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How to Cite a Report in APA Style | Format & Examples

Published on November 6, 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on December 1, 2023.

Reports may be published by governments , task groups, or other organizations. To reference a report with an individual author, include the author’s name and initials, the report title (italicized), the report number, the organization that published it, and the URL (if accessed online, e.g. as a PDF ).

Note that brochures are cited in a similar format. You can easily create accurate APA citations using our free Citation Generator.

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Table of contents

Report with multiple authors, report with organization as author, where to find the report number, frequently asked questions about apa style citations.

When a report has multiple authors, up to 20 should be listed in the reference.

If the report has 21 or more authors, list the first 19, then an ellipsis, then the last listed author:

With in-text citations, list up to two authors. For three or more, list the first followed by “ et al. ”

Are your APA in-text citations flawless?

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Sometimes, reports do not list individual authors, only the organization responsible. In these cases, list the organization in the author position.

This sometimes results in the name of the author and publisher being identical. Omit the second mention of the organization in this case.

Many reports are associated with a specific number. If a report has a number, it will typically be listed in the database where you found the report.

It will also generally appear on the cover or title page of the report itself.

A report number should always be included when available, but if a report doesn’t have one, you can just leave this part out.

When no individual author name is listed, but the source can clearly be attributed to a specific organization—e.g., a press release by a charity, a report by an agency, or a page from a company’s website—use the organization’s name as the author in the reference entry and APA in-text citations .

When no author at all can be determined—e.g. a collaboratively edited wiki or an online article published anonymously—use the title in place of the author. In the in-text citation, put the title in quotation marks if it appears in plain text in the reference list, and in italics if it appears in italics in the reference list. Shorten it if necessary.

The abbreviation “ et al. ” (meaning “and others”) is used to shorten APA in-text citations with three or more authors . Here’s how it works:

Only include the first author’s last name, followed by “et al.”, a comma and the year of publication, for example (Taylor et al., 2018).

You may include up to 20 authors in a reference list entry .

When an article has more than 20 authors, replace the names prior to the final listed author with an ellipsis, but do not omit the final author:

Davis, Y., Smith, J., Caulfield, F., Pullman, H., Carlisle, J., Donahue, S. D., James, F., O’Donnell, K., Singh, J., Johnson, L., Streefkerk, R., McCombes, S., Corrieri, L., Valck, X., Baldwin, F. M., Lorde, J., Wardell, K., Lao, W., Yang, P., . . . O’Brien, T. (2012).

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• Collections
• Research Help
• Teaching & Learning
• Library Home

APA 7th Edition Citation Style Guide

• Basics & Help
• Journal Articles
• Web Sources
• Magazine & News Articles
• Audiovisual Media

Technical & Research Reports

Tests, scales, & inventories.

• Legal Documents
• Dissertations & Theses
• References Page
• In-text Citations
• Author Variations (more than 1, or group)
• Citing Business Resources

General Rule:

Author. (Year). Title of report  (Report No. if given). Publisher. DOI or URL

• If the author and the publishing agency are the same omit the publisher from the citation. 

  Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics. (2013). America’s children: key national indicators of well-being. http://childstats.gov/americaschildren/index2.asp.

Author or name of group. (Year). Title of data set [description of form]. Publisher Name or Source of

unpublished data. Retrieved month day, year, from DOI or URL

• Include a retrieval date only if the data set is designed to change over time. 
• If a version number and/or database number is available include it with the data set title. 
• No need to include a publisher name if it is the same as the author.
• If the data is unpublished provide the source (e.g. university) if known. 
• If the dataset is untitled, give a description of the data and publication status in square brackets.

Pew Internet & American Life Project. (2012). November 2012- library services [Data file and code book]. http://www.pewinternet.org/Shared-Content/Data-Sets/2012/November-2012--Library-Services.aspx

Jeffri, J., Schriel, A., & Throsby, D. (2003) The aDvANCE Project: A study of career transition for professional dancers (ICPSR 35598; Version V1)  [Data set].  IPCSR.  https://doi.org/10.3886/ICPSR35598.v1  

Whenever possible, give a citation for the measurements' supporting literature (e.g. manual, book, or journal article ). If the supporting literature is unavailable, cite the the test itself or database record using the following rule.

Author name. (year).  Title of the test. URL

Author name. (year).  Title of the test database record [Database record] . Test Database Name. URL

Hofstede , G &  Hofstede , G. J. (2013). Values Survey Module 2013 .  https://geerthofstede.com/research-and-vsm/vsm-2013/

Castellanos, I., Kronenberger, W.G., & Pisoni, D.B.   ( 2018 ). Learning, Executive, and Attention Function Scale

(LEAF) [Database record]. PsycTESTS.  https://doi.org/10.1037/t66008-000

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APA Formatting and Style Guide (7th Edition)

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Copyright ©1995-2018 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.

In-Text Citations

Resources on using in-text citations in APA style

Reference List

Resources on writing an APA style reference list, including citation formats

Other APA Resources

• MJC Library & Learning Center
• Research Guides

Format Your Paper & Cite Your Sources

• APA Style, 7th Edition
• Citing Sources
• Avoid Plagiarism
• MLA Style (8th/9th ed.)

APA Tutorial

Formatting your paper, headings organize your paper (2.27), video tutorials, reference list format (9.43).

• Elements of a Reference

Reference Examples (Chapter 10)

Dois and urls (9.34-9.36), in-text citations.

• In-Text Citations Format
• In-Text Citations for Specific Source Types

NoodleTools

• Chicago Style
• Harvard Style
• Other Styles
• Annotated Bibliographies
• How to Create an Attribution

What is APA Style?

APA style was created by social and behavioral scientists to standardize scientific writing. APA style is most often used in:

• psychology,
• social sciences (sociology, business), and

If you're taking courses in any of these areas, be prepared to use APA style.

For in-depth guidance on using this citation style, refer to Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association , 7th ed. We have several copies available at the MJC Library at the call number  BF 76.7 .P83 2020 .

APA Style, 7th ed.

In October 2019, the American Psychological Association made radical changes its style, especially with regard to the format and citation rules for students writing academic papers. Use this guide to learn how to format and cite your papers using APA Style, 7th edition.

You can start by viewing the  video tutorial .

For help on all aspects of formatting your paper in APA Style, see   The Essentials  page on the APA Style website.

