHz increase free radical production in yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae). Patho Biol. 2009;57:245–51.

Smolyanskaya AZ, Vilenskaya RL. Effects of millimeter-band electromagnetic radiation on the functional activity of certain genetic elements of bacterial cells. Sov Phys. 1974;16:571. USPEKHI

Lukashevsky KV, Belyaev IY. Switching of prophage lambda genes in Escherichia coli by millimetre waves. Med Sci Res. 1990;18:955–7.

Kalantaryan VP, Vardevanyan PO, Babayan YS, Gevorgyan ES, Hakobyan SN, Antonyan AP. Influence of low intensity coherent electromagnetic millimeter radiation (EMR) on aqua solution of DNA. Prog Electromag Res. 2010;13:1–9.

Hintzsche H, Jastrow C, Kleine-Ostmann T. Terahertz radiation induces spindle disturbances in human-hamster hybrid cells. Radiat Res. 2011;175:569–74.

Zeni O, Gallerano GP, Perrotta A, Romano M, Sannino A, Sarti M, et al. Cytogenetic observations in human peripheral blood leukocytes following in vitro exposure to THz radiation: a pilot study. Health Phys. 2007;92:349–57.

Gapeyev A, Lukyanova N, Gudkov S. Hydrogen peroxide induced by modulated electromagnetic radiation protects the cells from DNA damage. Open Life Sci. 2014;9:915–21.

Gapeyev AB, Lukyanova NA. Pulse-modulated extremely high-frequency electromagnetic radiation protects cellular DNA from the damaging effects of physical and chemical factors in vitro. Biophys. 2015;60:732–8.

Webb SJ, Dodds DD. Inhibition of bacterial cell growth by 136 GC microwaves. Nature. 1968;218:374–5.

Webb SJ, Booth AD. Absorption of microwaves by microorganisms. Nature. 1969;222:1199–200.

Rojavin MA, Ziskin MC. Effect of millimeter waves on survival of UVC‐exposed Escherichia coli. Bioelectromagnetics. 1995;16:188–96.

Pakhomova ON, Pakhomov AG, Akyel Y. Effect of millimeter waves on UV-induced recombination and mutagenesis in yeast. Bioelectrochem Bioenerg. 1997;43:227–32.

Cohen I, Cahan R, Shani G, Cohen E, Abramovich A. Effect of 99 GHz continuous millimeter wave electro-magnetic radiation on E. coli viability and metabolic activity. Int J Radiat Biol. 2010;86:390–9.

Tadevosyan H, Kalantaryan V, Trchounian A. Extremely high frequency electromagnetic radiation enforces bacterial effects of inhibitors and antibiotics. Cell Biochem Biophys. 2008;51:97–103.

Torgomyan H, Trchounian A. Low-intensity electromagnetic irradiation of 70.6 and 73 GHz frequencies enhances the effects of disulfide bonds reducer on Escherichia coli growth and affects the bacterial surface oxidation–reduction state. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2011;414:265–9.

Torgomyan H, Kalantaryan V, Trchounian A. Low intensity electromagnetic irradiation with 70.6 and 73 GHz frequencies affects Escherichia coli growth and changes water properties. Cell Biochem Biophys. 2011;60:275–81.

Torgomyan H, Hovnanyan K, Trchounian A. Escherichia coli growth changes by the mediated effects after low-intensity electromagnetic irradiation of extremely high frequencies. Cell Biochem Biophys. 2012;65:445–54.

Torgomyan H, Ohanyan V, Blbulyan S, Kalantaryan V, Trchounian A. Electromagnetic irradiation of Enterococcus hirae at low-intensity 51.8-and 53.0-GHz frequencies: changes in bacterial cell membrane properties and enhanced antibiotics effects. FEMS microbiol Lett. 2012;329:131–7.

Soghomonyan D, Trchounian A. Comparable effects of low-intensity electromagnetic irradiation at the frequency of 51.8 and 53 GHz and antibiotic ceftazidime on Lactobacillus acidophilus growth and survival. Cell Biochem Biophys. 2013;67:829–35.

Hovnanyan K, Kalantaryan V, Trchounian A. The distinguishing effects of low‐intensity electromagnetic radiation of different extremely high frequencies on Enterococcus hirae: growth rate inhibition and scanning electron microscopy analysis. Lett Appl microbiol. 2017;65:220–5.

Grundler W, Keilmann F. Nonthermal effects of millimeter microwaves on yeast growth. Z Naturforsch. 1977;33:15–22.

Grundler W, Keilmann F. Sharp resonances in yeast growth prove nonthermal sensitivity to microwaves. Phys Rev Lett. 1983;51:1214.

Furia L, Hill DW, Gandhi OMP. Effect of millimeter-wave irradiation on growth of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. IEEE Trans Biom Eng. 1986;33:993–9.

Gos P, Eicher B, Kohli J, Heyer WD. Extremely high frequency electromagnetic fields at low power density do not affect the division of exponential phase Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells. Bioelectromagnetics. 1997;18:142–55.

Chidichimo G, Beneduci A, Nicoletta M, Critelli M, De RR, Tkatchenko Y, et al. Selective inhibition of tumoral cells growth by low power millimeter waves. Anticancer Res. 2002;22:1681–8.

Beneduci A, Chidichimo G, Tripepi S, Perrotte E. Frequency and irradiation time-dependant antiproliferative effect of low-power millimeter waves on RPMI 7932 human melanoma cell line. Anticancer Res. 2005;25(2A):1023–8.

Beneduci A, Chidichimo G, Tripepi S, Perrotte E. Transmission electron microscopy study of the effects produced by wide-band low-power millimeter waves on MCF-7 human breast cancer cells in culture. Anticancer Res. 2005;25(2A):1009–13.

Beneduci A. Evaluation of the potential in vitro antiproliferative effects of millimeter waves at some therapeutic frequencies on RPMI 7932 human skin malignant melanoma cells. Cell Biochem Biophys. 2009;1:25–32.

Beneduci A, Chidichimo G, Tripepi S, Perrotta E, Cufone F. Antiproliferative effect of millimeter radiation on human erythromyeloid leukemia cell line K562 in culture: ultrastructural-and metabolic-induced changes. Bioelectrochemistry. 2007;70:214–20.

Yaekashiwa N, Otsuki S, Hayashi SI, Kawase K. Investigation of the non-thermal effects of exposing cells to 70–300 GHz irradiation using a widely tunable source. J Radiat Res. 2017;59:116–21.

