forming a hypothesis middle school

The Scientific Method Lesson Plan: Developing Hypotheses

Submitted by: charlie conway.

This is a lesson plan designed to be incorporated into a elementary or middle school general science class. Using BrainPOP and its resources, students will be introduced (or further exposed) to the steps necessary to undertake scientific experimentation leading (perhaps) to a Science Fair project. The Scientific Method is a core structure in learning about scientific inquiry, and although there are many variations of this set of procedures, they all usually have similar components. This lesson should take 45-60 minutes, with opportunities for extending the lesson further.

Students will:

• Students will use BrainPOP features to build their understandings of the Scientific Method.
• Students will learn how to identify and write effective hypotheses.
• Students will use game play to write an appropriate hypothesis for an experiment.
• Students will identify and utilize the tools necessary to design a scientific investigation.
• Laptops/Computers
• Interactive White Board
• Pencil/Paper
• Class set of photocopies of the Scientific Method Flow Chart
• BrainPOP accounts (optional)

Vocabulary:

Preparation:.

These procedures may be modified according to the needs/resources of each teacher & class. For example, you may decide to do the quiz with pencil/paper, or do the quiz as a class.

Lesson Procedure:

• Ask the students how scientists answer questions and solve problems. Take a few minutes to explore students' prior knowledge with a short discussion.
• Tell the class that you're going to watch a BrainPOP movie about answering a scientific question about plant growth.
• Show the BrainPOP movie on the Scientific Method two times. The first time, students should just watch and listen. The second time they should take notes. Pause the movie at critical STOP points.
• Students should log on to their individual student accounts and take the Scientific Method Quiz to give the teacher some immediate feedback. (This can also be done as a pre-assessment, or at the very end of the lesson). NOTE: If you choose to, you can give a pencil/paper quiz also; students who work best with electronic media can be given accommodations). If you don't have access to individual student logins via MyBrainPOP (a school subscription), students can take the Review Quiz or paper quiz instead.
• Discuss the main points from the movie: a. Write the definition of the scientific method: the procedure scientists use to help explain why things happen. b. Make a list on the board of the steps mentioned as part of the scientific method: problem, fact finding, observation, inference, hypothesis, experiment, conclusions. c. Tell students that there are various versions of the scientific method that they may see, but they are all basically the same.
• Hand out the Scientific Method Flow Chart . Introduce the "If...then...because..." format for writing hypotheses. Give the students 10 minutes to complete the sheet with their group. They may use their notes from the movie to help them, and/or work collaboratively with other students.
• Discuss some of the student responses in class. Focus on the hypotheses, and explain that a good hypothesis is a testable explanation of the problem. For example, a good hypothesis to the third problem would be, "If I move farther away from the microwave oven, then the cell phone signal will improve because I am further away from the source of interference." Show how this is a TESTABLE hypothesis that can lead to a scientific experiment.
• Introduce the students to the Pavlov’s Dog game in GameUP. Allow time for the kids to explore the game without telling them why they are playing it.
• After 10-15 minutes, have the students take a break from playing, and have a short discussion about the game. Ask if anyone was able to complete the task successfully, and have them share how they got the "diploma." If time allows, show the students how to complete the task so that they all understand that the dog has been conditioned to respond to a stimulus (noise before food has been introduced).
• Have the students write a hypothesis that Pavlov may have written before he started his experiment. Students can either do this with pencil/paper, or the teacher may create a BrainPOP quiz and have students submit their hypothesis electronically. This may be used as a part of the assessment.
• Choose some sample responses from the students, highlighting the hypotheses that are TESTABLE, and not just guesses or predictions.

If this lesson is an introduction to allowing students to plan and carry out their own experiments, then all that follows is naturally an extension to the lesson.

Other, shorter extensions are easy to develop as well.

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Science Projects > Science Fair Projects > Scientific Method for Grades K-12  

Scientific Method for Grades K-12

The scientific method is a problem-solving process used during experiments. It can be modified according to the age and ability of students and also to  develop particular skills .

Asking a question is the first step in the scientific method (e.g., Who, What, When, Where, Why, How). You’ll usually find an answer to a broad, simple question. Answers often lead to more questions. It’s here where the scientific method really begins.

In this article, the scientific method is laid out in four steps.

In practice, though, it’s usually not this neat. Scientists and students will often have to repeat steps and start over with the experiment, forming a new hypothesis, and repeating the series of steps. It’s part of the scientific process, the “ art of science ;” learning is not a sign of failure.

Once complete, the results of an experiment can be used as the starting point for a new experiment to answer new questions. This is called iteration.

Steps of the Scientific Method

Step 1: Start with a question.  What do you wonder about? What would you like to know? In the first step of the scientific method, you may need to do some background research to learn more. It can help you define your question and decide what you want to discover.

Step 2: Form a hypothesis.  A hypothesis is an educated guess or explanation for what you know. Forming a good hypothesis—a scientific hypothesis—is the starting point for the experiment (and further study). You can prove the hypothesis as  observably  correct or disprove it through experimentation. Observably, because scientific explanations for the results of an experiment evolve and change.

Step 3: Conduct an experiment, making observations, and tracking results . Set up a test experiment to see if your hypothesis is right or wrong. Make observations during your experiment and keep track of them by writing them down. Often replication of an experiment, in the exact same way, is necessary to be sure of your results.

Step 4: Come to a conclusion.  Decide whether your hypothesis was right or wrong.  What were the results of your experiment? Can you tell why it happened that way? Explain and communicate your results.

These principles can be used to study the natural world and  navigate life’s challenges . You can study anything from plants and  rocks  to biology or  chemical reactions  using these four steps. Even very young students can use a modified version of the scientific method to organize their thoughts.

Scientific Method for Younger Students

Younger students can study practical science using a simple version of the scientific method. You can use their natural curiosity to guide them and make it memorable. Try teaching the earliest grades the same steps, but making the language easier to understand.

• Wonder  — What do I want to know about the world around me?
• Think  – What do I think will happen?
• Act  – Test my idea. What happens?
• Say  – Am I right?

These students can conduct their own experiments to learn about the world around them. For example, young students can study the states of matter by melting ice in the sun and shade. Before beginning, ask a student to predict what will happen to ice placed in the sun vs. ice placed in the shade. Then test his or her idea, check on the ice cubes over time, and ask the student to explain what happened. Was the student right?

In another example, young students could study chemical reactions by adding soap and food coloring to milk. Again, before starting, ask a student to tell you what he or she thinks will happen when you add soap and food coloring to some milk. Test the experiment, watch for a reaction, and ask the student to explain what happened. Was the student right?

Spurred on by their natural curiosity, the youngest students can wonder, think, and observe. From the youngest ages, they can develop the ability to carefully observe and describe what they see in a simple scientific journal. They can begin to develop the critical thinking skills needed to determine whether an experiment turned out how they expected—the beginning of scientific reasoning!

Scientific Method for Middle School and High School Students

Older students can use the steps of the scientific method more independently to complete a science fair project or experiment on a topic in which they have an interest. Interest is key–without it, they’ll get bored.

Guide students’ learning with the following expansion on the last two steps of the scientific method, which require more advanced critical thinking skills.

Conduct an experiment, making observations, and tracking results.

Upper elementary, middle school, and high school students can design experiments to answer questions about the world. The complexity of an experiment will depend on the student’s abilities.