• sans serif fonts such as 11-point Calibri, 11-point Arial, or 10-point Lucida Sans Unicode, or
• serif fonts such as 12-point Times New Roman, 11-point Georgia, or normal (10-point) Computer Modern (the default font for LaTeX)
• There are exceptions for the  title page ,  tables ,  figures ,  footnotes , and  displayed equations .
• Margins :  Use 1-in. margins on every side of the page.
• Align the text of an APA Style  paper to the left margin . Leave the right margin uneven, or “ragged.”
• Do not use full justification for student papers.
• Do not insert hyphens (manual breaks) in words at the end of line. However, it is acceptable if your word-processing program automatically inserts breaks in long hyperlinks (such as in a DOI or URL in a reference list entry).
• Indent the first line of each paragraph of text 0.5 in . from the left margin. Use the tab key or the automatic paragraph-formatting function of your word-processing program to achieve the indentation (the default setting is likely already 0.5 in.). Do not use the space bar to create indentation. 
• There are exceptions for the  title page ,  section labels ,  abstract ,  block quotations ,  headings ,  tables and figures ,  reference list , and  appendices .

Paper Elements

Student papers generally include, at a minimum: 

• Title Page (2.3)
• Text (2.11)
• References  (2.12)

Student papers may include additional elements such as tables and figures depending on the assignment. So, please check with your teacher!

Student papers generally  DO NOT  include the following unless your teacher specifically requests it:

• Running head
• Author note

For complete information on the  order of pages , see the APA Style website.

Number your pages consecutively starting with page 1. Each section begins on a new page. Put the pages in the following order:

• Page 1: Title page
• Page 2: Abstract (if your teacher requires an abstract)
• Page 3: Text 
• References begin on a new page after the last page of text
• Footnotes begin on a new page after the references (if your teacher requires footnotes)
• Tables begin each on a new page after the footnotes (if your teacher requires tables) 
• Figures begin on a new page after the tables (if your teacher requires figures)
• Appendices begin on a new page after the tables and/or figures (if your teacher requires appendices)

Sample Papers With Built-In Instructions

To see what your paper should look like, check out these sample papers with built-in instructions.

APA Style uses five (5) levels of headings to help you organize your paper and allow your audience to identify its key points easily. Levels of headings establish the hierarchy of your sections just like you did in your paper outline.

APA tells us to use "only the number of headings necessary to differentiate distinct section in your paper." Therefore, the number of heading levels you create depends on the length and complexity of your paper.

See the chart below for instructions on formatting your headings:

Use Word to Format Your Paper:

Use Google Docs to Format Your Paper:

Placement:  The reference list  appears at the end of the paper, on its own page(s). If your research paper ends on page 8, your References begin on page 9.

Heading:  Place the section label References  in bold at the top of the page, centered.

Arrangement:  Alphabetize entries by author's last name. If source has no named author, alphabetize by the title, ignoring A, An, or The. (9.44-9.48)

Spacing:  Like the rest of the APA paper, the reference list is double-spaced throughout. Be sure NOT to add extra spaces between citations.

Indentation:  To make citations easier to scan, add a  hanging indent  of 0.5 in. to any citation that runs more than one line. Use the paragraph-formatting function of your word processing program to create your hanging indent.  

See Sample References Page (from APA Sample Student Paper):

Elements of Reference List Entries: (Chapter 9)

References generally have four elements, each of which has a corresponding question for you to answer:

• Author:   Who is responsible for this work? (9.7-9.12)
• Date:   When was this work published? (9.13-9.17)
• Title:   What is this work called? (9.18-9.22)
• Source:   Where can I retrieve this work? (9.23-9.37)

By using these four elements and answering these four questions, you should be able to create a citation for any type of source.

For complete information on all of these elements, checkout the APA Style website.

This infographic shows the first page of a journal article. The locations of the reference elements are highlighted with different colors and callouts, and the same colors are used in the reference list entry to show how the entry corresponds to the source.

To create your references, you'll simple look for these elements in your source and put them together in your reference list entry.

American Psychological Association.  Example of where to find reference information for a journal article  [Infographic]. APA Style Center. https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/references/basic-principles

Below you'll find two printable handouts showing APA citation examples. The first is an abbreviated list created by MJC Librarians. The second, which is more comprehensive, is from the APA Style website. Feel free to print these for your convenience or use the links to reference examples below:

• APA Citation Examples Created by MJC Librarians for you.
• Common References Examples (APA Handout) Printable handout from the American Psychological Association.
• APA Style Quick Reference Guide See how to format three typical types of references.
• Journal Article
• Magazine Article
• Newspaper Article
• Edited Book Chapter
• Webpage on a Website

Classroom or Intranet Sources

• Classroom Course Pack Materials
• How to Cite ChatGPT
• Dictionary Entry
• Government Report
• Legal References (Laws & Cases)
• TED Talk References
• Religious Works
• Open Educational Resources (OER)
• Archival Documents and Collections

You can view the entire Reference Examples website below and view a helpful guide to finding useful APA style topics easily:

• APA Style: Reference Examples
• Navigating the not-so-hidden treasures of the APA Style website
• Missing Reference Information

Sometimes you won't be able to find all the elements required for your reference. In that case, see the  instructions in Table 9.1 of the APA style manual in section 9.4 or the APA Style website below:

• Direct Quotation of Material Without Page Numbers

The DOI or URL is the final component of a reference list entry. Because so much scholarship is available and/or retrieved online, most reference list entries end with either a DOI or a URL.

• A  DOI  is a unique alphanumeric string that identifies content and provides a persistent link to its location on the internet. DOIs can be found in database records and the reference lists of published works.
• A  URL  specifies the location of digital information on the internet and can be found in the address bar of your internet browser. URLs in references should link directly to the cited work when possible.

When to Include DOIs and URLs:

• Include a DOI for all works that have a DOI, regardless of whether you used the online version or the print version.
• If an online work has both a DOI and a URL, include only the DOI.
• For works without DOIs from websites (not including academic research databases), provide a URL in the reference (as long as the URL will work for readers).
• For works without DOIs from most academic research databases, do not include a URL or database information in the reference because these works are widely available. The reference should be the same as the reference for a print version of the work.
• For works from databases that publish original, proprietary material available only in that database (such as the UpToDate database) or for works of limited circulation in databases (such as monographs in the ERIC database), include the name of the database or archive and the URL of the work. If the URL requires a login or is session-specific (meaning it will not resolve for readers), provide the URL of the database or archive home page or login page instead of the URL for the work. (See APA Section 9.30 for more information). 
• If the URL is no longer working or no longer provides readers access to the content you intend to cite, try to find an archived version using the Internet Archive , then use the archived URL. If there is no archived URL, do not use that resource.