Badzhinyan SA, Sayadyan AB, Sarkisyan NK, Grigoryan RM, Gasparyan GG. Lethal effect of electromagnetic radiation of the millimeter wavelength range on cell cultures of chicken embryo. Dokl Biochem Biophys. 2001;377:94–5.

Shiina T, Suzuki Y, Kasai Y, Inami Y, Taki M, Wake K. Effect of two-times 24 h exposures to 60 GHz millimeter-waves on neurite outgrowth in PC12VG cells in consideration of polarization. IEEE Int Sympo Electromag Compat. 2014;13:166–9.

Le Quément C, Nicolas Nicolaz C, Zhadobov M, Desmots F, Sauleau R, Aubry M, et al. Whole‐genome expression analysis in primary human keratinocyte cell cultures exposed to 60 GHz radiation. Bioelectromagnetics. 2012;33:147–58.

Article   PubMed   CAS   Google Scholar  

Zhadobov M, Sauleau R, Le Coq L, Thouroude D, Orlov I, Michel D et al. 60 GHz electromagnetic fields do not activate stress-sensitive gene expression. IEEE 11th Int Sympo on Antenna Technol and appl electromag. 2005;11:1–4.

Zhadobov M, Sauleau R, Le Coq L, Debure L, Thouroude D, Michel D, et al. Low‐power millimeter wave radiations do not alter stress‐sensitive gene expression of chaperone proteins. Bioelectromagnetics. 2007;28:188–96.

Zhadobov M, Nicolaz CN, Sauleau R, Desmots F, Thouroude D, Michel D, et al. Evaluation of the potential biological effects of the 60-GHz millimeter waves upon human cells. IEEE Trans Antennas Propag. 2009;57:2949–56.

Nicolaz CN, Zhadobov M, Desmots F, Ansart A, Sauleau R, Thouroude D, et al. Study of narrow band millimeter‐wave potential interactions with endoplasmic reticulum stress sensor genes. Bioelectromagnetics. 2008;30:365–73.

Nicolaz CN, Zhadobov M, Desmots F, Sauleau R, Thouroude D, Michel D, et al. Absence of direct effect of low-power millimeter-wave radiation at 60.4 GHz on endoplasmic reticulum stress. Cell Biol Toxicol. 2009;25:471–8.

Belyaev IY, Alipov YD, Shcheglov VS, Lystsov VN. Resonance effect of microwaves on the genome conformational state of E. coli cells. Z Naturforsch C. 1992;47:621–7.

Belyaev IY, Shcheglov VS, Alipov YD. Existence of selection rules on helicity during discrete transitions of the genome conformational state of E. coli cells exposed to low-level millimetre radiation. Bioelectrochem Bioenerg. 1992;27:405–11.

Belyaev IY, Shcheglov VS, Alipov YD. Selection rules on helicity during discrete transitions of the genome conformational state in intact and X-rayed cells of E. coli in millimeter range of electromagnetic field. Charg Field Eff Biosyst. 1992;3:115–26.

Belyaev I, Alipov YD, Shcheglov VS, Chromosome DNA. as a target of resonant interaction between Escherichia coli cells and low–intensity millimeter waves. Electro Magnetobiol. 1992;11:97–108.

Belyaev IY, Alipov YD, Polunin VA, Shcheglov VS. Evidence for dependence of resonant frequency of millimeter wave interaction with Escherichia coli K12 cells on haploid genome length. Electro Magnetobiol. 1993;12:39–49.

Belyaev IY, Shcheglov VS, Alipov YD, Radko SP. Regularities of separate and combined effects of circularly polarized millimeter waves on E. coli cells at different phases of culture growth. Bioelectrochem Bioenerg. 1993;31:49–63.

Belyaev IY, Alipov YD, Shcheglov VS, Polunin VA, Aizenberg OA. Cooperative response of Escherichia coli cells to the resonance effect of millimeter waves at super low intensity. Electro Magnetobiol. 1994;13:53–66.

Belyaev IY, Kravchenko VG. Resonance effect of low-intensity millimeter waves on the chromatin conformational state of rat thymocytes. Z Naturforsch. 1994;49:352–8.

Belyaev IY, Shcheglov VS, Alipov YD, Polunin VA. Resonance effect of millimeter waves in the power range from 10‐19 to 3× 10‐3 W/cm2 on Escherichia coli cells at different concentrations. Bioelectromagnetics. 1996;17:312–21.

Shcheglov VS, Belyaev I, Alipov YD, Ushakov VL. Power-dependent rearrangement in the spectrum of resonance effect of millimeter waves on the genome conformational state of Escherichia Coli cells. Electro Magnetobiol. 1997;16:69–82.

Shcheglov VS, Alipov ED, Belyaev I. Cell-to-cell communication in response of E. coli cells at different phases of growth to low-intensity microwaves. Biochim biophys Acta. 2002;1572:101–6.

Gandhi OP, Hagmann MJ, Hill DW, Partlow LM, Bush L. Millimeter wave absorption spectra of biological samples. Bioelectromagnetics. 1980;1:285–98.

Bush LG, Hill DW, Riazi A, Stensaas LJ, Partlow LM, Gandhi OP. Effects of millimeter‐wave radiation on monolayer cell cultures. III. A search for frequency‐specific athermal biological effects on protein synthesis. Bioelectromagnetics. 1981;2:151–9.

Belyaev IY, Shcheglov VS, Alipov ED, Ushakov VD. Nonthermal effects of extremely high-frequency microwaves on chromatin conformation in cells in vitro—dependence on physical, physiological, and genetic factors. IEEE Trans Micro Theory Tech. 2000;48:2172–9.

Pakhomov AG, Akyel Y, Pakhomova ON, Stuck BE, Murphy MR. Current state and implications of research on biological effects of millimeter waves: a review of the literature. Bioelectromagnetics. 1998;19:393–413.

Minasyan SM, Grigoryan GY, Saakyan SG, Akhumyan AA, Kalantaryan VP. Effects of the action of microwave-frequency electromagnetic radiation on the spike activity of neurons in the supraoptic nucleus of the hypothalamus in rats. Neurosci Behav Physiol. 2007;37:175–80.

Pikov V, Arakaki X, Harrington M, Fraser SE, Siegel PH. Modulation of neuronal activity and plasma membrane properties with low-power millimeter waves in organotypic cortical slices. J Neural Eng. 2010;7:045003.

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Munemori J, Ikeda T. Effects of low-level microwave radiation on the eye of the crayfish. Med Biol Eng Comput. 1982;20:84–8.

