favorite movie essay in english

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Essay on My Favourite Movie | Short & Long Essay For Students

If you are trying to write an essay on the topic my favorite Movie then you can read here a sample essay on topic of my favorite movie. Everyone loves different movies my favorite movie can be; 3 idiots, fast & furious, harry potter, bahubali 2 etc.

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The following sample essay on my favorite movie in English, in 150, 300 words will help you to write an essay on my favorite movie easily.

Essay on My Favorite Movie For Children & Students

The entertainment industry is very popular for making hundreds of exciting movies to entertain us. Each film has a different genre like there are social, historical, science, fiction, documentary-based, religious, thriller, or horror movies.

I also like to watch movies in my spare time. According to me, a good movie is the one in which we can relate with the characters and share the excitement or sorrows.

My Favorite Movie Essay

The movie that I like the most is “Taarezameen per”. It is my favorite movie and I have seen it so many times. There are no bold scenes in this movie and people of every age can watch it. This is my favorite movie because the story is very touching. This movie is both entertaining and educational. All the characters have acted so well in this movie.

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It is an emotional movie which always keeps me glued to the screen. It tells about the story of a boy who suffers from dyslexia due to which he is unable to identify speech sounds and how they relate to letters. Because of this disorder, he cannot excel in any activity.

He finds all the subjects difficult to study. Even with this disorder, he is very good at painting. However, he gets expelled from school because of his poor performance.

All the teachers tell his parents that their boy is not normal and he should be sent to school which is especially made for special children like him. Later, his parents send him to boarding school. There he sinks into a state of nervousness and fear because of new environment. Fortunately, he finds an art teacher there who is very supportive and caring.

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His teacher realizes that it is not ishaan’s fault to get bad grades but a disorder which makes it difficult for him to focus. He visits ishaan’s home and gets surprised to see his drawings.

He also gets to know that ishaan’s dad does not understand him and often shouts at him for not getting good grades. Because of this, ishaan no longer paints and suffers from anxiety.

He gets motivated to improve ishaan’s writing and reading by using techniques developed by dyslexia specialists. These techniques help ishaan to score good grades in school. In the end, he also wins a painting competition because of his striking creative style.

I like how this story is relevant in today’s society. According to me, this is a movie which gives best moral to parents, teachers and every child. It is a marvelous piece of work which shows a perfect relationship between a teacher and a student. It highlights the issue that sometimes, parents do not understand that every kid is different.

If he is not good at studies then there must be some other thing which he is good at. He might be interested in painting, acting, singing or sports. Therefore, parents should not discourage their children but help them in what they like.

I like how the director of this movie has brought out a clear message that parents should not ignore the interests of kids and they should not snatch their childhood from them by giving them burden of getting good grades or efficient performance in every field.

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I just hope that this movie will change the thinking of parents and society. I have seen this movie so many times with my family. Every aspect of this movie, from cast to location selection is amazing. All the actors have done an amazing job. I really cried while seeing this movie. I know, I will never get bored from this movie.

Essay on My Favorite Movie Harry Potter

My love for movies started when I was a kid, and ever since then, movies have been my favorite pastime. From action-packed thrillers to romantic comedies, there’s a movie genre for every mood. But if I have to pick just one movie as my all-time favorite, hands down it would be the Harry Potter series.

For those who are not familiar with the name, Harry Potter is a fictional character created by British author J.K. Rowling. The series consists of seven books and eight movies, which follows the journey of a young wizard named Harry Potter, who discovers his true identity as “The Chosen One” and battles against the dark wizard, Lord Voldemort.

I was first introduced to Harry Potter when I was in elementary school, and I still remember the excitement of reading the books for the first time. The magical world of Hogwarts, spells, potions, and flying broomsticks had me completely captivated. As a kid, I would often daydream about receiving my acceptance letter to Hogwarts and attending classes with Harry, Ron, and Hermione.

When the movies were released, I was ecstatic! It was a dream come true to see my favorite characters and their adventures brought to life on the big screen. The cast, especially Daniel Radcliffe as Harry Potter, Emma Watson as Hermione Granger, and Rupert Grint as Ron Weasley, did an incredible job of portraying their characters and staying true to the books.

One of the things I love most about the Harry Potter series is the way it tackles important themes such as love, friendship, courage, and good vs. evil. The characters face challenges and overcome them by staying true to their values and relying on each other for support. This message of unity and strength in the face of adversity resonated with me, and I believe it’s one of the reasons why the series has such a huge fan base.

Moreover, the world-building in the Harry Potter series is impeccable. J.K. Rowling’s attention to detail and ability to create a vivid and complex magical world is truly impressive. From Diagon Alley to Hogsmeade, each location has its own unique charm and adds depth to the story. The spells and magical creatures introduced in the series are also fascinating, and I love how each one has its own history and significance.

Apart from the story and characters, the music in the Harry Potter movies is another aspect that makes them stand out for me. The iconic theme song composed by John Williams never fails to give me chills, and it perfectly captures the essence of the series. The rest of the soundtrack is also beautifully crafted and adds to the overall magical atmosphere of the movies.

As I grew older, my love for the Harry Potter series only intensified. I started noticing and appreciating the deeper themes and symbolism in the story that went beyond just a tale of magic and adventure. The series also taught me valuable life lessons about courage, friendship, and standing up for what is right.

Even today, I find myself re-reading the books and re-watching the movies whenever I need a break from reality. The Harry Potter series has become a timeless classic, and I believe it will continue to capture the hearts of audiences for generations to come.

In conclusion, the Harry Potter series holds a special place in my heart as my all-time favorite movie. It’s not just about magic and adventure, but it’s a story about love, friendship, and overcoming challenges. The series has sparked my imagination and taught me valuable life lessons that I will carry with me forever. And for that, I will always be grateful to J.K. Rowling for creating such a magical world and to the cast and crew for bringing it to life on the big screen.

My Favorite Movie PK

Are you a big movie fan? Do you ever find yourself eagerly waiting for new releases, rewatching old classics, and discussing plot twists with your friends? If so, then you probably understand the feeling of having a favorite movie. For me, that movie is PK.

Released in 2014, PK is an Indian satirical comedy-drama directed by Rajkumar Hirani. The film stars Aamir Khan as the lead character, an alien who lands on earth and becomes stranded when his remote control to return home is stolen. He then embarks on a journey to retrieve it and encounters various aspects of human society, including religion, superstition, and love.

The first time I watched PK, I was blown away by its unique concept and thought-provoking message. The film uses comedy to address serious issues, making it both entertaining and meaningful. It challenges societal norms and beliefs, encouraging viewers to think critically about their own values.

One of the things I love most about PK is its ability to make me laugh while also making me reflect on larger societal issues. The character of PK himself is endearing and hilarious, with his childlike innocence and curiosity about human behaviors. Aamir Khan’s performance as PK is outstanding, bringing the character to life in a way that captures the audience’s hearts.

The film also has a stellar supporting cast, including Anushka Sharma, Sushant Singh Rajput, and Boman Irani. Each actor delivers a memorable performance, adding depth and complexity to the film’s themes. The chemistry between the characters is palpable, making their relationships feel authentic and relatable.

One of the most impactful aspects of PK is its commentary on religion. The film presents a thought-provoking argument against blind faith and superstition, showcasing how religious leaders can exploit people’s beliefs for personal gain.

It also highlights the importance of questioning and understanding one’s own beliefs rather than blindly following societal norms. This message resonated with me deeply and has stayed with me long after watching the film.

In addition to its thought-provoking themes, PK also boasts stunning cinematography and a captivating soundtrack. The music adds emotion and depth to key scenes, enhancing the overall viewing experience. The film’s settings, from the bustling streets of Mumbai to the tranquil beauty of Rajasthan, further immerse viewers into PK’s world.

But what truly makes PK my favorite movie is its ability to make me feel a range of emotions. I laughed at PK’s antics, cried during emotional moments, and felt anger towards societal injustices portrayed in the film. It takes skillful storytelling to evoke such strong emotions from the audience, and PK does it flawlessly.

PK has received both critical and commercial success, becoming one of the highest-grossing Indian films of all time. It also won several awards, including Best Film at the 60th Filmfare Awards. However, what matters most to me is its impact on society and its ability to spark important conversations.

The film’s message is timeless and relevant, making it a must-watch for people of all ages and backgrounds.

In conclusion PK is more than just a movie to me. It’s a thought-provoking masterpiece that challenges societal norms and encourages viewers to question their own beliefs. Its unique blend of comedy, drama, and social commentary makes it my favorite movie, one that I will continue to rewatch and recommend to others. If you haven’t seen PK yet, do yourself a favor and add it to your must-watch list. Who knows, it may become your favorite movie too. So, what are you waiting for? Grab some popcorn and hit play on PK – an unforgettable cinematic experience awaits!

Essay on My Favorite Movie Fast and Furious:

The Fast and Furious franchise has been a staple in the action movie genre for over two decades. With its adrenaline-fueled car chases, heart-stopping stunts, and diverse cast of characters, it’s no wonder that this series has become a favorite among fans worldwide.

My love for this franchise began when I first watched The Fast and the Furious back in 2001. From the very first race scene, I was hooked. The sound of revving engines and the sight of sleek cars racing through the streets had me on the edge of my seat. But what truly drew me in was the chemistry between characters Dominic Toretto and Brian O’Conner.

Their bromance and loyalty to each other despite their differences resonated with me. It’s not just about fast cars and action-packed scenes, but also about the bond of family and friendship that has kept this franchise going strong.

One of the most appealing aspects of the Fast and Furious series is its diverse cast. From street racers to former criminals, each character brings their own unique skills and personalities to the table. And as the franchise grew, so did the representation of different cultures and backgrounds.

The shift from street racing to heists in Fast Five not only upped the ante with thrilling action sequences but also introduced us to fan-favorite characters like Han, Tej, and Roman. Even more diversity was brought to the franchise with strong female characters like Letty, Mia, and most recently Hattie Shaw. Seeing people from all walks of life come together and form a strong bond is what makes this series stand out for me.

But it’s not just the characters that make this franchise special; it’s also the crazy stunts and over-the-top action sequences. From driving cars off cliffs to jumping between skyscrapers, each movie manages to push the limits of what we thought was possible. And the fact that most of these stunts are done practically is a testament to the dedication and hard work put in by the cast and crew.

It’s also worth mentioning how well this franchise has evolved over time. From humble beginnings as a street racing movie, it has now become a global phenomenon with spin-offs, video games, and even a live show. The Fast and Furious franchise has proven that it can adapt and continue to entertain audiences with each new installment.

While I have enjoyed all the movies in this franchise, there are a few that stand out for me. Fast Five, in particular, holds a special place in my heart. It was the first movie that fully embraced the heist aspect of the series while still maintaining its signature car chases and fight scenes. The addition of Dwayne Johnson’s character, Luke Hobbs, also added an extra layer of excitement to the movie.

Another favorite of mine is Furious 7. Not only did it have some of the most thrilling action sequences in the franchise, but it also served as a touching tribute to Paul Walker, who tragically passed away during filming. The emotional impact of his absence was felt throughout the movie, and it truly showed how much this cast had become a family both on and off-screen.

In conclusion, the Fast and Furious franchise holds a special place in my heart as my favorite movie series. Its diverse cast, heart-pumping action sequences, and themes of family and friendship make each movie a joy to watch. While the franchise may have started as a simple movie about street racing, it has now become a global phenomenon that continues to entertain audiences worldwide.

And with more movies and spin-offs in the works, I can’t wait to see what other exciting adventures this franchise has in store for us. So, if you haven’t watched any of the Fast and Furious movies yet, I highly recommend you give them a chance and join in on the ride. So buckle up and get ready for some high-speed action with the Fast and Furious franchise!

Essay on My Favorite Movie Twilight:

My favorite movie of all time is Twilight. I know, I know, it may sound cliché but hear me out. The reason why it’s my favorite movie goes beyond the romantic vampire and werewolf love triangle that captured the hearts of millions around the world.

Twilight is not just a typical romance film. It’s a story about self-discovery, acceptance, and the power of love to transcend all boundaries.

The movie is based on the novel by Stephenie Meyer and follows the story of Bella Swan, a teenage girl who moves to the small town of Forks, Washington to live with her father. There she meets Edward Cullen, a mysterious and handsome vampire who she falls in love with. However, their love is not without challenges as they must navigate the dangerous world of vampires and werewolves while also facing their own personal demons.

One of the reasons why I love this movie is because of its strong female lead. Bella is not your typical damsel in distress waiting to be saved by her prince charming. She is independent, brave, and unafraid to stand up for what she believes in. Her character development throughout the series is inspiring and relatable, making her a role model for young girls everywhere.

Another aspect of the movie that I enjoy is its beautiful cinematography. The stunning scenery of the Pacific Northwest adds to the mystical and enchanting atmosphere of the story. It’s no wonder that fans from all over the world travel to Forks to visit some of the filming locations.

But what makes this movie truly special to me is its theme of love conquering all. Despite their differences, Bella and Edward’s love for each other remains strong and unwavering. It shows that true love knows no boundaries, whether it be race, social status, or even species.

Twilight may have its fair share of critics but for me, it will always hold a special place in my heart. It’s not just a movie, it’s a reminder that love is the most powerful force in the world and can overcome any obstacle.

In conclusion, Twilight is more than just a teenage romance movie. It’s a beautiful story about love, growth, and acceptance. Its captivating characters, breathtaking scenery, and timeless message make it my all-time favorite movie. It’s a film that I can watch over and over again, always finding something new to love about it. And for that, it will forever hold a special place in my heart.

So the next time someone asks me why Twilight is my favorite movie, I’ll simply smile and say “because it’s not just a movie, it’s a love story that transcends all boundaries.” So, if you haven’t watched it yet, I highly recommend giving it a chance and experiencing the magic of Twilight for yourself. Trust me, you won’t regret it.

Essay on My Favorite Movie Dangal:

As a movie buff, I have watched hundreds of movies spanning different genres. But there is one movie that stands out amongst them all and holds a special place in my heart – Dangal.

Dangal is an Indian sports biographical drama based on the real-life story of former wrestler Mahavir Singh Phogat and his daughters Geeta Phogat and Babita Kumari. Directed by Nitesh Tiwari, the movie stars Aamir Khan as Mahavir Singh Phogat and Fatima Sana Shaikh and Sanya Malhotra as his daughters. The film was released in 2016 and has since become one of the highest-grossing Indian films of all time.

What makes Dangal my favorite movie is not just its box office success, but the powerful message it delivers. The film challenges societal norms and stereotypes by showcasing the struggle of a father who defies all odds to train his daughters in a male-dominated sport like wrestling. It breaks gender barriers and inspires young girls to pursue their dreams, no matter how unconventional they may seem.

Apart from its impactful message, Dangal also delivers exceptional performances by its lead actors. Aamir Khan once again proves his versatility as an actor with his portrayal of Mahavir Singh Phogat. He not only physically transforms himself to play the role of a wrestler but also brings out the emotional side of a father who is determined to see his daughters succeed. Fatima Sana Shaikh and Sanya Malhotra also shine in their roles as the Phogat sisters, displaying strong-willed and determined characters.

The film’s screenplay and direction are top-notch, keeping the audience engaged from start to finish. The wrestling scenes are choreographed brilliantly, making them look realistic and intense. The soundtrack of the movie is another highlight, with songs like “Dangal” and “Haanikaarak Bapu” becoming instant hits.

In addition to its commercial success, Dangal has also received critical acclaim. The film won several awards, including the National Film Award for Best Popular Film Providing Wholesome Entertainment and three Filmfare Awards. It was also India’s official entry for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film.

In conclusion, Dangal is a movie that has it all – a powerful message, exceptional performances, and top-notch execution. It not only entertains but also educates and inspires its audience. For me, it will always remain my favorite movie and one that I highly recommend to everyone. So if you haven’t watched it yet, do yourself a favor and add it to your must-watch list. You won’t be disappointed. So, keep watching amazing movies!

Short Essay on My Favorite Movie Bahubali:

Bahubali is an epic Indian movie that swept the nation off its feet with its grandeur, action-packed scenes, and compelling storyline. Released in 2015, this movie was a game-changer for Indian cinema as it broke all box office records and took the world by storm.

Directed by S.S. Rajamouli, Bahubali tells the story of two brothers, Amarendra Bahubali and Bhallaladeva, who fight for the throne of the ancient kingdom of Mahishmati. The movie is set in a fictional world filled with political intrigue, love, war, and betrayal.

One of the reasons I fell in love with this movie is its incredible action sequences. From sword fights to larger-than-life battle scenes, Bahubali has it all. The special effects and CGI used in the movie are top-notch and make the fight scenes even more captivating.

But what truly sets Bahubali apart is its strong characters, especially its female lead Devasena. She is a fierce warrior who can hold her ground against any opponent. Her character challenges traditional gender roles and stands out as a symbol of strength and resilience.

Apart from the action, Bahubali also has a heart-wrenching love story between Amarendra Bahubali and Devasena. Their chemistry is palpable, and their love for each other is portrayed beautifully on screen. This adds an emotional depth to the movie that makes it even more impactful.

Moreover, what I admire about Bahubali is how it showcases the rich culture and traditions of India. The sets, costumes, and music all beautifully capture the essence of Indian mythology and history.

Aside from its entertainment value, Bahubali also has a powerful message about good triumphing over evil. Through the character of Amarendra Bahubali, the movie teaches us that true strength lies in compassion and not violence.

In conclusion, Bahubali will always hold a special place in my heart as it is not just a movie but an experience. It has set the bar high for Indian cinema and has left its mark on audiences worldwide. This movie truly represents the magic of storytelling and proves that with passion and dedication, anything is possible. So, if you haven’t watched Bahubali yet, do yourself a favor and experience this masterpiece for yourself. So, don’t wait any longer and dive into the world of Bahubali – you won’t regret it!

How do I write an essay about my favorite movie?

Answer: To write an essay about your favorite movie, start with an introduction, provide a brief summary of the film, discuss the plot, characters, and themes, share personal insights and emotions it evoked, and conclude with your overall assessment.

How do I write an essay about a movie?

Answer: To write an essay about a movie, introduce the film and its context, summarize the plot, analyze elements like characters, themes, and cinematography, discuss the impact and significance of the movie, and conclude with your evaluation and personal reflections.

How would you describe your favorite movie?

Answer: My favorite movie is “The Shawshank Redemption.” It’s a powerful and poignant drama set in a prison, focusing on the themes of hope, friendship, and the resilience of the human spirit. The film’s characters and storytelling are exceptional, making it a timeless classic.

What is your favorite movie and why?

Answer: My favorite movie is “The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring.” I love it because of its epic fantasy world, compelling characters, and the timeless battle of good versus evil. The storytelling, visuals, and music combine to create an immersive and magical experience that never gets old

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Favorite Movie: “Home Alone” by John Hughes Essay

Recently, I have watched one of the most famous American movies produced by John Hughes’ Home Alone . It is indeed an excellent family comedy because it evokes all sorts of nostalgia. Mainly, it reminded me of the childhood times when my parents would leave me alone, and I could do anything I wanted. Yet, I had mixed emotions being on my own in the empty apartment – I could sense weird noises coming from the middle of nowhere, or it was simply my imagination getting on my nerves. As far as the audience is concerned, Home Alone is a traditional Christmas comedy; yet, I assume one can watch it any time of year just to make a day better and recall Christmas family evenings.

The main character is a young boy named Kevin who is featured by Macaulay Culkin. The guy is celebrating Christmas with his family, which enlarges since all the relatives gather for this winter holiday. Kevin dislikes being surrounded by numerous kids who constantly tease him and dreams that his family would disappear one day (Hughes). When his dream comes true, and he finds himself in the empty apartment, Kevin starts doing every little thing his parent would forbid: he eats ice cream for breakfast, plays video games, and watches violent films. While he is enjoying his loneliness, Kevin’s parents realize they accidentally left their child at home before flying to Paris for a Christmas trip (Hughes). Yet, Kevin demonstrates himself as a young but increasingly responsible housekeeper and even protects his home from burglars.

To my mind, the actors chosen to perform each character have done a perfect job since they have managed to transmit their feelings, intentions, and emotions to the audience. Despite the fact that the film is primarily associated with Macaulay Culkin, the rest of the actors have contributed significantly to the movie’s atmosphere. Joe Pecsi deserves special attention since his acting was stunning and witty. What makes the film unique is the character’s personal traits – they are all different, at times, contradictory, but they make up a real movie family. In general, the actors performed at a high level, which made the film increasingly believable and indeed brought it to life.

Not solely the plot and acting make the movie atmospheric, but the scriptwriters, camera operators, and composer just did a fantastic job to entertain the audience. I believe the scenario was well-elaborated because, despite numerous events, there was no confusion between the scenes and the heroes. Moreover, the dialogues are just witty and hilarious; it almost felt like a comedy show even in the appalling moments. The filmmakers ingeniously used camera angles to set the tone in the film. For instance, a spectator could observe adult characters from Kevin’s perspective and vice versa. Besides, there is a beautiful background music theme throughout the whole movie. It is almost like a second character who leads the audience through the story.

In conclusion, I would restate my viewpoint that this film can surely lift one’s mood. Everything seems perfectly balanced in the story: characters, acting, music, editing, dialogues, and other details. Actors played a major role in transmitting a true Christmas atmosphere to the audience. I would recommend watching this classic of the genre to those who have not done it yet because it evokes pleasant childhood memories.

Home Alone . Directed by John Hughes, performance by Macaulay Culkin, Hughes Entertaiment, 1990.

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How to write an essay on your favorite movie.

The question; how to write an essay on your favorite movie is one that film fans and cinephiles have asked for decades. But, is it even possible to create a well-written, meaningful essay about something as subjective as personal taste in cinema?

The answer to this question is, of course, a big yes. One thing you shouldn’t overlook, though, is that it can take a lot of time, plenty of effort, and lots of practice. And if you do not have all the time, your best bet could be to seek university assignment help .

Tips for Writing Essay on Favorite Movie

To help you get started on this all-important assignment, we’ve put together a few tips that really should make the process more manageable and fun. Here are six tips for writing the best essay on your favorite movie!

I. Choose a movie that you really enjoy and can talk about in detail

When it comes to choosing a movie to write about, it’s important to select a film that you’re truly passionate about. A film you’ve seen multiple times and can quote lines from is a great choice. You will find it easy writing about the film in detail and engage the reader in your essay. Keep in mind that it will be difficult to write a convincing and engaging essay if you’re not interested in the subject matter. So choose a movie that you really enjoy and can talk about at length for the best results.

II. Watch the movie again, taking note of the movie’s plot, the characters, and setting

Before writing anything, it’s important that you take a close look at the film you’ve chosen. This means watching it again, but this time with a critical eye. Pay attention to the story, the characters, and the film’s overall setting. Think about how these elements come together to create a cohesive whole. What themes are explored in the movie? What is it that the movie director was trying to communicate with their selections? By taking the time to analyze the film in this way, you’ll be able to develop a more nuanced understanding of it which will come in handy when you start writing your essay.

III. Write down your thoughts on the movie

After you’ve watched the movie a second time and taken some notes, it’s time to start brainstorming your thoughts on the film. Take note of the things liked about the movie? Also take note of the things you didn’t you like about the movie? Not to forget, ask yourself, what themes resonated with you? How did the cinematography and writing/directing choices affect your experience watching the movie? These will help you form a solid opinion of the film.

IV. Discuss the themes of the movie and how they resonate with you

We asked top assignment writers at Essay Geeks , what is their secret of writing top essays about their favorite movies. The answer was simple; you discuss the themes that the movie explores. What topics does the film tackle? How does it approach these topics? How do the themes resonate with you on a personal level? These are the sorts of questions that you’ll need to answer in your essay.

V. Analyze the cinematography and writing/directing choices made by the filmmakers

You want to be sure to not only discuss the themes of the film but also analyze how the filmmakers approached these themes. What decisions did filmmakers settle on in terms of cinematography and writing/directing? How did these choices affect your experience of watching the movie? Did they enhance or detract from your enjoyment of the film? These questions will help you to get at the bottom of what exactly the filmmakers were aiming at achieving with their choices.

VI. Offer your own interpretation of the film’s message or story

What did you make of the ending? Do you think the film was successful in conveying its intended message? What sort of emotions did the film evoke in you? Did it make you think about the world in a different way? By offering your own interpretation, you’ll be able to add your own unique voice to the essay.

2 Mistakes to Avoid When Writing About Your Favorite Movie

Writing about your favorite movie can be a fun and rewarding experience. However, there are a few mistakes that you’ll want to avoid if you want the essay to be as good as it can be. Here are two of them;

Regurgitating the plot

When you’re writing about your favorite movie, it’s important to resist the urge to simply regurgitate the plot. While it’s important to give a brief overview of what the film is about, your essay should go beyond just summarizing the story. Instead, focus on discussing the themes of the film and how these themes resonate with you.

Don’t forget to proofread

Once you’re done writing your essay, do not forget to take the time to go through it again. This can help you catch sloppy grammatical or spelling errors that could detract from your essay. In addition, proofreading will also allow you to catch any choppy sentences or awkward phrasing. By taking the time to proofread your essay, you’ll be able to make sure that it is as polished and well-written as possible.