Format of DOIs and URLs:

Your DOI should look like this: 

https://doi.org/10.1037/a0040251

Follow these guidelines from the APA Style website.

APA Style uses the  author–date citation system , in which a brief in-text citation points your reader to the full reference list entry at the end of your paper. The in-text citation appears within the body of the paper and briefly identifies the cited work by its author and date of publication. This method enables your reader to locate the corresponding entry in the alphabetical reference list at the end of your paper.

Each work you cite  must  appear in the reference list, and each work in the reference list must be cited in the text (or in a table, figure, footnote, or appendix) except for the following (See APA, 8.4):

• Personal communications (8.9)
• General mentions of entire websites, whole periodicals (8.22), and common software and apps (10.10) in the text do not require a citation or reference list entry.
• The source of an epigraph does not usually appear in the reference list (8.35)
• Quotations from your research participants do not need citations or reference list entries (8.36)
• References included in a statistical meta-analysis, which are marked with an asterisk in the reference list, may be cited in the text (or not) at the author’s discretion. This exception is relevant only to authors who are conducting a meta-analysis (9.52).

Formatting Your In-Text Citations

Parenthetical and Narrative Citations: ( See APA Section  8.11)

In APA style you use the author-date citation system for citing references within your paper. You incorporate these references using either a  parenthetical   or a  narrative  style.

Parenthetical Citations

• In parenthetical citations, the author name and publication date appear in parentheses, separated by a comma. (Jones, 2018)
• A parenthetical citation can appear within or at the end of a sentence.
• When the parenthetical citation is at the end of the sentence, put the period or other end punctuation after the closing parenthesis.
• If there is no author, use the first few words of the reference list entry, usually the "Title" of the source: ("Autism," 2008) See APA 8.14
• When quoting, always provide the author, year, and specific page citation or paragraph number for nonpaginated materials in the text (Santa Barbara, 2010, p. 243).  See APA 8.13
• For most citations, the parenthetical reference is placed BEFORE the punctuation: Magnesium can be effective in treating PMS (Haggerty, 2012).

Narrative Citations 

In narrative citations, the author name or title of your source appears within your text and the publication date appears in parentheses immediately after the author name. 

• Santa Barbara (2010) noted a decline in the approval of disciplinary spanking of 26 percentage points from 1968 to 1994.

In-Text Citation Checklist

• In-Text Citation Checklist Use this useful checklist from the American Psychological Association to ensure that you've created your in-text citations correctly.

In-Text Citations for Specific Types of Sources

Quotations from Research Participants

Personal Communications

Secondary Sources  

Use NoodleTools to Cite Your Sources  

NoodleTools can help you create your references and your in-text citations.

• NoodleTools Express No sign in required . When you need one or two quick citations in MLA, APA, or Chicago style, simply generate them in NoodleTools Express then copy and paste what you need into your document. Note: Citations are not saved and cannot be exported to a word processor using NoodleTools Express.
• NoodleTools (Login Full Database) This link opens in a new window Create and organize your research notes, share and collaborate on research projects, compose and error check citations, and complete your list of works cited in MLA, APA, or Chicago style using the full version of NoodleTools. You'll need to Create a Personal ID and password the first time you use NoodleTools.

See How to Use NoodleTools Express to Create a Citation in APA Format

Additional NoodleTools Help

• NoodleTools Help Desk Look up questions and answers on the NoodleTools Web site
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Citation guides

All you need to know about citations

How to cite a report in APA

Research and technical reports are often referred to as grey literature: material that is created by governments, academics or companies, but not by commercial or academic publishers. Even though reports may or may not be peer reviewed, it is legit to cite them in your work.

If the report can be found online take a look at our APA online report guide .

To cite a report in a reference entry in APA style 6th edition include the following elements:

• Author(s) of the report: Give the last name and initials (e. g. Watson, J. D.) of up to seven authors with the last name preceded by an ampersand (&). For eight or more authors include the first six names followed by an ellipsis (…) and add the last author's name.
• Year of publication: Give the year in brackets followed by a full stop.
• Title of the report: Only the first letter of the first word and proper nouns are capitalized.
• Report number: Give the number of the report preceded by 'Report No.'
• Place of publication: List the city and the US state using the two-letter abbreviation. Spell out country names if outside of the UK or the USA.
• Publisher: When the publisher is the same as the author it can be substituted by the word 'Author'.

Here is the basic format for a reference list entry of a report in APA style 6th edition:

Author(s) of the report . ( Year of publication ). Title of the report (Report No. Report number ). Place of publication : Publisher .

To cite a report in a reference entry in APA style 7th edition include the following elements:

• Author(s) of the report: Give the last name and initials (e. g. Watson, J. D.) of up to 20 authors with the last name preceded by an ampersand (&). For 21 or more authors include the first 19 names followed by an ellipsis (…) and add the last author's name.
• Report number: Give the number of the report as presented in the source, if available.
• Publisher: When the publisher is the same as the author it can be omitted.

Here is the basic format for a reference list entry of a report in APA style 7th edition:

Author(s) of the report . ( Year of publication ). Title of the report . ( Report number ). Publisher .

APA reference list examples

Take a look at our reference list examples that demonstrate the APA style guidelines for a report citation in action:

The print version of a report by one author

Loban, W . ( 1976 ). Language development: Kindergarten through grade twelve ( NCTE Committee on Research Report No. 18 ). Washington, DC : Office of Education .

A report retrieved from a database

Loban, W . ( 1976 ). Language development: Kindergarten through grade twelve . Office of Education (DHEW) . https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED128818

Langer, J. A . ( 1987 ). How writing shapes thinking: A study of teaching and learning ( NCTE Research Report No. 22 ). Washington, DC : National Inst. of Education .

Langer, J. A . ( 1987 ). How writing shapes thinking: A study of teaching and learning . National Inst. of Education . https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED286205

This citation style guide is based on the official Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association ( 6 th edition).

More useful guides

• How to cite a Report in APA style
• Quick Answers: citing reports in APA
• APA 6th referencing style: reports

More great BibGuru guides

• MLA: how to cite a personal interview
• AMA: how to cite a transcript of TV or radio broadcast
• APA: how to cite an online journal article

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• 📚 How to write a book report
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APA 7th Edition Citation Examples

• Volume and Issue Numbers
• Page Numbers
• Undated Sources
• Citing a Source Within a Source
• In-Text Citations
• Academic Journals
• Encyclopedia Articles
• Book, Film, and Product Reviews
• Online Classroom Materials
• Conference Papers

Format for technical and research reports

• Court Decisions
• Treaties and Other International Agreements
• Federal Regulations: I. The Code of Federal Regulations
• Federal Regulations: II. The Federal Register
• Executive Orders
• Charter of the United Nations
• Federal Statutes
• Dissertations and Theses
• Interviews, E-mail Messages + Other Personal Communications
• Social Media
• Business Sources
• PowerPoints
• AI: ChatGPT, etc.