Munemori J, Ikeda T. Biological effects of X-band microwave radiation on the eye of the crayfish. Med Biol Eng Comput. 1984;22:263–7.

Pakhomov AG, Prol HK, Mathur SP, Akyel Y, Campbell CB. Frequency-specific effects of millimeter-wavelength electromagnetic radiation in isolated nerve. Electro Magnetobiol. 1997;16:43–57.

Pakhomov AG, Prol HK, Mathur SP, Akyel Y, Campbell CB. Search for frequency‐specific effects of millimeter‐wave radiation on isolated nerve function. Bioelectromagnetics. 1997;18:324–34.

Pakhomov AG, Prol HK, Mathur SP, Akyel Y, Campbell CB. Role of field intensity in the biological effectiveness of millimeter waves at a resonance frequency. Bioelectrochem Bioenerg. 1997;43:27–33.

Pikov V, Siegel PH. Millimeter wave-induced changes in membrane properties of leech Retzius neurons. Photonic Therapeutics Diagnostics. 2011;7883:56–1.

Romanenko S, Siegel PH, Pikov V. Microdosimetry and physiological effects of millimeter wave irradiation in isolated neural ganglion preparation. IEEE 2013 International kharkov symposium on physics and engineering of microwaves, millimeter and submillimeter waves. IEEE. 2013;13:512–6.

Romanenko S, Siegel PH, Wagenaar DA, Pikov V. Effects of millimeter wave irradiation and equivalent thermal heating on the activity of individual neurons in the leech ganglion. J Neurophysiol. 2014;112:2423–31.

Beneduci A, Filippelli L, Cosentino K, Calabrese ML, Massa R, Chidichimo G. Microwave induced shift of the main phase transition in phosphatidylcholine membranes. Bioelectrochemistry. 2012;1:18–24.

Beneduci A, Cosentino K, Chidichimo G. Millimeter wave radiations affect membrane hydration in phosphatidylcholine vesicles. Materials. 2013;6:2701–12.

Beneduci A, Cosentino K, Romeo S, Massa R, Chidichimo G. Effect of millimetre waves on phosphatidylcholine membrane models: a non-thermal mechanism of interaction. Soft Matter. 2014;10:5559–67.

Geletyuk VI, Kazachenko VN, Chemeris NK, Fesenko EE. Dual effects of microwaves on single Ca2+-activated K+ channels in cultured kidney cells Vero. FEBS Lett. 1995;359:85–8.

Chen Q, Zeng QL, Lu DQ, Chiang H. Millimeter wave exposure reverses TPA suppression of gap junction intercellular communication in HaCaT human keratinocytes. Bioelectromagnetics. 2004;25:1–4.

Shckorbatov YG, Shakhbazov VG, Navrotskaya VV, Grabina VA, Sirenko SP, Fisun AI, et al. Application of intracellular microelectrophoresis to analysis of the influence of the low‐level microwave radiation on electrokinetic properties of nuclei in human epithelial cells. Electrophoresis. 2002;23:2074–9.

Zhadobov M, Sauleau R, Vié V, Himdi M, Le Coq L, Thouroude D. Interactions between 60-GHz millimeter waves and artificial biological membranes: dependence on radiation parameters. IEEE Trans Micro Theory Tech. 2006;54:2534–42.

Deghoyan A, Heqimyan A, Nikoghosyan A, Dadasyan E, Ayrapetyan S. Cell bathing medium as a target for non thermal effect of millimeter waves. Electromag Biol Med. 2012;31:132–42.

D’Agostino S, Della Monica C, Palizzi E, Di Pietrantonio F, Benetti M, Cannatà D, et al. Extremely high frequency electromagnetic fields facilitate electrical signal propagation by increasing transmembrane potassium efflux in an artificial axon model. Sci Rep. 2018;8:9299.

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   CAS   Google Scholar  

Ramundo-Orlando A, Longo G, Cappelli M, Girasole M, Tarricone L, Beneduci A, et al. The response of giant phospholipid vesicles to millimeter waves radiation. Biochem Biophys Acta. 2009;1788:1497–507.

Di Donato L, Cataldo M, Stano P, Massa R, Ramundo-Orlando A. Permeability changes of cationic liposomes loaded with carbonic anhydrase induced by millimeter waves radiation. Radiat Res. 2012;178:437–46.

Cosentino K, Beneduci A, Ramundo-Orlando A, Chidichimo G. The influence of millimeter waves on the physical properties of large and giant unilamellar vesicles. J Biol Phys. 2013;39:395–410.

Manikowska E, Luciani JM, Servantie B, Czerski P, Obrenovitch J, Stahl A. Effects of 9.4 GHz microwave exposure on meiosis in mice. Experientia. 1979;35:388–90.

Subbotina TI, Tereshkina OV, Khadartsev AA, Yashin AA. Effect of low-intensity extremely high frequency radiation on reproductive function in Wistar rats. Bull Exp Biol Med. 2006;142:189–90.

Volkova NA, Pavlovich EV, Gapon AA, Nikolov OT. Effects of millimeter-wave electromagnetic exposure on the morphology and function of human cryopreserved spermatozoa. Bull Exp Biol Med. 2014;157:574–6.

Kesari KK, Behari J. Microwave exposure affecting reproductive system in male rats. Appl Biochem Biotechnol. 2010;162:416–28.

Kumar S, Kesari KK, Behari J. Influence of microwave exposure on fertility of male rats. Fertil Steril. 2011;95:1500–2.

Gapeyev AB, Safronova VG, Chemeris NK, Fesenko EE. Inhibition of the production of reactive oxygen species in mouse peritoneal neutrophils by millimeter wave radiation in the near and far field zones of the radiator. Bioelectrochem Bioenerg. 1997;43:217–20.

Gapeyev AB, Yakushina VS, Chemeris NK, Fesenko EE. Modification of production of reactive oxygen species in mouse peritoneal neutrophils on exposure to low-intensity modulated millimeter wave radiation. Bioelectrochem Bioenerg. 1998;46:267–72.

Safronova VG, Gabdoulkhakova AG, Santalov BF. Immunomodulating action of low intensity millimeter waves on primed neutrophils. Bioelectromagnetics. 2002;23:599–606.

Homenko A, Kapilevich B, Kornstein R, Firer MA. Effects of 100 GHz radiation on alkaline phosphatase activity and antigen–antibody interaction. Bioelectromagnetics. 2009;30:167–75.