In designing their experiments, these students should pay close attention to:

• Repeating an experiment . To be sure of your results, an experiment will need to be repeated, always in the same way. The more times an experiment is repeated producing the same results, the more reliable it is said to be. Scientific progress depends on reliable experiments independent of the person conducting them.
• Controlling variables . A variable is a part of the experiment that can change. An experiment has an independent and dependent variable. You change or control the independent variable and record the effect it has on the dependent variable. It’s important to change only one variable at a time during an experiment rather than try to combine the effects of variables in an experiment. To ensure confidence in your results, whether proving or disproving your original hypothesis, nothing should change when an experiment is repeated. Everything that could vary, such as the amounts of a substance, the kind of a substance, the time of day, or the environment, should be “held constant” or “controlled.”

Design and perform an experiment to test your hypothesis. For example, if you want to test the effects of light intensity and fertilizer concentration on the growth rate of a plant, you’re really looking at two separate experiments.

• Changing only one variable at a time . All variables in an experiment affect the outcome. That’s why, when comparing experiments, it’s important to change only one variable at a time. This allows you to attribute differences in outcomes correctly. For example, if you want to find out how a plant’s growth rate is affected by water, you would control all variables (soil, light, air temperature) other than watering levels.
• Tracking results . What happened during your experiment? Identify all your variables and  keep track of your observations in a science notebook . Once you have all the information recorded (i.e., data), you can start analyzing.

Come to a Conclusion Using the Scientific Method Steps

What was the result of analyzing the results of all your observations? Did your experiment turn out as expected? Was your original hypothesis proven or falsifiable? If your results were surprising, you may not be able to come to a conclusion right away. You may want to reconsider all your variables, change a part of your design, and conduct another experiment, gathering more data. Arriving at a conclusion requires a thoughtful assessment of the results of your experiment. And the more data analysis you can provide is better because every piece of information in both your control group and your experimental group is critical to leading you to draw conclusions accurately.

The scientific method begins with inductive rather than deductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning moves from general concepts to more specific information. Inductive reasoning moves from specific facts or observations to a general conclusion. For example, dissecting a flower and examining its individual parts (e.g., ovary, petal, pistil) teaches us about flowers in general. By examining something up close, science uses the critical thinking skills of observing, comparing, contrasting, and analyzing to make a general conclusion.

The scientific method is a powerful tool to turn your questions into new discoveries!

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1.3: Developing Hypotheses

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• What is a hypothesis?

An educated guess? Is that what you learned a hypothesis is? Lots of people have learned that, but it’s not exactly right. So what is a hypothesis? There are two hypotheses listed below. They address a question about carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Check out what those hypotheses are. Then we'll see what to do with them next.

Asking a New Question

First, we need to find a question that we want to answer. Let's start with the fact that atmospheric CO 2 has been increasing since 1958. This leads us to ask the following: why is atmospheric CO 2 increasing?

Possible Answers to the Question

A hypothesis is a reasonable explanation for a small range of phenomena. A hypothesis is limited in scope; it attempts to explain a single event or a fact. A hypothesis must be testable and falsifiable . In other words, we must be able to test it, and we must be able to disprove it.

Back to answering the question. Let's say we do some background research to learn the possible sources of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. We discover that there are at least two (there are actually many more):

• CO 2 is released into the atmosphere by volcanoes when they erupt.
• CO 2 is released when fossil fuels are burned.

From these two facts, we can create two hypotheses; we will have multiple working hypotheses . We can test each of these hypotheses. We can prove either or both of these hypotheses false. In this case, it's even possible that both are true.

Hypothesis 1

Atmospheric CO 2 has increased over the past five decades because the amount of CO 2 gas released by volcanoes has increased.

Hypothesis 2

The increase in atmospheric CO 2 is due to the increase in the amount of fossil fuels that are being burned.

Usually, testing a hypothesis requires making observations or performing experiments. In this case, we will look into existing scientific literature to see if either of these hypotheses can be disproved, or if one or both can be supported by the data.

• A hypothesis is a reasonable explanation for a small range of phenomena.
• A scientific hypothesis must be both testable and falsifiable.
• If two or more hypotheses are being tested, they are called multiple working hypotheses.
• How is a hypothesis "a reasonable explanation”? Why is that a better definition than “an educated guess”?
• What if a hypothesis is shown to be wrong: Is the question the scientists are trying to answer a bad question?
• What are multiple working hypotheses? What are the two hypotheses proposed to answer the question in this concept?

Explore More

Use the resource below to answer the questions that follow.

• Why is it important to have a specific hypothesis?
• How can you test a scientific hypothesis?
• Write an example of a hypothesis, and explain how you would test it.

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Methodology

• How to Write a Strong Hypothesis | Steps & Examples

How to Write a Strong Hypothesis | Steps & Examples

Published on May 6, 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 20, 2023.

A hypothesis is a statement that can be tested by scientific research. If you want to test a relationship between two or more variables, you need to write hypotheses before you start your experiment or data collection .

Example: Hypothesis

Daily apple consumption leads to fewer doctor’s visits.

Table of contents

What is a hypothesis, developing a hypothesis (with example), hypothesis examples, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about writing hypotheses.

A hypothesis states your predictions about what your research will find. It is a tentative answer to your research question that has not yet been tested. For some research projects, you might have to write several hypotheses that address different aspects of your research question.

A hypothesis is not just a guess – it should be based on existing theories and knowledge. It also has to be testable, which means you can support or refute it through scientific research methods (such as experiments, observations and statistical analysis of data).

Variables in hypotheses

Hypotheses propose a relationship between two or more types of variables .

• An independent variable is something the researcher changes or controls.
• A dependent variable is something the researcher observes and measures.

If there are any control variables , extraneous variables , or confounding variables , be sure to jot those down as you go to minimize the chances that research bias  will affect your results.

In this example, the independent variable is exposure to the sun – the assumed cause . The dependent variable is the level of happiness – the assumed effect .

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Step 1. ask a question.

Writing a hypothesis begins with a research question that you want to answer. The question should be focused, specific, and researchable within the constraints of your project.

Step 2. Do some preliminary research

Your initial answer to the question should be based on what is already known about the topic. Look for theories and previous studies to help you form educated assumptions about what your research will find.

At this stage, you might construct a conceptual framework to ensure that you’re embarking on a relevant topic . This can also help you identify which variables you will study and what you think the relationships are between them. Sometimes, you’ll have to operationalize more complex constructs.

Step 3. Formulate your hypothesis

Now you should have some idea of what you expect to find. Write your initial answer to the question in a clear, concise sentence.

4. Refine your hypothesis

You need to make sure your hypothesis is specific and testable. There are various ways of phrasing a hypothesis, but all the terms you use should have clear definitions, and the hypothesis should contain:

• The relevant variables
• The specific group being studied
• The predicted outcome of the experiment or analysis

5. Phrase your hypothesis in three ways

To identify the variables, you can write a simple prediction in  if…then form. The first part of the sentence states the independent variable and the second part states the dependent variable.

In academic research, hypotheses are more commonly phrased in terms of correlations or effects, where you directly state the predicted relationship between variables.

If you are comparing two groups, the hypothesis can state what difference you expect to find between them.