Author last name, first initial. (Date).  Title of report  (Publication No.). Publisher. DOI or URL

• Author:  List the last name, followed by the first initial (and second initial). See  Authors  for more information.
• Date:  List the date between parentheses, followed by a period
• Title of report:  In italics. Capitalize the first word of the title, subtitle, and proper nouns.
• Publication number: Omit if unavailable for the source that you're citing
• Publisher:  List the report's publisher. If the publisher is the same as the author, do not list the name a second time.
• DOI or URL:  List DOI or URL if available

See specific examples below.

U.S. Government Accountability Office. (2010). Information security: Concerted effort needed to consolidate and secure Internet connections at federal agencies (Publication No. GAO-10-237). http://www.gao.gov/assets/310/301876.pdf

U.S. Government Accountability Office. (2010). Information security: Concerted effort needed to consolidate and secure Internet connections at federal agencies (Publication No. GAO-10-237).

See  Publication Manual , 10.4.

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University Library

Start your research.

• Research Process
• Find Background Info
• Find Sources through the Library
• Evaluate Your Info
• Cite Your Sources
• Evaluate, Write & Cite

• is the right thing to do  to give credit to those who had the idea
• shows that you have read and understand  what experts have had to say about your topic
• helps people find the sources  that you used in case they want to read more about the topic
• provides   evidence  for your arguments
• is professional and  standard practice   for students and scholars

What is a Citation?

A citation identifies for the reader the original source for an idea, information, or image that is referred to in a work.

• In the body of a paper, the  in-text citation  acknowledges the source of information used.
• At the end of a paper, the citations are compiled on a  References  or  Works Cited  list. A basic citation includes the author, title, and publication information of the source. 

From:  Lemieux  Library,  University  of Seattle 

Why Should You Cite?

Quoting Are you quoting two or more consecutive words from a source? Then the original source should be cited and the words or phrase placed in quotes. 

Paraphrasing If an idea or information comes from another source,  even if you put it in your own words , you still need to credit the source.  General vs. Unfamiliar Knowledge You do not need to cite material which is accepted common knowledge. If in doubt whether your information is common knowledge or not, cite it. Formats We usually think of books and articles. However, if you use material from web sites, films, music, graphs, tables, etc. you'll also need to cite these as well.

Plagiarism is presenting the words or ideas of someone else as your own without proper acknowledgment of the source. When you work on a research paper and use supporting material from works by others, it's okay to quote people and use their ideas, but you do need to correctly credit them. Even when you summarize or paraphrase information found in books, articles, or Web pages, you must acknowledge the original author.

Citation Style Help

Helpful links:

• MLA ,  Works Cited : A Quick Guide (a template of core elements)
• CSE  (Council of Science Editors)

For additional writing resources specific to styles listed here visit the  Purdue OWL Writing Lab

Citation and Bibliography Resources

• How to Write an Annotated Bibliography
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The land acknowledgement used at UC Santa Cruz was developed in partnership with the Amah Mutsun Tribal Band Chairman and the Amah Mutsun Relearning Program at the UCSC Arboretum .

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Home » How to Cite Research Paper – All Formats and Examples

How to Cite Research Paper – All Formats and Examples

Table of Contents

Research Paper Citation

Research paper citation refers to the act of acknowledging and referencing a previously published work in a scholarly or academic paper . When citing sources, researchers provide information that allows readers to locate the original source, validate the claims or arguments made in the paper, and give credit to the original author(s) for their work.

The citation may include the author’s name, title of the publication, year of publication, publisher, and other relevant details that allow readers to trace the source of the information. Proper citation is a crucial component of academic writing, as it helps to ensure accuracy, credibility, and transparency in research.

How to Cite Research Paper

There are several formats that are used to cite a research paper. Follow the guide for the Citation of a Research Paper:

Last Name, First Name. Title of Book. Publisher, Year of Publication.

Example : Smith, John. The History of the World. Penguin Press, 2010.

Journal Article

Last Name, First Name. “Title of Article.” Title of Journal, vol. Volume Number, no. Issue Number, Year of Publication, pp. Page Numbers.

Example : Johnson, Emma. “The Effects of Climate Change on Agriculture.” Environmental Science Journal, vol. 10, no. 2, 2019, pp. 45-59.

Research Paper

Last Name, First Name. “Title of Paper.” Conference Name, Location, Date of Conference.

Example : Garcia, Maria. “The Importance of Early Childhood Education.” International Conference on Education, Paris, 5-7 June 2018.

Author’s Last Name, First Name. “Title of Webpage.” Website Title, Publisher, Date of Publication, URL.

Example : Smith, John. “The Benefits of Exercise.” Healthline, Healthline Media, 1 March 2022, https://www.healthline.com/health/benefits-of-exercise.

News Article

Last Name, First Name. “Title of Article.” Name of Newspaper, Date of Publication, URL.

Example : Robinson, Sarah. “Biden Announces New Climate Change Policies.” The New York Times, 22 Jan. 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/22/climate/biden-climate-change-policies.html.

Author, A. A. (Year of publication). Title of book. Publisher.

Example: Smith, J. (2010). The History of the World. Penguin Press.

Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (Year of publication). Title of article. Title of Journal, volume number(issue number), page range.

Example: Johnson, E., Smith, K., & Lee, M. (2019). The Effects of Climate Change on Agriculture. Environmental Science Journal, 10(2), 45-59.

Author, A. A. (Year of publication). Title of paper. In Editor First Initial. Last Name (Ed.), Title of Conference Proceedings (page numbers). Publisher.

Example: Garcia, M. (2018). The Importance of Early Childhood Education. In J. Smith (Ed.), Proceedings from the International Conference on Education (pp. 60-75). Springer.

Author, A. A. (Year, Month Day of publication). Title of webpage. Website name. URL

Example: Smith, J. (2022, March 1). The Benefits of Exercise. Healthline. https://www.healthline.com/health/benefits-of-exercise

Author, A. A. (Year, Month Day of publication). Title of article. Newspaper name. URL.