Gapeyev AB, Kulagina TP, Aripovsky AV, Chemeris NK. The role of fatty acids in anti‐inflammatory effects of low‐intensity extremely high‐frequency electromagnetic radiation. Bioelectromagnetics. 2011;32:388–95.

Gapeyev AB, Kulagina TP, Aripovsky AV. Exposure of tumor-bearing mice to extremely high-frequency electromagnetic radiation modifies the composition of fatty acids in thymocytes and tumor tissue. Int J Radiat Biol. 2013;89:602–10.

Gapeyev AB, Aripovsky AV, Kulagina TP. Modifying effects of low-intensity extremely high-frequency electromagnetic radiation on content and composition of fatty acids in thymus of mice exposed to X-rays. Int J Radiat Biol. 2015;91:277–85.

Rotkovská D, Moc J, Kautská J, Bartonícková A, Keprtová J, Hofer M. Evaluation of the biological effects of police radar RAMER 7F. Environ Health Perspect. 1993;101:134–6.

PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Müller J, Hadeler KP, Müller V, Waldmann J, Landstorfer FM, Wisniewski R, et al. Influence of low power cm-/mm-microwaves on cardiovascular function. Int J Environ Health Res. 2004;14:331–41.

Webb SJ, Booth AD. Microwave absorption by normal and tumor cells. Science. 1971;1:72–4. 174

Stensaas LJ, Partlow LM, Bush LG, Iversen PL, Hill DW, Hagmann MJ, et al. Effects of millimeter‐wave radiation on monolayer cell cultures. II. Scanning and transmission electron microscopy. Bioelectromagnetics. 1981;2:141–50.

Bellossi A, Dubost G, Moulinoux JP, Himdi M, Ruelloux M, Rocher C. Biological effects of millimeter wave irradiation on mice-preliminary results. IEEE Trans Micro Theory Tech. 2000;48:2104–10.

Olchowik G, Maj JG. Inhibitory action of microwave radiation on gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase activity in liver of rats treated with hydrocortisone. Folia Histochemica Et Cytobiologica. 2000;38:189–91.

CAS   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Khizhnyak EP, Ziskin MC. Temperature oscillations in liquid media caused by continuous (nonmodulated) millimeter wavelength electromagnetic irradiation. Bioelectromagnetics. 1996;17:223–9.

Sarapultseva EI, Igolkina JV, Tikhonov VN, Dubrova YE. The in vivo effects of low-intensity radiofrequency fields on the motor activity of protozoa. Int J Radiat Biol. 2014;90:262–7.

Robinette CD, Silverman C, Jablon S. Effects upon health of occupational exposure to microwave radiation (radar). Am J Epidemiol. 1980;112:39–53.

Groves FD, Page WF, Gridley G, Lisimaque L, Stewart PA, Tarone RE, et al. Cancer in Korean war navy technicians: mortality survey after 40 years. Am J Epidemiol. 2002;155:810–8.

Degrave E, Autier P, Grivegnée AR, Zizi M. All-cause mortality among Belgian military radar operators: a 40-year controlled longitudinal study. Eur J Epidemiol. 2005;20:677–81.

Degrave E, Meeusen B, Grivegnée AR, Boniol M, Autier P. Causes of death among Belgian professional military radar operators: a 37‐year retrospective cohort study. Int J Cancer. 2009;124:945–51.

Dabouis V, Arvers P, Debouzy JC, Sebbah C, Crouzier D, Perrin A. First epidemiological study on occupational radar exposure in the French Navy: a 26-year cohort study. Int J Environ Health Res. 2016;26:131–44.

Hayes RB, Brown LM, Pottern LM, Gomez M, Kardaun JW, Hoover RN, et al. Occupation and risk for testicular cancer: a case-control study. Int J Epidemiol. 1990;19:825–31.

Davis RL, Mostofi FK. Cluster of testicular cancer in police officers exposed to hand‐held radar. Am J Ind Med. 1993;24:231–3.

Hardell LE, Näsman A, Ohlson CG, Fredrikson MA. Case-control study on risk factors for testicular cancer. Int J Oncol. 1998;13:1299–602.

Baumgardt-Elms C, Ahrens W, Bromen K, Boikat U, Stang A, Jahn I, et al. Testicular cancer and electromagnetic fields (EMF) in the workplace: results of a population-based case–control study in Germany. Cancer Causes Control 2002;13:895–902.

Walschaerts M, Muller A, Auger J, Bujan L, Guérin JF, Lannou DL, et al. Environmental, occupational and familial risks for testicular cancer: a hospital‐based case‐control study. Int J Androl. 2007;30:222–9.

Grayson JK. Radiation exposure, socioeconomic status, and brain tumor risk in the US Air Force: a nested case-control study. Am J Epidemiol. 1996;143:480–6.

Santana VS, Silva M, Loomis D. Brain neoplasms among naval military men. Int J Occup Environ health. 1999;5:88–94.

Holly EA, Aston DA, Ahn DK, Smith AH. Intraocular melanoma linked to occupations and chemical exposures. Epidemiology. 1996;1:55–61.

Stang A, Anastassiou G, Ahrens W, Bromen K, Bornfeld N, Jöckel KH. The possible role of radiofrequency radiation in the development of uveal melanoma. Epidemiology. 2001;1:7–12.

La Vecchia CA, Negri E, D’avanzo BA, Franceschi S. Occupation and the risk of bladder cancer. Int J Epidemiol. 1990;19:264–8.

Finkelstein MM. Cancer incidence among Ontario police officers. Am J Ind Med. 1998;34:157–62.

Fabbro-Peray P, Daures JP, Rossi JF. Environmental risk factors for non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma: a population-based case–control study in Languedoc-Roussillon, France. Cancer Causes Control. 2001;12:201–12.

Variani AS, Saboori S, Shahsavari S, Yari S, Zaroushani V. Effect of occupational exposure to radar radiation on cancer risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Asian Pac J cancer prev. 2019;20:3211–9.

Weyandt TB, Schrader SM, Turner TW, Simon SD. Semen analysis of military personnel associated with military duty assignments. Reprod Toxicol. 1996;10:521–8.

Hjollund NH, Bonde JP, Skotte J. Semen analysis of personnel operating military radar equipment. Reprod Toxicol. 1997;11:897

Schrader SM, Langford RE, Turner TW, Breitenstein MJ, Clark JC, Jenkins BL. Reproductive function in relation to duty assignments among military personnel. Reprod Toxicol. 1998;12:465–8.