6. Write a null hypothesis

If your research involves statistical hypothesis testing , you will also have to write a null hypothesis . The null hypothesis is the default position that there is no association between the variables. The null hypothesis is written as H 0 , while the alternative hypothesis is H 1 or H a .

• H 0 : The number of lectures attended by first-year students has no effect on their final exam scores.
• H 1 : The number of lectures attended by first-year students has a positive effect on their final exam scores.

If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Sampling methods
• Simple random sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Likert scales
• Reproducibility

 Statistics

• Null hypothesis
• Statistical power
• Probability distribution
• Effect size
• Poisson distribution

Research bias

• Optimism bias
• Cognitive bias
• Implicit bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Anchoring bias
• Explicit bias

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A hypothesis is not just a guess — it should be based on existing theories and knowledge. It also has to be testable, which means you can support or refute it through scientific research methods (such as experiments, observations and statistical analysis of data).

Null and alternative hypotheses are used in statistical hypothesis testing . The null hypothesis of a test always predicts no effect or no relationship between variables, while the alternative hypothesis states your research prediction of an effect or relationship.

Hypothesis testing is a formal procedure for investigating our ideas about the world using statistics. It is used by scientists to test specific predictions, called hypotheses , by calculating how likely it is that a pattern or relationship between variables could have arisen by chance.

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McCombes, S. (2023, November 20). How to Write a Strong Hypothesis | Steps & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved April 11, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/hypothesis/

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Essential Questions:

What ingredients make up a testable hypothesis?

What is the difference between a prediction and a hypothesis?

When you perform a controlled experiment for a science fair project what does it mean?

This activity was designed to help you in mastering the concepts of forming a hypothesis, identifying controlled variables (dependant variable), and identifying the variable being tested in an experiment (independent variable).  When completing this activity you will encounter many scenarios that can lead to a controlled experiment.  Read these scenarios, create a hypothesis (using cause and effect), identify the controlled variables, and identify the variable being tested.

You and your classmates will be divided into three groups; Group A, Group B, and Group C.  Each of you will get a worksheet with your group letter on it.  To get to your groups page click on the link below.

Choose Your Test

Sat / act prep online guides and tips, what is a hypothesis and how do i write one.

General Education

Think about something strange and unexplainable in your life. Maybe you get a headache right before it rains, or maybe you think your favorite sports team wins when you wear a certain color. If you wanted to see whether these are just coincidences or scientific fact, you would form a hypothesis, then create an experiment to see whether that hypothesis is true or not.

But what is a hypothesis, anyway? If you’re not sure about what a hypothesis is--or how to test for one!--you’re in the right place. This article will teach you everything you need to know about hypotheses, including: 

• Defining the term “hypothesis” 
• Providing hypothesis examples 
• Giving you tips for how to write your own hypothesis

So let’s get started!

What Is a Hypothesis?

Merriam Webster defines a hypothesis as “an assumption or concession made for the sake of argument.” In other words, a hypothesis is an educated guess . Scientists make a reasonable assumption--or a hypothesis--then design an experiment to test whether it’s true or not. Keep in mind that in science, a hypothesis should be testable. You have to be able to design an experiment that tests your hypothesis in order for it to be valid. 

As you could assume from that statement, it’s easy to make a bad hypothesis. But when you’re holding an experiment, it’s even more important that your guesses be good...after all, you’re spending time (and maybe money!) to figure out more about your observation. That’s why we refer to a hypothesis as an educated guess--good hypotheses are based on existing data and research to make them as sound as possible.

Hypotheses are one part of what’s called the scientific method .  Every (good) experiment or study is based in the scientific method. The scientific method gives order and structure to experiments and ensures that interference from scientists or outside influences does not skew the results. It’s important that you understand the concepts of the scientific method before holding your own experiment. Though it may vary among scientists, the scientific method is generally made up of six steps (in order):

• Observation
• Asking questions
• Forming a hypothesis
• Analyze the data
• Communicate your results

You’ll notice that the hypothesis comes pretty early on when conducting an experiment. That’s because experiments work best when they’re trying to answer one specific question. And you can’t conduct an experiment until you know what you’re trying to prove!

Independent and Dependent Variables 

After doing your research, you’re ready for another important step in forming your hypothesis: identifying variables. Variables are basically any factor that could influence the outcome of your experiment . Variables have to be measurable and related to the topic being studied.

There are two types of variables:  independent variables and dependent variables. I ndependent variables remain constant . For example, age is an independent variable; it will stay the same, and researchers can look at different ages to see if it has an effect on the dependent variable. 

Speaking of dependent variables... dependent variables are subject to the influence of the independent variable , meaning that they are not constant. Let’s say you want to test whether a person’s age affects how much sleep they need. In that case, the independent variable is age (like we mentioned above), and the dependent variable is how much sleep a person gets. 

Variables will be crucial in writing your hypothesis. You need to be able to identify which variable is which, as both the independent and dependent variables will be written into your hypothesis. For instance, in a study about exercise, the independent variable might be the speed at which the respondents walk for thirty minutes, and the dependent variable would be their heart rate. In your study and in your hypothesis, you’re trying to understand the relationship between the two variables.

Elements of a Good Hypothesis

The best hypotheses start by asking the right questions . For instance, if you’ve observed that the grass is greener when it rains twice a week, you could ask what kind of grass it is, what elevation it’s at, and if the grass across the street responds to rain in the same way. Any of these questions could become the backbone of experiments to test why the grass gets greener when it rains fairly frequently.

As you’re asking more questions about your first observation, make sure you’re also making more observations . If it doesn’t rain for two weeks and the grass still looks green, that’s an important observation that could influence your hypothesis. You'll continue observing all throughout your experiment, but until the hypothesis is finalized, every observation should be noted.

Finally, you should consult secondary research before writing your hypothesis . Secondary research is comprised of results found and published by other people. You can usually find this information online or at your library. Additionally, m ake sure the research you find is credible and related to your topic. If you’re studying the correlation between rain and grass growth, it would help you to research rain patterns over the past twenty years for your county, published by a local agricultural association. You should also research the types of grass common in your area, the type of grass in your lawn, and whether anyone else has conducted experiments about your hypothesis. Also be sure you’re checking the quality of your research . Research done by a middle school student about what minerals can be found in rainwater would be less useful than an article published by a local university.

Writing Your Hypothesis

Once you’ve considered all of the factors above, you’re ready to start writing your hypothesis. Hypotheses usually take a certain form when they’re written out in a research report.

When you boil down your hypothesis statement, you are writing down your best guess and not the question at hand . This means that your statement should be written as if it is fact already, even though you are simply testing it.

The reason for this is that, after you have completed your study, you'll either accept or reject your if-then or your null hypothesis. All hypothesis testing examples should be measurable and able to be confirmed or denied. You cannot confirm a question, only a statement! 

In fact, you come up with hypothesis examples all the time! For instance, when you guess on the outcome of a basketball game, you don’t say, “Will the Miami Heat beat the Boston Celtics?” but instead, “I think the Miami Heat will beat the Boston Celtics.” You state it as if it is already true, even if it turns out you’re wrong. You do the same thing when writing your hypothesis.

Additionally, keep in mind that hypotheses can range from very specific to very broad.  These hypotheses can be specific, but if your hypothesis testing examples involve a broad range of causes and effects, your hypothesis can also be broad.  