Example: Robinson, S. (2021, January 22). Biden Announces New Climate Change Policies. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/22/climate/biden-climate-change-policies.html

Chicago/Turabian style

Please note that there are two main variations of the Chicago style: the author-date system and the notes and bibliography system. I will provide examples for both systems below.

Author-Date system:

• In-text citation: (Author Last Name Year, Page Number)
• Reference list: Author Last Name, First Name. Year. Title of Book. Place of publication: Publisher.
• In-text citation: (Smith 2005, 28)
• Reference list: Smith, John. 2005. The History of America. New York: Penguin Press.

Notes and Bibliography system:

• Footnote/Endnote citation: Author First Name Last Name, Title of Book (Place of publication: Publisher, Year), Page Number.
• Bibliography citation: Author Last Name, First Name. Title of Book. Place of publication: Publisher, Year.
• Footnote/Endnote citation: John Smith, The History of America (New York: Penguin Press, 2005), 28.
• Bibliography citation: Smith, John. The History of America. New York: Penguin Press, 2005.

JOURNAL ARTICLES:

• Reference list: Author Last Name, First Name. Year. “Article Title.” Journal Title Volume Number (Issue Number): Page Range.
• In-text citation: (Johnson 2010, 45)
• Reference list: Johnson, Mary. 2010. “The Impact of Social Media on Society.” Journal of Communication 60(2): 39-56.
• Footnote/Endnote citation: Author First Name Last Name, “Article Title,” Journal Title Volume Number, Issue Number (Year): Page Range.
• Bibliography citation: Author Last Name, First Name. “Article Title.” Journal Title Volume Number, Issue Number (Year): Page Range.
• Footnote/Endnote citation: Mary Johnson, “The Impact of Social Media on Society,” Journal of Communication 60, no. 2 (2010): 39-56.
• Bibliography citation: Johnson, Mary. “The Impact of Social Media on Society.” Journal of Communication 60, no. 2 (2010): 39-56.

RESEARCH PAPERS:

• Reference list: Author Last Name, First Name. Year. “Title of Paper.” Conference Proceedings Title, Location, Date. Publisher, Page Range.
• In-text citation: (Jones 2015, 12)
• Reference list: Jones, David. 2015. “The Effects of Climate Change on Agriculture.” Proceedings of the International Conference on Climate Change, Paris, France, June 1-3, 2015. Springer, 10-20.
• Footnote/Endnote citation: Author First Name Last Name, “Title of Paper,” Conference Proceedings Title, Location, Date (Place of publication: Publisher, Year), Page Range.
• Bibliography citation: Author Last Name, First Name. “Title of Paper.” Conference Proceedings Title, Location, Date. Place of publication: Publisher, Year.
• Footnote/Endnote citation: David Jones, “The Effects of Climate Change on Agriculture,” Proceedings of the International Conference on Climate Change, Paris, France, June 1-3, 2015 (New York: Springer, 10-20).
• Bibliography citation: Jones, David. “The Effects of Climate Change on Agriculture.” Proceedings of the International Conference on Climate Change, Paris, France, June 1-3, 2015. New York: Springer, 10-20.
• In-text citation: (Author Last Name Year)
• Reference list: Author Last Name, First Name. Year. “Title of Webpage.” Website Name. URL.
• In-text citation: (Smith 2018)
• Reference list: Smith, John. 2018. “The Importance of Recycling.” Environmental News Network. https://www.enn.com/articles/54374-the-importance-of-recycling.
• Footnote/Endnote citation: Author First Name Last Name, “Title of Webpage,” Website Name, URL (accessed Date).
• Bibliography citation: Author Last Name, First Name. “Title of Webpage.” Website Name. URL (accessed Date).
• Footnote/Endnote citation: John Smith, “The Importance of Recycling,” Environmental News Network, https://www.enn.com/articles/54374-the-importance-of-recycling (accessed April 8, 2023).
• Bibliography citation: Smith, John. “The Importance of Recycling.” Environmental News Network. https://www.enn.com/articles/54374-the-importance-of-recycling (accessed April 8, 2023).

NEWS ARTICLES:

• Reference list: Author Last Name, First Name. Year. “Title of Article.” Name of Newspaper, Month Day.
• In-text citation: (Johnson 2022)
• Reference list: Johnson, Mary. 2022. “New Study Finds Link Between Coffee and Longevity.” The New York Times, January 15.
• Footnote/Endnote citation: Author First Name Last Name, “Title of Article,” Name of Newspaper (City), Month Day, Year.
• Bibliography citation: Author Last Name, First Name. “Title of Article.” Name of Newspaper (City), Month Day, Year.
• Footnote/Endnote citation: Mary Johnson, “New Study Finds Link Between Coffee and Longevity,” The New York Times (New York), January 15, 2022.
• Bibliography citation: Johnson, Mary. “New Study Finds Link Between Coffee and Longevity.” The New York Times (New York), January 15, 2022.

Harvard referencing style

Format: Author’s Last name, First initial. (Year of publication). Title of book. Publisher.

Example: Smith, J. (2008). The Art of War. Random House.

Journal article:

Format: Author’s Last name, First initial. (Year of publication). Title of article. Title of journal, volume number(issue number), page range.

Example: Brown, M. (2012). The impact of social media on business communication. Harvard Business Review, 90(12), 85-92.

Research paper:

Format: Author’s Last name, First initial. (Year of publication). Title of paper. In Editor’s First initial. Last name (Ed.), Title of book (page range). Publisher.

Example: Johnson, R. (2015). The effects of climate change on agriculture. In S. Lee (Ed.), Climate Change and Sustainable Development (pp. 45-62). Springer.

Format: Author’s Last name, First initial. (Year, Month Day of publication). Title of page. Website name. URL.

Example: Smith, J. (2017, May 23). The history of the internet. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-the-internet

News article:

Format: Author’s Last name, First initial. (Year, Month Day of publication). Title of article. Title of newspaper, page number (if applicable).

Example: Thompson, E. (2022, January 5). New study finds coffee may lower risk of dementia. The New York Times, A1.

IEEE Format

Author(s). (Year of Publication). Title of Book. Publisher.

Smith, J. K. (2015). The Power of Habit: Why We Do What We Do in Life and Business. Random House.

Journal Article:

Author(s). (Year of Publication). Title of Article. Title of Journal, Volume Number (Issue Number), page numbers.

Johnson, T. J., & Kaye, B. K. (2016). Interactivity and the Future of Journalism. Journalism Studies, 17(2), 228-246.

Author(s). (Year of Publication). Title of Paper. Paper presented at Conference Name, Location.