Velez De La Calle JF, Rachou E, le Martelot MT, Ducot B, Multigner L, Thonneau PF. Male infertility risk factors in a French military population. Hum reprod. 2001;16:481–6.

Baste V, Riise T, Moen BE. Radiofrequency electromagnetic fields; male infertility and sex ratio of offspring. Eur J Epidemiol. 2008;23:369–77.

Møllerløkken OJ, Moen BE. Is fertility reduced among men exposed to radiofrequency fields in the Norwegian Navy? Bioelectromagnetics. 2008;29:345–52.

De Roos AJ, Teschke K, Savitz DA, Poole C, Grufferman S, Pollock BH, et al. Parental occupational exposures to electromagnetic fields and radiation and the incidence of neuroblastoma in offspring. Epidemiology. 2001;1:508–17.

Mageroy N, Mollerlokken OJ, Riise T, Koefoed V, Moen BE. A higher risk of congenital anomalies in the offspring of personnel who served aboard a Norwegian missile torpedo boat. Occup Environ Med. 2006;63:92–7.

Baste V, Moen BE, Oftedal G, Strand LA, Bjørge L, Mild KH. Pregnancy outcomes after paternal radiofrequency field exposure aboard fast patrol boats. J Occup Environ Med. 2012;54:431–8.

Beard JD, Kamel F. Military service, deployments, and exposures in relation to amyotrophic lateral sclerosis etiology and survival. Epidemiol Rev. 2015;37:55–70.

Garaj-Vrhovac V, Gajski G, Pažanin S, Šarolić A, Domijan AM, Flajs D, et al. Assessment of cytogenetic damage and oxidative stress in personnel occupationally exposed to the pulsed microwave radiation of marine radar equipment. Int J Hyg Environ Health. 2011;214:59–65.

Mortazavi SM, Shahram TA, Dehghan N. Alterations of visual reaction time and short term memory in military radar personnel. Iran J Public Health. 2013;42:428.

Singh S, Mani KV, Kapoor N. Effect of occupational EMF exposure from radar at two different frequency bands on plasma melatonin and serotonin levels. Int J Radiat Biol. 2015;91:426–34.

Ahlbom A, Green A, Kheifets L, Savitz D, Swerdlow A. ICNIRP standing committee on epidemiology: epidemiology of health effects of radiofrequency exposure. Environ Health Perspect. 2004;112:1741–54.

Savitz DA. Exposure assessment strategies in epidemiological studies of health effects of electric and magnetic fields. Sci Total Environ. 1995;168:143–53.

J‐H Kim S, Ioannides SJ, Elwood JM. Trends in incidence of primary brain cancer in New Zealand, 1995 to 2010. Aust NZ J Public Health. 2015;39:148–52.

Karipidis K, Elwood M, Benke G, Sanagou M, Tjong L, Croft RJ. Mobile phone use and incidence of brain tumour histological types, grading or anatomical location: a population-based ecological study. BMJ Open. 2018;8:e024489.

Download references

This work was supported by the Australian Government’s Electromagnetic Energy Program. This work was also partly supported by National Health and Medical Research Council grant no. 1042464. 

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency, Melbourne, VIC, Australia

Ken Karipidis, Rohan Mate, David Urban & Rick Tinker

School of Health Sciences, Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne, VIC, Australia

• Andrew Wood

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ken Karipidis .

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest.

The authors declare no competing interest

Additional information

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ .

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Karipidis, K., Mate, R., Urban, D. et al. 5G mobile networks and health—a state-of-the-science review of the research into low-level RF fields above 6 GHz. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 31 , 585–605 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41370-021-00297-6

Download citation

Received : 30 July 2020

Revised : 23 December 2020

Accepted : 21 January 2021

Published : 16 March 2021

Issue Date : July 2021

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41370-021-00297-6

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Epidemiology
• Health studies

This article is cited by

Effects of radiofrequency field from 5g communication on fecal microbiome and metabolome profiles in mice.

• Guiqiang Zhou
• Guirong Ding

Scientific Reports (2024)

What evidence exists on the impact of anthropogenic radiofrequency electromagnetic fields on animals and plants in the environment: a systematic map

• Ken Karipidis
• Chris Brzozek
• Andrew W Wood

Environmental Evidence (2023)

Comment on “5G mobile networks and health-a state-of-the-science review of the research into low-level RF fields above 6 GHz” by Karipidis et al.

• Steven Weller
• Igor Belyaev

Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology (2023)

The implications of 5G technology on cardiothoracic surgical services in India

• Aditya Narsipur Doddamane
• Arkalgud Sampath Kumar

Indian Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery (2023)

What evidence exists on the impact of anthropogenic radiofrequency electromagnetic fields on animals and plants in the environment? A systematic map protocol

Environmental Evidence (2021)

Quick links

• Explore articles by subject
• Guide to authors
• Editorial policies

Global Site

Breadcrumb navigation

5g and the smart city - early use cases are now emerging.

As of 2020 Smart Cities are under more pressure than ever to create a safe, efficient, productive environment for citizens given the massive disruption caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. As a result of lockdowns, travel restrictions and massive numbers of infections many local and governments have struggled to cope and in historically have turned to technology as a way of coping with challenges caused by pandemics. Pandemics can actually be a source of innovation in terms of Smart City technology dating back to more than one hundred years, as for example the city of London only installed its Victorian sewer system after an outbreak of cholera claimed 30,000 lives and modern ventilations systems quickly gained adoption due to the 1918 Spanish Influenza Pandemic. In the era of the COVID-19 outbreak the world is again seeing innovation in the Smart City space as technologies such as robots, drones, cloud computing and biometrics are all helping to curb the spread of the virus, and many of these technologies are likely here to stay. (1) At the same time 5G mobile networks are now being deployed at a rapid pace over much of the world, and the high bandwidth and low latency connectivity that will come with these networks is already emerging as a powerful tool which Smart Cities can use to take their service offerings to the next level. According to the GSM Association there are now 113 live 5G networks in 48 countries, with the most advanced network deployments in the world being found in the US, China, South Korea, Japan, the Gulf states, Australia, and parts of Europe. Coverage is still limited in most of these countries and while many Smart City plans were suddenly postponed as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, there still has been significant progress towards integrating 5G connectivity into Smart City solutions. (2) For these reasons there has been increasing utilization of 5G networks in Smart City services. Some of the most notable examples include:

Piloto 5G Catalunya – Barcelona, Spain (3)

The Spanish city of Barcelona is often lauded as one of the leading Smart Cities in Europe and is also the host of the annual Global Mobile World Congress and hence it should come as no surprise that the city has one of the most aggressive roadmaps in the world for the incorporation of 5G connectivity into its Smart City planning. The local government under the guidance of the Secretary of State for Information Society and Digital Agenda (SESIAD) has developed a ‘Piloto 5G Catalunya’ program which has secured funding for 5G projects within the city in areas such as education, industry, commerce, tourism, transport, and safety and emergency management. The program will formally begin in September of 2021 and continue until December of 2022. Some of the specific services that the program will develop include 5G for broadcasting, distance learning, smart manufacturing, connectivity for tourism and connected vehicles.