The Two Types of Hypotheses

Now that you understand what goes into a hypothesis, it’s time to look more closely at the two most common types of hypothesis: the if-then hypothesis and the null hypothesis.

#1: If-Then Hypotheses

First of all, if-then hypotheses typically follow this formula:

If ____ happens, then ____ will happen.

The goal of this type of hypothesis is to test the causal relationship between the independent and dependent variable. It’s fairly simple, and each hypothesis can vary in how detailed it can be. We create if-then hypotheses all the time with our daily predictions. Here are some examples of hypotheses that use an if-then structure from daily life: 

• If I get enough sleep, I’ll be able to get more work done tomorrow.
• If the bus is on time, I can make it to my friend’s birthday party. 
• If I study every night this week, I’ll get a better grade on my exam. 

In each of these situations, you’re making a guess on how an independent variable (sleep, time, or studying) will affect a dependent variable (the amount of work you can do, making it to a party on time, or getting better grades). 

You may still be asking, “What is an example of a hypothesis used in scientific research?” Take one of the hypothesis examples from a real-world study on whether using technology before bed affects children’s sleep patterns. The hypothesis read s:

“We hypothesized that increased hours of tablet- and phone-based screen time at bedtime would be inversely correlated with sleep quality and child attention.”

It might not look like it, but this is an if-then statement. The researchers basically said, “If children have more screen usage at bedtime, then their quality of sleep and attention will be worse.” The sleep quality and attention are the dependent variables and the screen usage is the independent variable. (Usually, the independent variable comes after the “if” and the dependent variable comes after the “then,” as it is the independent variable that affects the dependent variable.) This is an excellent example of how flexible hypothesis statements can be, as long as the general idea of “if-then” and the independent and dependent variables are present.

#2: Null Hypotheses

Your if-then hypothesis is not the only one needed to complete a successful experiment, however. You also need a null hypothesis to test it against. In its most basic form, the null hypothesis is the opposite of your if-then hypothesis . When you write your null hypothesis, you are writing a hypothesis that suggests that your guess is not true, and that the independent and dependent variables have no relationship .

One null hypothesis for the cell phone and sleep study from the last section might say: 

“If children have more screen usage at bedtime, their quality of sleep and attention will not be worse.” 

In this case, this is a null hypothesis because it’s asking the opposite of the original thesis! 

Conversely, if your if-then hypothesis suggests that your two variables have no relationship, then your null hypothesis would suggest that there is one. So, pretend that there is a study that is asking the question, “Does the amount of followers on Instagram influence how long people spend on the app?” The independent variable is the amount of followers, and the dependent variable is the time spent. But if you, as the researcher, don’t think there is a relationship between the number of followers and time spent, you might write an if-then hypothesis that reads:

“If people have many followers on Instagram, they will not spend more time on the app than people who have less.”

In this case, the if-then suggests there isn’t a relationship between the variables. In that case, one of the null hypothesis examples might say:

“If people have many followers on Instagram, they will spend more time on the app than people who have less.”

You then test both the if-then and the null hypothesis to gauge if there is a relationship between the variables, and if so, how much of a relationship. 

4 Tips to Write the Best Hypothesis

If you’re going to take the time to hold an experiment, whether in school or by yourself, you’re also going to want to take the time to make sure your hypothesis is a good one. The best hypotheses have four major elements in common: plausibility, defined concepts, observability, and general explanation.

#1: Plausibility

At first glance, this quality of a hypothesis might seem obvious. When your hypothesis is plausible, that means it’s possible given what we know about science and general common sense. However, improbable hypotheses are more common than you might think. 

Imagine you’re studying weight gain and television watching habits. If you hypothesize that people who watch more than  twenty hours of television a week will gain two hundred pounds or more over the course of a year, this might be improbable (though it’s potentially possible). Consequently, c ommon sense can tell us the results of the study before the study even begins.

Improbable hypotheses generally go against  science, as well. Take this hypothesis example: 

“If a person smokes one cigarette a day, then they will have lungs just as healthy as the average person’s.” 

This hypothesis is obviously untrue, as studies have shown again and again that cigarettes negatively affect lung health. You must be careful that your hypotheses do not reflect your own personal opinion more than they do scientifically-supported findings. This plausibility points to the necessity of research before the hypothesis is written to make sure that your hypothesis has not already been disproven.

#2: Defined Concepts

The more advanced you are in your studies, the more likely that the terms you’re using in your hypothesis are specific to a limited set of knowledge. One of the hypothesis testing examples might include the readability of printed text in newspapers, where you might use words like “kerning” and “x-height.” Unless your readers have a background in graphic design, it’s likely that they won’t know what you mean by these terms. Thus, it’s important to either write what they mean in the hypothesis itself or in the report before the hypothesis.

Here’s what we mean. Which of the following sentences makes more sense to the common person?

If the kerning is greater than average, more words will be read per minute.

If the space between letters is greater than average, more words will be read per minute.

For people reading your report that are not experts in typography, simply adding a few more words will be helpful in clarifying exactly what the experiment is all about. It’s always a good idea to make your research and findings as accessible as possible. 

Good hypotheses ensure that you can observe the results. 

#3: Observability

In order to measure the truth or falsity of your hypothesis, you must be able to see your variables and the way they interact. For instance, if your hypothesis is that the flight patterns of satellites affect the strength of certain television signals, yet you don’t have a telescope to view the satellites or a television to monitor the signal strength, you cannot properly observe your hypothesis and thus cannot continue your study.

Some variables may seem easy to observe, but if you do not have a system of measurement in place, you cannot observe your hypothesis properly. Here’s an example: if you’re experimenting on the effect of healthy food on overall happiness, but you don’t have a way to monitor and measure what “overall happiness” means, your results will not reflect the truth. Monitoring how often someone smiles for a whole day is not reasonably observable, but having the participants state how happy they feel on a scale of one to ten is more observable. 

In writing your hypothesis, always keep in mind how you'll execute the experiment.

#4: Generalizability 

Perhaps you’d like to study what color your best friend wears the most often by observing and documenting the colors she wears each day of the week. This might be fun information for her and you to know, but beyond you two, there aren’t many people who could benefit from this experiment. When you start an experiment, you should note how generalizable your findings may be if they are confirmed. Generalizability is basically how common a particular phenomenon is to other people’s everyday life.

Let’s say you’re asking a question about the health benefits of eating an apple for one day only, you need to realize that the experiment may be too specific to be helpful. It does not help to explain a phenomenon that many people experience. If you find yourself with too specific of a hypothesis, go back to asking the big question: what is it that you want to know, and what do you think will happen between your two variables?

Hypothesis Testing Examples

We know it can be hard to write a good hypothesis unless you’ve seen some good hypothesis examples. We’ve included four hypothesis examples based on some made-up experiments. Use these as templates or launch pads for coming up with your own hypotheses.

Experiment #1: Students Studying Outside (Writing a Hypothesis)

You are a student at PrepScholar University. When you walk around campus, you notice that, when the temperature is above 60 degrees, more students study in the quad. You want to know when your fellow students are more likely to study outside. With this information, how do you make the best hypothesis possible?

You must remember to make additional observations and do secondary research before writing your hypothesis. In doing so, you notice that no one studies outside when it’s 75 degrees and raining, so this should be included in your experiment. Also, studies done on the topic beforehand suggested that students are more likely to study in temperatures less than 85 degrees. With this in mind, you feel confident that you can identify your variables and write your hypotheses:

If-then: “If the temperature in Fahrenheit is less than 60 degrees, significantly fewer students will study outside.”