Closing Thoughts

Writing an essay about your favorite movie really shouldn’t be too difficult. Just be sure to take your time to understand the film, brainstorm your thoughts, and proofread your essay before submitting it.

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Do the preparation exercise first. Then do the other exercises.

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Check your understanding: multiple choice

Check your understanding: grouping, worksheets and downloads.

What's your favourite film? Why do you like it?

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Describe Your Favourite Movie - IELTS Cue Card

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Updated on 27 June, 2023

Mrinal Mandal

Study abroad expert.

The speaking test in IELTS is one of the most crucial aspects of improving your band score. For this purpose, you need to address all the aspects of the question adequately. Aim to structure your essay in a descriptive and well-structured way.   

Here are two IELTS Cue Cards on the topic, ‘ describe your favourite   movie .’

Table of Contents

• Amongst the latest Hollywood films, describe your favorite movie that moved you: Sample 1

Download E-Books for IELTS Preparation

Describe your favourite movie that you watched recently: sample 2, important ielts exam resources, amongst the latest hollywood films, describe your favorite movie that moved you: sample 1.

Some movies have the power to strike the perfect balance of acting, storyline, and cinematography. Such movies create a long-lasting impact on our minds. These movies are not just our usual entertaining content, in which we laugh, cry, and cease to think after a while. In fact, they stimulate our thought process, enabling us to question various aspects of our lives.

‘The Father’ is one such movie that created a long-lasting impact. As a massive fan of Sir Anthony Hopkins, I was already awestruck by watching the few glimpses of his acting prowess in the trailer. So, I set a reminder for its release and waited eagerly in excitement.

Directed by Florian Zeller, ‘The Father’ is a psychological drama in which a lonely, aging man named Anthony refuses to take assistance from his daughter, Anne. After some days, he feels abandoned when she tells him about her decision to move abroad. Due to old age, Anthony has difficulty remembering people, and events, thereby losing grip on reality. 

Overall, as an audience, we got a realistic understanding of how dementia impacts the life of an aging loner. The message of the movie was simple but highly moving nevertheless. The movie had phenomenal acting, screenplay, and cinematography. It depicted how a family is crucial to support older people with practical challenges. I can never forget the final scene of this movie. In this scene, Anthony breaks down and says, ‘I want my mommy!’ 

It left me in tears but deeply appreciative of my family.

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Get to know about the latest updates on the IELTS Exam, Eligibility, Preparation Tips, Test procedure,  Exam Pattern, Syllabus, Registration Process, Important Exam Dates, and much more!! This guide is a one-stop solution for every IELTS Aspirant who aims to crack the exam with an impressive band score.

Most recently, ‘The Adam Project’ made its way to one of my all-time favorite movies. As a massive fan of Ryan Reynolds and Mark Ruffalo, I was excited to buy tickets for this film. So, I accompanied my friends to the theatres to watch this sci-fi action film. The cinema hall was filled with an enthusiastic crowd eager to watch Reynold’s evergreen comedy.

The atmosphere was terrific, and it felt like a mini-festival of sci-fi enthusiasts. I adore the concept of time travel and never miss any opportunity to watch such films. They introduce us to a fantastic world where we can challenge the practical issues in time travel. From the first scene, I was amazed at the wonderful videography and location of young Adam’s house.

It was also refreshing to see Jennifer Garner in a movie with Mark Ruffalo. The little kid in the movie did some excellent comic acting. The locations, fighting sequence, and concept of time travel felt marvelous. I liked the coordination between big and young Adam throughout the movie. The villain, Sorian, wanted to kill Adam to keep manipulating the trade market with the invention of time travel. But, in the end, Sorian kills her younger self, thereby concluding the movie.

What I loved about this movie was that it didn’t just have action sequences; it also had an emotional touch. The relationship between a son(s) and his father was incredibly touching. Overall, the movie conveyed that tampering with time is not an ethical discovery. Hence, one should always enjoy our current moments and live life to the fullest!

IELTS Exam Overview

IELTS is required to be taken by international students and workers who wish to study or work in a country where English is the primary language of communication. Know the complete details.

IELTS Exam Syllabus

With the right knowledge of the IELTS exam syllabus and pattern, cracking the popular English test won’t be difficult.

• IELTS Exam Pattern

The IELTS exam pattern encompasses four major sections, i.e. listening, speaking, writing, and reading.

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IELTS is the most popular and crucial test for evaluating English language proficiency throughout the world. Learn how to register for the IELTS exam.

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IELTS Writing Task 2 Topics

Writing task 2 in IELTS is descriptive essay writing. The applicants are supposed to write an essay in response to the statement or situation given in the essay.

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Before appearing for the test, let’s take a look at the below-mentioned IELTS writing tips and tricks to score well in the writing section.

Reading Section IELTS

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IELTS Speaking Preparation

Please note that your performance on the speaking test is assessed based on the following criteria- fluency and coherence, grammatical range and accuracy, lexical resource, and pronunciation.

Phrases for IELTS Speaking

There are many phrases for IELTS speaking that a candidate should practice beforehand. If you aim for band 9, you should know these phrases.

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IELTS is one of the most used English Language Proficiency Tests. The exam is scored in bands. Your IELTS band score determines the performance level of your test.

• IELTS Band Score

Understanding the IELTS band score is not difficult. The results of the examination are reported on a scale of 9 bands.

• IELTS Slot Booking

To book the IELTS exam, the candidates can either visit their nearest test center or book the slot online by visiting the official website of IDP. If they choose to go with the second option, they should follow the steps given below.

IELTS Academic Writing Task 1

IELTS Academic writing is meant for students who are applying for top-ranked universities and colleges in English-speaking countries. The writing task one is an academic summary writing based on diagrammatic and graphical representation.

• IELTS Writing Task 2

Writing Task 2 is the second part of the writing section of IELTS, where aspirants are presented with a point of view, argument, or problem and asked to write an essay in response to the question.

Writing Task 1 IELTS

In IELTS Academic Writing Task 1 starts with a diagram, a visual representation of information. It can be a table, map, graph, process, diagram, or picture.

IELTS Essay Samples

The essay for IELTS is part of Writing Task 2. It is the same for the General Training and Academic of the IELTS. You will get a topic and have to write an essay on the same.

IELTS Cue Cards

The IELTS speaking cue cards come into play for the second part when the candidate will be choosing cue cards and then speaking on a topic for two minutes at least.

Important Exams

Important ielts essay resources, get free consultation for ielts, trending searches, university ranking, university acceptance rate.

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• Literacy In Freedonia's Prisons
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How to Write an Essay on My Favourite Movie

April 29, 2020 David Nusair Misc 0

When you receive such an assignment, you most probably think that it is the most straightforward task ever, and you will deal with it in an hour or two. Stop right here and erase that thought from your brain, because nothing can be farther from the truth. It is a demanding task, though it can be more engaging than others. Professors know that this assignment seems very simple for students and wait for many to come up with some mediocre essays. With these tips shared by essay experts from WriteMyPaperHub.com who professionally write papers for students, you will be able to surprise your professor.

Watch the movie at least twice

Even if you know it by heart, you need to watch it in a different role now. You are a critic, and you should notice the plot switches, operator’s work, etc., which you normally don’t do when just watching a movie you like. That is why, actually, it is easier to write and analyze the movie you don’t like that much. Watching the second time, make notes, they will be very helpful later.

Start with a hook phrase

“It is my favorite movie” is not a hook phrase; it is a bore. You need to come up with something better if you want your audience to keep reading enthusiastically. Of course, you may argue that your only audience, in this case, is your professor, but it is a good idea not to bore him or her either.

Give brief information about the plot, but don’t go into details

Your task is not to retell the entire movie. You just need to give a general understanding of the plot and plot twists, so the reader can understand the movie’s idea in general. If you go in too many details, it will be a movie’s summary, not review or analysis. Focus on the plot twists that really move the story forward, not the ones you find the most amusing.

Talk about the favorite characters

Again, “I like this character because he is my favorite actor and is very cute in this role” is not an assessment you should add to your academic essay. We believe you wouldn’t, but, unfortunately, many students still do. Describe the characters in terms of their dilemmas, choices, and development. The development of characters along the plot is especially important.

Talk about the context

Every movie is created in social, cultural, political, and many other contexts. Analyzing those contexts and making conclusions about their influence will make your essay look much more professional. Even if you are writing about some silly comedy, you can find some social-cultural jokes, jargon inherent to a particular social group, mentioned political events, etc.

Talk about operators work

It is an important part of any movie. It is not surprising that Oscar for operators work is one of the most valuable ones according to the Academy’s opinion. One of the best examples of stellar operator’s work in recent years is a serial movie Euphoria. Check on it, if you have not seen it yet. Even two episodes can give an understanding of what really cool operators work with it.

Make comparisons with other movies of the same director/screenwriter

Comparisons save essays. If you don’t know what to write about, and you still have several hundreds of words to fill, just start comparing your movie with everything. Compare it with other works of the same director, screenwriter, operator. Compare it to the movies of the same genre. Compare it with the movies of the difference genre, but with a similar set of characters.

Talk about the emotional component

Warning! This part should be really short. You should not burden readers with endless emotional explanations on how the movie changes the world, or how it makes you laugh or cry 20 times per hour. However, it is a good idea to mention several moments that play with emotions and show how, in your opinion, those moments are created.

Talk about the flaws

You cannot write a good review without mentioning some drawbacks. It is not a recommendation to a friend. Find several flaws from different areas — actor’s work, plot twist, etc. and describe it without judging. Remember, you are not a real critic with years of experience, so don’t be a snob.

Don’t forget about grammar check and formatting

No matter how interesting your essay is, if it is poorly formatted or has many grammar and style mistakes, you will fail. Don’t forget about proofreading and read your paper several times before submitting it.

Just follow these tips one after another, and you will come up with a quality paper on time. Don’t mistake this assignment for an easy one; take it seriously. It is a good chance to impress your professor.

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Essays About Films: Top 5 Examples and 10 Prompts

Get ready to binge-watch some of the best films of all time and write essays about films with our essay examples and prompts. 

Films are an exciting part of the entertainment industry. From romance to science fiction, there is a film genre for everyone. Films are a welcome escape from reality, providing a few hours of immersive entertainment that anyone can enjoy. Not only are films masterful works of art, but they are also great sources of employment for many. As a work of intellectual property, films can promote job creation and drive economic growth while advancing a country’s cultural esteem. With such a vast library of films available to us, many topics of discussion are available for your next essay.

5 Intriguing Film Essays

1. scream therapy: the mental health benefits of horror movies by michael varrati, 2. reel truth: is film school worth it by jon gann, 3. why parasite’s success is forcing a reckoning in japan’s film industry by eric margolis, 4. streaming services want to fill the family movie void by nicole sperling, 5. church, critics say new movie on marcos family distorts philippine history by camille elemia, 10 engaging writing prompts on essays about films, 1. the best film that influenced me, 2. the evolution of animated films, 3. women in modern films, 4. creating short films, 5. diversity in films, 6. film critique of my favorite film, 7. how covid-19 changed the film industry, 8. promoting independent films , 9. importance of marketing strategies in films’ success, 10. how to combat film piracy.

“Galvanized by the genre’s ability to promote empathy and face down the ineffable monsters of our daily lives, Barkan’s exploration of how others use horror to heal and grow speaks to the wider impact of our engagement with these movies that are so often dismissed as having little moral value.”

Initially criticized for enabling sadistic tendencies, horror films are now proven to provide a relieving experience and psychological ease to their audience. Numerous theories about the mental health benefits of watching horror films have emerged. But beyond these profound reasons, horror films could be a great source of thrilling fun. You might also be interested in these essays about The Great Gatsby .

 “These programs are great at selling the dream of filmmaking, but rarely the realities of the business, so students graduate with few real-world skills, connections, or storytelling ability. Unable to get a job out of school, newly minted “filmmakers” go back into the system for a higher graduate degree… The cycle is self-perpetuating, and rarely benefits anyone, except the institution’s bottom line.”

One has to weigh several personal and external factors in determining whether a full degree would be worth the leap and their pockets. Directors spill the beans on their thoughts and experiences with film school to help the lost find their way. 

“Japanese cinema was trending on Japanese Twitter right after the Oscars, with cinephiles and film directors alike airing grievances about a film industry that is deeply flawed despite ample talent and a global appetite for Japanese goods.”

The Japanese lamented their lackluster film industry and waning cultural influence worldwide as the first Korean film took home the Oscars. Reminiscing its golden years of film in the mid-20th century, Japan is stricken with nostalgia. But for the industry to see a renaissance, Japan has to end exploitative labor conditions for creators and censorship.

“The decline today is due to a combination of factors: a hangover from the pandemic, efforts by studios like Disney and Paramount to bolster their own streaming services with fresh content and the risks of greenlighting family films that aren’t based on well-known intellectual property.”

The latest trend in the race to rule film streaming compensates for the lack of family movies in theaters. Giant video-on-demand platforms have started rolling their production and investments into the genre plans for animation and even expensive live-action.

“The film… has amplified existing online narratives that portray the elder Marcos’ presidency as the “golden era” of the Philippines rather than as the darkest chapter of the Southeast Asian country’s recent history, as critics allege.”

A film in the Philippines draws crowds and criticisms for revising facts in one of the country’s most painful periods. But, overall, the movie paints a positive image of the dictator’s family, whose two-decade reign was marked by murders and an economic crisis that was among the worst to hit the country.

Beyond being a source of entertainment, films have the power to shape how we lead our lives and view the world. In this essay, talk about the film that etched an indelible mark on you. First, provide a summary and specify what drew you to the story or its storytelling. Next, narrate the scenes that moved you the most. Finally, explain how you relate to this film and if you would have wanted a similar or different ending to your story and personal life. 

Animated films used to be a treat mainly for children. But now, their allure cuts across generations. For your essay, look into the history of animated films. Find out which countries are the biggest influencers in animated films and how they have fostered these intellectual properties to thrive in global markets. Research how the global direction of animation is heading, both in theatrical releases and streaming, and what animation fans can expect in the next few months.

Have the roles of women progressed in modern films? Or do they remain to be damsels in distress saved by a prince? Watch recent popular films, explain how they depict women, and answer these questions in your essay. Take note of apparent stereotypes and the depth of their character. Compare how they differ from the most popular films in the 90s. You can also compare original films and remakes and focus on the changes in women characters.  

Short films are great starting points for budding directors. They could require much less financing than those in theater releases and still deliver satisfactory quality content. For this essay, brief the readers through the stages of short film production — writing the script, choosing the cast, production, marketing, and so on. To go the extra mile in your essay, interview award-winning short filmmakers to gain tips on how they best optimize their limited budget and still bag an award.  

Has the film industry promoted diversity and inclusivity in its cast selection? Explore recent diverse films and analyze whether they have captured the true meaning of diversity. One example is when people from underrepresented backgrounds take on the leading roles, not just the story’s sidekicks. You can also build on this research by the Center for Scholars and Storytellers to show the revenue challenges non-diverse films face at the box office.

Watch your favorite film and write a critique by expressing opinions on various aspects of the film. For example, you can have comments on the plot, execution, effects, cinematography, actors, and dialogue. Take time to relay your observations and analysis, as these will be the foundations that will determine the strength or weakness of your comments. 

As it has impacted many of us, COVID-19 accelerated how we watch films. Explore the exodus to streaming during the pandemic and how theater operators cope with this shift. In addition, you can look into how the competition among content producers has shifted and intensified. 

Independent films can be a hidden treasure, but it could be difficult to sell them, given how niche their concepts can be. So, find out the best strategies that have worked wonders for now successful independent filmmakers. Specifically, learn how they marketed their content online and in film festivals. Then, find out what forms of support the government is extending to high-caliber independent filmmakers and what could be done to help them thrive.

The biggest mistake made by filmmakers and producers is not marketing their films when marketing is the best way to reach a bigger audience and gain profits to make more films. This essay should provide readers with the best practices filmmakers can adopt when marketing a film. For example, directors, producers, and actors should aggressively attend events for promotion. Developing viral movie campaigns also provide a big boost to exposure. 

As more films are released digitally, filmmakers must better protect their intellectual property. First, write about the needed measures before the film release, such as adopting a digital rights management strategy. Next, lay down what production companies need to do to deter piracy activities immediately. Some good responses include working closely with enforcement authorities.

Don’t forget to proofread your essay with Grammarly , the best grammar checker. 

For more related topic ideas, you can also check our guide for writing essays about cinema .

Yna Lim is a communications specialist currently focused on policy advocacy. In her eight years of writing, she has been exposed to a variety of topics, including cryptocurrency, web hosting, agriculture, marketing, intellectual property, data privacy and international trade. A former journalist in one of the top business papers in the Philippines, Yna is currently pursuing her master's degree in economics and business.

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Step By Step Guide to Writing an Essay on Film

By Film Threat Staff | December 29, 2021

Writing an essay about a film sounds like a fun assignment to do. As part of the assignment, you get to watch the movie and write an analytical essay about your impressions. However, you will soon find that you’re staring at an empty sheet of paper or computer screen with no idea what to write, how to start writing your essay, or the essential points that need to be covered and analyzed. As an  essay writing service proves, watching the movie countless times isn’t all there is to write a film analysis essay. Here’s a step-by-step guide to help you with an essay service :

1. Watch the Movie

This is the obvious starting point, but surprisingly many students skip this step. It doesn’t matter if you’ve watched the movie twice before. If you’re asked to write an essay about it, you need to watch it again. Watching the film again allows you to pay more attention to specific elements to help you write an in-depth analysis about it.  

Watching the movie is crucial because it helps you not specific parts of the movie that can be used as illustrations and examples in your essay. You’re also going to explore and analyze the movie theme within your structured plan. Some of the critical elements that you have to look out for while watching the movie that may be crucial for your essay are:

• Key plot moments
• Editing style
• Stylistic elements
• Scenario execution
• Musical elements

2. Introduction

Your introduction will contain essential information about the film, such as the title, release date, director’s name, etc. This familiarizes the reader with the movie’s primary background information. In addition, researching the filmmaker may be crucial for your essay because it may help you discover valuable insights for your film analysis.

The introduction should also mention the movie’s central theme and explain why you think it was made that way.

Do not forget to include your thesis statement, which explains your focus on the movie.

3. Write a Summary

According to an  essay writing service  providing students   help with essays , a movie summary comes after the introduction. It includes the film’s basic premise, but it doesn’t have to reveal too many details about the film. It’s a summary, after all. Write the summary like your readers have not heard about the movie before, so you can mention the most basic plots but assume you have minimal time so you won’t be going into great details.

4. Write Your Analysis

This is the central part of the essay in which you analyze the movie critically and state your impressions about the film. Ensure to support your claims with relevant materials from the movie.

There are also several creative elements in a movie that are connected to make the film a whole. You must pay attention to these elements while watching the movie and analyze them in this part of the essay.

In this, you are looking out for the dialogs, character development, completion of scenes, and logical event sequences in the film to analyze.

Ensure you try to understand the logic behind events in the film and the actor’s motives to explain the scenario better.

The responsibility of different parts of the movie, such as plan selection and scenario execution, falls on the director. So, your analysis here focuses on how the director realized the script compared to his other movies. Understanding the director’s style of directing may be crucial to coming up with a conclusion relevant to your analysis and thesis.

The casting of a film is a significant element to consider in your essay. Without a great actor, the scriptwriter and director can’t bring their ideas to life. So, watch the actor’s acting and determine if they portrayed the character effectively and if their acting aligns with the film’s main idea.

• Musical element

A movie’s musical element enhances some of the sceneries or actions in the film and sets the mood. It has a massive impact on the movie, so it’s an essential element to analyze in your essay.

• Visual elements

This includes special effects, make-up, costumes, etc., which significantly impact the film. These elements must reflect the film’s atmosphere. It is even more crucial for historical movies since it has to be specific about an era.

Ensure to analyze elements relevant to your thesis statement, so you don’t drift from your main point.

5. Conclusion

In concluding your essay, you have to summarize the primary concepts more convincingly to support your analysis. Finally, you may include a CTA for readers to watch or avoid the movie.

These are the crucial steps to take when writing an essay about a film . Knowing this beforehand prevents you from struggling to start writing after watching the movie.

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It’s really amazing instructions! I have got the great knowledge.

[…] now and then. Unfortunately, not all of us can afford to get cinema tickets to do so.  Some…Writing an essay about a film sounds like a fun assignment to do. As part of the assignment, you get…Since a few decades the film and entertainment sector have undergone some drastic transformation. […]

I can’t list the number of essays that don’t follow this format in the least. But then I find most reviews of movies terrible and most people who purport themselves to be writers as people who need to spend more time drafting and editing before publishing.

Thanks for this

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How to Complete a Perfect Essay on Your Favourite Movie

When students have the assignment to write about their favourite movie, they may find the task very exciting no matter how challenging it will seem. although if too challenging, you can always outsource it. google write my essay and sit back as expert writers deal with your assignment. and the best part is you can learn from the essay sample you receive if you happen to receive such work to deal with, you might understand the whole seriousness of an assignment, as it has to include the description of your impression and meet the standards of coherent writing. your teachers will thoroughly evaluate the style of your essay and how well you can express your thoughts and ideas in a written form. thus, having little practice writing about other issues can be useful for achieving good results in your task. suppose you discover that this responsibility is unmanageable and you can’t handle it independently. use proessays writing service to get valuable assistance with your assignment and learn how to create unique papers worth the highest grades..

If you want to succeed in writing an essay about the movie that impressed you the most, look through the simple guide to pursue your goal without difficulties and get the best grade for your efforts. Many students need help writing a paper so they ask for special services for it. However, all you need is to start from a film choice to ensure that you have some relevant matters to discuss and present in your work to show your intellectual level and the inner world you have. Thus, the following recommendations will help you write your essay and be satisfied in the process of crafting a unique work.

Watch the Movie Several Times

Once you have made up your mind about what movie to write about, make sure you get acquainted with it well. Even if you know it by heart and remember each episode so clearly that you can talk about it when being woken up in the middle of the night, it doesn’t guarantee your essay’s effectiveness. First of all, you are in a different position now and should consider various nuances to depict the idea of your subject in writing. Secondly, you are taking the role of a critic and should pay attention to such issues as how the plot changes while estimating the operator’s work and the director’s attitude to filming. You may probably want to write about the less appealing movies to you as it will be easier to criticize them and do a review. Such an approach will enable you to find as many inaccuracies and inadequacies as possible which wouldn’t happen with the film you enjoy watching. Making notes will also help highlight important points and apply them to your work.

If you need more time to devote to such creative writing as movie essays, you can turn to a writing service to help you manage all the workload of studies you are assigned to do. Reading 99papers.com reviews will provide you with useful information on the service to help you decide whether it’s an appropriate company to contact.

Work on the Film Background

It’s important to do some research and find out real events that the film is based on. Thus, you can make your own investigation to discover interesting facts about what pushed the director to create a movie that doesn’t leave many people indifferent. If you want to talk about a fantasy movie, you can gather other points that serve as a foundation for creators to make up the plot utilized in the movie. Or you can choose a touching romantic story that will offer you great chances for discussions and arguments. So whatever genre or type of film you pick out, make sure you tell about its background or mention real events.

Talk about the Favourite Characters

The next stage of your work will be discussing the main characters. Thus, you can prepare your notes that you have dealt with before and use the information you have written about people involved in the movie. But try not to follow the likeness criteria when writing about the character. Your point that it’s your favorite actor doesn’t fit well into the format of the task. It is essential to describe the characters in terms of their dilemmas, choices, and development, especially their evolution during the plot and the changes they had to go through to become people they appeared in the end. All these nuances should be taken into account when working with each character and describing their motives in their current situations.

Suppose your studies in college take all your time, leaving no energy to manage your movie essay. In this case, you can always use a reliable writing service’s assistance. Learning about bookwormlab will help you decide whether a particular company really suits your needs and requirements.

Share Your Reflections on the Movie

Finally, you can move to the part where you can discuss your attitude and vision on your favourite film. Your goal at this point is to demonstrate what you think about certain events and characters. It would be great if you analysed the acting, scenario, music, and special effects utilized in the picture. You can either show your admiration for the subjects listed above or offer suggestions on how to improve the moments to make the film look more outstanding. Presenting your ideas and personal attitude will make your essay unique and individualised.

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Favorite Movie Essay Example

• Pages: 2 (421 words)
• Published: February 12, 2017
• Type: Essay

It’s always hard to pick a single favorite movie, because there are so many good ones. Sometimes people have different opinions whether a particular movie is good or not. The movie I like the most is “Batman: The Dark Knight” by Christopher Nolan. The whole movie is action packed, while still retaining drama, a love story, and even a little bit of comedy. The best thing about this movie is the great performances we get to see by the actors and actresses. Already, you can begin to see why “The Dark Knight” is my favorite movie.