5G Smart Transportation – Kelowna, Canada (4)

In June 2020 Canada started its first 5G Smart City project in the city of Kelowna, British Columbia. The project is focusing on improving transportation systems in the city, which was identified by local officials as a top priority. The system uses LiDAR sensors which have been installed at traffic intersections which subsequently have been connected via 5G. These sensors will monitor pedestrian and vehicle traffic, and the city feels that using 5G LiDAR sensors will enable them to collect better data as LiDAR can operate in low light and poor weather conditions, hence surpassing the capabilities of previously used 4Gsolutions. This data will then be utilized by city officials to make better decisions regarding overall traffic management in the city. Importantly this data will be shared via cloud computing with students from the University of British Columbia who will use this data in their research and collaborate with local government officials on ways to improve transportation infrastructure in the city.

5G Smart Facility – George Best Belfast City Airport (5)

5G connectivity is being increasingly used in facilities to make them smarter and more secure which has become a priority especially in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic. One recent example can be found in Northern Ireland where the George Best Belfast City Airport will install enhanced on premise 5G connectivity in the first quarter of 2021. Airport officials believe that by doing so they will enable a variety of new services for the facility including intelligent automation, energy efficiency and enhanced security. According to local officials, one of the key benefits of deploying 5G within the airport is it will allow them to dispense with miles of physical cabling which is currently required for everything from connected cameras to baggage handling systems. Looking farther out, George Best Belfast City Airport views 5G as a key technology in terms of Digital Transformation of their business, as they are also exploring new revenue streams using a 5G network which could eventually transform the facility’s IT department from a cost center to a revenue center.

Private 5G Network for Smart City Services – Liverpool, United Kingdom (6)

The city of Liverpool in the United Kingdom has taken an innovative approach to incorporating 5G into its Smart City services, as it has built a private 5G network for use primarily for health and social care services. The network seeks to reduce “digital poverty” and offers free connectivity for social care, healthcare, and education in selected areas of the city. Services such as these are now more important than ever as given the lockdowns resulting from COVID-19, many citizens are only able to access healthcare and education remotely. The 5G network is also expected to deliver benefits which surpass the capabilities of 4G networks. For example, the city was running a telemedicine program to monitor patients with leg ulcers with LTE, but the image quality was not good enough for healthcare workers to make accurate diagnoses, but it is believed that 5G will be sufficient. There is also significant business model innovation taking place as part of this new 5G network. The local government is now only paying a flat fee to run the network, and hence no longer needs to procure and manage thousands of SIM cards which was proving to be very expensive. This program will run until March of 2022, and if successful will serve as a blueprint for future 5G private networks which will manage other Smart City services.

What Does the Future Hold for 5G and Smart Cities?

Smart Cities are under more pressure than ever amidst the COVID-19 pandemic but at the same time many new technologies have emerged which are helping to stem the spread of the virus and 5G is one of these key tools. While 5G deployments are still in their infancy, early use cases are now emerging by first-mover smart cities in areas such as smart transportation and healthcare with more applications sure to follow. Many of the earliest examples of 5G Smart City services have already found benefits from the high bandwidth and low latency capabilities of 5G which have enabled next-generation Smart City services. It has already become clear that governments will need to take a more proactive approach to enable 5G Smart City solutions, and private-public partnerships are vital to make this a reality. It has also become clear that new business models will be required to adequately care for citizens, many of whom are suffering as a result of COVID-19.

Selected Sources:

Related links

• The Growing Case for Private 5G Networks
• Tools for Tomorrow

(March 5, 2021)

Enterprise 5G in Asia-Pacific: 3 Case Studies to Help Mobile Operators Assess the World’s Largest Cellular Market

Private 5G cellular network deployment is one of the primary drivers for digital transformation in the Asia-Pacific region. 5G is the technological evolution that many enterprises in the region have been waiting for as demand for increased data speeds, enhanced signal reliability, better coverage, lower latencies, and improved network efficiencies grows. To provide a clearer picture of the growing prevalence of 5G business opportunities in Asia-Pacific , this post highlights three  intriguing case studies in this potential US$13.5 billion market (by 2028).

5G Case Study #1: Swoop Aero, Australia

Swoop Aero, the world’s only end-to-end drone logistics platform, is an Australian company that leverages 5G to support its Artificial Intelligence (AI)-powered delivery drones. After receiving official approval from the Civil Aviation and Safety Authority (CASA) to operate drone services for delivering medical supplies and equipment, Swoop Aero autopilots can operate as many as five drones simultaneously.

The key to unlocking the full potential of Swoop Aero’s fleet of drones is Ultra-Reliable Low Latency Communications (URLLC) 5G. This 5G feature enables the drone to take advantage of machine vision , cloud services, and other AI capabilities to survey the environment and ascertain if a safe landing is possible.

By skipping over various supply chain stops, 5G-powered drone deliveries reduce the frequency of shipment delays and bolster operational efficiency. Tellingly, Swoop Aero claims the use of drones will reduce delivery times for pathology samples between the Moreton Bay islands from up to 6 hours down to 50 minutes.

Mater Pathology General Manager (GM) Deb Hornsby, in praising the 5G application, says the Swoop Aero drone fleet will be a game-changer over the ferry terminals and courier services that the hospital has traditionally relied on.

5G Case Study #2: LG Smart Park, South Korea

Without a 5G deployment, LG’s South Korean Smart Park production facility wouldn’t have reached the status of being a “Lighthouse Factory” by the World Economic Forum (WEF). If you’re not familiar with the term, a Lighthouse Factory is a facility that uses the Internet of Things (IoT), big data, AI, and automation for enhancing supply chain and manufacturing processes. All of these technological solutions are improved with a 5G network.

But how exactly does LG Smart Park use 5G?