Null: “If the temperature in Fahrenheit is less than 60 degrees, the same number of students will study outside as when it is more than 60 degrees.”

These hypotheses are plausible, as the temperatures are reasonably within the bounds of what is possible. The number of people in the quad is also easily observable. It is also not a phenomenon specific to only one person or at one time, but instead can explain a phenomenon for a broader group of people.

To complete this experiment, you pick the month of October to observe the quad. Every day (except on the days where it’s raining)from 3 to 4 PM, when most classes have released for the day, you observe how many people are on the quad. You measure how many people come  and how many leave. You also write down the temperature on the hour. 

After writing down all of your observations and putting them on a graph, you find that the most students study on the quad when it is 70 degrees outside, and that the number of students drops a lot once the temperature reaches 60 degrees or below. In this case, your research report would state that you accept or “failed to reject” your first hypothesis with your findings.

Experiment #2: The Cupcake Store (Forming a Simple Experiment)

Let’s say that you work at a bakery. You specialize in cupcakes, and you make only two colors of frosting: yellow and purple. You want to know what kind of customers are more likely to buy what kind of cupcake, so you set up an experiment. Your independent variable is the customer’s gender, and the dependent variable is the color of the frosting. What is an example of a hypothesis that might answer the question of this study?

Here’s what your hypotheses might look like: 

If-then: “If customers’ gender is female, then they will buy more yellow cupcakes than purple cupcakes.”

Null: “If customers’ gender is female, then they will be just as likely to buy purple cupcakes as yellow cupcakes.”

This is a pretty simple experiment! It passes the test of plausibility (there could easily be a difference), defined concepts (there’s nothing complicated about cupcakes!), observability (both color and gender can be easily observed), and general explanation ( this would potentially help you make better business decisions ).

Experiment #3: Backyard Bird Feeders (Integrating Multiple Variables and Rejecting the If-Then Hypothesis)

While watching your backyard bird feeder, you realized that different birds come on the days when you change the types of seeds. You decide that you want to see more cardinals in your backyard, so you decide to see what type of food they like the best and set up an experiment. 

However, one morning, you notice that, while some cardinals are present, blue jays are eating out of your backyard feeder filled with millet. You decide that, of all of the other birds, you would like to see the blue jays the least. This means you'll have more than one variable in your hypothesis. Your new hypotheses might look like this: 

If-then: “If sunflower seeds are placed in the bird feeders, then more cardinals will come than blue jays. If millet is placed in the bird feeders, then more blue jays will come than cardinals.”

Null: “If either sunflower seeds or millet are placed in the bird, equal numbers of cardinals and blue jays will come.”

Through simple observation, you actually find that cardinals come as often as blue jays when sunflower seeds or millet is in the bird feeder. In this case, you would reject your “if-then” hypothesis and “fail to reject” your null hypothesis . You cannot accept your first hypothesis, because it’s clearly not true. Instead you found that there was actually no relation between your different variables. Consequently, you would need to run more experiments with different variables to see if the new variables impact the results.

Experiment #4: In-Class Survey (Including an Alternative Hypothesis)

You’re about to give a speech in one of your classes about the importance of paying attention. You want to take this opportunity to test a hypothesis you’ve had for a while: 

If-then: If students sit in the first two rows of the classroom, then they will listen better than students who do not.

Null: If students sit in the first two rows of the classroom, then they will not listen better or worse than students who do not.

You give your speech and then ask your teacher if you can hand out a short survey to the class. On the survey, you’ve included questions about some of the topics you talked about. When you get back the results, you’re surprised to see that not only do the students in the first two rows not pay better attention, but they also scored worse than students in other parts of the classroom! Here, both your if-then and your null hypotheses are not representative of your findings. What do you do?

This is when you reject both your if-then and null hypotheses and instead create an alternative hypothesis . This type of hypothesis is used in the rare circumstance that neither of your hypotheses is able to capture your findings . Now you can use what you’ve learned to draft new hypotheses and test again! 

Key Takeaways: Hypothesis Writing

The more comfortable you become with writing hypotheses, the better they will become. The structure of hypotheses is flexible and may need to be changed depending on what topic you are studying. The most important thing to remember is the purpose of your hypothesis and the difference between the if-then and the null . From there, in forming your hypothesis, you should constantly be asking questions, making observations, doing secondary research, and considering your variables. After you have written your hypothesis, be sure to edit it so that it is plausible, clearly defined, observable, and helpful in explaining a general phenomenon.

Writing a hypothesis is something that everyone, from elementary school children competing in a science fair to professional scientists in a lab, needs to know how to do. Hypotheses are vital in experiments and in properly executing the scientific method . When done correctly, hypotheses will set up your studies for success and help you to understand the world a little better, one experiment at a time.

What’s Next?

If you’re studying for the science portion of the ACT, there’s definitely a lot you need to know. We’ve got the tools to help, though! Start by checking out our ultimate study guide for the ACT Science subject test. Once you read through that, be sure to download our recommended ACT Science practice tests , since they’re one of the most foolproof ways to improve your score. (And don’t forget to check out our expert guide book , too.)

If you love science and want to major in a scientific field, you should start preparing in high school . Here are the science classes you should take to set yourself up for success.

If you’re trying to think of science experiments you can do for class (or for a science fair!), here’s a list of 37 awesome science experiments you can do at home

Ashley Sufflé Robinson has a Ph.D. in 19th Century English Literature. As a content writer for PrepScholar, Ashley is passionate about giving college-bound students the in-depth information they need to get into the school of their dreams.

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Adventures in ISTEM and Beyond

8 Cool Scientific Method Experiments for Middle Schoolers to Try

August 10, 2023 by Kristi

It’s back to school time, and that means it’s time to reintroduce students to key science skills like the scientific method.  There are some simple and engaging scientific method experiments you can have your students do where they practice the key steps of the scientific method process.

The scientific method is a process that allows students to figure things out about the world.  They can use it to solve problems and learn more about what’s around them. 

It starts with making observations. Then, they ask questions about what they are seeing.  From there, they make an educated guess as to why the observing the phenomenon and what is causing it.  They create a controlled experiment to test their hypothesis where they gather data and more observations.  Next, they analyze the data to look for patterns and answers. Finally, they draw their conclusions and share their findings.  

Scientific Method Experiment 1: Paper Towel Test Strength

Growing up, for us, it was commercials that were designed to tell us which brand is best and why.  Now with Tik Tok and other social media, it is important for students to fact check what they are seeing. I like to show students old paper towel commercials and then have students create scientific method experiments to test the claims.

• First, I will show them one or two paper towel commercials that claim their brand is the best for strength and not tearing while it cleans the mess.
• Then, the students turn the commercials claim into a hypothesis.
• From there, they design a test to test the claim.  I usually provide four to five different towels, including the brown school paper towel and a generic store brand towel. I also provide different types of weights like marbles, washers, or pennies.
• The students perform their paper towel experiments and collect data.
• They then analyze the data and then use the evidence to determine if the commercial claim is true or false.