Jones, L. K., & Brown, M. A. (2018). The Role of Social Media in Political Campaigns. Paper presented at the 2018 International Conference on Social Media and Society, Copenhagen, Denmark.

• Website: Author(s) or Organization Name. (Year of Publication or Last Update). Title of Webpage. Website Name. URL.

Example: National Aeronautics and Space Administration. (2019, August 29). NASA’s Mission to Mars. NASA. https://www.nasa.gov/topics/journeytomars/index.html

• News Article: Author(s). (Year of Publication). Title of Article. Name of News Source. URL.

Example: Johnson, M. (2022, February 16). Climate Change: Is it Too Late to Save the Planet? CNN. https://www.cnn.com/2022/02/16/world/climate-change-planet-scn/index.html

Vancouver Style

In-text citation: Use superscript numbers to cite sources in the text, e.g., “The study conducted by Smith and Johnson^1 found that…”.

Reference list citation: Format: Author(s). Title of book. Edition if any. Place of publication: Publisher; Year of publication.

Example: Smith J, Johnson L. Introduction to Molecular Biology. 2nd ed. New York: Wiley-Blackwell; 2015.

In-text citation: Use superscript numbers to cite sources in the text, e.g., “Several studies have reported that^1,2,3…”.

Reference list citation: Format: Author(s). Title of article. Abbreviated name of journal. Year of publication; Volume number (Issue number): Page range.

Example: Jones S, Patel K, Smith J. The effects of exercise on cardiovascular health. J Cardiol. 2018; 25(2): 78-84.

In-text citation: Use superscript numbers to cite sources in the text, e.g., “Previous research has shown that^1,2,3…”.

Reference list citation: Format: Author(s). Title of paper. In: Editor(s). Title of the conference proceedings. Place of publication: Publisher; Year of publication. Page range.

Example: Johnson L, Smith J. The role of stem cells in tissue regeneration. In: Patel S, ed. Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Regenerative Medicine. London: Academic Press; 2016. p. 68-73.

In-text citation: Use superscript numbers to cite sources in the text, e.g., “According to the World Health Organization^1…”.

Reference list citation: Format: Author(s). Title of webpage. Name of website. URL [Accessed Date].

Example: World Health Organization. Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) advice for the public. World Health Organization. https://www.who.int/emergencies/disease/novel-coronavirus-2019/advice-for-public [Accessed 3 March 2023].

In-text citation: Use superscript numbers to cite sources in the text, e.g., “According to the New York Times^1…”.

Reference list citation: Format: Author(s). Title of article. Name of newspaper. Year Month Day; Section (if any): Page number.

Example: Jones S. Study shows that sleep is essential for good health. The New York Times. 2022 Jan 12; Health: A8.

Author(s). Title of Book. Edition Number (if it is not the first edition). Publisher: Place of publication, Year of publication.

Example: Smith, J. Chemistry of Natural Products. 3rd ed.; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, 2015.

Journal articles:

Author(s). Article Title. Journal Name Year, Volume, Inclusive Pagination.

Example: Garcia, A. M.; Jones, B. A.; Smith, J. R. Selective Synthesis of Alkenes from Alkynes via Catalytic Hydrogenation. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2019, 141, 10754-10759.

Research papers:

Author(s). Title of Paper. Journal Name Year, Volume, Inclusive Pagination.

Example: Brown, H. D.; Jackson, C. D.; Patel, S. D. A New Approach to Photovoltaic Solar Cells. J. Mater. Chem. 2018, 26, 134-142.

Author(s) (if available). Title of Webpage. Name of Website. URL (accessed Month Day, Year).

Example: National Institutes of Health. Heart Disease and Stroke. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health-topics/heart-disease-and-stroke (accessed April 7, 2023).

News articles:

Author(s). Title of Article. Name of News Publication. Date of Publication. URL (accessed Month Day, Year).

Example: Friedman, T. L. The World is Flat. New York Times. April 7, 2023. https://www.nytimes.com/2023/04/07/opinion/world-flat-globalization.html (accessed April 7, 2023).

In AMA Style Format, the citation for a book should include the following information, in this order:

• Title of book (in italics)
• Edition (if applicable)
• Place of publication
• Year of publication

Lodish H, Berk A, Zipursky SL, et al. Molecular Cell Biology. 4th ed. New York, NY: W. H. Freeman; 2000.

In AMA Style Format, the citation for a journal article should include the following information, in this order:

• Title of article
• Abbreviated title of journal (in italics)
• Year of publication; volume number(issue number):page numbers.

Chen H, Huang Y, Li Y, et al. Effects of mindfulness-based stress reduction on depression in adolescents and young adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Netw Open. 2020;3(6):e207081. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.7081

In AMA Style Format, the citation for a research paper should include the following information, in this order:

• Title of paper
• Name of journal or conference proceeding (in italics)
• Volume number(issue number):page numbers.

Bredenoord AL, Kroes HY, Cuppen E, Parker M, van Delden JJ. Disclosure of individual genetic data to research participants: the debate reconsidered. Trends Genet. 2011;27(2):41-47. doi:10.1016/j.tig.2010.11.004

In AMA Style Format, the citation for a website should include the following information, in this order:

• Title of web page or article
• Name of website (in italics)
• Date of publication or last update (if available)
• URL (website address)
• Date of access (month day, year)

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. How to protect yourself and others. CDC. Published February 11, 2022. Accessed February 14, 2022. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/prevention.html

In AMA Style Format, the citation for a news article should include the following information, in this order:

• Name of newspaper or news website (in italics)
• Date of publication

Gorman J. Scientists use stem cells from frogs to build first living robots. The New York Times. January 13, 2020. Accessed January 14, 2020. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/13/science/living-robots-xenobots.html

Bluebook Format

One author: Daniel J. Solove, The Future of Reputation: Gossip, Rumor, and Privacy on the Internet (Yale University Press 2007).

Two or more authors: Martha Nussbaum and Saul Levmore, eds., The Offensive Internet: Speech, Privacy, and Reputation (Harvard University Press 2010).

Journal article

One author: Daniel J. Solove, “A Taxonomy of Privacy,” University of Pennsylvania Law Review 154, no. 3 (January 2006): 477-560.

Two or more authors: Ethan Katsh and Andrea Schneider, “The Emergence of Online Dispute Resolution,” Journal of Dispute Resolution 2003, no. 1 (2003): 7-19.

One author: Daniel J. Solove, “A Taxonomy of Privacy,” GWU Law School Public Law Research Paper No. 113, 2005.