Well, for one thing, LG Smart Park operators use 5G-enabled digital twin technology . The company plants sensors throughout the facility with the goal of monitoring production phases in real time. Through this 5G-enabled solution, LG can quickly identify anomalies in the production line and address issues.

Moreover, 5G is used by LG Smart Park for Automated Guided Vehicles (AGVs) and robots. With 5G’s URLLC abilities, the AGVs automate the process of delivering components and parts to their intended destinations. This 5G solution has translated to a 30% reduction in warehouse space usage and a 25% decrease in the time needed for transporting parts.

5G Case Study #3: Qingdao Smart Grid, China

Imagine, as a utility grid operator, that you could detect faults in the energy distribution line in a matter of milliseconds. This would allow you to fix electrical grid problems long before an expensive power outage occurs. Chinese State Grid Qingdao Electric Supply Company, China Telecom Qingdao branch, and Huawei accomplished this feat for the Qingdao Smart Grid using 30 5G base stations for connectivity.

More specifically, the Chinese smart grid leveraged 5G’s Enhanced Mobile Broadband (eMBB), URLLC, and Massive Machine-Type Communications (mMTC) capabilities. With these features, the grid operator can identify and solve energy distribution line issues through 5G-enabled differential protection equipment.

The Qingdao Smart Grid is also successful at conserving energy. The energy consumption of each 5G base station cuts its carbon footprint by 20% through peak-clipping and valley-filling. This approach entails the storing of energy during off-peak hours for the electrical grid, and then drawing the energy when needed during high-peak hours.

Asia-Pacific Will Dominate 5G Markets

As these case studies exemplify, 5G is a key enabler of Asia-Pacific enterprises digitizing their businesses. Asia-Pacific is the largest market worldwide for mobile wireless technology and 5G. According to the market forecasts compiled by ABI Research, the Asia-Pacific region will account for 70% of global private 5G network revenue (US$13.5 billion) in 2028.

Just as important, 53% of global 5G network slicing revenue (US$12.6 billion) will come from the Asia-Pacific region. These gargantuan market opportunities make it all the more important for mobile operators to progress their understanding of 5G use cases in the region.

To analyze the Asia-Pacific 5G market opportunity even further, download ABI Research’s Asia-Pacific 5G-to-Business Developments and Outlook Research Report

But if you’re not ready for the report yet, check out our 5G Private Networks in Asia-Pacific: A US$13.5 Billion Opportunity Spurred by Digitalization Research Highlight.

This content is part of our 5G Markets Research Service .

Related Blog Posts

2024 Will Be the Year of 5G-Advanced

Measuring the Economic Benefits and GDP Impact of 5G

4 Market Research Case Studies Highlighting Our Technology Intelligence Expertise

Where Neutral Hosts Fit into the 5G Picture

Most Important Working Groups in 3GPP

Related services.

Case studies

Find out more about how our solutions are solving your business challenges

20 Nov 2023

stc improves RAN energy efficiency with Artificial Intelligence powered energy savings management

This case study describes how the AI/ML-powered Energy Savings Management module of MantaRay SON helped stc reduce radio network energy consumption without compromising any…

10 Nov 2023

Airtel uses Nokia security product

Nokia NetGuard Identity and Access Manager to address security threats

Indosat conducts the world’s fastest large-scale multi-operator network integration

Find out how Nokia's digital planning and digital orchestration services helped Indosat consolidate over 40,000 radio sites in just 12 months.

SRT and Nokia – Working together to connect North Dakotans to their broadband future

SRT communications provides broadband service to rural North Dakota. Their all fiber network, powered by Nokia, passes every home and business in their service area

25 Jul 2023

MobiFone reduces radio network energy consumption by close to 14% with digital design

This case study illustrates how Nokia helped MobiFone tackle the raising energy consumption and costs with the Digital Design for Energy Efficiency service

18 Jul 2023

BT partners with Nokia to deliver superior customer experience and improve operational efficiency

Elevated customer expectations and growing data consumption drive AIOps demand

27 Jun 2023

SK Telecom boosts 5G downlink data rates in metropolitan city centers with SRS-based Beamforming

This case study illustrates how Sounding Reference Signal (SRS) based Beamforming was key to increasing the average downlink throughput for SK Telecom’s 5G users in…

stc reinvents customer experience on its fixed network

As the largest service provider in Saudi Arabia, Saudi Telecommunications Company (stc) was keen to ensure its leading position and achieve its ‘dare’ strategy to digitize,…

18 May 2023

Saudi Arabian operator provides outstanding Hajj experience by trusting in automation

This case study illustrates how Nokia SON helped a Saudi Arabian operator optimize its radio network for high performance during Hajj when the traffic volume increased by 40%.…

du extends high-capacity microwave backhaul over long distance to Dubai World Islands

This case study describes how Nokia helped du trial and subsequently deploy a multiband microwave backhaul solution combining high-capacity E-band radios with the extended…

du exceeds 2.4 Gbps data rates with 5G Carrier Aggregation on mid-band in commercial network

This case study describes how Nokia’s 5G Carrier Aggregation solution, and AirScale radio access products helped du achieve Multi-Gigabit data rates on mid-band spectrum in…

21 Feb 2023

TPG Telecom pioneers Carrier Aggregation in 5G Standalone

This case study provides aThis case study describes how 5G Carrier Aggregation was a key element for the launch of 5G Standalone, enabling enhanced user experience and…

12 Feb 2023

North American operator trials near real-time Advanced Traffic Steering for cell load balancing

Bharti Airtel disaster recovery case study

In this case study with Bharti Airtel, Nokia Core Networks Global Services implemented the largest VoLTE geo-redundancy disaster recovery solution.

Chorus network operations transformation case study

Chorus and Nokia have implemented dozens of transformation initiatives to bring greater automation into areas such as customer care and field maintenance

KDDI energy efficiency case study

Find out why KDDI partnered with Nokia to trial Japan’s first AI-controlled radio access network using Nokia AVA for Energy Efficiency.

China Mobile landslide monitoring and alarm system with IMPACT IoT platform

Nokia partnered with China Mobile to develop a landslide monitoring and alarm system (LMAS) built on Nokia’s IMPACT IoT platform.

PTCL customer service transformation case study

Read how PTCL was able to get greater visibility into all aspects of its network by using Nokia Network Analyzer.