In this Batman movie we are introduced to the villainous roll of the Joker, and also Harvey Dent, aka Two-Face. Heath Ledger is the actor who plays the Joker, and he does it well. He really makes you feel as thou

gh he actually enjoys the mayhem and destruction that the Joker causes, which is what moviegoers like to see in a villain. You could almost say that the Joker/Heath Ledger is what “makes” this movie. Aaron Eckhart also does a great job fulfilling the roll of Two-Face, a villain based on vengeance.

In the movie, both Harvey Dent and Rachel Dawes, Harvey’s girlfriend, are trapped in separate warehouses filled with barrels of gasoline and a bomb. Batman is only able to save one of them, forcing him to decide between his childhood friend, Rachel, and the person he believed to be the savior Gotham needed, Harvey Dent. In the end he chooses Harvey, who has half his face burned off from the explosion. Harvey is very upset with Batman’s decision. After a little persuasion fro

the Joker, Harvey decides to seek revenge on all those who have wronged him, creating the villain Two-Face.

Through most of the movie you get to see what the Joker is all about, which is just pointless destruction, and then by the end you get to see what Two-Face is all about, which is vengeance. I would have to say that this is my favorite movie more for the story of the villains rather than the Batman. There are many great movies out there, and I’ve seen quite a few, but “The Dark Knight” is by far my favorite. To me, this movie really shows you how evil some people are, or can become. It also tells you that being the hero doesn’t always mean having your name in the spotlight. The whole storyline and the acting just put this movie over the top.

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Economists have long tied low unemployment to inflation. James Heskett considers whether the US economic policy of the past four years has shaken those assumptions. Open for comment; 0 Comments.

• 06 Jan 2021

Aggregate Advertising Expenditure in the US Economy: What's Up? Is It Real?

We analyze total United States advertising spending from 1960 to 2018. In nominal terms, the elasticity of annual advertising outlays with respect to gross domestic product appears to have increased substantially beginning in the late 1990s, roughly coinciding with the dramatic growth of internet-based advertising.

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Economics articles from across Nature Portfolio

Model-based financial regulation challenges for the net-zero transition

Current model-based financial regulations favour carbon-intensive investments. This is likely to disincentivize banks from investing in new low-carbon assets, impairing the transition to net zero. Financial regulators and policymakers should consider how this bias may impact financial system stability and broader societal objectives.

• Matteo Gasparini
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Latest Research and Reviews

Investigation of multidimensional poverty in Pakistan at the national, regional, and provincial level

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Firm-level supply chains to minimize unemployment and economic losses in rapid decarbonization scenarios

Carbon neutrality complicates the transition to sustainability due to potential adverse effects on employment and the prosperity of high-emitting sectors. This study simulated the Hungarian economy and tested various strategies for reducing CO 2 emissions, revealing that decarbonization-induced economic and job losses can be substantially limited by considering the firm-level network of supply chains.

• Johannes Stangl
• András Borsos
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Cyclical dynamics and co-movement of business, credit, and investment cycles: empirical evidence from India

• Ridhima Garg

Evaluating the effectiveness of training of managerial and non-managerial bank employees using Kirkpatrick’s model for evaluation of training

• Kayenaat Bahl
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The reduction of effective feedback reception due to negative emotions in appeals

• Peide Zhang
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The effects of heterogeneous CSR on corporate stock performance: evidence from COVID-19 pandemic in China

News and Comment

Predictive infrequent activities.

The relationship between urban mobility and economic development remains controversial. New research analyzes how people in major US cities move and shows the power of infrequent and irregular activities in predicting economic development.

Complex dynamics between food prices, income and dietary quality in sub-Saharan Africa

In sub-Saharan Africa, where the affordability of a healthy diet remains a pressing concern, recent research offers fresh insights into how food prices and income influence dietary quality. These insights provide a roadmap for targeted food and nutrition policy interventions.

• William A. Masters

Testing undue incentives

Financial incentives may be offered for risky but potentially life-saving actions, such as donating organs and participation in medical trials. It has been argued that such incentives could distort decision making and lead people to act against their own best interest. However, experimental evidence now suggests that higher financial incentives do not cause harm.

• Linda Thunström

How science is helping farmers to find a balance between agriculture and solar farms

In the French countryside, energy companies are rushing to set up solar farms, with the risk of marginalizing agriculture. Researchers are finding solutions.

• Magali Reinert

Deep-sea mining opponents: there’s no free lunch when it comes to clean energy

• Saleem H. Ali

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Methods Used in Economic Research: An Empirical Study of Trends and Levels

The methods used in economic research are analyzed on a sample of all 3,415 regular research papers published in 10 general interest journals every 5th year from 1997 to 2017. The papers are classified into three main groups by method: theory, experiments, and empirics. The theory and empirics groups are almost equally large. Most empiric papers use the classical method, which derives an operational model from theory and runs regressions. The number of papers published increases by 3.3% p.a. Two trends are highly significant: The fraction of theoretical papers has fallen by 26 pp (percentage points), while the fraction of papers using the classical method has increased by 15 pp. Economic theory predicts that such papers exaggerate, and the papers that have been analyzed by meta-analysis confirm the prediction. It is discussed if other methods have smaller problems.

1 Introduction

This paper studies the pattern in the research methods in economics by a sample of 3,415 regular papers published in the years 1997, 2002, 2007, 2012, and 2017 in 10 journals. The analysis builds on the beliefs that truth exists, but it is difficult to find, and that all the methods listed in the next paragraph have problems as discussed in Sections 2 and 4. Hereby I do not imply that all – or even most – papers have these problems, but we rarely know how serious it is when we read a paper. A key aspect of the problem is that a “perfect” study is very demanding and requires far too much space to report, especially if the paper looks for usable results. Thus, each paper is just one look at an aspect of the problem analyzed. Only when many studies using different methods reach a joint finding, we can trust that it is true.

Section 2 discusses the classification of papers by method into three main categories: (M1) Theory , with three subgroups: (M1.1) economic theory, (M1.2) statistical methods, and (M1.3) surveys. (M2) Experiments , with two subgroups: (M2.1) lab experiments and (M2.2) natural experiments. (M3) Empirics , with three subgroups: (M3.1) descriptive, (M3.2) classical empirics, and (M3.3) newer empirics. More than 90% of the papers are easy to classify, but a stochastic element enters in the classification of the rest. Thus, the study has some – hopefully random – measurement errors.

Section 3 discusses the sample of journals chosen. The choice has been limited by the following main criteria: It should be good journals below the top ten A-journals, i.e., my article covers B-journals, which are the journals where most research economists publish. It should be general interest journals, and the journals should be so different that it is likely that patterns that generalize across these journals apply to more (most?) journals. The Appendix gives some crude counts of researchers, departments, and journals. It assesses that there are about 150 B-level journals, but less than half meet the criteria, so I have selected about 15% of the possible ones. This is the most problematic element in the study. If the reader accepts my choice, the paper tells an interesting story about economic research.

All B-level journals try hard to have a serious refereeing process. If our selection is representative, the 150 journals have increased the annual number of papers published from about 7,500 in 1997 to about 14,000 papers in 2017, giving about 200,000 papers for the period. Thus, the B-level dominates our science. Our sample is about 6% for the years covered, but less than 2% of all papers published in B-journals in the period. However, it is a larger fraction of the papers in general interest journals.

It is impossible for anyone to read more than a small fraction of this flood of papers. Consequently, researchers compete for space in journals and for attention from the readers, as measured in the form of citations. It should be uncontroversial that papers that hold a clear message are easier to publish and get more citations. Thus, an element of sales promotion may enter papers in the form of exaggeration , which is a joint problem for all eight methods. This is in accordance with economic theory that predicts that rational researchers report exaggerated results; see Paldam ( 2016 , 2018 ). For empirical papers, meta-methods exist to summarize the results from many papers, notably papers using regressions. Section 4.4 reports that meta-studies find that exaggeration is common.

The empirical literature surveying the use of research methods is quite small, as I have found two articles only: Hamermesh ( 2013 ) covers 748 articles in 6 years a decade apart studies in three A-journals using a slightly different classification of methods, [1] while my study covers B-journals. Angrist, Azoulay, Ellison, Hill, and Lu ( 2017 ) use a machine-learning classification of 134,000 papers in 80 journals to look at the three main methods. My study subdivide the three categories into eight. The machine-learning algorithm is only sketched, so the paper is difficult to replicate, but it is surely a major effort. A key result in both articles is the strong decrease of theory in economic publications. This finding is confirmed, and it is shown that the corresponding increase in empirical articles is concentrated on the classical method.

I have tried to explain what I have done, so that everything is easy to replicate, in full or for one journal or one year. The coding of each article is available at least for the next five years. I should add that I have been in economic research for half a century. Some of the assessments in the paper will reflect my observations/experience during this period (indicated as my assessments). This especially applies to the judgements expressed in Section 4.

2 The eight categories

Table 1 reports that the annual number of papers in the ten journals has increased 1.9 times, or by 3.3% per year. The Appendix gives the full counts per category, journal, and year. By looking at data over two decades, I study how economic research develops. The increase in the production of papers is caused by two factors: The increase in the number of researchers. The increasing importance of publications for the careers of researchers.

The 3,415 papers

2.1 (M1) Theory: subgroups (M1.1) to (M1.3)

Table 2 lists the groups and main numbers discussed in the rest of the paper. Section 2.1 discusses (M1) theory. Section 2.2 covers (M2) experimental methods, while Section 2.3 looks at (M3) empirical methods using statistical inference from data.

The 3,415 papers – fractions in percent

The change of the fractions from 1997 to 2017 in percentage points

Note: Section 3.4 tests if the pattern observed in Table 3 is statistically significant. The Appendix reports the full data.

2.1.1 (M1.1) Economic theory

Papers are where the main content is the development of a theoretical model. The ideal theory paper presents a (simple) new model that recasts the way we look at something important. Such papers are rare and obtain large numbers of citations. Most theoretical papers present variants of known models and obtain few citations.

In a few papers, the analysis is verbal, but more than 95% rely on mathematics, though the technical level differs. Theory papers may start by a descriptive introduction giving the stylized fact the model explains, but the bulk of the paper is the formal analysis, building a model and deriving proofs of some propositions from the model. It is often demonstrated how the model works by a set of simulations, including a calibration made to look realistic. However, the calibrations differ greatly by the efforts made to reach realism. Often, the simulations are in lieu of an analytical solution or just an illustration suggesting the magnitudes of the results reached.

Theoretical papers suffer from the problem known as T-hacking , [2] where the able author by a careful selection of assumptions can tailor the theory to give the results desired. Thus, the proofs made from the model may represent the ability and preferences of the researcher rather than the properties of the economy.

2.1.2 (M1.2) Statistical method

Papers reporting new estimators and tests are published in a handful of specialized journals in econometrics and mathematical statistics – such journals are not included. In our general interest journals, some papers compare estimators on actual data sets. If the demonstration of a methodological improvement is the main feature of the paper, it belongs to (M1.2), but if the economic interpretation is the main point of the paper, it belongs to (M3.2) or (M3.3). [3]

Some papers, including a special issue of Empirical Economics (vol. 53–1), deal with forecasting models. Such models normally have a weak relation to economic theory. They are sometimes justified precisely because of their eclectic nature. They are classified as either (M1.2) or (M3.1), depending upon the focus. It appears that different methods work better on different data sets, and perhaps a trade-off exists between the user-friendliness of the model and the improvement reached.

2.1.3 (M1.3) Surveys

When the literature in a certain field becomes substantial, it normally presents a motley picture with an amazing variation, especially when different schools exist in the field. Thus, a survey is needed, and our sample contains 68 survey articles. They are of two types, where the second type is still rare:

2.1.3.1 (M1.3.1) Assessed surveys

Here, the author reads the papers and assesses what the most reliable results are. Such assessments require judgement that is often quite difficult to distinguish from priors, even for the author of the survey.

2.1.3.2 (M1.3.2) Meta-studies

They are quantitative surveys of estimates of parameters claimed to be the same. Over the two decades from 1997 to 2017, about 500 meta-studies have been made in economics. Our sample includes five, which is 0.15%. [4] Meta-analysis has two levels: The basic level collects and codes the estimates and studies their distribution. This is a rather objective exercise where results seem to replicate rather well. [5] The second level analyzes the variation between the results. This is less objective. The papers analyzed by meta-studies are empirical studies using method (M3.2), though a few use estimates from (M3.1) and (M3.3).

2.2 (M2) Experimental methods: subgroups (M2.1) and (M2.2)

Experiments are of three distinct types, where the last two are rare, so they are lumped together. They are taking place in real life.

2.2.1 (M2.1) Lab experiments

The sample had 1.9% papers using this method in 1997, and it has expanded to 9.7% in 2017. It is a technique that is much easier to apply to micro- than to macroeconomics, so it has spread unequally in the 10 journals, and many experiments are reported in a couple of special journals that are not included in our sample.

Most of these experiments take place in a laboratory, where the subjects communicate with a computer, giving a controlled, but artificial, environment. [6] A number of subjects are told a (more or less abstract) story and paid to react in either of a number of possible ways. A great deal of ingenuity has gone into the construction of such experiments and in the methods used to analyze the results. Lab experiments do allow studies of behavior that are hard to analyze in any other way, and they frequently show sides of human behavior that are difficult to rationalize by economic theory. It appears that such demonstration is a strong argument for the publication of a study.

However, everything is artificial – even the payment. In some cases, the stories told are so elaborate and abstract that framing must be a substantial risk; [7] see Levitt and List ( 2007 ) for a lucid summary, and Bergh and Wichardt ( 2018 ) for a striking example. In addition, experiments cost money, which limits the number of subjects. It is also worth pointing to the difference between expressive and real behavior. It is typically much cheaper for the subject to “express” nice behavior in a lab than to be nice in the real world.

(M2.2) Event studies are studies of real world experiments. They are of two types:

(M2.2.1) Field experiments analyze cases where some people get a certain treatment and others do not. The “gold standard” for such experiments is double blind random sampling, where everything (but the result!) is preannounced; see Christensen and Miguel ( 2018 ). Experiments with humans require permission from the relevant authorities, and the experiment takes time too. In the process, things may happen that compromise the strict rules of the standard. [8] Controlled experiments are expensive, as they require a team of researchers. Our sample of papers contains no study that fulfills the gold standard requirements, but there are a few less stringent studies of real life experiments.

(M2.2.2) Natural experiments take advantage of a discontinuity in the environment, i.e., the period before and after an (unpredicted) change of a law, an earthquake, etc. Methods have been developed to find the effect of the discontinuity. Often, such studies look like (M3.2) classical studies with many controls that may or may not belong. Thus, the problems discussed under (M3.2) will also apply.

2.3 (M3) Empirical methods: subgroups (M3.1) to (M3.3)

The remaining methods are studies making inference from “real” data, which are data samples where the researcher chooses the sample, but has no control over the data generating process.

(M3.1) Descriptive studies are deductive. The researcher describes the data aiming at finding structures that tell a story, which can be interpreted. The findings may call for a formal test. If one clean test follows from the description, [9] the paper is classified under (M3.1). If a more elaborate regression analysis is used, it is classified as (M3.2). Descriptive studies often contain a great deal of theory.

Some descriptive studies present a new data set developed by the author to analyze a debated issue. In these cases, it is often possible to make a clean test, so to the extent that biases sneak in, they are hidden in the details of the assessments made when the data are compiled.

(M3.2) Classical empirics has three steps: It starts by a theory, which is developed into an operational model. Then it presents the data set, and finally it runs regressions.

The significance levels of the t -ratios on the coefficient estimated assume that the regression is the first meeting of the estimation model and the data. We all know that this is rarely the case; see also point (m1) in Section 4.4. In practice, the classical method is often just a presentation technique. The great virtue of the method is that it can be applied to real problems outside academia. The relevance comes with a price: The method is quite flexible as many choices have to be made, and they often give different results. Preferences and interests, as discussed in Sections 4.3 and 4.4 below, notably as point (m2), may affect these choices.

(M3.3) Newer empirics . Partly as a reaction to the problems of (M3.2), the last 3–4 decades have seen a whole set of newer empirical techniques. [10] They include different types of VARs, Bayesian techniques, causality/co-integration tests, Kalman Filters, hazard functions, etc. I have found 162 (or 4.7%) papers where these techniques are the main ones used. The fraction was highest in 1997. Since then it has varied, but with no trend.

I think that the main reason for the lack of success for the new empirics is that it is quite bulky to report a careful set of co-integration tests or VARs, and they often show results that are far from useful in the sense that they are unclear and difficult to interpret. With some introduction and discussion, there is not much space left in the article. Therefore, we are dealing with a cookbook that makes for rather dull dishes, which are difficult to sell in the market.

Note the contrast between (M3.2) and (M3.3): (M3.2) makes it possible to write papers that are too good, while (M3.3) often makes them too dull. This contributes to explain why (M3.2) is getting (even) more popular and the lack of success of (M3.3), but then, it is arguable that it is more dangerous to act on exaggerated results than on results that are weak.

3 The 10 journals

The 10 journals chosen are: (J1) Can [Canadian Journal of Economics], (J2) Emp [Empirical Economics], (J3) EER [European Economic Review], (J4) EJPE [European Journal of Political Economy], (J5) JEBO [Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization], (J6) Inter [Journal of International Economics], (J7) Macro [Journal of Macroeconomics], (J8) Kyklos, (J9) PuCh [Public Choice], and (J10) SJE [Scandinavian Journal of Economics].

Section 3.1 discusses the choice of journals, while Section 3.2 considers how journals deal with the pressure for publication. Section 3.3 shows the marked difference in publication profile of the journals, and Section 3.4 tests if the trends in methods are significant.

3.1 The selection of journals

They should be general interest journals – methodological journals are excluded. By general interest, I mean that they bring papers where an executive summary may interest policymakers and people in general. (ii) They should be journals in English (the Canadian Journal includes one paper in French), which are open to researchers from all countries, so that the majority of the authors are from outside the country of the journal. [11] (iii) They should be sufficiently different so that it is likely that patterns, which apply to these journals, tell a believable story about economic research. Note that (i) and (iii) require some compromises, as is evident in the choice of (J2), (J6), (J7), and (J8) ( Table 4 ).

The 10 journals covered

Note. Growth is the average annual growth from 1997 to 2017 in the number of papers published.

Methodological journals are excluded, as they are not interesting to outsiders. However, new methods are developed to be used in general interest journals. From studies of citations, we know that useful methodological papers are highly cited. If they remain unused, we presume that it is because they are useless, though, of course, there may be a long lag.

The choice of journals may contain some subjectivity, but I think that they are sufficiently diverse so that patterns that generalize across these journals will also generalize across a broader range of good journals.

The papers included are the regular research articles. Consequently, I exclude short notes to other papers and book reviews, [12] except for a few article-long discussions of controversial books.

3.2 Creating space in journals

As mentioned in the introduction, the annual production of research papers in economics has now reached about 1,000 papers in top journals, and about 14,000 papers in the group of good journals. [13] The production has grown with 3.3% per year, and thus it has doubled the last twenty years. The hard-working researcher will read less than 100 papers a year. I know of no signs that this number is increasing. Thus, the upward trend in publication must be due to the large increase in the importance of publications for the careers of researchers, which has greatly increased the production of papers. There has also been a large increase in the number of researches, but as citations are increasingly skewed toward the top journals (see Heckman & Moktan, 2018 ), it has not increased demand for papers correspondingly. The pressures from the supply side have caused journals to look for ways to create space.

Book reviews have dropped to less than 1/3. Perhaps, it also indicates that economists read fewer books than they used to. Journals have increasingly come to use smaller fonts and larger pages, allowing more words per page. The journals from North-Holland Elsevier have managed to cram almost two old pages into one new one. [14] This makes it easier to publish papers, while they become harder to read.

Many journals have changed their numbering system for the annual issues, making it less transparent how much they publish. Only three – Canadian Economic Journal, Kyklos, and Scandinavian Journal of Economics – have kept the schedule of publishing one volume of four issues per year. It gives about 40 papers per year. Public Choice has a (fairly) consistent system with four volumes of two double issues per year – this gives about 100 papers. The remaining journals have changed their numbering system and increased the number of papers published per year – often dramatically.

Thus, I assess the wave of publications is caused by the increased supply of papers and not to the demand for reading material. Consequently, the study confirms and updates the observation by Temple ( 1918 , p. 242): “… as the world gets older the more people are inclined to write but the less they are inclined to read.”

3.3 How different are the journals?

The appendix reports the counts for each year and journal of the research methods. From these counts, a set of χ 2 -scores is calculated for the three main groups of methods – they are reported in Table 5 . It gives the χ 2 -test comparing the profile of each journal to the one of the other nine journals taken to be the theoretical distribution.

The methodological profile of the journals –  χ 2 -scores for main groups

Note: The χ 2 -scores are calculated relative to all other journals. The sign (+) or (−) indicates if the journal has too many or too few papers relatively in the category. The P -values for the χ 2 (3)-test always reject that the journal has the same methodological profile as the other nine journals.

The test rejects that the distribution is the same as the average for any of the journals. The closest to the average is the EJPE and Public Choice. The two most deviating scores are for the most micro-oriented journal JEBO, which brings many experimental papers, and of course, Empirical Economics, which brings many empirical papers.

3.4 Trends in the use of the methods

Table 3 already gave an impression of the main trends in the methods preferred by economists. I now test if these impressions are statistically significant. The tests have to be tailored to disregard three differences between the journals: their methodological profiles, the number of papers they publish, and the trend in the number. Table 6 reports a set of distribution free tests, which overcome these differences. The tests are done on the shares of each research method for each journal. As the data cover five years, it gives 10 pairs of years to compare. [15] The three trend-scores in the []-brackets count how often the shares go up, down, or stay the same in the 10 cases. This is the count done for a Kendall rank correlation comparing the five shares with a positive trend (such as 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5).

Trend-scores and tests for the eight subgroups of methods across the 10 journals

Note: The three trend-scores in each [ I 1 , I 2 , I 3 ]-bracket are a Kendall-count over all 10 combinations of years. I 1 counts how often the share goes up. I 2 counts when the share goes down, and I 3 counts the number of ties. Most ties occur when there are no observations either year. Thus, I 1 + I 2 + I 3 = 10. The tests are two-sided binominal tests disregarding the zeroes. The test results in bold are significant at the 5% level.

The first set of trend-scores for (M1.1) and (J1) is [1, 9, 0]. It means that 1 of the 10 share-pairs increases, while nine decrease and no ties are found. The two-sided binominal test is 2%, so it is unlikely to happen. Nine of the ten journals in the (M1.1)-column have a majority of falling shares. The important point is that the counts in one column can be added – as is done in the all-row; this gives a powerful trend test that disregards differences between journals and the number of papers published. ( Table A1 )

Four of the trend-tests are significant: The fall in theoretical papers and the rise in classical papers. There is also a rise in the share of stat method and event studies. It is surprising that there is no trend in the number of experimental studies, but see Table A2 (in Appendix).

4 An attempt to interpret the pattern found

The development in the methods pursued by researchers in economics is a reaction to the demand and supply forces on the market for economic papers. As already argued, it seems that a key factor is the increasing production of papers.

The shares add to 100, so the decline of one method means that the others rise. Section 4.1 looks at the biggest change – the reduction in theory papers. Section 4.2 discusses the rise in two new categories. Section 4.3 considers the large increase in the classical method, while Section 4.4 looks at what we know about that method from meta-analysis.

4.1 The decline of theory: economics suffers from theory fatigue [16]

The papers in economic theory have dropped from 59.5 to 33.6% – this is the largest change for any of the eight subgroups. [17] It is highly significant in the trend test. I attribute this drop to theory fatigue.

As mentioned in Section 2.1, the ideal theory paper presents a (simple) new model that recasts the way we look at something important. However, most theory papers are less exciting: They start from the standard model and argue that a well-known conclusion reached from the model hinges upon a debatable assumption – if it changes, so does the conclusion. Such papers are useful. From a literature on one main model, the profession learns its strengths and weaknesses. It appears that no generally accepted method exists to summarize this knowledge in a systematic way, though many thoughtful summaries have appeared.

I think that there is a deeper problem explaining theory fatigue. It is that many theoretical papers are quite unconvincing. Granted that the calculations are done right, believability hinges on the realism of the assumptions at the start and of the results presented at the end. In order for a model to convince, it should (at least) demonstrate the realism of either the assumptions or the outcome. [18] If both ends appear to hang in the air, it becomes a game giving little new knowledge about the world, however skillfully played.

The theory fatigue has caused a demand for simulations demonstrating that the models can mimic something in the world. Kydland and Prescott pioneered calibration methods (see their 1991 ). Calibrations may be carefully done, but it often appears like a numerical solution of a model that is too complex to allow an analytical solution.