Two or more authors: Ethan Katsh and Andrea Schneider, “The Emergence of Online Dispute Resolution,” Cyberlaw Research Paper Series Paper No. 00-5, 2000.

WebsiteElectronic Frontier Foundation, “Surveillance Self-Defense,” accessed April 8, 2023, https://ssd.eff.org/.

News article

One author: Mark Sherman, “Court Deals Major Blow to Net Neutrality Rules,” ABC News, January 14, 2014, https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/wireStory/court-deals-major-blow-net-neutrality-rules-21586820.

Two or more authors: Siobhan Hughes and Brent Kendall, “AT&T Wins Approval to Buy Time Warner,” Wall Street Journal, June 12, 2018, https://www.wsj.com/articles/at-t-wins-approval-to-buy-time-warner-1528847249.

In-Text Citation: (Author’s last name Year of Publication: Page Number)

Example: (Smith 2010: 35)

Reference List Citation: Author’s last name First Initial. Title of Book. Edition. Place of publication: Publisher; Year of publication.

Example: Smith J. Biology: A Textbook. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2010.

Example: (Johnson 2014: 27)

Reference List Citation: Author’s last name First Initial. Title of Article. Abbreviated Title of Journal. Year of publication;Volume(Issue):Page Numbers.

Example: Johnson S. The role of dopamine in addiction. J Neurosci. 2014;34(8): 2262-2272.

Example: (Brown 2018: 10)

Reference List Citation: Author’s last name First Initial. Title of Paper. Paper presented at: Name of Conference; Date of Conference; Place of Conference.

Example: Brown R. The impact of social media on mental health. Paper presented at: Annual Meeting of the American Psychological Association; August 2018; San Francisco, CA.

Example: (World Health Organization 2020: para. 2)

Reference List Citation: Author’s last name First Initial. Title of Webpage. Name of Website. URL. Published date. Accessed date.

Example: World Health Organization. Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic. WHO website. https://www.who.int/emergencies/disease-coronavirus-2019. Updated August 17, 2020. Accessed September 5, 2021.

Example: (Smith 2019: para. 5)

Reference List Citation: Author’s last name First Initial. Title of Article. Title of Newspaper or Magazine. Year of publication; Month Day:Page Numbers.

Example: Smith K. New study finds link between exercise and mental health. The New York Times. 2019;May 20: A6.

Purpose of Research Paper Citation

The purpose of citing sources in a research paper is to give credit to the original authors and acknowledge their contribution to your work. By citing sources, you are also demonstrating the validity and reliability of your research by showing that you have consulted credible and authoritative sources. Citations help readers to locate the original sources that you have referenced and to verify the accuracy and credibility of your research. Additionally, citing sources is important for avoiding plagiarism, which is the act of presenting someone else’s work as your own. Proper citation also shows that you have conducted a thorough literature review and have used the existing research to inform your own work. Overall, citing sources is an essential aspect of academic writing and is necessary for building credibility, demonstrating research skills, and avoiding plagiarism.

Advantages of Research Paper Citation

There are several advantages of research paper citation, including:

• Giving credit: By citing the works of other researchers in your field, you are acknowledging their contribution and giving credit where it is due.
• Strengthening your argument: Citing relevant and reliable sources in your research paper can strengthen your argument and increase its credibility. It shows that you have done your due diligence and considered various perspectives before drawing your conclusions.
• Demonstrating familiarity with the literature : By citing various sources, you are demonstrating your familiarity with the existing literature in your field. This is important as it shows that you are well-informed about the topic and have done a thorough review of the available research.
• Providing a roadmap for further research: By citing relevant sources, you are providing a roadmap for further research on the topic. This can be helpful for future researchers who are interested in exploring the same or related issues.
• Building your own reputation: By citing the works of established researchers in your field, you can build your own reputation as a knowledgeable and informed scholar. This can be particularly helpful if you are early in your career and looking to establish yourself as an expert in your field.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Cite A Report in Harvard style

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• Archive material
• Chapter of an edited book
• Conference proceedings
• Dictionary entry
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• DVD, video, or film
• E-book or PDF
• Edited book
• Encyclopedia article
• Government publication
• Music or recording
• Online image or video
• Presentation
• Press release
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Use the following template or our Harvard Referencing Generator to cite a report. For help with other source types, like books, PDFs, or websites, check out our other guides. To have your reference list or bibliography automatically made for you, try our free citation generator .

Reference list

Place this part in your bibliography or reference list at the end of your assignment.

In-text citation

Place this part right after the quote or reference to the source in your assignment.

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• How to cite a Encyclopedia article in Harvard style
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• How to cite a Magazine in Harvard style
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• How to cite a Patent in Harvard style
• How to cite a Podcast in Harvard style
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• Knowledge Base
• Referencing

A Quick Guide to Referencing | Cite Your Sources Correctly

Referencing means acknowledging the sources you have used in your writing. Including references helps you support your claims and ensures that you avoid plagiarism .

There are many referencing styles, but they usually consist of two things:

• A citation wherever you refer to a source in your text.
• A reference list or bibliography at the end listing full details of all your sources.

The most common method of referencing in UK universities is Harvard style , which uses author-date citations in the text. Our free Harvard Reference Generator automatically creates accurate references in this style.

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Table of contents

Referencing styles, citing your sources with in-text citations, creating your reference list or bibliography, harvard referencing examples, frequently asked questions about referencing.

Each referencing style has different rules for presenting source information. For in-text citations, some use footnotes or endnotes , while others include the author’s surname and date of publication in brackets in the text.

The reference list or bibliography is presented differently in each style, with different rules for things like capitalisation, italics, and quotation marks in references.

Your university will usually tell you which referencing style to use; they may even have their own unique style. Always follow your university’s guidelines, and ask your tutor if you are unsure. The most common styles are summarised below.

Harvard referencing, the most commonly used style at UK universities, uses author–date in-text citations corresponding to an alphabetical bibliography or reference list at the end.

Harvard Referencing Guide

Vancouver referencing, used in biomedicine and other sciences, uses reference numbers in the text corresponding to a numbered reference list at the end.

Vancouver Referencing Guide

APA referencing, used in the social and behavioural sciences, uses author–date in-text citations corresponding to an alphabetical reference list at the end.

APA Referencing Guide APA Reference Generator

MHRA referencing, used in the humanities, uses footnotes in the text with source information, in addition to an alphabetised bibliography at the end.

MHRA Referencing Guide

OSCOLA referencing, used in law, uses footnotes in the text with source information, and an alphabetical bibliography at the end in longer texts.