Scientific Method Experiment 2: Paper Towel Test Absorbancy

This is just like the strength test, but it focuses on the paper towels ability to absorb a spill. The steps are the same as the other test.  You could have half the class doing one test and the other half of the class doing the other test.  This way, you are using a lot of the same materials, and students can compare their results. In the end, you could see if they can create a test to determine which is the best paper towel for strength and absorbency.

• First, I will show them one or two paper towel commercials that claim their brand is the best for absorbing a mess over the other.
• From there, they design a test to test the claim.  I usually provide four to five different towels, including the brown school paper towel and a generic store brand towel.
• The students perform their experiments and collect data.

Scientific Method Experiment 3: Grow that gummy

I find that students love doing labs that involve food.  They especially like eating the leftover candies that weren’t used when the experiment is over. For this scientific method experiment , students use gummy candy and different liquids to determine which one will make the gummy candy grow the largest.  

• Start off by having the students make a hypothesis as to which type of liquid will make the gummy candy grow the largest. For liquids, you could use water, salt water, vinegar, milk, soda, juice, and vegetable oil.
• Then have students design an experiment that will test their hypothesis.  Have them share ideas for how they will measure the gummy and what factors will need to be controlled.
• Students will conduct the experiment and record their observations.
• They will then analyze the results and draw conclusions as to which liquid made the gummy candy grow the largest.
• Students will then share their results and compare their results and tests with other groups.  This step is important because if they created a controlled experiment, they should draw the same conclusions even though the actual data numbers might be different or the way they designed the test might be different.

Scientific Method Experiment 4: Candy Letter Lab

My students are always fascinated by this lab. Students act like magicians as they have the letters on the candy levitate to the top of the liquid without touching the candy.  

• Start by using hard candy that has a letter or word stamped on it.  If find that Skittles and m&m’s work best for this. You might want to have some groups test Skittles while others test m&m’s to see if they get different results.
• Have students create a hypothesis for which liquid they think will be the best at removing the letter from the candy.
• Next, students will design an experiment that will test their hypothesis.  
• They will then analyze the results and draw conclusions as to which liquid was the fastest at removing the letter from the candy.
• Students will then share their results and compare their results and tests with other groups.  

Scientific Method Experiment 5: Where did the stripes go?

This is a great lab to do during the winter holidays when candy canes are in more abundance.  In this lab, the students design scientific method experiments to see which liquid will remove the stripes from the candy cane the fastest.  

• Start by using a regular candy cane or red and white peppermint candy.  I find the mini candy canes work the best and are not that expensive when you buy them in bulk.
• Have students create a hypothesis for which liquid they think will be the best at removing the red stripes from the candy cane. 
• They will then analyze the results and draw conclusions as to which liquid was the fastest at removing the stripes from the candy cane.

Scientific Method Experiment 6: Growing plants

One scientific method experiment that is good to do at the beginning of a long unit is growing plants from seeds.  This takes a while to see results, so it’s one that you will want to start and then check on periodically over a few weeks. 

The best seeds to use for this would be green beans, spinach, lettuce, or radish.  They have short germination periods.  To start, students can discuss what plants need to grow and thrive.  They can come up with a variety of different questions about how different factors might affect plant growth.

• Have students choose one question they want to test.
• Then, students create a hypothesis for their question. 
• They will then analyze the results and draw conclusions to determine if their hypothesis was supported or not supported.

Scientific Method Experiment 7: Pendulum swing

This lab is great for students to determine not only the hypothesis but also the question. You might want to start off with a demonstration of a single pendulum.  You can then start an “I Wonder” session.  I wonder how adding more weight affects the number of swings? I wonder how adding more weight affects the time it takes a pendulum to swing back and forth 10 times. Have students come up with their own I Wonder questions.  Once you have a good list, they can then choose one of them that they would like to test and investigate.

• Have students create a hypothesis for their question. 
• Students will conduct the pendulum experiment and record their observations.

Scientific Method Experiment 8: Crystal Growing

This is another lab I like to do before winter break.  Students can not only practice the steps of the scientific method, but they can also create ornaments or sun catchers that they can then take home.  In this scientific method experiment , students will be given different questions about crystals and decide which question they would like to test.

• Does the type of solution affect the amount of crystal growth?
• Does the type of solution affect the size of the crystals?
• Does the level of saturation affect the amount of crystal growth?
• Does the level of saturation affect the size of the crystals?
• Does the temperature of the solution affect the amount of crystal growth?
• Does the temperature of the solution affect the size of the crystals?

Why Teach the Scientific Method

Having students practice using the steps of the scientific method helps them to develop the soft skills that they will need outside of school and when they enter adulthood.

• Critical thinking skills- Being able to analyze data, draw conclusions, and make evidence-based decisions.
• Problem-solving abilities- approaching challenges using a systematic approach by identifying the problem, forming a hypothesis, and finding solutions.
• Communication skills- communicating effectively their findings and using evidence to support their conclusions.

Practicing the steps of the scientific method provides middle school students with a host of valuable benefits that extend beyond the classroom. Engaging in scientific method experiments such as testing paper towel strength and absorbency, growing crystals, and investigating candy properties helps students develop critical thinking skills, problem-solving abilities, and effective communication.

These skills are vital for their future endeavors, enabling them to make evidence-based decisions, tackle real-life challenges, and express their findings clearly. Embracing the scientific method empowers students to explore the world around them and equips them with essential skills for success in adulthood.

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How to Write a Great Hypothesis

Hypothesis Format, Examples, and Tips

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Amy Morin, LCSW, is a psychotherapist and international bestselling author. Her books, including "13 Things Mentally Strong People Don't Do," have been translated into more than 40 languages. Her TEDx talk,  "The Secret of Becoming Mentally Strong," is one of the most viewed talks of all time.

Verywell / Alex Dos Diaz

• The Scientific Method

Hypothesis Format

Falsifiability of a hypothesis, operational definitions, types of hypotheses, hypotheses examples.

• Collecting Data

Frequently Asked Questions

A hypothesis is a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more  variables. It is a specific, testable prediction about what you expect to happen in a study.

One hypothesis example would be a study designed to look at the relationship between sleep deprivation and test performance might have a hypothesis that states: "This study is designed to assess the hypothesis that sleep-deprived people will perform worse on a test than individuals who are not sleep-deprived."

This article explores how a hypothesis is used in psychology research, how to write a good hypothesis, and the different types of hypotheses you might use.

The Hypothesis in the Scientific Method

In the scientific method , whether it involves research in psychology, biology, or some other area, a hypothesis represents what the researchers think will happen in an experiment. The scientific method involves the following steps:

• Forming a question
• Performing background research
• Creating a hypothesis
• Designing an experiment
• Collecting data
• Analyzing the results
• Drawing conclusions
• Communicating the results

The hypothesis is a prediction, but it involves more than a guess. Most of the time, the hypothesis begins with a question which is then explored through background research. It is only at this point that researchers begin to develop a testable hypothesis. Unless you are creating an exploratory study, your hypothesis should always explain what you  expect  to happen.

In a study exploring the effects of a particular drug, the hypothesis might be that researchers expect the drug to have some type of effect on the symptoms of a specific illness. In psychology, the hypothesis might focus on how a certain aspect of the environment might influence a particular behavior.

Remember, a hypothesis does not have to be correct. While the hypothesis predicts what the researchers expect to see, the goal of the research is to determine whether this guess is right or wrong. When conducting an experiment, researchers might explore a number of factors to determine which ones might contribute to the ultimate outcome.