4.2 Two examples of waves: one that is still rising and another that is fizzling out

When a new method of gaining insights in the economy first appears, it is surrounded by doubts, but it also promises a high marginal productivity of knowledge. Gradually the doubts subside, and many researchers enter the field. After some time this will cause the marginal productivity of the method to fall, and it becomes less interesting. The eight methods include two newer ones: Lab experiments and newer stats. [19]

It is not surprising that papers with lab experiments are increasing, though it did take a long time: The seminal paper presenting the technique was Smith ( 1962 ), but only a handful of papers are from the 1960s. Charles Plott organized the first experimental lab 10 years later – this created a new standard for experiments, but required an investment in a lab and some staff. Labs became more common in the 1990s as PCs got cheaper and software was developed to handle experiments, but only 1.9% of the papers in the 10 journals reported lab experiments in 1997. This has now increased to 9.7%, so the wave is still rising. The trend in experiments is concentrated in a few journals, so the trend test in Table 6 is insignificant, but it is significant in the Appendix Table A2 , where it is done on the sum of articles irrespective of the journal.

In addition to the rising share of lab experiment papers in some journals, the journal Experimental Economics was started in 1998, where it published 281 pages in three issues. In 2017, it had reached 1,006 pages in four issues, [20] which is an annual increase of 6.5%.

Compared with the success of experimental economics, the motley category of newer empirics has had a more modest success, as the fraction of papers in the 5 years are 5.8, 5.2, 3.5, 5.4, and 4.2, which has no trend. Newer stats also require investment, but mainly in human capital. [21] Some of the papers using the classical methodology contain a table with Dickey-Fuller tests or some eigenvalues of the data matrix, but they are normally peripheral to the analysis. A couple of papers use Kalman filters, and a dozen papers use Bayesian VARs. However, it is clear that the newer empirics have made little headway into our sample of general interest journals.

4.3 The steady rise of the classical method: flexibility rewarded

The typical classical paper provides estimates of a key effect that decision-makers outside academia want to know. This makes the paper policy relevant right from the start, and in many cases, it is possible to write a one page executive summary to the said decision-makers.

The three-step convention (see Section 2.3) is often followed rather loosely. The estimation model is nearly always much simpler than the theory. Thus, while the model can be derived from a theory, the reverse does not apply. Sometimes, the model seems to follow straight from common sense, and if the link from the theory to the model is thin, it begs the question: Is the theory really necessary? In such cases, it is hard to be convinced that the tests “confirm” the theory, but then, of course, tests only say that the data do not reject the theory.

The classical method is often only a presentation devise. Think of a researcher who has reached a nice publishable result through a long and tortuous path, including some failed attempts to find such results. It is not possible to describe that path within the severely limited space of an article. In addition, such a presentation would be rather dull to read, and none of us likes to talk about wasted efforts that in hindsight seem a bit silly. Here, the classical method becomes a convenient presentation device.

The biggest source of variation in the results is the choice of control/modifier variables. All datasets presumably contain some general and some special information, where the latter depends on the circumstances prevailing when the data were compiled. The regression should be controlled for these circumstances in order to reach the general result. Such ceteris paribus controls are not part of the theory, so many possible controls may be added. The ones chosen for publication often appear to be the ones delivering the “right” results by the priors of the researcher. The justification for their inclusion is often thin, and if two-stage regressions are used, the first stage instruments often have an even thinner justification.

Thus, the classical method is rather malleable to the preferences and interests of researchers and sponsors. This means that some papers using the classical technique are not what they pretend, as already pointed out by Leamer ( 1983 ), see also Paldam ( 2018 ) for new references and theory. The fact that data mining is tempting suggests that it is often possible to reach smashing results, making the paper nice to read. This may be precisely why it is cited.

Many papers using the classical method throw in some bits of exotic statistics technique to demonstrate the robustness of the result and the ability of the researcher. This presumably helps to generate credibility.

4.4 Knowledge about classical papers reached from meta-studies

Individual studies using the classical method often look better than they are, and thus they are more uncertain than they appear, but we may think of the value of convergence for large N s (number of observations) as the truth. The exaggeration is largest in the beginning of a new literature, but gradually it becomes smaller. Thus, the classical method does generate truth when the effect searched for has been studied from many sides. The word research does mean that the search has to be repeated! It is highly risky to trust a few papers only.

Meta-analysis has found other results such as: Results in top journals do not stand out. It is necessary to look at many journals, as many papers on the same effect are needed. Little of the large variation between results is due to the choice of estimators.

A similar development should occur also for experimental economics. Experiments fall in families: A large number cover prisoner’s dilemma games, but there are also many studies of dictator games, auction games, etc. Surveys summarizing what we have learned about these games seem highly needed. Assessed summaries of old experiments are common, notably in introductions to papers reporting new ones. It should be possible to extract the knowledge reached by sets of related lab experiments in a quantitative way, by some sort of meta-technique, but this has barely started. The first pioneering meta-studies of lab experiments do find the usual wide variation of results from seemingly closely related experiments. [25] A recent large-scale replicability study by Camerer et al. ( 2018 ) finds that published experiments in the high quality journal Nature and Science exaggerate by a factor two just like regression studies using the classical method.

5 Conclusion

The study presents evidence that over the last 20 years economic research has moved away from theory towards empirical work using the classical method.

From the eighties onward, there has been a steady stream of papers pointing out that the classical method suffers from excess flexibility. It does deliver relevant results, but they tend to be too good. [26] While, increasingly, we know the size of the problems of the classical method, systematic knowledge about the problems of the other methods is weaker. It is possible that the problems are smaller, but we do not know.

Therefore, it is clear that obtaining solid knowledge about the size of an important effect requires a great deal of papers analyzing many aspects of the effect and a careful quantitative survey. It is a well-known principle in the harder sciences that results need repeated independent replication to be truly trustworthy. In economics, this is only accepted in principle.

The classical method of empirical research is gradually winning, and this is a fine development: It does give answers to important policy questions. These answers are highly variable and often exaggerated, but through the efforts of many competing researchers, solid knowledge will gradually emerge.

Home page: http://www.martin.paldam.dk

Acknowledgments

The paper has been presented at the 2018 MAER-Net Colloquium in Melbourne, the Kiel Aarhus workshop in 2018, and at the European Public Choice 2019 Meeting in Jerusalem. I am grateful for all comments, especially from Chris Doucouliagos, Eelke de Jong, and Bob Reed. In addition, I thank the referees for constructive advice.

Conflict of interest: Author states no conflict of interest.

Appendix: Two tables and some assessments of the size of the profession

The text needs some numbers to assess the representativity of the results reached. These numbers just need to be orders of magnitude. I use the standard three-level classification in A, B, and C of researchers, departments, and journals. The connections between the three categories are dynamic and rely on complex sorting mechanisms. In an international setting, it matters that researchers have preferences for countries, notably their own. The relation between the three categories has a stochastic element.

The World of Learning organization reports on 36,000 universities, colleges, and other institutes of tertiary education and research. Many of these institutions are mainly engaged in undergraduate teaching, and some are quite modest. If half of these institutions have a program in economics, with a staff of at least five, the total stock of academic economists is 100,000, of which most are at the C-level.

The A-level of about 500 tenured researchers working at the top ten universities (mainly) publishes in the top 10 journals that bring less than 1,000 papers per year; [27] see Heckman and Moktan (2020). They (mainly) cite each other, but they greatly influence other researchers. [28] The B-level consists of about 15–20,000 researchers who work at 4–500 research universities, with graduate programs and ambitions to publish. They (mainly) publish in the next level of about 150 journals. [29] In addition, there are at least another 1,000 institutions that strive to move up in the hierarchy.

The counts for each of the 10 journals

Counts, shares, and changes for all ten journals for subgroups

Note: The trend-scores are calculated as in Table 6 . Compared to the results in Table 6 , the results are similar, but the power is less than before. However, note that the results in Column (M2.1) dealing with experiments are stronger in Table A2 . This has to do with the way missing observations are treated in the test.

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K.P. Prabheesh

b Department of Liberal Arts, Indian Institute of Hyderabad, Kandi, Sangareddy, Telangana, 502285, India

Through a survey of the literature on the economics of the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic, this study explores the effects of the pandemic and proposes potential policy directions to mitigate its effects. Our survey reveals that adverse economic effects have been observed due to the COVID-19 pandemic in addition to fatalities. Furthermore, the survey indicates the need for greater coordination at national and international levels. This study concludes by suggesting coordination among monetary, macroprudential, and fiscal policies (trio) to mitigate the adverse economic effects of COVID-19. Finally, this study explores potential directions for future research.

1. Introduction

This paper undertakes a survey of literature on the economics of COVID-19 1 pandemic. 2 The goal is to explore the economic effects of the COVID-19 and suggest policy directions to mitigate its magnitude.

Clark (2016) opined that a pandemic is a serial killer that can have devastating consequences on humans and the global economy. For instance, the Spanish flu in 1918 killed 50 million people worldwide. In addition to fatalities, a pandemic can lead to economic and health crises. Furthermore, a pandemic can result in socio-psychological disturbances to the society wherein the poor witness the burden of the crisis more than their richer counterparts. The effects of a pandemic remain uncertain owing to the lack of a predictive pattern of its occurrence, particularly in the absence of a pharmaceutical invention.

Our study is motivated by the ongoing coronavirus pandemic and its multifaceted effects on the economies worldwide. At the beginning of December 2019, Wuhan City, China, witnessed the origin of the novel “coronavirus” (COVID-19 hereafter) at first. The COVID-19 is a highly transmittable and pathogenic viral infection. On March 11. 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared the COVID-19 as a global outbreak of pandemic on March 11, 2020. The COVID-19 is considered to be a “once-in-a-century pathogen” owing to the following reasons. First, the fatality risk associated with the COVID-19 is 1%, which is more miserable than that of typical influenza, as it can kill healthy as well as elderly people. This fatality risk can be compared with that of the 1857 influenza pandemic (0.6%) and of the 1918 Spanish flu (2%). However, the actual fatality rate of the COVID-19 remains unpredictable, owing to the absence of pharmaceutical inventions. Second, the exponential rate of transmission of this disease indicates that the COVID-19 will be much more severe than any other pandemic.

The economic effects of the COVID-19 can be broadly categorized into supply and demand effects. Supply effects result from the loss of working hours, and the decline in aggregate demand results from the decline in income due to unemployment associated with lockdowns. Maliszewska et al. (2020) claimed that the pandemic affects the economy through the following channels: (1) the direct effect of a reduction in employment; (2) the increase in international transaction costs; (3) the sharp decline in travel, and (4) the decline in demand for services requiring proximity between people. First, reduction in employment leads to lower demand for capital, thereby resulting in output loss. Second, the rising costs of imports and exports for goods and services result in trade reduction and productivity loss. Third, the sharp decline in international tourism generates less revenue, thereby leading to production loss. Finally, the decline in demand by households, who purchase fewer services than before, considerably decreases the consumption of goods and services. In addition, the contraction in foreign direct investment, real effects of financial shocks, and falling oil prices widen the economic costs associated with the COVID-19. In this context, several questions arise: (1) What are the detrimental effects of COVID-19 pandemic? (2) What are the policy decision to be adopted for mitigating its effects?

Our approach in this study is as follows. First, we focus on the effects of the COVID-19 the world has experienced until now. Second, we extend the work of Maliszewska et al. (2020) to include the stock market, exchange rate, and oil market as the channels of economic consequences. Third, we emphasize four policy aspects in response to the COVID-19: monetary policy, macroprudential regulation, fiscal policy, and policy coordination. Finally, we establish a research agenda for future research.

Accordingly, we followed several steps: (1) we identified several literatures on pandemic and the COVID-19, thereby acquiring 80 papers. These papers were obtained from the Journal of Economic History, Applied Economic Letters, Asian Economic Letters, Economic Analysis and Policy, Emerging Markets Finance and Trade, Energy Economics, Energy Research Letters, Journal of Behavioral and Experimental Finance, and Finance Research Letters . Furthermore, we acquired 11 working papers from International Monetary Fund (IMF), National Bureau of Economic Research, CEPR, Bank for International Settlements, and World Bank ; content from the IMF blog; 3 books (IT Governance Publishing and VOX EU.); and 5 chapters and reports from the World Economic Outlook, Banks for International Settlements, and European Commission . This filter technique is attributed to the history and consequences of pandemics, including the COVID-19. Considering that the literature on the COVID-19 pandemic is evolving, we incorporated most papers published on or before December 10, 2020. These papers and journals were selected based on their relevance to the research questions of this paper. Further, this study encompasses different facets of economies and demonstrates the effects of the COVID-19 through a comparative analysis of the COVID-19 with earlier pandemics in terms of the number of fatalities. Accordingly, we selected ten economies with the highest number of cases until September 17, 2020, and indicated stock market indicators and exchange rate performance in the pre-COVID and the COVID-19 periods. (3) We emphasized four policies in response to COVID-19: monetary policy, macro prudential regulation, fiscal policy, and policy coordination. Finally, we identified the limitations of existing studies and created an agenda for future research.

This study contributes to the literature in many ways. First, this study is one of the first attempts to document the economic effects of the COVID-19 pandemic. Second, this study extends the work of Maliszewska et al. (2020) by incorporating the effects of the COVID-19 on the stock market, exchange rate, and oil market. Third, this study is the first attempt to propose a comprehensive policy direction in response to the COVID-19 by emphasizing policy coordination. Finally, our study is in line with Goodell (2020) , who conducted a comprehensive literature survey and highlighted unprecedented global economic loss due to the COVID-19.

This paper is organized as follows. Section  2 presents the effects of the COVID-19. Sections  3 , 4 indicate the effects of the COVID-19 on the stock market and exchange rate, respectively. Section  5 covers the effects of the pandemic on the oil market. Section  6 proposes policy suggestions. Section  7 highlights the limitations of the existing literature and offers future research directions. Finally, Section  8 concludes the study and suggests policy implications.

2. Effects of the COVID-19

The COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in an unprecedented decline in global activity. The intensifying pandemic in developed and emerging economies led to stringent lockdowns and large disruptions in economic activity at an extraordinary speed and scale ( Baldwin and di Mauro, 2020 , Gopinath, 2020 ). For instance, the global GDP declined by more than 4.9% in the second quarter of 2020 due to economic disruption. The decline in trade in goods and services was likely higher than that during the 2007–08 global financial crisis ( IMF, 2020 ). Consequently, the global trade contracted by 3.5% in the second quarter of 2020 due to weak demand and supply. The subsequent lockdown across economies due to the COVID-19 disrupted global supply chains, reducing the aggregate demand ( Vidya and Prabheesh, 2020 ). The consumption of goods and services witnessed a marked decline due to steep income loss and weak consumer confidence. Similarly, the consumers were reluctant to consume certain goods and services due to the fear of the COVID contagion ( Eichenbaum et al., 2020 ). Firms were required to cut back the investment due to a precipitous decline in demand, supply interruptions, and uncertain future earnings. The world lost nearly 300 million full-time jobs in the second quarter of 2020 from 130 full-time job losses in the first quarter of 2020 ( IMF, 2020 ). The decline in aggregate demand resulted in lower inflation and fuel prices ( IMF, 2020 ). The World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) estimated a 25% decline in global travel in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

The emerging economies experienced significant capital outflows owing to the pandemic, thereby reducing investment and causing production loss ( BIS, 2019 ). During the COVID-19 period, Russia–Saudi Arabia oil war reduced the value of oil prices from $ 31.05 per barrel on March 8, 2020, to $ 19.23 per barrel on April 30, 2020. Similarly, stock markets worldwide started crashing from February 25th. For instance, Wall Street witnessed a large single-day drop in the stock price in the second week of March 2020 due to a lack of investor confidence after the US’s travel ban declaration and unchanged interest rate by the European central bank. Conclusively, the ongoing pandemic has adversely affected the global economy; these consequences may be more severe in the future considering the increasing fatalities.

2.1. A synthesis of empirical literature on the COVID-19

Existing literature on the effects of COVID-19 has emphasized various issues. For instance, Barro et al. (2020) , Choi (2020) , Iyke (2020c) , Jorda et al. (2020) , and Liu et al. (2020b) observed output and credit contraction due to the COVID-19. Liu et al. (2020c) , Maliszewska et al. (2020) , and Yu et al. (2020) demonstrated a decline in consumption and investment. Ertugrul et al. (2020) indicated an increase in consumption volatility. Bauer and Weber (2020) confirmed a decline in the labor force participation rate. Furthermore, the COVID-19 negatively affected firm and industry performances ( Gu et al., 2020 , He et al., 2020a , He et al., 2020b , Iyke, 2020a , Qin et al., 2020a , Xiong et al., 2020 ). In addition, the COVID-19 adversely affected corporate performance ( Shen et al., 2020 ), the insurance market ( Wang et al., 2020 ), herding behavior ( Espinosa-Méndez and Arias, 2020 ), and property price ( Wang et al., 2020 ). 3

Table 1 presents the details of the empirical literature on the effects of the COVID-19.

Empirical literature on the effects of COVID-19.

This table covers various empirical issues addressed in the context of the COVID-19 with the authors, data coverage, empirical findings, and channels/remarks. Further, it covers the tabulation of all cited papers on the empirical literature on the COVID-19.

3. COVID-19 and stock market

The outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic has increased global financial risks, thereby adversely affecting the global financial markets ( Al-Awadhi et al., 2020 , Baker et al., 2020 , Cao et al., 2020 , Gil-Alana and Claudio-Quiroga, 2020 , Gormsen and Koijen, 2020 , Harjoto et al., 2020 , Liu et al., 2020a , Phan and Narayan, 2020 ). The COVID-19 negatively affected the stock market in the forms of uncertainty and reduction in stock return worldwide, thereby reducing capital flows. This reduction due to stock market uncertainty, eventually created obstacles in investment, project funding, and liquidity availability in the global financial system.

Empirical evidence suggests that the pandemic negatively affected stock market return ( Al-Awadhi et al., 2020 , Ambros et al., 2020 , Mishra et al., 2020 , Topcu and Gulal, 2020 )) and increased stock return volatility ( Corbet et al., 2020 , Haroon and Rizvi, 2020a , Haroon and Rizvi, 2020b , Sharma, 2020 , Zaremba et al., 2020 ). Akhtaruzzaman et al. (2020) and Corbet et al. (2020) confirmed the stronger role of financial contagion in generating stock return volatility. 4 Goodell (2020) affirmed that the decline in the stock market during the pandemic resulted from investors’ delay in investment decisions.

Fig. 1 exhibits the trends in the stock market of the top 10 5 economies affected by the pandemic. In the figure, a drastic decline can be observed during March. 6 Colombia and Spain experienced the highest decline. Furthermore, the experience of recovery of the stock market varies across these countries. For instance, the stock markets in Argentina, South Africa, and the US recovered within two months and reached the pre-crisis level at the end of May. The remaining seven countries have still not recovered from the negative effects of the pandemic. Clearly, these observations indicate that the COVID-19 pandemic adversely affected stock market performance.

Stock indices of most affected countries.

This figure indicates the plots of stock indices of the most affected countries during the COVID-19. It covers stock indices for Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, India, Mexico, Peru, Russia, South Africa, Spain, and the USA. The blue line indicates the data period’s division into two such as pre and during the COVID-19 period. We can observe that the stock indices experience high volatility during the COVID-19 period. The period spans from January 1, 2019, to September 17, 2020. The stock data are collected from the CEIC Database. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

4. COVID-19 and exchange rate

The exchange rate is crucial for maintaining an economy’s external stability. As exchange rate directly associates with trade balance, export competitiveness, foreign debt, and capital flows, maintaining a stable exchange rate is one of the policymakers’ major concerns. During this pandemic period, most economies have experienced exchange rate volatility and currency depreciation due to capital outflows and market sentiments. For instance, the negative sentiments associated with the COVID-19 substantially affected the financial markets ( Ali et al., 2020 , Fang and Zhang, 2020 , Fu and Shen, 2020 , Narayan, 2020c , Garg and Prabheesh, 2021 , Rai and Garg, 2021 ) and had a better predictive power over exchange rate volatility than return ( Iyke, 2020b ). Iyke (2020b) affirmed that the outbreak of the COVID-19 is associated with valuable information and can be effectively used to predict exchange rate return and volatility. The volatile exchange rate and currency depreciation could have detrimental effects on stock price, capital inflow, current account deficit, external debt obligations, and financial instability.

Fig. 2 illustrates excessive volatility in the exchange rate of most countries affected by the pandemic. All economies experienced a currency depreciation immediately after the outbreak of the COVID-19 until mid-April. Thereafter, most economies’ exchange rates significantly improved, excluding that of Argentina. More specifically, Spain witnessed a tremendous recovery in its exchange rate after mid-May. However, the figure depicts that none of these countries’ exchange rates reached their pre-crisis level by the end of September, implying the pandemic’s adverse effects on the exchange rates of the economies.

Exchange rate of most affected countries.

This figure indicates the plots of exchange rates of the most affected countries during the COVID-19. It covers stock indices for Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, India, Mexico, Peru, Russia, South Africa, Spain, and the USA. The period spans from January 1, 2019, to September 17, 2020. The exchange rate data are collected from the CEIC Database. The blue line indicates the data period’s division into two, such as the pre-COVID-19 and the COVID-19 period. The USA’s exchange rate is not considered as it is the benchmark currency for all other economies. We can observe that all the economies witness currency depreciation during the COVID-19 period. Most currencies witness depreciation till mid-April and show a slower improvement in the aftermath. However, the exchange rate of all economies witness high volatility except that of Argentina. Argentina indicates a steep increase in its exchange rate, implying continuous depreciation of the Argentinian Peso to the dollar in the COVID-19 period. In terms of recovery, all other economies’ currency is improving but far behind than the pre-COVID period. Surprisingly, Spain indicates tremendous appreciation after the mid-may period. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

5. COVID-19 and oil price

Negative supply and demand shocks can be observed in the oil market during the COVID-19 period. The reduction in labor availability, travel restrictions, and disruptions in transport and business, directly and indirectly, resulted in negative supply shocks. The negative demand shock is caused due to economic difficulties, and the disruption of global value chains, reducing oil demand ( Vidya and Prabheesh, 2020 ). These negative shocks on the oil are considered to reduce global consumption and investment.

Numerous studies have addressed the effects of the COVID-19 on the oil price. For instance, the decline in oil price due to the pandemic adversely affected the performance of the energy sector ( Apergis and Apergis, 2020a , Devpura, 2020 , Devpura and Narayan, 2020 , Fu and Shen, 2020 , Gil-Alana and Monge, 2020 , Huang and Zheng, 2020 , Kartal, 2020 , Narayan, 2020a , Polemis and Soursou, 2020 , Qin et al., 2020b ). Fu and Shen (2020) affirmed that COVID-19 negatively affected energy industries. Salisu and Adediran (2020) observed that market uncertainty can predict energy market volatility. Devpura and Narayan (2020) and Narayan (2020a) observed that COVID-19 cases and fatalities increased oil price volatility and largely affected oil prices. Huang and Zheng (2020) indicated structural changes in the relationship between investors’ sentiment and crude oil futures. Gil-Alana and Monge (2020) stated the inefficiency of the oil market due to the pandemic. Furthermore, the COVID-19 affected the dynamics between the oil and stock markets. For instance, Liu et al. (2020a) identified a negative relationship between oil and stock returns. Prabheesh et al., 2020a , Prabheesh et al., 2020b observed a positive relationship for net oil-importing and oil-exporting countries.

Fig. 3 illustrates that crude oil prices started declining during the outbreak of the COVID-19 from December 31, 2019, till the last week of April 2020. This was the first time in history that oil price became negative (US$ −36.98) on April 20th, 2020. Although the recovery can be observed from May, the price has not reached the pre-COVID period level.

Trends in oil prices.

The figure plots the oil prices from January 2, 2019, to September 15, 2020. WTI stands for West Texas Intermediate. The daily oil price is based on the West Texas Intermediate and collected from the Energy Information Administration. The blue line indicates the division of the data period into two such as pre and COVID-19 periods. We can observe that the oil prices during the COVID-19 period are lesser than the pre-COVID-19 period. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

Crude oil is one of the key ingredients of the production process. The decline in oil prices may reduce production costs and increase economic growth ( Filis, 2010 , Sadorsky, 1999 ) and affect monetary policy ( Prabheesh and Rahman, 2019 ). Thus, falling oil prices were beneficial for net-oil importing countries. In contrast, net-oil exporting countries witnessed a severe reduction in oil revenue, stock market crashes, and financial market volatility. The reduction in oil revenue resulted in an insufficient net export surplus, thereby leading to current account unsustainability ( Garg and Prabheesh, 2017 , Garg and Prabheesh, 2020 ) and insolvency ( Garg and Prabheesh, 2018 ). Oil-exporting countries experienced sharp recessions during the COVID-19 period, such as Russia (−6.6%), Saudi Arabia (−6.8%), and Nigeria (−5.4%).

6. COVID-19 and policy suggestions

This section discusses the relevance of four policy options to mitigate the effects of the COVID-19: monetary policy, macro-prudential regulation, fiscal policy, and policy coordination.