23 Dec 2022

Safaricom accelerates incident resolution with automation and AI/ML based analytics

Safaricom was one of the first operators in the world to adopt Nokia’s Digital Care Services model leveraging Nokia Unified Troubleshooting Framework and the AI-driven…

28 Nov 2022

Elisa lays the foundation for superior 5G Standalone experience with Carrier Aggregation

This case study provides a closer look at how 5G Carrier Aggregation helps meet the high expectations of 5G subscribers for enhanced data rates on the path to reaching…

T-Mobile boosts 5G mid-band coverage by 30% with Carrier Aggregation

The case study illustrates how aggregating low-band and mid-band spectrum assets can significantly extend the availability of mid-band bandwidth, providing enhanced quality of…

Telecom Argentina boosts service quality and radio network performance with automation

This case study describes how EdenNet SON helped Telecom Argentina optimize network performance and service quality in its 3G and 4G networks.

17 Oct 2022

Nokia demonstrates 800GE routing

800GE routing is here, to help you meet the growing demand for IP network capacity in a more sustainable manner by simultaneously decreasing the space and power required.

26 Sep 2022

Improve RAN performance and quality with Nokia SON

This Mobile Networks case study focuses on how Nokia EdenNet Self-Organizing Networks (SON) helps boost end user experience without compromising network performance.

How KDDI used AI to cut RAN energy consumption in half

KDDI partnered with Nokia to trial Japan’s first AI-controlled radio access network. Using the capabilities of Nokia AVA for Energy Efficiency, the trial validated to adapt…

PTCL is transforming its customer service

Nokia Customer Care Applications and Network Insights

18 Aug 2022

Nokia Core Talk: How did they do it? DISH, Nokia and the world’s first 5G on AWS’s cloud

Explore how DISH Wireless USA and Nokia achieved the world’s first deployment of 5G Standalone Core on AWS’s cloud. You’ll learn how, by deploying 5G on either a public or…

27 Jul 2022

Chorus is transforming its network operations

Through a highly collaborative Service Improvement Program, Chorus and Nokia have implemented dozens of transformation initiatives since 2016 to bring greater automation into…

Best practices in fiber broadband operations

Fiber rollouts are accelerating and broadband access networks have become mission critical. Coping with this growth and complexity requires network operations that can scale…

10 Jun 2022

Analysys Mason study on SPTel

This case study provides an outline of SPTel's strategy and an overview of the business drivers behind the project.

26 May 2022

The home of best-in-class network interconnection

DE-CIX’s Internet Exchange in Frankfurt is the world’s leading interconnection platform with the highest peak traffic in the world. Founded in 1995, today it manages more than…

28 Mar 2022

Real Action solving smart agriculture challenges

In our Real Action influencer series we build better futures

18 Feb 2022

Spectral Performance Analysis for better customer experience

Hutchinson 3 Indonesia using spectral performance analysis to ensure extraordinary customer experience.

17 Feb 2022

Nokia Vodafone Germany aims to boost network quality with intelligent alarm correlation

Find out how Nokia and Vodafone Germany created an intelligent alarm correlation system to ensure consistent network quality.

Disaster recovery in large VoLTE deployments - Bharti AirTel

Read this case study from India to learn how Nokia Core Networks Global Services team was able to implement the largest VoLTE geo-redundancy disaster recovery solution rapidly…

21 Jan 2022

DISH Wireless 5G Standalone Deployed in the Cloud

In this case study, TBR Inc examines why AWS's cloud is a compelling path for DISH Wireless to deploy Nokia 5G Standalone Core. DISH Wireless is a pioneering CSP that is…

16 Dec 2021

LG U+ talks 5G monetization

In this interview with Son Minseon, Vice President and Head of XaaS Business at LG U+, hear about what makes LG U+ customers unique and how that is shaping their 5G services…

13 Dec 2021

PTCL Fixed Network Insights

Learn how Pakistan Telecommunication Company Limited (PTCL) has deployed Nokia automation, analytics and machine learning software to enhance the customer experience and…

Telenet Belgium selected Google Anthos & Nokia to deploy their cloud-native 5G Standalone Core

Service Providers need a fast, efficient method to launch and grow 5G services. Telenet Belgium selected Google Anthos and Nokia for the deployment of their cloud-native 5G…

23 Sep 2021

Vodafone is partnering with Nokia to build an anomaly detection application on GCP

21 Jul 2021

Anyhaul network fabric gives maximum flexibility

A North American Tier 1 MNO implements a common IP anyhaul network fabric to support diverse 5G implementations

19 Jul 2021

How China Mobile is using Nokia AI for energy-efficient 5G

China Mobile case study

Telenor & 5G-VINNI: Proving the potential of 5G innovation

Through the 5G Verticals Innovation Infrastructure (5G-VINNI) consortium, Nokia and Norwegian CSP Telenor are proving it’s possible to simplify slicing with zero-touch digital…

10 Jun 2021

Ooredoo Algeria: Leading the way to digital enablement - cloud-native core solution

Digital transformation is the key to realizing the potential and promise of 5G, but only if Communication Service Providers (CSPs) overcome the challenge of network complexity…

11 Feb 2021

Automating IP services delivery over a multivendor network

Tier1 CSP in Brazil with Nokia NSP

17 Nov 2020

INEA test the 25G PON technology with Nokia

Karol Kowalik, technical development manager at Polish network operator INEA, talks about the company's next gen fiber network strategy with 25G PON.

Automated, customer-centric network management with NSP

Automate your networks for maximum performance

23 Sep 2020

Global Industry Scan: How CSPs are adapting to the new normal

With pandemic-related traffic volumes and subscriber behaviors becoming the “new normal” for the foreseeable future, what comes next?

19 Aug 2020

SDN Communications and NSP

Automation of IP transport network for 5G services

20 Mar 2020

LG U+ and Nokia NSP

23 Jan 2020

POST Luxemburg

POST Luxembourg utilizes AI insights to improve the home broadband experience

19 Nov 2019

AVA - US CSP using predictive analytics to deliver extraordinary video experiences

US CSP using predictive analytics to deliver extraordinary video experiences

16 Apr 2019

Nokia Customer Care success stories: Redefining the customer experience​

Nokia offers a portfolio of Customer eXperience Solutions (CXS) to help communications service providers (CSPs) around the world adopt care processes that deliver the highest…

29 Nov 2018

Ensuring public safety with a TETRA radio communication system

Learn how we helped Austria’s Federal Ministry of the Interior deploy and manage a digital radio network for first responders

15 Nov 2018

Tele2 4G upgrade: 41 percent lower emissions than conventional roll outs

The 4G upgrade with 41% lower carbon emissions than a conventional network