In many cases, researchers may find that the results of an experiment  do not  support the original hypothesis. When writing up these results, the researchers might suggest other options that should be explored in future studies.

In many cases, researchers might draw a hypothesis from a specific theory or build on previous research. For example, prior research has shown that stress can impact the immune system. So a researcher might hypothesize: "People with high-stress levels will be more likely to contract a common cold after being exposed to the virus than people who have low-stress levels."

In other instances, researchers might look at commonly held beliefs or folk wisdom. "Birds of a feather flock together" is one example of folk wisdom that a psychologist might try to investigate. The researcher might pose a specific hypothesis that "People tend to select romantic partners who are similar to them in interests and educational level."

Elements of a Good Hypothesis

So how do you write a good hypothesis? When trying to come up with a hypothesis for your research or experiments, ask yourself the following questions:

• Is your hypothesis based on your research on a topic?
• Can your hypothesis be tested?
• Does your hypothesis include independent and dependent variables?

Before you come up with a specific hypothesis, spend some time doing background research. Once you have completed a literature review, start thinking about potential questions you still have. Pay attention to the discussion section in the  journal articles you read . Many authors will suggest questions that still need to be explored.

To form a hypothesis, you should take these steps:

• Collect as many observations about a topic or problem as you can.
• Evaluate these observations and look for possible causes of the problem.
• Create a list of possible explanations that you might want to explore.
• After you have developed some possible hypotheses, think of ways that you could confirm or disprove each hypothesis through experimentation. This is known as falsifiability.

In the scientific method ,  falsifiability is an important part of any valid hypothesis.   In order to test a claim scientifically, it must be possible that the claim could be proven false.

Students sometimes confuse the idea of falsifiability with the idea that it means that something is false, which is not the case. What falsifiability means is that  if  something was false, then it is possible to demonstrate that it is false.

One of the hallmarks of pseudoscience is that it makes claims that cannot be refuted or proven false.

A variable is a factor or element that can be changed and manipulated in ways that are observable and measurable. However, the researcher must also define how the variable will be manipulated and measured in the study.

For example, a researcher might operationally define the variable " test anxiety " as the results of a self-report measure of anxiety experienced during an exam. A "study habits" variable might be defined by the amount of studying that actually occurs as measured by time.

These precise descriptions are important because many things can be measured in a number of different ways. One of the basic principles of any type of scientific research is that the results must be replicable.   By clearly detailing the specifics of how the variables were measured and manipulated, other researchers can better understand the results and repeat the study if needed.

Some variables are more difficult than others to define. How would you operationally define a variable such as aggression ? For obvious ethical reasons, researchers cannot create a situation in which a person behaves aggressively toward others.

In order to measure this variable, the researcher must devise a measurement that assesses aggressive behavior without harming other people. In this situation, the researcher might utilize a simulated task to measure aggressiveness.

Hypothesis Checklist

• Does your hypothesis focus on something that you can actually test?
• Does your hypothesis include both an independent and dependent variable?
• Can you manipulate the variables?
• Can your hypothesis be tested without violating ethical standards?

The hypothesis you use will depend on what you are investigating and hoping to find. Some of the main types of hypotheses that you might use include:

• Simple hypothesis : This type of hypothesis suggests that there is a relationship between one independent variable and one dependent variable.
• Complex hypothesis : This type of hypothesis suggests a relationship between three or more variables, such as two independent variables and a dependent variable.
• Null hypothesis : This hypothesis suggests no relationship exists between two or more variables.
• Alternative hypothesis : This hypothesis states the opposite of the null hypothesis.
• Statistical hypothesis : This hypothesis uses statistical analysis to evaluate a representative sample of the population and then generalizes the findings to the larger group.
• Logical hypothesis : This hypothesis assumes a relationship between variables without collecting data or evidence.

A hypothesis often follows a basic format of "If {this happens} then {this will happen}." One way to structure your hypothesis is to describe what will happen to the  dependent variable  if you change the  independent variable .

The basic format might be: "If {these changes are made to a certain independent variable}, then we will observe {a change in a specific dependent variable}."

A few examples of simple hypotheses:

• "Students who eat breakfast will perform better on a math exam than students who do not eat breakfast."
• Complex hypothesis: "Students who experience test anxiety before an English exam will get lower scores than students who do not experience test anxiety."​
• "Motorists who talk on the phone while driving will be more likely to make errors on a driving course than those who do not talk on the phone."

Examples of a complex hypothesis include:

• "People with high-sugar diets and sedentary activity levels are more likely to develop depression."
• "Younger people who are regularly exposed to green, outdoor areas have better subjective well-being than older adults who have limited exposure to green spaces."

Examples of a null hypothesis include:

• "Children who receive a new reading intervention will have scores different than students who do not receive the intervention."
• "There will be no difference in scores on a memory recall task between children and adults."

Examples of an alternative hypothesis:

• "Children who receive a new reading intervention will perform better than students who did not receive the intervention."
• "Adults will perform better on a memory task than children." 

Collecting Data on Your Hypothesis

Once a researcher has formed a testable hypothesis, the next step is to select a research design and start collecting data. The research method depends largely on exactly what they are studying. There are two basic types of research methods: descriptive research and experimental research.

Descriptive Research Methods

Descriptive research such as  case studies ,  naturalistic observations , and surveys are often used when it would be impossible or difficult to  conduct an experiment . These methods are best used to describe different aspects of a behavior or psychological phenomenon.

Once a researcher has collected data using descriptive methods, a correlational study can then be used to look at how the variables are related. This type of research method might be used to investigate a hypothesis that is difficult to test experimentally.

Experimental Research Methods

Experimental methods  are used to demonstrate causal relationships between variables. In an experiment, the researcher systematically manipulates a variable of interest (known as the independent variable) and measures the effect on another variable (known as the dependent variable).

Unlike correlational studies, which can only be used to determine if there is a relationship between two variables, experimental methods can be used to determine the actual nature of the relationship—whether changes in one variable actually  cause  another to change.

A Word From Verywell

The hypothesis is a critical part of any scientific exploration. It represents what researchers expect to find in a study or experiment. In situations where the hypothesis is unsupported by the research, the research still has value. Such research helps us better understand how different aspects of the natural world relate to one another. It also helps us develop new hypotheses that can then be tested in the future.

Some examples of how to write a hypothesis include:

• "Staying up late will lead to worse test performance the next day."
• "People who consume one apple each day will visit the doctor fewer times each year."
• "Breaking study sessions up into three 20-minute sessions will lead to better test results than a single 60-minute study session."

The four parts of a hypothesis are:

• The research question
• The independent variable (IV)
• The dependent variable (DV)
• The proposed relationship between the IV and DV

Castillo M. The scientific method: a need for something better? . AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2013;34(9):1669-71. doi:10.3174/ajnr.A3401

Nevid J. Psychology: Concepts and Applications. Wadworth, 2013.

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Development of a Process for Melting Cast High-Temperature Alloys Using Refined Wastes

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• Published: 28 September 2018
• Volume 2018 , pages 593–597, ( 2018 )

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• I. V. Kabanov 1 ,
• A. V. Murueva 1 ,
• T. A. Topilina 1 &
• S. Ya. Vlasov 1  

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To the Centenary of Metallurgical Plant Electrostal

A technology is developed to refine the wastes of cast high-temperature alloys in the form of scrap, crop ends, and chips for the production of cast bars from in order to involve these wastes in making cast high-temperature alloys. The quality of the alloys melted using the refined wastes meets the requirements of the specifications.