6.1. Monetary policy

Monetary policy could play a crucial role in mitigating the effects of the COVID-19. However, the nature of the adoption of monetary policy may differ across economies in terms of their economic condition during the ongoing pandemic. Hofmann et al. (2020) argued that the adoption of monetary policy by the emerging economies in response to the COVID-19 pandemic may not be effective due to excessive volatility in the exchange rates and capital flows. However, emerging economies can adopt a combination of inflation targeting and macroprudential tools as well as forex reserve accumulation as their policy framework to tackle the changes in capital flows and exchange rates ( BIS, 2019 ). Considering that this policy framework facilitates financial stability, the emerging economies can adopt the same combination of policies to respond to the instability caused by the pandemic. Inflation targeting could help mitigate the effects of exchange rate on inflation. Macroprudential tools promote the resilience of the financial system. Furthermore, the accumulation of reserves can help absorb shocks and alleviate financial stress on emerging economies as the central banks are capable of dealing with currency depreciation, default risk on external borrowings, and capital outflows ( Hofmann et al., 2020 , Prabheesh, 2013 ). The economies with large forex reserves would be able to manage their currency depreciation by intervening in the foreign exchange market during the pandemic. In this context, the central banks of emerging economies have to adopt monetary policies by considering domestic liquidity and foreign exchange market condition.

As the COVID-19 is associated with lower inflation in advanced economies, expansionary monetary policy could facilitate higher economic growth and higher investment in the productive sector. However, the monetary policies of advanced and emerging economies are not independent of each other. The global monetary policy and its shocks play a dominant role in determining domestic macroeconomic conditions and monetary policy. Accordingly, the adoption of monetary policy in advanced economies influences the emerging economies’ monetary policy decisions ( Prabheesh and Vidya, 2018 , Shareef and Prabheesh, 2020 ). Furthermore, the role of trade and financial integration fosters shock transmission and creates the fear of a financial contagion ( Padhan and Prabheesh, 2019 ). Therefore, the effectiveness of the domestic monetary policy will depend on shock transmissions from the advanced economies. In this context, the adoption of monetary policy with macroprudential measures could improve an economy’s policy effectiveness.

6.2. Macroprudential regulation

Considering financial instability caused by the COVID-19, macroprudential policies could help maintain stability and reduce systematic risk in the financial system. Accordingly, a broad range of macroprudential measures can enhance resilience to global financial shocks. For instance, these measures include the tools that boost bank capital and liquidity, limit foreign exchange exposures, and prevent risky credit ( Drehmann et al., 2020 , Restoy, 2019 ). These tools have a heterogeneous effect in reducing the global financial shocks hitting an economy. Furthermore, macroprudential regulation reduces the sensitivity of domestic credit to global financial shocks. This claim is in line with the hypothesis that a stronger bank balance sheet leads to a steadier credit supply. In addition, macroprudential regulation stabilizes nominal and real exchange rates as a safer financial system that reduces currency premium volatility ( IMF, 2020 ).

Macroprudential regulation will help control fluctuations in exchange rates and capital flows that may undermine financial stability. In this situation, monetary policy along with macroprudential regulation can reduce the negative effects of the COVID-19 and promote higher economic growth. Accordingly, a possible channel could be the adoption of countercyclical monetary policy along with macroprudential regulation in response to global financial shocks. At a higher level of macroprudential regulation, central banks respond more counter-cyclically by lowering policy rates to maintain stability in exchange rates and capital outflows ( IMF, 2020 ).

6.3. Fiscal policy

Fiscal policy can effectively protect people, stabilize demand, and facilitate recovery across economies during the ongoing pandemic as well as in the aftermath of this event. Considering the continuity of lockdowns across economies, fiscal policies should be accommodated to healthcare services to provide emergency lifelines to protect people ( Chakraborty and Thomas, 2020 ). While lockdowns are easing, fiscal policies should be aimed at household supports and firms to take care of the informality of the economy. Furthermore, employment support measures could help encourage the safe return to jobs and facilitate structural shift for the quick recovery of the economy after the pandemic. Once the pandemic slows down, the fiscal stimulus will be crucial for public investment, healthcare systems, and physical and digital infrastructure. In the case of limited fiscal space, economies should generate revenue, increase spending, and promote productive investment. All the policy measures need to be organized in a medium-term fiscal framework with transparent management to mitigate fiscal risks ( IMF, 2020 ).

6.4. Policy coordination

A need for domestic as well as global efforts is felt to mitigate the effects of the COVID-19. In the context of global policy change, World Economic Outlook (June 2020) has considered the effects of the COVID-19 as “A Crisis Like No Other, An Uncertain Recovery” and listed few policy actions to mitigate its adverse effects.

• 1. Fiscal Monitor Database of Country Fiscal Measures (June 2020) announced an amount of $11 trillion for fiscal measures worldwide.
• 2. According to the Global Financial Stability Report (June 2020), major central banks experienced a rise in liquidity and borrowing costs. Some emerging economies adopted quantitative easing 7 for the first time, whereas some advanced economies increased the scale of asset purchases. Portfolio flows into emerging economies re-established after the outflows during February–March, and currency bond insurance became stronger for economies with strong credit ratings. Furthermore, modification of bank loan repayment terms and release of capital and liquidity buffers increased the supply of credit globally.
• 3. Oil prices increased in May–June close to stable current spot prices after West Texas Intermediate witnessed a negative value on April 20, 2020.
• 4. As of mid-June, several currencies for advanced and emerging economies weakened substantially. A need for systematic intervention exists to face the challenges associated with currency depreciation.

The magnitude of economic costs necessitates international policy coordination to respond to the pandemic. Chakraborty and Thomas (2020) highlighted the need for more fiscal policy–monetary policy coordination to boost policy response to the COVID-19. Furthermore, a need for global coordination exists in health and medical infrastructure as well as in trade, finance, and macroeconomic policies.

In the context of domestic policy effort at the national level, policy coordination among the trio, i.e., monetary, macroprudential, and fiscal policies, could effectively reduce the effects of the COVID-19.

The macroprudential policy’s major objective is to ensure financial stability and avoid systematic risk, whereas the monetary policy aims to maintain price stability and manage liquidity. The objective of fiscal policy is to boost aggregate demand and facilitate fiscal buffer. All three have different tools such as loan-to-value, debt-to-income, and leverage ratios (macroprudential policy); CRR, SLR, the repo rate, and reverse repo rate (monetary policy), and tax and discretionary countercyclical measures (fiscal policy). Time inconsistency problems 8 exist between macroprudential and monetary policies under a central bank’s dual objective to promote price and financial stability ( Ueda and Valencia, 2014 ). Thus, these two policies can be used ex-ante and ex-post simultaneously. As per BASEL III, one group of economists supports the major benefits of implementation, whereas another group of specialists opposes the adoption of the new rule due to higher implementation costs. Conclusively, higher policy coordination would yield higher policy effectiveness in mitigating the effects of the COVID-19.

Suppose, if policymakers have the motive of implementing monetary policy to reduce the value of public debt by generating higher inflation, the fall in the real interest rate due to expansionary monetary policy will lead to more capital outflow and exchange rate depreciation. In that case, the prime solution is to stabilize the exchange rate by depletion of reserves. A country should have enough reserves to undertake the stabilization process in the world market. Differently, in the case of expansionary fiscal policy, an increase in fiscal deficit reflects an increase in the current account deficit by supporting the “twin deficit hypothesis. 9 ” The country has to borrow or print money to finance the deficit, which may either increase foreign debt level or inflation. Furthermore, the increase in foreign debt may lead to debt sustainability, whereas an increase in inflation leads to capital outflows due to a fall in the real interest rate. In this context, the macroprudential policy tools help reduce the cost of intermediation and support price stability and debt sustainability. The tools of macroprudential, monetary, and fiscal policies must act together by promoting policy coordination to mitigate the costs of the COVID-19 and achieve price stability, financial stability, and a sustainable level of debt. Under a strong financial system, the adoption of liquidity circulation and fiscal buffer could mitigate the consequences in the post-pandemic period.

7. The missing link? A direction to future research

The existing studies on the COVID-19 have identified the facets of consequences caused by this pandemic. However, they have several shortcomings. First, existing studies have either focused on the effect of the government’s adopted policies on the COVID-19 or on macroeconomic and financial issues caused by the COVID-19. However, they have failed to trace a balance between these two. Policies should be framed to tackle the health crisis and macroeconomic and financial issues simultaneously. Second, existing studies have not addressed any theoretical background of health crisis and their occurrence pattern. Finally, although the macroeconomic effects of the COVID-19 can indicate the consequences of a health crisis, existing studies have failed to determine the explanatory variables of health crisis and economic transmission channel across economies.

In this context, several missing links have been identified, which pave the way for future research. The first missing link is the balance between the government’s adopted policies on the COVID-19 and macroeconomic and financial issues. Maintaining a balance between these two policies is challenging for policymakers and a key challenge for future research. The second missing link is the absence of theoretical background to health crisis and occurrence patterns. The occurrence pattern of the financial crisis can never be compared with that of the health crisis, calling for a separate section of theories to explain the health crisis’ economic channels. Given that the occurrence pattern of a health crisis differs, the advancement of theoretical models on health crisis could be crucial to explain the occurrence pattern of a pandemic. The third link revolves around the explanatory variables of health crisis and identification of economic transmission channel. A comparative analysis with the previous pandemic could no longer explain the explanatory variables and transmission channels because of the different situations and types of economic channels. Therefore, identifying the explanatory variables of health crisis and transmission channels needs serious progress. Finally, modeling the economic channels will be a daunting task in the absence of a theoretical explanation of a health crisis. This opens up avenues for greater future research, and researchers should focus on resolving the above ideas.

8. Conclusion and policy implications

The COVID-19 pandemic has caused unprecedented damage to the global economy in terms of human tolls and economic consequences. It posed a greater challenge for the investors and policymakers to mitigate the consequences of this pandemic.

This study has highlighted the economic effects of the COVID-19 and emphasized policy options to reduce its effects. The study concludes that through monetary, macroprudential, and fiscal policies can independently help mitigate the effects; the combined trio could be more effective in the post-pandemic period. Therefore, coordination is required among “trio”, i.e., monetary, macroprudential, and fiscal policies, to reduce the effects of the COVID-19.

This study has several policy implications. The monetary expansion will increase aggregate demand and induce firms to boost their investment from the monetary policy perspective. From the fiscal policy perspective, government policies such as subsidizing firms’ investment and the introduction of public investment programs could help promote investment. Independently, monetary expansion could fall into expectation-driven stagnation traps, 10 adversely affecting the growth fundamentals of an economy. Accordingly, conventional macroeconomic theories should be modified as per the situation and coordinated to maintain the aggregate demand–supply equilibrium effectively. Apparently, conventional macroeconomic policies cannot be restricted only to conventional measures. It should complement social policies such as a whole government approach 11 to face the health emergency caused by the COVID-19. Conventional macroeconomic policies need to be organized into relief measures, recovery policies, and international coordination measures.

Future research should focus on the effects of the COVID-19 on capital flows, exchange rates, and various sectors of the economy. It will be a challenging task for the policymakers to face the health crisis or to correct the macroeconomic and financial issues posed by the COVID-19. Furthermore, there is greater scope for future research to examine how the developed and emerging economies function in the pandemic situation and adopt policies to face the health crisis as well as macroeconomic and financial issues.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgment

This research did not receive any special grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. The earlier version of this paper was presented at the 14th Bulletin of Monetary Economics and Banking International Conference, Bali, Indonesia (Webinar).

1 The short from COVID-19 is used for the Coronavirus disease of 2019, throughout the paper.

2 The word pandemic is derived from the Greek word “Pandemos”, which means ‘common to all people’. The World Health Organization affirm that a pandemic is a situation of the global spread of a new disease. Cholera in 1817, Spanish flu in 1918, Asian flu in 1957, and the H1N1 pandemic in 2009 are the few examples of pandemic events that the world has already witnessed earlier.

3 It cannot be generalized that the COVID-19 has only adverse repercussions. For instance, Ming et al. (2020) indicated that the COVID-19 pandemic has improved air quality, which can be helpful for improving GDP later. Appiah-Otoo (2020) indicated that the COVID-19 positively affected domestic credit. Apergis and Apergis (2020b) supported the positive effects on inflation expectations. Differently, Salisu and Akanni (2020) constructed a global fear index and indicated its significance in predicting stock returns and improving forecast performance. As a mitigating force, lockdowns, travel restrictions, and economic stimulus package positively affected the stock market in G7 countries ( Narayan, 2020b ). In case of forex market, Narayan et al. (2020) affirmed the depreciation leads to fall in Japanese stock returns. Narayan (2020b) confirmed that Yen had a transitory effect and that the COVID-19 changed the resistance of the yen to shocks. Salisu and Sikiru (2020) supported the hedging potential of Asia-Pacific Islamic stocks, whereas Ferriani and Natoli (2020) confirmed investors’ preference for low ESG risk funds. Further, Mariana et al. (2020) and Mnif et al. (2020) supported the efficiency of cryptocurrency as a safe haven. Erdem (2020) affirmed that freer countries are associated with smaller increase in volatility. In the context of the capital market, Prabheesh (2020) confirmed that foreign portfolio investment improved the predictability of stock market returns. Chen et al. (2020b) confirmed the positive effect on remittance inflows. In case of government decision, Haldar and Sethi (2020) indicated that demographic and government policies significantly determine the COVID-19. Further, see Sha and Sharma (2020) for more details.

4 Chen et al. (2020a) , Conlon and McGee (2020) , and Grobys (2020) confirmed that Bitcoin is no longer a safe haven during this pandemic period, indicating a significant fall in portfolio diversification.

5 The top 10 economies were selected based on the no. of confirmed cases until September 17th, 2020. Further, 6 out of 10 selected economies are also ranked in terms of fatalities. See Appendix A , Appendix B for more details.

6 Stock markets witnessed (global stock market crash) Black Monday on March 9, 2020.

8 Time inconsistency is a situation in which preference of decision makers changes over time.

9 The “twin deficits hypothesis” indicates that there is a connection between fiscal and current account deficits..

10 It refers to a situation where the inflation and unemployment remain steadily high, whereas economic growth remains low. The conventional monetary policy operating in the zero lower bound will not be effective to counteract the drop in demand. This will eventually lead to fall in employment, investment, and economic activity. This will result in self-fulfilling pessimistic expectations of weak growth once the fundamentals are too weak, leading to expectation driven stagflation trap.

11 It refers to all social and economic policies like social protection, urban management, public communication, and financial and goods market under same roof.

7 Quantitative easing is an unconventional monetary policy adopted by central banks to increase money supply in the economy.

Appendix A. Pandemics: A historical perspective

The earliest known pandemic, Black Death in 1331, is considered to be the costliest pandemic, with 75 million fatalities out of 450 million in the world. The Spanish flu in 1918 that occurred during the 20th century was classified as “severe”, followed by the Asian flu in 1957 and Hong Kong flu in 1968. The H1N1 pandemic in 2009 was the first pandemic in the 21st century, with more than 2 million fatalities. From the table below, we can observe that every pandemic has resulted in millions of fatalities (see Table A.1 ).

Historical footprints on pandemics.

This table covers the historical record of large pandemic events with at least 100,000 deaths. We can observe that the Spanish Flu was the largest in terms of death, followed by Black Death.

Appendix B. COVID-19: A novel experience

The COVID-19, the 2nd pandemic of the 21st century, has driven all attention of policymakers and is set to become the most devastating pandemic that the world has witnessed so far. In the context of the historical pandemics, Ferguson et al. (2020) considered COVID-19 as the most serious pandemic since the Spanish flu in 1918. The absence of pharmaceutical inventions will contribute to the death tolls and could make the COVID-19 the most devastating pandemic event of the 21st century (see Table B.1 ).

As of September 17, 2020, COVID-19 has affected 213 countries with 937,391 fatalities and 29,737,453 confirmed cases reported by the WHO. The following table shows the top 10 worst-affected countries with the most cases due to COVID-19.

The table shows that the USA experienced the largest effect in the world and ranks first in terms of confirmed cases and death. India becomes the second most affected country in terms of confirmed cases and third in terms of fatalities. Brazil ranks third in terms of confirmed cases and second in terms of fatalities. Further, out of the top 10 most affected countries in terms of confirmed cases, 6 are ranked in terms of fatalities. Surprisingly, China does not occupy any place in rankings either in terms of confirmed cases or fatalities, indicating improved COVID conditions and medical facilities. Major economies like the USA, India, Russia, Mexico, and Spain witnessed the severity of COVID-19 and may experience more economic consequences in the future. Among the top 10 economies, the major economies like the USA (center economies), Russia (oil-exporting economies), and India (one of the Asian giants and large market) would lead to more downturn in production, investment, and consumption, resulting in a downturn in the global economy.

Statistics on COVID-19 and countries’ ranking.

This table covers no. of confirmed cases and death due to COVID-19 till September 17, 2020. Ranking 1 is done on the basis of no. of confirmed cases, whereas ranking 2 is based on the no. of fatalities caused by this disease.

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• Published: 12 May 2023

Global trends in the scientific research of the health economics: a bibliometric analysis from 1975 to 2022

• Liliana Barbu   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0641-7483 1  

Health Economics Review volume  13 , Article number:  31 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

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Health science is evolving extremely rapidly at worldwide level. There is a large volume of articles about health economics that are published each year. The main purpose of this research is to explore health economics in the world's scholarly literature based on a scient metric analysis to outline the evolution of research in the field.

The Web of Science repository was used to get the data (1975–2022). The study explores 1620 documents from health economics. CiteSpace software was used to provide network visualisations. Four thousand ninety-six authors, 1723 institutions, 847 journals and 82 countries were involved in the sample. The current research contains a descriptive analysis, a co-authorship analysis, a co-citation analysis, and a co-occurrence analysis in health economics.

Drummond M.F (author), the USA (country), University of London (institution) and Value Health (journal) are among the most important contributors to the health economics literature. Co-authorship analysis highlights that cooperation between authors, institutions and countries is weak. However, Drummond M.F. is the most collaborative author, the USA is the most collaborative country, and University of York is the most collaborative institution. The study offers an image about the most co-cited references (Arrow K.J., 1963), authors (Margolis H.) and journals (British Medical Journal). The current research hotspots in health economics are “behavioural economics” and “economic evaluation”. The main findings should be interpreted in accordance with the selection strategy used in this paper.

All in all, the paper maps the literature on health economics and may be used for future research.

Introduction

The health economy is a branch of the economy that deals with concerns of the production and consumption of health services and healthcare that relate to efficiency, effectiveness, value, and behaviour. Applying economic ideas, concepts, and methods to institutions, actors, and activities that have an impact on people's health is known as health economics [ 1 ]. The health economy is studying how to allocate limited resources to meet human desires in the medical industry and disease care. The health economy often tries to meet the most pressing challenges facing the health system. Studies in health economics provide to decision-makers precious information about the effective use of resources that are available to maximize health benefits.

The health economics is a component of public health, a component that It can be used to examine health issues and medical treatment. Health economists consider the origin of their discipline to Petty W. (1623–1687) [ 2 ] who propose valuation of human life based on a person’s contribution to national production. Arrow K. is credited with creating the field of health economics in a work where he conceptually distinguished between health and other goods [ 3 ]. Since Arrow K.'s fundamental publication on health economics from 1963, the scale of the healthcare sector, the share of public budgets allocated to healthcare, and the body of research on health economics have all increased significantly [ 4 ].

The current pandemic context has proved the need for a functioning public health system capable of meeting any challenges. The World Health Organization report for 2020 presents an examination of 190 nations' global health spending from 2000 to 2018. The report shows that global health spending has increased consistently between 2000 and 2018, reaching $ 8.3 trillion, or 10% of world GDP [ 5 ]. At the level of OECD Member States, the latest estimates show an average increase in health spending of about 3.3% in 2019, whereas health spending as a percentage of GDP stayed about where it had been in prior years, at 8.8% [ 6 ]. These indicators rose sharply in 2020, as economies faced a pandemic. The increases were driven by an increase in the level of allocation of government resources for health, while private spending on health tended to decline. At EU level, the public sector plays a major role in funding health services. In 2/3 of Member States, more than 70% of health spending is funded by the public sector [ 7 ]. In 2020, the EU's overall public health spending was €1.073 billion, or 8.0% of GDP ( https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Government_expenditure_on_health ). For governments, public spending on health is one of the spending categories with the quickest growth.

Health economics is the application of economic theory, models, and empirical techniques to the analysis of decision-making by individuals, health care providers, and governments regarding health and health care. Even though the methodologies are distinct in terms of health care, health economics aims to apply the same analytical tools that would be applied to any good or service that the economy provides [ 8 ]. By offering a clear framework for decision-making based on the efficiency principle, health economics seeks to simplify decision-making [ 9 ]. Extensive government interference, insoluble uncertainty in many dimensions, asymmetric knowledge, barriers to entry, externality, and the presence of a third-party agent are all characteristics that set health economics apart from other fields [ 10 ].

Health economics is the field were interdisciplinarity bring additional value for society. Health economics development has not been without controversy. Health economics refers to a variety of elements that interact to affect the expenses and spending of the healthcare sector. Its controversy rises from the roles of people, healthcare providers, insurers, governmental bodies, and private companies in influencing the healthcare sector expenses. The parties that interact in this field have some conflicting goals. On the one hand, health care policymakers and public hospitals have as objective to provide real value to the patients, to balance public interest and economic restrictions. On the other hand, private hospitals, insurance companies aim to obtain profit for their shareholders. There are several weaknesses that should be rectified in the future. Among weaknesses it can be found deficiencies in the supply of health economists [ 11 ], a lack of financial resource independence between the local and central levels, the key macroeconomic variables' unfavourable behaviour, and the difficulty in developing new financing alternatives [ 12 ]. In addition to having too close relationships to national institutions and sponsors of health economics research, health economics also has excessively loose connections with general economic theory [ 13 ]. Considering increased demands in healthcare services and limited health care budgets, health economics faces real challenges in providing decision making frameworks and there will always be challenging healthcare decisions. Although it has not always been an impartial instrument, health economics does give useful information for policy [ 14 ]. Regarding how well economics integrates with promoting health, there is scepticism, and public health has mixed feelings on the subject. Health economics has been accused of focusing more on the consumption of healthcare services than the creation of healthcare [ 15 ]. Despite several methodological limitations, health economics can provide helpful concepts and principles that aid in comprehending the effects of resource allocation decisions [ 9 ]. All practitioners must have a elementary comprehension of some economic concepts to both understand the helpful ideas the field may provide and recognize its inadequacies.

The main purpose of the research is to examine the health economics literature published worldwide based on a scient metric analysis to outline the development of the field's research. The existence of a multitude of articles published on health economics determines the need to address and measure it quantitatively. Such an analysis is justified by the need must be aware of the current trends and future directions of research in the field of health economics. Health science is evolving extremely rapidly at worldwide level. There is a large volume of articles about health economics that are published each year. Another argument is that there several computer programs which allows for scient metric analysis of health economics publications. This article contributes to the bibliometric literature on health economics by offering answers to the subsequent research inquiries: How scientific production has evolved in health economics? Who are the most important authors and publications in health economics? What are the geographical and institutional hubs of knowledge production in health economics? What kind of collaboration between authors, organizations, and nations are there in the field of health economics research? Which are the most cited authors and the most cited papers, and which are the most attractive journals for publishing research results in health economics? What are the most debated conceptual approaches in health economics?

The remainder of the paper is structured as follows. The second section introduces a short literature review. Research methodology and data collection are presented in Sect. 3. Section 4 contains the quantitative and qualitative scient metric analysis on health economics by using CiteSpace software (descriptive analysis, collaboration analysis, co-citation analysis and keywords co-occurrence analysis). The last part concludes the analysis, presents the research limitations, and describes future directions of research.

Literature background

Although there are thousands of articles published on health economics, very few articles aim for bibliometric analysis of the field and use computer programs. A first article published by Rubin, R. M. and Chang, C. F. (2003) aims at the study of 5,545 indexed articles, in the period 1991–2000, in the EconLit database, in the Health Economics section [ 16 ]. The second study is published by Wagstaff, A. and Culyer, A. J. in 2012 and extends the previous bibliometric research done by Rubin and Chang also based on the articles indexed in EconLit on health, over 40 years [ 17 ]. The third study, published by Moral-Munoz J.A et all in 2020, focuses on articles indexed in the Web of Science, between 2010 and 2019, which have the word "health" and do not use scientometric software [ 18 ].

It would be worth mentioning a descriptive analysis of the field conducted by Jakovljevic M. and Pejcic A. in 2017, but without the use of bibliometric indicators. The authors quantitatively analyze health economics publications by querying the PubMed, Scopus, WoS and NHS economic evaluation Database between 2000 and 2016 and conclude with the existence of an upward flow of health economics publications [ 19 ]. In this context, the proposed research is characterized by focusing on WoS articles that refer strictly to "health economics" and their computer processing to obtain maps and connections between studies.

Research methodology

Research methods.

In the current paper two research methods were used: bibliometric analysis and knowledge mapping. Regarding the first one, it should be mentioned that bibliometric research methods are used delivering quantitative analysis of textual works, in this case publications about health economics. This method allows bibliographic overviews of scientific production in the field. In the scientific community, the technique is increasingly employed to provide details regarding relationships between various groups [ 20 ]. Bibliometric analysis uses statistical tools and different metrics as part of the analysis (frequency/ count, co-citation, co-authorship, co-occurrence, betweenness centrality, citation burst, modularity, centrality, sigma, Silhouette etc.). Bibliometric analysis naturally presents itself as a tool to qualify, then quantify, the study conducted [ 21 ].

Regarding the second one, bibliometric analysis uses a large quantity of information that should be transformed in knowledge. This is done by using data visualization and knowledge maps. An enormous and complex collection of knowledge resources can be more easily accessed and navigated by using knowledge mapping strategies [ 22 ]. Knowledge mapping is the process of making knowledge maps, it makes explicit knowledge graphic and visual. Knowledge maps are static, they are a “snapshot in time” that aids in understanding and organizing knowledge flow for researchers [ 23 ]. A process, method, or instrument called “knowledge mapping” is used to analyse knowledge to find traits or meanings and perceive knowledge in an understandable and transparent way [ 24 ]. One of the advantages of knowledge mapping includes the freedom to combine without restriction, i.e., without restrictions on the number of connections and concepts that can be established [ 25 ].

Data source and search strategy

For this analysis we decided to use one of the most reliable databases: Web of Science (WoS) because it contains a data for large period. The data was retrieved from the Web of Science Core Collection by using title search tool TI = (health economics). The primary literature data were downloaded on 7th of October 2022. The query objective was to integrate in this analysis all research papers related to health economics. We did not introduce any restrictions regarding the topic or time span for searching documents. We intend to have a comprehensive view of the research area and to see its evolution over time. As a result, 2340 documents were retrieved. Among publications about health economics, the most numerous documents are the articles (37.6%), followed by editor materials (19.8%), meeting abstracts (13.9%) and book reviews (13.3%). There are also review articles on the subject, proceeding papers, letters, books, and book chapters which were kept in the sample. The other types of documents were removed resulting a sample of 2305 publications. The language of almost all publications is English (91.4%), followed by German (4.3%). The percentage of publications produced in other languages, such as French, Spanish, Portuguese, Russian etc. is less than 1.5% for each of them. Publications in other languages than English were eliminated, remaining 2108 documents in the sample.

The next step is to identify and remove duplicates by using Excel function (Conditional Formatting – Highlight Duplicate Values), therefore 8 duplicates were removed. In the sample under analysis, a multitude of types of documents indexed in WoS and referring to the concept of health economics can be observed. During the step of checking for duplications, it was found that there are too many duplicates of documents’ title, most of them due to editorial materials or book reviews. This led to a thorough analysis of publication by type of document (eg there are more than 10 reviews for one book or more than 10 editorial materials signed by the same editor). We identified some publications which are irrelevant for the purpose of our analysis. One hundred eighty-six editorial materials without citations and all 286 book reviews were removed resulting 1628 publications. We kept the editorial materials with citation because some of them have more than 100 citations. We searched for anonymous publications, more exactly we looked for incomplete data (author’s name is missing) and we removed 8 documents.

For the remaining documents the "Full Record and Cited References" was downloaded on 13th of October 2022 (txt files) and used as original data for the proposed bibliometrics analysis and science mapping. The final data collection, which consists of 1620 publications, is supported by 16,755 citing articles (excluding self-citations) and has been cited 18,504 times (excluding self-citations), giving it an H-index of 59. The data are statistical analysed by using annual distribution of publications, authors, journals. Co-authorship analysis focuses on collaboration between authors, institutions, and countries. Cited references, cited authors, and cited journal are used in co-citation analyses, and finally, the co-occurrence will integrate keyword in this research.

The graphical representation of selection procedure can be seen in Fig.  1 .

Selection procedure flow chart. Source: Authors

Visualization tools

Bibliometric method needs a certain amount of data to be statistically credible. This is the reason for that computerized data treatment is needed. Moreover, databases contain hundreds or thousands of entries which are analysed by using computer software. There is many bibliometric software, each of them has particularities and weaknesses. CiteSpace was chosen in this study because it is very user friendly, intuitively, and easy to use. CiteSpace 6.1.R2. available for free download at https://citespace.podia.com . A variety of networks created from scientific publications, such as collaboration networks, author co-citation networks, and document co-citation networks, are supported by structural and temporal analysis in CiteSpace. CiteSpace can produce knowledge domain X-rays. The CiteSpace parameters for this investigation were as follows: time-slicing was from 1975 to 2022, years per slice was 1 year, Look Back Years (LBY) = -1, Link Retaining Factor (LRF) = -1. For text processing and links, we preserved the default settings. We used several nodes (authors, institutions, journal, references, keywords) and metrics (such as citation burstiness, Sigma, Silhouette, rad Q, betweenness centrality) depending on the study that was done. Top N% is set to be equal to 100%, Top N is set to be 50, and g-index is set to be 25.

Statistical analysis

The first step to follow in the scient metric analysis is to analyse the evolution of publications’ number in the researched field. The way in which they are distributed over the years indicates the attention that the field of health economics has benefited from and the speed at which its conceptual development took place. The first 3 papers about health economics were published in 1975, indicating the lowest number of annual publications, but also a concept that has existed for over 4 decades. From Fig.  2 , a general upward trend of health economics publications can be observed, but with numerous upward and downward fluctuations, generating sinusoidal cycles with an average duration of 3–4 years. The period 1975 – 1986 is characterized by a very low number of publications, 98 publications written by 110 authors in 12 years, representing 6% of the total sample. The next two decades (1987 – 2006) are characterized by a slightly increasing trend in the number of publications, with an annual average of approximately 23 publications on health economics, reaching a total of 454 publications written by 826 authors and representing 28% of the total number of analysed publications. Cyclical evolution is highlighted by booms in 1987, 1990, 1995, 1999, 2001.

Literature production related to health economics between 1975 and 2022. Source: Authors

The following period, 2007 – 2022 (16 years) is characterized by an upward evolution of the number of health economics publications, 1068 publications with an annual average of 67 articles (3261 authors involved), meaning 2.3 times more numerous as in the previous two decades and representing 66% of the total sample. In 2017, 86 studies on health economics were published, reaching the highest value in the analysed period. The quantitative evolution of publications in health economics it is explained by a higher interest of the researchers and policymakers to explore the benefits of health economics. The need to identify the ways in which health economics contributes to the healthcare system development represent a solid motivation to continue intensive research in the field.

The evolution of the citations’ number follows, like a shadow, the evolution of publications’ number. The upward trend is maintained, also respecting the previously presented temporal distribution, but without cyclical and sinusoidal fluctuations. The evolution of the citations’ number indicates the growing interest of specialists in researching the field, especially after 2000 when a constant and galloping annual increase in citations begins. The last 5 years show a very high interest of researchers and academics in health economics research, with a maximum point in 2021, with over 2000 citations, an evolution argued by the emergence of the global pandemic. All the figures and observations indicate a constant interest in the conceptualization of health economics and foresee a deeper development in the future.

Geographical analysis allows a better understanding of the field. The 1620 publications involved the work of authors from 82 countries. Among them, the first 10 states with significant contributions in the field of health economics stand out: the USA (605 papers), England (400), Canada (115), Australia (103), Netherlands (75), Scotland (64), Germany (59), Switzerland (57), France (47) and Italy (43). 96.8% of all publications were produced by top-10 countries. According to statistics, the USA is the top nation. 37% of all analysed documents are written by American authors, which is 1.5 times more than values recorded by England (rank 2) and 5.2 times more than Canada, rank 3. There are 49 nations where there are fewer than or equal to 5 publications during entire period.

In our study, a sum of 4096 different authors were identified, and they individually published between one and 16 papers, but only 170 persons are co-authors of more than 3 papers. Table 1 lists the top 10 authors with publications about health economics. Drummond M.F. is the leader, even if he published Essentials of Health Economics with his co-author, Mooney G.H., in 1982. He is affiliated to University of Yor (the UK). The top ten most productive authors published 107 articles, which represents 6.6% of the total publications. The most authors (95.8% of all authors) contributed to the health economics research with less than two papers. It should be noted that the number of authors is 2.5 times over the number of papers., which means that publications are made by cooperation between researchers.

From the point of view of affiliation, the 4096 authors belong to 1723 institutions. The top 10 organizations with many health economics articles are University of London (91 publications), University of California System (54), University of York (51), Harvard University (45), University of Birmingham (41), University of Pennsylvania (34), University of Oxford (30), University of Aberdeen (28), University of California Los Angeles (28) and University of Washington (28). The list is dominated by institutions from the UK and the USA. The top-10 institutions contributed to health economics research field by 230 papers which represents 26.5% of total publications.

It is very important to see which journals have published the most articles about health economics. Regarding the publication’s titles, 847 distinct journals published all 1620 documents related to health economics. It should be mentioned that 782 journals (92.3%) published from one to three articles on health economics during 1975 – 2022. Table 2 lists the top 10 most prolific journals, and together they have published 364 articles, which means 43% of all publications in the sample. The leading journal is the Value in Health (Impact Factor = 5.156) with 160 papers meaning 9.8% of all publications from the sample.

Co-authorship analysis

Co-authorship networks and social network analysis are becoming more and more effective techniques for evaluating collaboration patterns and locating top scientists and institutions [ 26 ]. The author collaboration network can help identify authors with high contributions and reveal the co-operative relationships between the authors. By using CiteSpace, the co-authorship network was created without pruning the sliced networks. Co-authors network has 1028 nodes and 1166 links. Figure  3 presents the network between the most collaborative authors in health economics, all of them published 4 or more publications as co-authors. As indicated by the node name, each node represents a different author, and the font size corresponds to the number of publications for each author. The connections made by the co-authorship of researchers are represented by the interconnections between each pair of nodes. The degree of cooperation between the two authors is indicated by the thickness of the link.

The network of authors’ collaboration in health economics. Source: Authors

Co-authors’ map shows that there are not strong collaboration relationships between authors, the network density level is 0.0022. Moreover, they are divided in small research groups and cooperation for research in health economics is insignificant. Top five collaborative authors are Drummond M. (20 publications), Mooney G. (16), Trosch R. (8), Marchese D. (8) and Fuchs V. (8). They are followed by Basu A. (7), Edwards R. (7), Coast J. (7), Peeples P. (7) and Comella C. (6).

In Fig.  3 it can be seen the cooperation between two research teams. These research teams are formed around key authors in health economics and integrated as most collaborative ones. First research team is created around Drummond M. and Mooney G. They published in 1982 and 1983, in British Medical Journal, 9 papers about different aspects of health economics [ 27 , 28 ]. The second research team is created around Trosch R. and Marchese D., who participated between 2012 and 2015 at several annual meeting, conferences, and congresses to present their work about clinical and health economics outcomes registry in cervical dystonia [ 29 , 30 ]. There are 72 scholars as co-authors in at least 3 publications showing a weak cooperation in health economics. From the perspective of citation burst, there are 5 bursting authors with a burst duration between 2 and 8 years: Drummond M. 1981–1999, Mooney G. 1982–1986, Marchese D. 2012–2015, Trosch R. 2012–2015, and Peeples P. 2018–2020. Bust analysis confirms the existence of the two research teams and their period of activity.

We continue exploring the co-authorship analysis by studying the level of cooperation between institutions. For this purpose, we generated a network where the nodes are the institutions, and we did not used pruning methods. The level of cooperation is revealed by the thickness between institutions’ nodes. The network contains 751 nodes, 944 links, and a density of 0.0034. In Fig.  4 are labelled the institutions with more than 4 collaborative papers, the label size is depending on the number of collaborative publications. No institution has a large value of centrality, meaning that cooperation among the analysed institutions is weak, the links are very transparent because of an insignificant number of publications written by collaboration between organizations or universities.

The network of institutions’ collaboration in health economics. Source: Authors

As seen in Fig.  4 , the top-10 most collaborative institutions in health economics area are: University of York (28 publications), University of Oxford (23), University of Pennsylvania (21), University of Washington (20), University of Birmingham (17), Erasmus University (16), Harvard University (16), Bangor University (15), University of California Los Angeles (13) and University of Toronto (12). There are six institutions for which there was identified citation burst as follows: University of Oxford 2016–2020, University of Pennsylvania 2017–2022, University California Los Angeles 2013–2016, King’s College London 2006–2011, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine 2008–2010, University of Washington 2015–2018. Cooperation among institutions is depending on cooperation among authors. It is understood that poor collaboration at the individual level is followed by an identical one at the organizational level.

Progress in any field can be achieved only by communication. Analysing country co-authorship may lead to identification of leading states in health economics research. The visualisation map for country collaboration reveals a network of 202 nodes, 710 links and 0.035 density. It should be noted that country co-authorship network has a density 10 times larger than institutions co-authorship network. The map was generated in CiteSpace without pruning parameter. In Fig.  5 are displayed the countries having more than 5 collaborative health economics-related publications.

The network of countries’ collaboration in health economics. Source: Authors

As can be observed, the biggest nodes correspond to the most prominent and cooperative nations. The collaboration between institutions from these nations is shown by the links between the nodes. The discrepancies between the first two countries and the other states are obvious. The network of the most collaborative country, the USA, consist in 521 publications. It is followed by England with 344 publications. It is obvious that these two nations played a crucial part in worldwide academic exchanges in health economics area. The third and the fourth most collaborative countries are Canada (105 publications) and Australia (100 publications), which shows a degree of cooperation 5 times lower than that of the leading country. The top-10 most collaborative countries continue with the following nations: Netherlands (74 publications), Germany (58), Switzerland (56), Scotland (48), France (46) and Italy (43). Citation burst was identified for 4 countries: the USA 1975–1981, Scotland 1982–2003, Switzerland 1999–2006, and China 2020–2022. Citation burst analysis reveals that China, which stated to published research in health economics in 2006, faces an upward trend in the last two years.

Co-citations analysis

The following step of our current analysis is to find the most frequently cited publications in health economics sector. Co-citation reference analysis help to identification of the most important references in health economics. 16,755 references are linked to our sample. We obtain a co-citation network of 1550 nodes and 7240 links with a density of 0.0060. The network map was obtained without pruning parameter. In Fig.  6 are labelled the papers with more than 5 co-citations. Table 3 lists the top 10 articles in the field of health economics by the number of citations.

Visualization of reference co-citation networks for health economics research. Source: Authors

As we expected, the most influential paper is published by Arrow K.J. in 1963. In his paper, the author investigates and studies the unique distinctions between medical care and other goods and services in normative economics. He focuses on medical-care industry and its efficacy by rethinking the industry from economics perspective. This publication is the basic brick in the conceptualization of health economics. Unfortunately, this part of analysis reveals some basic limitation in bibliometric analysis: incomplete and compromised database because of incorrect data filled by authors. As it can be seen in Fig.  6 , the second most influential paper belongs to an anonymous author who wrote in 1996 a paper about cost effectiveness. A manual search in references database revealed the possibility to correlate the anonymous publications to a book written by Gold M.R., Siegel J.E., Russell L.B. and Weinstein M.C. The authors published in 1996 a book about cost effectiveness in health and medicine and there are several book reviews about it. The third and the fourth most co-cited publications are signed by Drummond M.F. and his co-authors. In fact, it is about a book entitled “Methods for the Economic Evaluation of Health Care Programmes”, first published in 1987 at and then renewed in the following editions: 1997 (2nd), 2005 (3rd) and 2015 (4th). Regardless the edition number, the book is a worldwide bestseller and it very cited in health economics research. It should be mentioned that the 2nd edition of the book appears twice in the database because some authors incorrectly cited Drummond. There are many book reviews for this book because it describes techniques and tools for evaluation of health care programs. It provides syntheses of new and emerging methodologies, and it is less concerned with the theoretical and ethical foundations of the methodologies (Drummond M.F et all, 2005). The book promotes basic health economic concepts and theories.

The citation burst was checked to see the period when a document citation increases sharply in frequency. There are 12 cited papers with citation burst fluctuating from 3.95 for Volpp K.G (2008) and 9.58 for Arrow K.J. (1963). Ten of twelve papers with citation burst are the ones from Table 3 , the most co-cited documents in health economics. The top-10 papers by burst are Arrow K.J. 1963 (period 2012–2018, citation burst 9.58), Drummond M.F. 1997 (2000–2008, 8.76), Anonymous 1996 (1999–2011, 8.86), Drummond M.F 2005 (2008 – 2019, 8.42), Kahneman D. 2011 (2013–2022, 5.03), Williams A. 1985 (1986–1998, 4.44), Lakdawalla (2018–2022, 4.44), Kahneman D. 1979 (2019–2022, 4.38) and Grossman M. 1972 (2016–2019, 4.35).

Two of Kahneman D.’s works stands out. One of them is represented by a book, another worldwide bestseller, entitled “Thinking, Fast and Slow” published in 2011 in London. His psychological book is appreciated because it aids in the public understanding of issues related to engineering, medicine, and behavioural science. The second paper is written by Kahneman D. and Tversky A. in 1979 and presents opponents of the anticipated utility theory as a framework for risky decision-making and introduces an alternative model called prospect theory.

We can find highly cited authors whose work is well known in the health economics research community by using author co-citation networks. CiteSpace configurations are the same. The network of co-cited writers has 1422 nodes, 12,462 linkages, with a density of 0.0123. The node size reflects the number of co-citations by author. In Fig.  7 the nodes with co-citations over 14 are labelled by the corresponding first author. Once again there are incomplete data in the database. We face with an anonymous person as the most cited author in health economics research. This author without name was 300 time co-cited. We manually checked the database to find additional information about this anonymous author. According to the findings we assume it is about Margolis H. who published in 1982 a book about selfishness, altruism, and rationality. Margolis H. is a professor at the University of Chicago and in his book about social choice propose and argue a distinction between self-interest and group-interest for a person, and he also develop an equilibrium model for his theory [ 41 ].

Visualization of authors co-citation networks for health economics research. Source: Authors

Drummond M.F. is on the second position, positioning himself with two publications in the top-10 most co-cited authors. Once again it is about his publication with Mooney G.H. about Essentials in Health Economics which was already mentioned in the paper. Williams A. is the third co-cited author, followed by Culyer A.J and Arrow K.J. It should be noted that World Health Organization’s (WHO) publications are ones of the most co-cited document in health economics research. Unfortunately, it is hard to identify the titles of WHO’s publications from 1993 and 2009 (see Table 4 ) because there is more than one publication per year for this international organization. However, we assume that it is about an anonymous publication focused on tuberculosis as a worldwide problem [ 42 ] (published in 1993) and a publication about health risk at the global level [ 43 ] (published in 2009).

There are no scholars who have a betweenness centrality greater than zero. This indicates that there is no author more influential than other scholars, and no one exert a significant influence on the evolution of health economics research. The evolution of health economics theory was influenced by all the authors discussed in this paper.

In terms of burstiness, there are 35 cited authors with citation burst between 9.26 and 3.90. It means that their papers were intensively cited during a specific period. The top-10 cited authors by bursts is Drummond M. 1988 (bursts of 9.26, period 1995–1999), Maynard A, 1982 (8.60, 1998–2003), WHO 2009 (8.09, 2009–2015), OECD 2013 (7.77, 2013–2022), Williams A. 1982 (7.63, 1986–2003), Johannesson M. 1996 (7.59, 1996–2003), Kahneman D. 2000 (7.55, 2016–2022), WHO 1993 (7.02, 2011–2022), Cutler D.M. 2007 (6.97, 2012–2016) and Donaldson C. 1995 (6.94, 1995–2003). Even if they are not included in the previous ranking, the following cited authors should be mentioned because their burstiness periods exceeds 10 years: Fuchs V.R. 21 years (bursts of 4.54, period 1977–1998), Williams A. 17 years (7.63, 1986–2003), Mooney G. 14 years (5.29, 1995–2009), Dolan P. 14 years (4.84, 2003–2017) and Weinstein M.C. 13 years (4.14, 1999–2011).

The same way as previous maps, the cited journal visualization map for health economics research (Fig.  8 ) was created in CiteSpace, but this network has 1273 nodes (cited journals), 25,008 linkages, and a density of 0.0309. The cited journals with more than 38 citations are labelled in the network.

Journal co-citation network visualization for health economics research. Source: Authors

The top ten journals by citations in health economics are presented in Table 5 . The BMJ – British Medical Journal (381 citations) is the journal published by British Medical Association and the most prominent cited journal in health economics area. It is followed by the New England Journal of Medicine (306 citations) and The Lancet (257 citations). The journal published by American Medicinal Association ranks on the fourth place. A journal that receives a lot of citations and has a high citation burstiness score has garnered the interest of academics recently.

The citation surge affects 70 cited journals. The cited journal with the strongest citation bursts is Plos One (21.79, 2014–2022), which is not the most cited one. It is followed by British Medical Journal (20.22, 1982–2006), Value Health (13.15, 2018–2022), BMJ Open (12.48, 2017–2022), Applied Health Economics and Health Policy (10.38, 2017–2022), BMC Health Services Research (10.16, 2019–2022), Frontiers in Public Health (9.99, 2020–2022), Cost Effectiveness and Resource Allocation (9.66, 1998–2005), JAMA Internal Medicine (9.24, 2019–2022) and BMC Public Health (8.71, 2016–2022). It should be noted that 8 cited journals of the ranking are bursting to the present. British Medical Journal (24 years), American Journal of Psychiatry (15 years), The Journal of Health Services Research and Policy (14 years), The New England Journal of Medicine (13 years) and Medical Care (12 years) are the cited journals with the longest periods of bursting, even if the interest in these journals is currently low. It must be added that four of the most cited journals in health economics research are on a top-10 list of journals with the highest JIF in 2021. All these journals are one of the most influential journals in health research.

Co-occurrence analysis

In this section of the analysis, we can pinpoint the key ideas and areas of interest in health economics research. To discover the primary study subjects in many scientific research domains, keywords are generally regarded as one of the most crucial elements of any research paper [ 44 ]. Co-occurrence analysis is used to identify the conceptual structure of the field. Without any pruning, the network of related keywords is shown in Fig.  9 . The network of co-occurred keyword has 694 nodes (keywords), 2823 links (connections), and a density of 0.0117. One percent of all keywords, those with a frequency greater than or equal to five, are labelled.

Keywords co-occurrence network for health economics research. Source: Authors

Table 6 presents the top 30 keywords which are used and connected in the 1620 analysed papers. “Health economics” and “cost effectiveness” are the most co-occurred items in health economics research, they have been connected for 121 times. “Care” follows them as the second high-count keyword with a frequency of 115. One crucial statistic used in the analysis of the keyword co-occurrence network is centrality. Centrality shows a keyword's strength, influence, or other specific characteristics. In this analysis all the keywords have a null betweenness centrality.

By using bursts detection, we tried to identify research hotspots in health economics. Surprisingly, there are only two keywords with citation bursts during 1975–2022: “behavioural economics” and “economic evaluation”. The keyword with the strongest bursts is “behavioural economics” (5.57) and it caught scholars’ attention between 2019 and 2022. The second keyword by citation bursts is “economic evaluation” (4.62). This item is bursting from 2020 to 2022. It can be observed that both research themes have short periods of bursts, and they continue bursting to present.

CiteSpace allows a cluster analysis of keywords to identify topics that have captured the attention of researchers. By applying clustering tool, the keywords network has been divided in 14 clusters, labelled by keywords. Table 7 presents the top 10 keywords clusters, in descending order of their size, and the most used keywords in the analysed sample of publications. There are 14 clusters with different sizes, from 80 research topics in health economics to 4 research topics. Their Silhouette values varies from 0.757 to 0.995 which means that keywords match well to their own cluster. Figure  10 show that the clustering configuration is appropriate.

Keywords clusters. Source: Authors

The largest cluster (#0) is labelled “Health economics” and has 80 components. It contains publications about health economics, cost effectiveness, quality of life, and management. Cost effectiveness analysis and health technology assessment are subjects in the second largest cluster (#1). It is labelled “Value framework” and has 78 topics. The third cluster (#2) “Economic evaluation” contains 75 topics and the most important are care, economic evaluation, outcome, and benefits. Other research topics refer to behavioural economics, demand, cost, quality of life, risk, cancer, public heath, financial incentives, therapy, etc.

The evolution over time of the keywords can be seen in Fig.  11 , structured by cluster. CiteSpace restricts the time pane analyses to the period 1990 – 2022. Figures  11 and 12 present how interest of researchers in health economics has evolved over time. In Fig.  12 are labelled the keywords with a frequency larger than 10. In the 1990s the hot topics of research in health economics were “care”, “impact”, “health economics”, “cost”, “cost effectiveness”, “quality of life”, “outcome”, “economic evaluation”. The most debated research topics in the 2000s were “children”, “air pollution”, “patient”, “management”, “people”, “public health”, “choice”, “therapy and “risk”. In the 2010s focus is on “behavioural economics”, “population”, “obesity”, “uncertainty”, “ technology”, “health policy”, “health system”. How future research in health economics looks? It cannot be estimated with certainty, but some directions are drawn as follows: “inequality”, “care expenditure”, “health technologies”, “analysis plan”, “adaptative design”, “transparency”, “biodiversity”. These topics may shape the future literature in health economics.