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I. V. Kabanov, A. V. Murueva, T. A. Topilina & S. Ya. Vlasov

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Original Russian Text © I.V. Kabanov, A.V. Murueva, T.A. Topilina, S.Ya. Vlasov, 2018, published in Elektrometallurgiya, 2018, No. 1, pp. 30–35.

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Kabanov, I.V., Murueva, A.V., Topilina, T.A. et al. Development of a Process for Melting Cast High-Temperature Alloys Using Refined Wastes. Russ. Metall. 2018 , 593–597 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1134/S0036029518060095

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Off the page, into the water: UC alum and seventh-grade teacher teaches through canoe building

The delhi middle school teacher initiated a special learning program in her middle school classroom..

Emily Hohlefelder knows the importance of digital platforms in today’s learning environments. A seventh-grade teacher at Delhi Middle School, Hohlefelder has experienced the impact of digital connectivity on education both in the classroom and during her own time as a student at the University of Cincinnati.

“There are so many platforms!” says Hohlefelder, pointing to the lasting impact COVID-19 and remote learning had on teaching and learning. “So many different ones, all asking students to present their information in different ways: recording themselves, recording just their voice or having to create some sort of digital image.”

Students in Emily Hohlefelder's seventh-grade class work on the frame of the skin-on frame canoe. Photo/provided

None of this is news to the 2023 graduate of the College of Education, Criminal Justice, Human Services, and Information Technology, who was introduced to future-forward teaching tools during her first year as an undergraduate in the  Middle Childhood Education program . Specifically, it was an educational technology class with School of Education professor Sarah Schroeder that opened Hohlefelder’s eyes to the possibilities of instruction and learning in a hyper-connected, always-on world.

She also honed in on how platforms, especially interfaces for creative student work, can cause anxiety in some students, leading Hohlefelder to complete and submit a project on reducing student anxiety around technology use. Schroeder was impressed with Hohlefelder’s insights and invited the first-year student to present her research at the Ohio Undergraduate Technology conference in Columbus. 

“I was like, ‘Sure, I’ll go with you!’” laughs Hohlefelder, who went on to become dual-licensed in middle childhood and special education with a certificate in digital learning design. “I felt pretty underqualified – I was 19 and in my first year, but she took a chance on me.” Schroeder subsequently helped Hohlefelder publish her work as well, co-authoring a paper titled  “Reducing Student Anxiety About Creative Digital Work”  for publication in  Edutopia , an online outlet for educational news and insight.

“I ended up doing a grant-funded project on reducing student anxiety with technology while I was an undergrad. It fueled a lot of great new information, especially coming out of COVID, on how technology can cause a lot of anxiety when it comes to different methods of learning for students.”     

Building Life Skills (and a Canoe)

Proven expertise with technology and insight into digital platforms might make Hohlefelder an unlikely champion for hands-on, nature-focused learning. But for a person with a lifelong ambition to help all learners reach their potential, she works to stay alert to opportunities that expand her ability to reach pupils – which is how she ended up bringing a canoe-building project into her classroom.

“The director of the program is one of my good friends,” says Hohlefleder. “I had watched him go into schools for the past three years, so why wouldn’t I want to bring this into my own school?” The Urban Wilderness Program , she goes on to explain, is a Cincinnati-based non-profit that delivers wilderness experiences to schools with kids who, demographically, don’t enjoy easy access to outdoor enrichment.

“A lot of my students had not been in a canoe before. They had not been on a body of water.”

Emily Hohlefelder, Seventh-grade teacher at Delhi Middle School

Seventh-grade Delhi Middle School students shape parts for the classroom canoe build. Photo/provided

The STEM-based project saw students construct a skin-on frame canoe as part of their daily classwork, which Hohlefelder was able to tie into traditional areas of study such as math and science, as well as social studies and language arts. “At the same time, they were able to learn teamwork, critical thinking skills and how to work together to pursue a common goal,” she says. “And it always helps students, especially in middle school, when that goal is tangible. So fostering that kind of community was truly the goal we were looking for here at Delhi with the canoe build.”

Another significant benefit of the classroom canoe project? The collaborative build provided a holistic means to reach students who sometimes struggled to engage with learning material. “It was fun to see kids who were usually reserved or not interested in the academic setting of the classroom really come out of their shell when it came to getting to use their hands for something,” explains Hohlefelder. “The build takes about two weeks, so it becomes routine for them. A lot of them really enjoyed it.”

A Risk Worth the Reward

The canoe-build project was, admittedly, a big swing – especially for a teacher so early in their career (this is, in fact, Hohlefelder’s first year teaching at Delhi Middle School). But that same spirit she found during her first year, when she said yes to the conference opportunity in Columbus despite feeling underqualified, spurred her to take the chance.

 “As teachers, we already have a million things going on,” she says. “And trying something for the first time? I’m like, this could fail – this could go very badly. But it’s worth taking the risk if it’s going to benefit the students.”

A student connects planking to one of the ribs on the canoe frame. Photo/provided

The canoe is currently on display (alongside a pair of oars carved as part of the program) in the school, but Hohlefelder envisions this canoe build as an annual seventh-grade project that, in time, populates a nearby pond with a fleet for public use.  And though the students didn’t know it when they initially built the canoe, there is a part two to this project they recently learned about – a May field trip in which they themselves will take the canoe out for some freshwater fun.

“We have to teach them, at the end of the day, that it’s not about the tests,” says Hohlefelder. “It’s not about the data. It’s really about what kind of people we are teaching here. How are we teaching them to serve the community when they’re older?

“Projects like these are the ones that I know they’ll remember past middle school.”

Featured image at top: Emily Hohlefelder stands next to completed skin-on frame canoe built as a seventh-grade classroom project. Photo/provided. 

• Next Lives Here

CECH’s School of Education is highly regarded for preparing the next generation of educators. The program is led by a team of experienced and qualified faculty who are dedicated to teaching students to meet the demands of modern classrooms and address the educational needs of diverse student populations. The program offers a variety of courses and experiences that will help students develop their understanding of child development, instructional methods, and classroom management.

For more information about the School of Education,  please visit the school’s website.

Contact the College of Education, Criminal Justice, Human Services, and Information Technology . 

• School of Education
• Alumni Association
• College of Education, Criminal Justice, & Human Services

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Emily Hohlefelder, a 7th-grade teacher at Delhi Middle School, applied lessons she learned as a UC education student in the College of Education, Criminal Justice, Human Services, and Information Technology (CECH) to initiate a special learning program in the classroom. The result? A canoe-building project that proved both educational and uniquely engaging.

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• Official Russia
• Infographics

The "Kristall-Elektrostal" Children's and Youth Sports School of Olympic Reserve in the town of Elektrostal, Moscow Region. Diving from a 10- meter-high board. 1979.

• Categories: Education , Sports
• Location: Elektrostal , Moscow region , Russia
• Event date: 01.06.1979
• Date published: 25.11.2010
• Author: Yuriy Somov
• Source: Sputnik
• Credit: Sputnik
• Original: 79-8424, 35 mm film
• Media: JPEG, 3504x5254px, 2Mb

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