Timeline view of keywords clusters in health economics between 1990 and 2022. Source: Authors

Time zone view of keywords clusters in health economics between 1990 and 2022. Source: Authors

The performed literature analysis enables us to respond to the research queries that were addressed in the paper's introduction, as follows:

How scientific production has evolved in health economics?

It can be observed a general upward trend of health economics publications, but with numerous upward and downward fluctuations, generating sinusoidal cycles with an average duration of 3–4 years. The period 1975 – 1986 is characterized by a very low number of publications. The next two decades (1987 – 2006) are characterized by a slightly increasing trend in the number of publications, with an annual average of approximately 23 publications on health economics. The following period, 2007 – 2022 is characterized by an upward evolution of the number of health economics publications, 1068 publications with an annual average of 67 articles. The evolution of the citations’ number indicates the growing interest of specialists in researching the field, especially after 2000 when a constant and galloping annual increase in citations begins. The last 5 years show a very high interest of researchers and academics in health economics research, which is justified by the existence of worldwide Covid pandemic period.

Who are the most important authors and publications in health economics?

In our study, 4096 different authors were identified, and they individually published between one and 16 papers. Among the most important authors in health economics are Drummond M.F., Jonsson B., Coast J., Donaldson C. and Edwards R.T. Regarding the publication’s titles, 847 distinct journals published all 1620 documents related to health economics. Value Health, Health Economics, British Medical Journal, Pharmacoeconomics and Health Policy are among journals with high interest in health economics publications.

What are the geographical and institutional hubs of knowledge production in health economics?

The analysed publications involved the work of authors from 82 countries. The states with significant contributions in the field of health economics are the USA, England, Canada, Australia, and Netherlands. From the point of view of affiliation, the authors belong to 1723 institutions. The institutions with a high number of publications about health economics are University of London, University of California System, University of York, Harvard University and University of Birmingham.

What kind of collaboration between authors, organizations, and nations are there in the field of health economics research?

There are not strong collaboration relationships between authors. They are divided in small research groups and cooperation for research in health economics is insignificant. The most collaborative authors are Drummond M., Mooney G., Trosch R., Marchese D., and Fuchs V. There are two research teams created around Drummond M. and Mooney G., on the one hand, and around Trosch R. and Marchese D., on the other hand. Cooperation among institutions is depending on cooperation among authors. It is understood that poor collaboration at the individual level is followed by an identical one at the organizational level. The most collaborative institutions in health economics area are University of York, University of Oxford, University of Pennsylvania, University of Washington, and University of Birmingham. Regarding collaboration between countries, the USA and England played a key role in worldwide academic exchanges in health economics area, followed by Canada, Australia, and Netherlands.

Which are the most cited authors and the most cited papers, and which are the most attractive journals for publishing research results in health economics?

The most influential paper is published by Arrow K.J. in 1963, entitled “Uncertainty and the Welfare Economics of Medical Care”. The second most influential paper belongs to an anonymous author who wrote in 1996 a paper about cost effectiveness. We assume that is a book written by Gold M.R., Siegel J.E., Russell L.B. and Weinstein M.C., entitled “Cost-Effectiveness in Health and Medicine”. The third and the fourth most cited publications are signed by Drummond M.F. and his co-authors. In fact, it is about a book entitled “Methods for the Economic Evaluation of Health Care Programmes”, first published in 1987 at and then renewed in several editions. Another influential book was written by Kahneman D., entitled “Thinking, Fast and Slow” and published in 2011. The most cited author is Margolis H., who published in 1982 a book about “Selfishness, Altruism, and Rationality”. Drummond M.F. is on the second position with the publications about “Essentials in Health Economics”. Williams A. is the third cited author, followed by Culyer A.J and Arrow K.J. It should be noted that World Health Organization’s (WHO) publications are ones of the most cited document in health economics research. The most cited journals in health economics are The BMJ – British Medical Journal, The New England Journal of Medicine, The Lancet, Journal of American Medicinal Association and Health Economics. Beside them, other very influential journals are Plos One, Value Health, BMJ Open, Applied Health Economics and Health Policy and BMC Health Services Research.

What are the most debated conceptual approaches in health economics?

“Health economics”, “cost effectiveness” and “care” are the most debated concepts in health economics. But the current research hotspots in health economics are “behavioural economics” and “economic evaluation”.

Discussions and conclusions

The current bibliographic analysis was done for a specialized literature: health economics. This analysis contributes to the evaluation of the progress of the global knowledge in health economics and to the evaluation of the interest in health economics research. Moreover, the research allows the identification of the authors who contributed to the theoretical conceptualization of health economics, but also the identification of the most cited works in the field. A bibliometric analysis of the health economics research topic was produced, based on 1620 papers that were published between 1975 and 2021 and indexed in WoS. According to the tables and figures above, we have identified the important authors, publications, nations, organizations, keywords, and references.

By giving information on the current state of the art and identifying trends and research possibilities through the selection and analysis of the most pertinent publications published in the subject of health economics, the current study completes the body of existing research.

Through an extensive field mapping, the study increases the added value for the study of health economics theory. The development patterns of health economics are described by identifying trends in research production in that field and the most productive nations. The identification of top contributors’ points to possible collaborators (universities and researchers) for additional research projects. Finding the most appealing source names reveals publishing prospects for health economics-related articles. Leading thematic areas and developing research areas can be found to help academics identify research gaps in health economics.

Limitations and future research directions

Even though the bibliometric analysis and mapping visualization on articles relevant to health economics in the current research have produced numerous fascinating results, this methodology has several drawbacks. These limitations are due to the bibliometric analysis and quality of database. A quantitative analysis reduces the influence of subjective judgments. In several parts of the analysis, we were forces to use manual search because of inadequate or incomplete data. Maybe, manual analysis is required to learn additional specifics about different aspects of health economics theory by using a systematic review analysis.

The following limitations of the current study should be considered. First, the search strategy leads to a lost in publications which do not contain the query word in the publication title. Therefore, the main findings should be interpreted in accordance with the selection strategy used in this paper. The dataset is downloaded only from WoS, maybe multi-source searching is more convincing. Publications in other languages were not analysed. For some publications the name of author was missing. Some journals change their title in time, and they appear twice as being different journals. In this analysis it was used an inhomogeneous sample due to the type of publications.

Therefore, these restrictions remain issues that need to be resolved in additional research. To sum up, our analysis cannot cover every crucial publication concerning health economics, but we believe that the results allow us to have reliable insight into the knowledge domain. This study could be carried out in the future utilizing new search criteria, time periods, or bibliometric analytic parameters.

Availability of data and materials

The data can be extracted from Web of Science. All data are available upon application.

Abbreviations

European Union

Gross Domestic Product

Journal Impact Factor

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

Science Citation Index Expanded

Social Science Citation Index

The United Kingdom

The United States of America

World Health Organization

Web of Science

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Project financed by Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu through the research grant LBUS-IRG-2022-08.

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Barbu, L. Global trends in the scientific research of the health economics: a bibliometric analysis from 1975 to 2022. Health Econ Rev 13 , 31 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13561-023-00446-7

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Reducing production and consumption growth in high-income countries: is it good for tackling climate change?

Jarmo Kikstra

Research Scholar (IACC, S3, TISS)

Joeri Rogelj

Senior Research Scholar (IACC, TISS)

Bas van Ruijven

Research Group Leader and Principal Research Scholar (S3); Principal Research Scholar (IACC, TISS)

Vladimir Tarakanov

Science Writer (CER)

A new study led by Jarmo Kikstra, a research scholar in the IIASA Energy, Climate, and Environment Program, explores whether reducing production and consumption growth could make a significant contribution to resolving the climate crisis.

As the effects of climate change become more severe and the scale of environmental damage gains magnitude, some researchers disagree about the desirability and feasibility of further economic growth in high-income countries. More recently, the case has been made for exploring a "degrowth" (or post-growth) strategy.

Such a strategy would entail reducing less-necessary forms of production and consumption (rather than growing them) with the goal of reducing environmental pressures, in a way that is democratically planned, and improves equity and human well-being.

Assessment reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), however, have not yet featured mitigation scenarios with degrowth in high-income regions, because little quantitative research has been done on such scenarios. In a new study, IIASA scientists and their colleagues analyzed whether degrowth could help to enable ambitious climate mitigation. They focused on a case study of Australia — a high-income, high-resource use country.

In their study , published in Economics Systems Research , the authors applied MESSAGEix — an integrated assessment model (IAM) – for a simple, explorative illustration of what information IAMs could provide in terms of projecting the future under a degrowth scenario. The model was used to explore 51 scenarios, including those projecting no growth in consumption or even a reduction of consumption per capita. Although some degrowth modeling exists, the authors took a previously unexplored approach: they focused on what transition is required — under different economic growth assumptions — to achieve a particular emissions reduction target.

One of the primary aims of this project was to compare such scenarios to the ones that currently are common in the literature (those following the so-called Shared Socioeconomic Pathway (SSP) framework, where GDP grows in all pathways for all regions and points in time during the twenty-first century.

"Part of the degrowth literature talks about how historically energy and emissions decoupling has not been fast enough, and uses this to argue for a degrowth strategy," says Kikstra. "We show that this is not a black-or-white debate. The nuance lies in the fact that, also under degrowth strategies, forms of decoupling are necessary. But these are structurally different dynamics, which relate to a broad set of policies. A lot of new research is required to model such strategies, and we lay out different options to do so."

“The results of the study suggest that fast emissions reductions in countries like Australia could be enabled in scenarios, characterized by reduced or zero growth. Possibly even faster than in virtually all of the most ambitious mitigation scenarios described in the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report Scenario Database ”, says Bas van Ruijven, coauthor of the study, research group leader and principal research scholar in the IIASA Energy, Climate, and Environment program.

The study also shows that reduced energy demand paired with lower GDP per capita lessens technological feasibility concerns by reducing the need for upscaling solar and wind energy and limiting future material needs for renewables as electricity generation stabilizes in the second half of the century. “However, even in a scenario that halts economic growth we show a fourfold increase in solar and wind energy is necessary by 2030, compared to 2020, for Australia to meet ambitious climate targets”, highlights Joeri Rogelj, another coauthor of the study and a senior research scholar in the IIASA Energy, Climate, and Environment Program.

Finally, the study also looks at the risk lower energy availability could have on providing decent living standards for all. It shows the tradeoff between growth and inequality reduction, illustrating what corridors exist for meeting human needs and climate goals.

The authors highlight that further analysis is required to dissect the complex dynamics of an actual real-world degrowth transition scenario. This includes better understanding of sociocultural and economic feasibility of lower-growth pathways, as faster reductions in energy demand may entail higher sociocultural feasibility concerns, depending on the policies involved.

Reference: Kikstra, J.S., Li, M., Brockway, P.E., Hickel, J., Keysser, L., Malik, A., Rogelj, J., van Ruijven, B., et al. (2024). Downscaling down under: towards degrowth in integrated assessment models. Economic Systems Research 1-31. 10.1080/09535314.2023.2301443 . (In Press) [pure.iiasa.ac.at/19589 ]

24 January 2023

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UCL Faculty of Laws

Law, Economics and Society: The Foundations of Capitalism (LAWS0299)

The course will provide students an advanced critical introduction to the impact on the legal system of the transformation of modern capitalism from technological and economic change, drawing on research in economics, complexity science, political economy and economic sociology.

The course will examine the evolving legal and economic foundations of capitalism, as these are transformed by the ongoing fourth industrial revolution, in order to introduce participants to the intricacies of the legal-economic nexus in modern capitalist societies. This is not a traditional “economic analysis of law” course. We question the assumptions and methods employed by economic analysis of law, as we consider that it focuses too much on economic efficiency (narrowly defined), and methodological individualism, ignoring the role of complex social systems and organisations in the constellation of path dependencies and interests. It is also static (as it does not engage with the possibility of drastic innovations) and relies on a simplistic understanding of human behaviour. Hence, we consider that, although analytically appealing, traditional “economic analysis of law” is both from a theoretical and a practical perspective flawed, and that its influence on policy makers and the legal profession will wane soon. Our starting point is that of a “complex economy” in constant evolution because of the development of new technologies, which requires the role of the legal system in this process of transformation, a profound understanding, not just of economics, but also of economic sociology, political economy, science and technology studies and complexity science. Hence, the specific module relates to the broader Law and Political Economy movement. 

The first part of the course will focus on the different perspectives brought by these ongoing technological transformations in the conceptualization of property rights (including intellectual property), liability rules, regulatory alternatives and the role of the legal system in general. We will also explore the legal innovations that were put in place in order to facilitate the constitution of global markets and to support market transactions and will reflect on the way technology and drastic (or disruptive) innovation alters the economic and legal foundations of the capitalist system.  

The second part of the course will delve into the conceptual and institutional foundations of a market economy. We will focus on the social construction of markets and their properties, as well as the market-making role of economists who devise innovative technical instruments (“market devices”) that intervene in the shaping and reshaping of markets and ensure their performance. We will explore how the legal system has assisted this market-creating effort so far, as well as the intense collaboration between different professions in order to ensure the performativity of markets. The recent turn of both economics and the law to promoting innovation will constitute the intellectual backbone of the course. In this effort we will explore the legal-economic nexus in various industries, such as computing, finance, the food sector, biotechnology and pharma, among others. In addition to the classic legal texts, readings will include foundation texts in law and economics, science and technology studies, political economy, economic sociology, innovation economics and general sociology. The third part of the course will briefly introduce the students to the basics of complexity science and will provide an introduction to some quantitative techniques, including agent-based modelling and linear regression.

• Introduction to the course – Understanding markets and the embedded economy: market devices  
• Law and Neoliberalism  
• Wealth maximization and theories of value – Debt and Finance  
• Financialisation, profit maximization (shareholder value maximization) and corporate governance  
• The political economy of regulation 
• The political economy of the digital economy I: Data as an Asset and a Right   
• The political economy of the digital economy II: Between owning and sharing  
• The political economy of sustainability 
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Lianos, Value extraction and institutions in digital capitalism: Towards a law and political economy synthesis for competition law, available at Value extraction and institutions in digital capitalism: Towards a law and political economy synthesis for competition law | European Law Open | Cambridge Core  

Samuel Bowles, Frank Roosevelt, Richard Edwards & Mehrene Larudee, Understanding Capitalism: Competition, Command and Change (OUP, 2018) 

Brian Arthur, Complexity and the Economy (OUP, 2014) 

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For the Colorado River and beyond, a new market could save the day

The Colorado River, “the lifeblood of the West,” is in trouble. Decades of overuse and drought have sharply reduced its water supply, threatening an ecosystem that supports 40 million people and 5.5 million acres of farmland in nearby states and parts of northern Mexico.

Steep cutbacks in water use are critical. But the seven states that rely on the Colorado River can’t agree on how much less each of them needs to take over the long run, in large part because it’s not entirely clear who holds what legal rights to the river and who should get priority over others to its available water. If the states can’t agree, the federal government is reportedly threatening to make the hard choices for them.

Paul Milgrom , a senior fellow at the Stanford Institute for Economic Policy Research ( SIEPR ), has encountered intractable problems like this before. In 2020, he won the Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences for his pioneering work creating markets for goods and services that can’t be sold in traditional ways.

Water management, he says, is ripe for a market fix — not just for the Colorado River Basin but around the world as water shortages, made worse by climate change, become a defining issue of the 21st century. It’s no longer enough to leave decisions around water use up to federal, state, and local governments alone.

“We are trying to meet a 21st century set of challenges with 20th century technology and 19th century laws,” says Milgrom, the Shirley R. and Leonard W. Ely, Jr. Professor in Humanities and Sciences in Stanford’s Department of Economics in the School of Humanities and Sciences. “What we have, fundamentally, is a market design problem.”

Milgrom is part of an interdisciplinary Stanford team — led by Billy Ferguson , a PhD student in economics at the GSB and a former SIEPR undergraduate research fellow — that has developed an elaborate plan for how new markets for trading water could overcome key policy challenges around water allocation while providing incentives to high-volume users to find ways to do more with less.

Milgrom and Ferguson recently highlighted their proposal in a working paper released by the National Bureau of Economic Research. Their use case is California, one of the Colorado River Basin’s biggest stakeholders and whose system for divvying up surface water, which comes from rivers and streams, is especially complex and opaque.

Much of their blueprint is drawn from Milgrom’s work a decade ago helping the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) overcome obstacles in delivering more radio wave frequencies to wireless companies so they could meet exploding consumer demand for mobile services.

Milgrom led a team of experts in economics and computer science through his company, Auctionomics, in the creation of a voluntary market for trading a new type of radio spectrum license, which is credited with enabling mobile communication as we know it, today. The two-part auction process he helped engineer so that the FCC could make those trades possible also delivered $20 billion in total to the radio and TV operators that gave up their old licenses and another $10 billion to the U.S. Treasury.

Milgrom, who is also a professor, by courtesy, at the Stanford Graduate School of Business (GSB) and at the Department of Management Science and Engineering in the School of Engineering, says there are lessons from the 2017 Broadband Incentive Auction that apply to water scarcity in the United States and around the world.

Water rights are broken

As a second-year PhD student in 2021, Ferguson was already interested in water scarcity when he took Milgrom’s market design course and thought that lessons from the FCC’s broadband fix could apply to water. His class project on California’s convoluted system of water rights caught Milgrom’s attention and they started talking about working together. Ferguson then enrolled in a water law course taught by Barton “Buzz” Thompson , a Stanford Law School professor and water rights expert who had also been thinking about the potential role of markets. Thompson is also the faculty director of the Water in the West program led jointly by the Stanford Woods Institute for the Environment and the Bill Lane Center for the American West.

“I really need to get Buzz and Paul in the same room,” Ferguson recalls thinking. With Thompson on board, the team pressed ahead.

At its core, their idea for a water market starts with creating a new type of property right — one designed to overcome many of the drawbacks with current policies. California, for instance, has a “first come, first served” approach to surface water in which the earliest rights holders — among them, farms and ranches dating 100 or more years ago — have been given priority to rivers and streams over the water-hungry entities that came later, notably coastal cities like Los Angeles and San Diego.

California also has a “use or lose it” provision that requires rights holders to consume their yearly allotment or surface water or risk getting less water in the future. They can technically sell any excess water to other users, but in practice, it’s really hard to do, according to Ferguson: Sellers first have to show that no one downstream from where the water would otherwise go — a phenomenon known as “return flow” — is harmed.

“The system is set up in a way that you have every incentive to use your entire allocation and no incentive to conserve,” Ferguson says.

Going all in with econ

Billy Ferguson was part of the inaugural cohort of undergraduate research fellows at SIEPR. He learned, as a sophomore at that time, about the power of economic tools and data-backed research and never looked back. Today, his PhD work with advisor Paul Milgrom boldly introduces a novel approach to a longstanding issue over the allocation of water rights.

A solution designed for optimal flexibility

A more efficient approach, write Ferguson and Milgrom in their working paper , would be to establish a new property right aimed at delivering water to those who need it most and are willing to pay for it. Among other features, this new right would be based on how much water gets consumed, not diverted, and adjust as precipitation levels change from one year to the next.

This new water market, Ferguson says, would give rights holders incentives to save water — maybe by switching to low-water crops or installing more efficient water treatment systems — and sell off what they don’t need without damaging downstream users. And because water would then be a financial asset, Ferguson and Milgrom say farmers and other rights holders would have easier access to loans or other capital to pay for investments in water-saving technologies.

To kickstart the market, in which participation would be voluntary, the Stanford team is borrowing another page from the radio spectrum playbook: a one-time auction in which governments, in a process known as a “reverse” auction, first buy back water rights from those who are willing to give them up in exchange for the new right. In a subsequent “forward” auction, governments would sell the new water rights to the highest bidders, who would then be free to privately trade their entitlements going forward.

“Our whole approach is to ensure a level of flexibility in allocating water that’s needed but currently missing,” Ferguson says.

Government, he adds, also has a critical role to play in adopting policies to protect vulnerable populations. This includes, for example, limiting how much farmland can be fallowed in pursuit of water profits so that local communities aren’t impacted by job losses and other economic fallout.

Why the timing is right

Milgrom and Ferguson aren’t harboring any illusions: As the Colorado River impasse shows, water scarcity is rife with political, economic, and technological challenges.

But they are also optimistic that their vision for a water market will gain traction — in large part because there’s an urgent need to figure out how to make better use of dwindling water supplies.

“There’s both pressure and possibility,” says Milgrom, just like there was when he took on the challenge of freeing up radio spectrum for wireless companies. And like then, technology has reached the point where water supplies can be measured in new ways and with enough accuracy to give users confidence in their ability to get the water they need.

“There’s every reason to think this can work,” he says. “While it won’t reverse climate change or make it rain, it would go a long way toward providing long-run water resilience.”

The biggest roadblock, says Milgrom, is the politics around water — at the federal, state, and local levels. This is one reason why Milgrom sees introducing water markets as an even bigger problem to solve than reallocating radio spectrum.

The challenge is also deeply personal for Milgrom. “I’m 75 years old,” he says. “If I’m lucky, I have one really big project left in me and I’d like this to be it.”

A conference on Advancing Sustainable Water Management — organized by Milgrom and Thompson, and hosted by Stanford Graduate School of Business and the Stanford Doerr School of Sustainability — will be held on April 18-19. Find info on the event here . 

Policy challenges of the Colorado River was one of the topics at the 10th Annual Eccles Family Rural West Conference organized by the Bill Lane Center for the American West. See coverage of the March 27 event here .

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White-sounding names get called back for jobs more than Black ones, a new study finds

Joe Hernandez

A sign seeking job applicants is seen in the window of a restaurant in Miami, Florida, on May 5, 2023. Joe Raedle/Getty Images hide caption

A sign seeking job applicants is seen in the window of a restaurant in Miami, Florida, on May 5, 2023.

Twenty years ago, two economists responded to a slew of help-wanted ads in Boston and Chicago newspapers using a set of fictitious names to test for racial bias in the job market.

The watershed study found that applicants with names suggesting they were white got 50% more callbacks from employers than those whose names indicated they were Black.

Researchers at the University of California, Berkeley and the University of Chicago recently took that premise and expanded on it, filing 83,000 fake job applications for 11,000 entry-level positions at a variety of Fortune 500 companies.

Their working paper , published this month and titled "A Discrimination Report Card," found that the typical employer called back the presumably white applicants around 9% more than Black ones. That number rose to roughly 24% for the worst offenders.

The research team initially conducted its experiment in 2021, but their new paper names the 97 companies they included in the study and assigns them grades representing their level of bias, thanks to a new methodology the researchers developed.

"Putting the names out there in the public domain is to move away from a lot of the performative allyship that you see with these companies, saying, 'Oh, we value inclusivity and diversity,'" said Pat Kline, a University of California, Berkeley economics professor who worked on the study. "We're trying to create kind of an objective ground truth here."

America Reckons With Racial Injustice

From jobs to homeownership, protests put spotlight on racial economic divide.

The names that researchers tested include some used in the 2004 study as well as others culled from a database of speeding tickets in North Carolina. A name was classified as "racially distinctive" if more than 90% of people with that name shared the same race.

Applicants with names such as Brad and Greg were up against Darnell and Lamar. Amanda and Kristen competed for jobs with Ebony and Latoya.

What the researchers found was that some firms called back Black applicants considerably less, while race played little to no factor in the hiring processes at other firms.

Dorianne St Fleur, a career coach and workplace consultant, said she wasn't surprised by the findings showing fewer callbacks for presumed Black applicants at some companies.

"I know the study focused on entry-level positions. Unfortunately it doesn't stop there. I've seen it throughout the organization all the way up into the C-suite," she said.

St Fleur, who primarily coaches women of color, said many of her clients have the right credentials and experience for certain jobs but aren't being hired.

"They are sending out dozens, hundreds of resumes and receiving nothing back," she said.

What the researchers found

Much of a company's bias in hiring could be explained by its industry, the study found. Auto dealers and retailers of car parts were the least likely to call back Black applicants, with Genuine Auto Parts (which distributes NAPA products) and the used car retailer AutoNation scoring the worst on the study's "discrimination report card."

"We are always evaluating our practices to ensure inclusivity and break down barriers, and we will continue to do so," Heather Ross, vice president of strategic communications at Genuine Parts Company, said in an email.

AutoNation did not reply to a request for comment.

The companies that performed best in the analysis included Charter/Spectrum, Dr. Pepper, Kroger and Avis-Budget.

Workplace Diversity Goes Far Past Hiring. How Leaders Can Support Employees Of Color

Several patterns emerged when the researchers looked at the companies that had the lowest "contact gap" between white and Black applicants

Federal contractors and more profitable companies called back applicants from the two racial groups at more similar rates. Firms with more centralized human resources departments and policies also exhibited less racial bias, which Kline says may indicate that a standardized hiring workflow involving multiple employees could help reduce discrimination.

When it came to the sex of applicants, most companies didn't discriminate when calling back job-seekers.

Still, some firms preferred one sex over another in screening applicants. Manufacturing companies called back people with male names at higher rates, and clothing stores showing a bias toward female applicants.

What can workplaces — and workers — do

Kline said the research team hoped the public would focus as much on companies doing a bad job as those doing a good one, since they have potentially found ways to remove or limit racial bias from the hiring process.

"Even if it's true, from these insights in psychology and behavioral economics, that individuals are inevitably going to carry biases along with them, it's not automatic that those individual biases will translate into organizational biases, on average," he said.

St Fleur said there are several strategies companies can use to cut down on bias in the hiring process, including training staff and involving multiple recruiters in callback decisions.

Companies should also collect data about which candidates make it through the hiring process and consider standardizing or anonymizing that process, she added.

St Fleur also said she often tells her job-seeking clients that it's not their fault that they aren't getting called back for open positions they believe they're qualified for.

"The fact that you're not getting callbacks does not mean you suck, you're not a good worker, you don't deserve this thing," she said. "It's just the nature of the systemic forces at play, and this is what we have to deal with."

Still, she said job candidates facing bias in the hiring process can lean on their network for new opportunities, prioritize inclusive companies when applying for work and even consider switching industries or locations.

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What Researchers Discovered When They Sent 80,000 Fake Résumés to U.S. Jobs

Some companies discriminated against Black applicants much more than others, and H.R. practices made a big difference.

By Claire Cain Miller and Josh Katz

A group of economists recently performed an experiment on around 100 of the largest companies in the country, applying for jobs using made-up résumés with equivalent qualifications but different personal characteristics. They changed applicants’ names to suggest that they were white or Black, and male or female — Latisha or Amy, Lamar or Adam.

On Monday, they released the names of the companies . On average, they found, employers contacted the presumed white applicants 9.5 percent more often than the presumed Black applicants.

Yet this practice varied significantly by firm and industry. One-fifth of the companies — many of them retailers or car dealers — were responsible for nearly half of the gap in callbacks to white and Black applicants.

Two companies favored white applicants over Black applicants significantly more than others. They were AutoNation, a used car retailer, which contacted presumed white applicants 43 percent more often, and Genuine Parts Company, which sells auto parts including under the NAPA brand, and called presumed white candidates 33 percent more often.

In a statement, Heather Ross, a spokeswoman for Genuine Parts, said, “We are always evaluating our practices to ensure inclusivity and break down barriers, and we will continue to do so.” AutoNation did not respond to a request for comment.

Companies With the Largest and Smallest Racial Contact Gaps

Of the 97 companies in the experiment, two stood out as contacting presumed white job applicants significantly more often than presumed Black ones. At 14 companies, there was little or no difference in how often they called back the presumed white or Black applicants.

Source: Patrick Kline, Evan K. Rose and Christopher R. Walters

Known as an audit study , the experiment was the largest of its kind in the United States: The researchers sent 80,000 résumés to 10,000 jobs from 2019 to 2021. The results demonstrate how entrenched employment discrimination is in parts of the U.S. labor market — and the extent to which Black workers start behind in certain industries.

“I am not in the least bit surprised,” said Daiquiri Steele, an assistant professor at the University of Alabama School of Law who previously worked for the Department of Labor on employment discrimination. “If you’re having trouble breaking in, the biggest issue is the ripple effect it has. It affects your wages and the economy of your community going forward.”

Some companies showed no difference in how they treated applications from people assumed to be white or Black. Their human resources practices — and one policy in particular (more on that later) — offer guidance for how companies can avoid biased decisions in the hiring process.

A lack of racial bias was more common in certain industries: food stores, including Kroger; food products, including Mondelez; freight and transport, including FedEx and Ryder; and wholesale, including Sysco and McLane Company.

“We want to bring people’s attention not only to the fact that racism is real, sexism is real, some are discriminating, but also that it’s possible to do better, and there’s something to be learned from those that have been doing a good job,” said Patrick Kline, an economist at the University of California, Berkeley, who conducted the study with Evan K. Rose at the University of Chicago and Christopher R. Walters at Berkeley.

The researchers first published details of their experiment in 2021, but without naming the companies. The new paper, which is set to run in the American Economic Review, names the companies and explains the methodology developed to group them by their performance, while accounting for statistical noise.

Sample Résumés From the Experiment

Fictitious résumés sent to large U.S. companies revealed a preference, on average, for candidates whose names suggested that they were white.

To assign names, the researchers started with a prior list that had been assembled using Massachusetts birth certificates from 1974 to 1979. They then supplemented this list with names found in a database of speeding tickets issued in North Carolina between 2006 and 2018, classifying a name as “distinctive” if more than 90 percent of people with that name were of a particular race.

The study includes 97 firms. The jobs the researchers applied to were entry level, not requiring a college degree or substantial work experience. In addition to race and gender, the researchers tested other characteristics protected by law , like age and sexual orientation.

They sent up to 1,000 applications to each company, applying for as many as 125 jobs per company in locations nationwide, to try to uncover patterns in companies’ operations versus isolated instances. Then they tracked whether the employer contacted the applicant within 30 days.

A bias against Black names

Companies requiring lots of interaction with customers, like sales and retail, particularly in the auto sector, were most likely to show a preference for applicants presumed to be white. This was true even when applying for positions at those firms that didn’t involve customer interaction, suggesting that discriminatory practices were baked in to corporate culture or H.R. practices, the researchers said.

Still, there were exceptions — some of the companies exhibiting the least bias were retailers, like Lowe’s and Target.

The study may underestimate the rate of discrimination against Black applicants in the labor market as a whole because it tested large companies, which tend to discriminate less, said Lincoln Quillian, a sociologist at Northwestern who analyzes audit studies. It did not include names intended to represent Latino or Asian American applicants, but other research suggests that they are also contacted less than white applicants, though they face less discrimination than Black applicants.

The experiment ended in 2021, and some of the companies involved might have changed their practices since. Still, a review of all available audit studies found that discrimination against Black applicants had not changed in three decades. After the Black Lives Matter protests in 2020, such discrimination was found to have disappeared among certain employers, but the researchers behind that study said the effect was most likely short-lived.

Gender, age and L.G.B.T.Q. status

On average, companies did not treat male and female applicants differently. This aligns with other research showing that gender discrimination against women is rare in entry-level jobs, and starts later in careers.

However, when companies did favor men (especially in manufacturing) or women (mostly at apparel stores), the biases were much larger than for race. Builders FirstSource contacted presumed male applicants more than twice as often as female ones. Ascena, which owns brands like Ann Taylor, contacted women 66 percent more than men.

Neither company responded to requests for comment.

The consequences of being female differed by race. The differences were small, but being female was a slight benefit for white applicants, and a slight penalty for Black applicants.

The researchers also tested several other characteristics protected by law, with a smaller number of résumés. They found there was a small penalty for being over 40.

Overall, they found no penalty for using nonbinary pronouns. Being gay, as indicated by including membership in an L.G.B.T.Q. club on the résumé, resulted in a slight penalty for white applicants, but benefited Black applicants — although the effect was small, when this was on their résumés, the racial penalty disappeared.

Under the Civil Rights Act of 1964, discrimination is illegal even if it’s unintentional . Yet in the real world, it is difficult for job applicants to know why they did not hear back from a company.

“These practices are particularly challenging to address because applicants often do not know whether they are being discriminated against in the hiring process,” Brandalyn Bickner, a spokeswoman for the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, said in a statement. (It has seen the data and spoken with the researchers, though it could not use an academic study as the basis for an investigation, she said.)

What companies can do to reduce discrimination

Several common measures — like employing a chief diversity officer, offering diversity training or having a diverse board — were not correlated with decreased discrimination in entry-level hiring, the researchers found.

But one thing strongly predicted less discrimination: a centralized H.R. operation.

The researchers recorded the voice mail messages that the fake applicants received. When a company’s calls came from fewer individual phone numbers, suggesting that they were originating from a central office, there tended to be less bias . When they came from individual hiring managers at local stores or warehouses, there was more. These messages often sounded frantic and informal, asking if an applicant could start the next day, for example.

“That’s when implicit biases kick in,” Professor Kline said. A more formalized hiring process helps overcome this, he said: “Just thinking about things, which steps to take, having to run something by someone for approval, can be quite important in mitigating bias.”

At Sysco, a wholesale restaurant food distributor, which showed no racial bias in the study, a centralized recruitment team reviews résumés and decides whom to call. “Consistency in how we review candidates, with a focus on the requirements of the position, is key,” said Ron Phillips, Sysco’s chief human resources officer. “It lessens the opportunity for personal viewpoints to rise in the process.”

Another important factor is diversity among the people hiring, said Paula Hubbard, the chief human resources officer at McLane Company. It procures, stores and delivers products for large chains like Walmart, and showed no racial bias in the study. Around 40 percent of the company’s recruiters are people of color, and 60 percent are women.

Diversifying the pool of people who apply also helps, H.R. officials said. McLane goes to events for women in trucking and puts up billboards in Spanish.

So does hiring based on skills, versus degrees . While McLane used to require a college degree for many roles, it changed that practice after determining that specific skills mattered more for warehousing or driving jobs. “We now do that for all our jobs: Is there truly a degree required?” Ms. Hubbard said. “Why? Does it make sense? Is experience enough?”

Hilton, another company that showed no racial bias in the study, also stopped requiring degrees for many jobs, in 2018.

Another factor associated with less bias in hiring, the new study found, was more regulatory scrutiny — like at federal contractors, or companies with more Labor Department citations.

Finally, more profitable companies were less biased, in line with a long-held economics theory by the Nobel Prize winner Gary Becker that discrimination is bad for business. Economists said that could be because the more profitable companies benefit from a more diverse set of employees. Or it could be an indication that they had more efficient business processes, in H.R. and elsewhere.

Claire Cain Miller writes about gender, families and the future of work for The Upshot. She joined The Times in 2008 and was part of a team that won a Pulitzer Prize in 2018 for public service for reporting on workplace sexual harassment issues. More about Claire Cain Miller

Josh Katz is a graphics editor for The Upshot, where he covers a range of topics involving politics, policy and culture. He is the author of “Speaking American: How Y’all, Youse, and You Guys Talk,” a visual exploration of American regional dialects. More about Josh Katz

From The Upshot: What the Data Says

Analysis that explains politics, policy and everyday life..

Employment Discrimination: Researchers sent 80,000 fake résumés to some of the largest companies in the United States. They found that some discriminated against Black applicants much more than others .

Pandemic School Closures: ​A variety of data about children’s academic outcomes and about the spread of Covid-19 has accumulated since the start of the pandemic. Here is what we learned from it .

Affirmative Action: The Supreme Court effectively ended race-based preferences in admissions. But will selective schools still be able to achieve diverse student bodies? Here is how they might try .

N.Y.C. Neighborhoods: We asked New Yorkers to map their neighborhoods and to tell us what they call them . The result, while imperfect, is an extremely detailed map of the city .

Dialect Quiz:  What does the way you speak say about where you’re from? Answer these questions to find out .

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Commercializing AI Tech | United States Postal Service

The United States Postal Service

Artificial intelligence technology enables efficiency Venu Govindaraju's work in handwriting recognition was at the center of the first handwritten address interpretation system used by the United States Postal Service (USPS). USPS issued a contract to researchers at the University at Buffalo to develop the handwriting recognition technology. One year after implementation it saved the USPS $ 90 million by automatically processing, and barcoding for precise delivery, more than 25 billion letters. The 2009 Computing Community Consortium dubbed the project as “one of the most successful applications of Machine Learning for developing a real-time engineered system.”

How The USPS Collaborated with UB

Handwriting Recognition Technology    |    Perfecting Multilingual OCR    |    Enabling Postal Automation

CHALLENGE & OPPORTUNITY

Revolutionizing handwriting understanding & automation

Venu Govindaraju and his team of more than 50 post-doc students and researchers pioneered the world's first self-governing system for handwriting understanding. Operating at 13 postal mail pieces per second, it interprets natural handwriting without strict rules or forms. Govindaraju's method employs advanced algorithms to determine destinations from 170 million possibilities using contextual information and generated lexicons. Overcoming challenges of natural cursive handwriting, they utilized an interactive A*-like algorithm and a stochastic recognizer to cluster and distinguish various writing styles.

SOLUTION & IMPACT

Expanding AI frontiers

Govindaraju's research impact extends far beyond revolutionizing the postal service industry, branching into Digital Libraries and Multilingual OCR. His methods facilitate early disease detection via healthcare form processing for the New York State (NYS) Department of Health, enhance patient safety through automated reading of medical prescriptions, and enable efficient access to historical documents, including Sanskrit and Arabic texts. Moreover, his techniques enable the retrieval of lecture video segments with significant handwritten and whiteboard content. Through innovations in word spotting, transcript mapping, text retrieval, and writer identification, Govindaraju has introduced powerful methods that advance technology across diverse applications.

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Favorite movie essay

Last updated Saturday , 16-03-2024 on 10:48 am

Favorite movie essay , Contains a film you have seen before and influenced by you in a big way or talking about the quality of different films and their importance and what is your favorite kind of movies.All this information will be found here in a favorite movie essay.

The Forbidden Story

The forbidden story is a black and white Egyptian movie of 1963 production. The movie discusses a variety of human aspects and human nature through drama and comedy.

The movie revolves around Hanaa, a rural girl who went to live with Kassem Bey, the cousin of her father, the only surviving from her family. She took with her a basket full of food and carrying a large goose, which caused a costly Chinese vase break.

Kassem Bey was unhappy with her arrival. Kassem is womanizer and changed his name to Jalal.

Jalal impressed by the beauty of his kinswoman and sought to teach her the principles of urbanization.

When Jalal noticed that their neighbor was watching her, he sent his kinswoman with her maid to live in a faraway villa in Heliopolis.

Ahmed is a lawyer working for Jalal’s office. During Ahmad’s visit to a client in Heliopolis, he sees Hana running behind the goose after fleeing from the villa to the street.  

Ahmad grabbed the goose and exchanged a few words with Hana. They attracted to each other from the first meeting.

Ahmed tells Jalal about his adventures and  Jalal begins giving him instructions to get closer to the heart of his beloved.

Although Hana talked to Ahmad about his boss, he did not know him because she was talking about Kassem Bey. At the same time, Jalal was flirting with Hana, who is younger than him, hoping to fall in love with him, but Ahmad won her heart thanks to Jalal’s advice.

When Ahmed tells Jalal that he is hampered by an old relative, Jalal advised him to leave her old relative to live with Ahmed without knowing that he is the old intended relative.

On the other hand, Mujahid the “villa gardener” loves Hana’s maid and prepares for the marriage.

By chance, Ahmed knows that Jalal is Hana’s relative and escapes with Hana and decides to marry her.

Finally, Jalal acknowledge the triumph of youth love, and blesses their marriage.

The film is written by Radwan Tolba

Scenario and dialogue of Ali Al-Zarkani

Directed by Radwan Tolba

Assistant director Simon Saleh

Second assistant airector Gamal Ammar

Actors: Magda, Shukri Sarhan, Mahmoud El Meligy, Wedad Hamdi, Aziza Helmy, Adly Kaseb.

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Essay on My Favourite Movie 3 Idiots

Students are often asked to write an essay on My Favourite Movie 3 Idiots in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on My Favourite Movie 3 Idiots

Introduction.

I love watching movies, but the one that has deeply influenced me is “3 Idiots”. It’s a Bollywood film that inspires and entertains.

“3 Idiots” follows the lives of three engineering students. They explore friendship, love, and passion while challenging the education system.

Aamir Khan plays the lead role of Rancho, a genius who loves learning. His friends Farhan and Raju are brilliantly portrayed by R. Madhavan and Sharman Joshi.

Why I Love It

“3 Idiots” delivers a powerful message – chase your dreams, not grades. It’s a movie that’s both fun and meaningful.

250 Words Essay on My Favourite Movie 3 Idiots

My favourite movie, “3 Idiots”, is an Indian film directed by Rajkumar Hirani. It is a perfect blend of comedy and drama, interspersed with profound life lessons.

Plot and Characters

The narrative revolves around three engineering students – Rancho, Farhan, and Raju – studying at the prestigious Imperial College of Engineering. Each character is unique, with Rancho being an innovative genius, Farhan a passionate photographer stuck in the wrong profession, and Raju a fearful yet honest individual.

Themes and Messages

The film is an eloquent critique of the Indian education system and societal expectations. It emphasizes the importance of understanding and applying knowledge rather than rote learning. The phrase “All is well”, synonymous with the movie, serves as a reminder to remain optimistic amidst adversities.

Impact and Personal Reflection

“3 Idiots” left a significant impact on me. It taught me to follow my passion instead of succumbing to societal pressures. The movie’s humour and emotional depth, coupled with its powerful message, is what sets it apart.

In conclusion, “3 Idiots” is not just a movie, but a life-altering experience. It questions the status quo and encourages viewers to break free from societal norms. It is a movie that remains etched in my memory, and I believe it will continue to inspire many more in the future.

500 Words Essay on My Favourite Movie 3 Idiots

The Indian film industry, known as Bollywood, is renowned for its diverse and vibrant cinematic experiences. Among the multitude of films it has produced, one that stands out for me is the 2009 release, 3 Idiots. Directed by Rajkumar Hirani, the movie is a blend of comedy, drama, and profound social commentary. It remains my favourite due to its timeless relevance, compelling narrative, and the profound life lessons it imparts.

Plot and Characterization

3 Idiots is a story about three engineering students – Rancho, Farhan, and Raju – studying at the prestigious Imperial College of Engineering. The movie is not merely about their college life, but it delves deeper into their individual lives, aspirations, and the societal pressures they face. The film’s characters are well-etched, with each representing a different facet of the Indian society. Rancho, played by Aamir Khan, is the rebel who questions the education system, while Farhan and Raju, portrayed by R. Madhavan and Sharman Joshi respectively, embody the students who succumb to societal and familial pressures.

The film explores various themes such as friendship, love, societal expectations, and the flaws in the education system. The central theme, however, revolves around the pursuit of passion over societal norms. The movie’s famous quote, “Pursue excellence, and success will follow,” encapsulates its core message. It criticizes the rote learning method and emphasizes understanding and applying knowledge. The movie also underscores the importance of innovation and creativity, which are often stifled by the rigid education system.

Impact and Influence

3 Idiots had a significant impact on the audience and the film industry. It broke numerous box-office records, but more importantly, it triggered conversations about the education system and societal pressures. The movie’s influence transcended beyond entertainment, inspiring many to question and challenge the status quo. The film’s success proved that movies could be both entertaining and thought-provoking.

In conclusion, 3 Idiots is my favourite movie because it beautifully blends entertainment with social commentary. Its powerful storyline, relatable characters, and profound messages make it a timeless classic. The film serves as a reminder that cinema can be a powerful medium to inspire change and provoke thought. It encourages us to question, to learn, and to follow our passion, making it a movie that resonates well beyond its runtime.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

If you’re looking for more, here are essays on other interesting topics:

• Essay on 3 Idiots Movie Review
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Essay On My Favourite Movie In English In 100, 150, 200 And 250 Words

Essay On My Favourite Movie :- Hello students, Today we teach you how to writer Short Essay On My Favourite Movie, Lots of times this essay asked in exam as movie review essay, essay film, film review essay, and my favourite movie essay. So, stay in this blog and note down in your copy.

Short Essay On My Favourite Movie In 100, 150, 200 And 250 Words

Main points.

• Theatre Where You Saw
• Story , Music , Cast , Photography and Dialogues
• Message of the Movie

Name :- The good Movies are action or comedy films, but the best films are action and comedy mixed together. That’s why the film “Taxi 2” is my favourite film. It’s a French film with action & comedy.

Theatre Where You Saw :- I saw it in PVR Cinemas last week with my friends. It was a birthday treat to one of my friends.

Story , Music , Cast , Photography and Dialogues :- The film takes place in Paris. Samy Naceri is playing the leading role as Daniel. Daniel is an illegal taxi driver because he hasn’t any driving license. Daniel has a girlfriend called Lily. She had invited Daniel for dinner, so the parents could see him. Her father is an army man. Suddenly, the red telephone rings, and he had to go to the airport to meet the Japanese Minister of Defence.

The father had a chauffeur, who should pick him up, but the chauffeur was involved in a car accident on the way, and Daniel must drive him to the airport. Music, cast and photography were very good and appealing to the audience. I enjoyed the movie very much.

Message of the Movie :- The movie was a action – comedy and it enter tained all my friends. We really loved the movie and appreciate all of the persons involved in its making.

So, Students this is full An Essay On My Favourite Movie, if you like this Essay then don’t forget to bookmark  our website  and  join our telegram  for more essay our website always provide good quality essay.

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How to Write an Essay About Favorite Movie

Do you have a favorite movie? Most people do. In this blog post, I will teach you how to write an essay about your favorite movie. It’s no secret that many students dread writing essays. But what if your favorite movie could provide inspiration and help make the process a little less painful?

The first step is to make up a thesis statement. A great platform https://essaywritinghelp.pro/thesis-writing-service/ can help you with this, it is designed specifically for essay assignment help for students. Once you have your thesis statement, you need to come up with three pieces of evidence to support your position. Each piece of evidence should be one paragraph long. The final step is to write a conclusion paragraph in which you restate your thesis and sum up your points.

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Analyzing the film critically

While writing an essay about your favorite movie, it is important to analyze it critically. It will give your readers a more detailed understanding of the film’s theme and characters. It will also include specific examples of what you liked and disliked about the movie. You can also include details on the director, cinematographer, and other key players in the film.

The director plays a major role in bringing ideas to life and ensuring that the story is believable. You should analyze the director’s style to better understand his or her filmmaking techniques. Another significant element to analyze is the casting of the actors. Great actors can bring the story to life. So, evaluate their actions and how it fits into the movie’s theme.

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When writing a movie analysis, it is essential to watch the film several times to fully understand its themes. In case you have a favorite movie but don’t have time to write an essay about it, you can consider purchasing from the best essay writing service . In a short time, you can get a superbly completed assignment from an essay writer from this platform. This will also allow you to focus on different aspects of the movie, which is necessary for a thorough analysis. In addition, you should take notes while watching the movie.

When writing an essay about your favorite movie, it’s important to examine the film from a critical perspective. To do this, you need to analyze the visual elements of the movie such as props and costumes, lighting, camera angles, and the placement of characters and scenes. You should also use specific terminology when analyzing the movie, as this will help to build credibility with your reader.

Before you start writing your movie review, it is important to get feedback from people you trust. You can ask a writing coach, a roommate, or a family member to read your draft. They will help you develop your writing skills and provide helpful feedback. However, the most important thing to remember while writing a movie review is to be objective and report the central ideas of the movie. Avoid personal reactions and cliches.

Contextual analysis

When writing an essay about a favorite movie, you can use a variety of different techniques. One of these is contextual analysis, which involves looking at a film within its larger cultural context. This includes the time and place of creation, as well as social issues and characters that shape the film. You can also consider factors such as the director’s career and style of directing.

You can start by determining what you want to analyze in your essay. For example, do you want to focus on the characters in the film? Or, do you want to discuss the theme of the movie? It’s important to know how the film fits into its historical and social context. For example, if the film was made during a time when racial profiling was common, you can write about that in your essay.

If you want to make your essay more meaningful, consider the context of the film itself. A film is always a product of its context. You can explore this by asking questions about how it represents different types of relationships. For example, a film could be about a culture or the political climate of a country during the time when it was shot.

Another way to analyze a movie is by using the concepts of semiotic analysis. In this type of analysis, you explain the signs and factors that are found in a film. However, most students struggle with this task. They might not understand the prompts or are unaware of how to structure their content. They may also not understand the circumstances under which they must write a film analysis.

The best way to analyze a movie is to include both general and specific aspects. For instance, you might discuss the cinematography and other visual elements. For a film analysis, you may also want to talk about the themes, characters, or feelings the movie evokes. This will allow you to create an essay that can be used to explain a film.

Steps to take

There are several steps to take when writing an essay about a favorite movie. First, make sure you know the basic information about the film. Then, you can begin discussing the main characters in the movie. Don’t just summarize the plot; discuss the themes of the film.

Each piece of evidence should be one paragraph long. The final step is to write a conclusion paragraph in which you restate your thesis and sum up your points. In order not to make mistakes at the beginning of writing your paper, you can ask for help from  domyessay reviews , who are professionals in their field and will help you in all your requests.

Analyzing a movie requires that you look closely at it. You should think critically about its characters, the overall setting, themes, and the choices made by the movie director. This will give you a more complete understanding of the film. In addition to examining the film’s characters, you should also consider the movie’s director’s attitude, as well as his or her work.

Lastly, remember to use good argumentation. You can do this by using the great five Ws. If the professor hasn’t seen the film, make sure to answer his or her questions accordingly. You can also discuss your opinion on the film, its structure, and style. Remember to support your arguments with citations from the movie and from other movies that are similar to yours.

Once you’ve chosen a great movie, follow the right essay format. Focus on different aspects of the film to create an insightful and compelling analysis. Your essay should be free of clichés and should include a comparison of some kind. Avoid endless emotional moments and explanations.

An effective movie analysis essay should challenge the reader. It should raise questions for further discussion. Ensure that the essay contains all the elements and is proofread properly. A well-written movie review should be well-organized, but it must also be free of errors. Incorrect details can affect the quality of the essay and affect its submission.

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