OSCOLA Referencing Guide

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In-text citations should be used whenever you quote, paraphrase, or refer to information from a source (e.g. a book, article, image, website, or video).

Quoting and paraphrasing

Quoting is when you directly copy some text from a source and enclose it in quotation marks to indicate that it is not your own writing.

Paraphrasing is when you rephrase the original source into your own words. In this case, you don’t use quotation marks, but you still need to include a citation.

In most referencing styles, page numbers are included when you’re quoting or paraphrasing a particular passage. If you are referring to the text as a whole, no page number is needed.

In-text citations

In-text citations are quick references to your sources. In Harvard referencing, you use the author’s surname and the date of publication in brackets.

Up to three authors are included in a Harvard in-text citation. If the source has more than three authors, include the first author followed by ‘ et al. ‘

The point of these citations is to direct your reader to the alphabetised reference list, where you give full information about each source. For example, to find the source cited above, the reader would look under ‘J’ in your reference list to find the title and publication details of the source.

Placement of in-text citations

In-text citations should be placed directly after the quotation or information they refer to, usually before a comma or full stop. If a sentence is supported by multiple sources, you can combine them in one set of brackets, separated by a semicolon.

If you mention the author’s name in the text already, you don’t include it in the citation, and you can place the citation immediately after the name.

• Another researcher warns that the results of this method are ‘inconsistent’ (Singh, 2018, p. 13) .
• Previous research has frequently illustrated the pitfalls of this method (Singh, 2018; Jones, 2016) .
• Singh (2018, p. 13) warns that the results of this method are ‘inconsistent’.

The terms ‘bibliography’ and ‘reference list’ are sometimes used interchangeably. Both refer to a list that contains full information on all the sources cited in your text. Sometimes ‘bibliography’ is used to mean a more extensive list, also containing sources that you consulted but did not cite in the text.

A reference list or bibliography is usually mandatory, since in-text citations typically don’t provide full source information. For styles that already include full source information in footnotes (e.g. OSCOLA and Chicago Style ), the bibliography is optional, although your university may still require you to include one.

Format of the reference list

Reference lists are usually alphabetised by authors’ last names. Each entry in the list appears on a new line, and a hanging indent is applied if an entry extends onto multiple lines.

Different source information is included for different source types. Each style provides detailed guidelines for exactly what information should be included and how it should be presented.

Below are some examples of reference list entries for common source types in Harvard style.

• Chapter of a book
• Journal article

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Your university should tell you which referencing style to follow. If you’re unsure, check with a supervisor. Commonly used styles include:

• Harvard referencing , the most commonly used style in UK universities.
• MHRA , used in humanities subjects.
• APA , used in the social sciences.
• Vancouver , used in biomedicine.
• OSCOLA , used in law.

Your university may have its own referencing style guide.

If you are allowed to choose which style to follow, we recommend Harvard referencing, as it is a straightforward and widely used style.

References should be included in your text whenever you use words, ideas, or information from a source. A source can be anything from a book or journal article to a website or YouTube video.

If you don’t acknowledge your sources, you can get in trouble for plagiarism .

To avoid plagiarism , always include a reference when you use words, ideas or information from a source. This shows that you are not trying to pass the work of others off as your own.

You must also properly quote or paraphrase the source. If you’re not sure whether you’ve done this correctly, you can use the Scribbr Plagiarism Checker to find and correct any mistakes.

Harvard referencing uses an author–date system. Sources are cited by the author’s last name and the publication year in brackets. Each Harvard in-text citation corresponds to an entry in the alphabetised reference list at the end of the paper.

Vancouver referencing uses a numerical system. Sources are cited by a number in parentheses or superscript. Each number corresponds to a full reference at the end of the paper.

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People say they're leaving religion due to anti-LGBTQ teachings and sexual abuse

Jason DeRose

The PRRI poll found that the vast majority of those who are unaffiliated are content to stay that way. Just 9% of respondents say they're looking for a religion that would be right for them. Hanan Isachar/Getty Images hide caption

The PRRI poll found that the vast majority of those who are unaffiliated are content to stay that way. Just 9% of respondents say they're looking for a religion that would be right for them.

People in the U.S. are leaving and switching faith traditions in large numbers. The idea of "religious churning" is very common in America, according to a new survey from the Public Religion Research Institute (PRRI).

It finds that around one-quarter (26%) of Americans now identify as religiously unaffiliated, a number that has risen over the last decade and is now the largest single religious group in the U.S. That's similar to what other surveys and polls have also found, including Pew Research .

PRRI found that the number of those who describe themselves as "nothing in particular" has held steady since 2013, but those who identify as atheists have doubled (from 2% to 4%) and those who say they're agnostic has more than doubled (from 2% to 5%).

This study looks at which faith traditions those unaffiliated people are coming from.

Despite church prohibitions, Catholics still choose IVF to have children

"Thirty-five percent were former Catholics, 35% were former mainline Protestants, only about 16% were former evangelicals," says Melissa Deckman, PRRI's chief executive officer. "And really not many of those Americans are, in fact, looking for an organized religion that would be right for them. We just found it was 9%."

That these people are not looking for a religion has, Deckman says, implications for how and even whether houses of worship should try to attract new people.

Among other findings: The Catholic Church is losing more members than it's gaining, though the numbers are slightly better for retention among Hispanic Catholics.

There is much lower religious churn among Black Protestants and among Jews who seem overall happy in their faith traditions and tend to stay there.

As for why people leave their religions, PRRI found that about two-thirds (67%) of people who leave a faith tradition say they did so because they simply stopped believing in that religion's teachings.

An Arizona church known for feeding migrants now says the city is blocking its work

And nearly half (47%) of respondents who left cited negative teaching about the treatment of LGBTQ people.

Those numbers were especially high with one group in particular.

"Religion's negative teaching about LGBTQ people are driving younger Americans to leave church," Deckman says. "We found that about 60% of Americans who are under the age of 30 who have left religion say they left because of their religious traditions teaching, which is a much higher rate than for older Americans."

Hispanic Americans are also more likely to say they've left a religion over LGBTQ issues. Other reasons cited for leaving: clergy sexual abuse and over-involvement in politics.

The new PRRI report is based on a survey of more than 5,600 adults late last year.

Purim — a festive Jewish holiday with an ending often ignored

About one-third of religiously unaffiliated Americans say they no longer identify with their childhood religion because the religion was bad for their mental health. That response was strongest among LGBTQ respondents.

The survey also asked about the prevalence of the so-called "prosperity Gospel." It found that 31% of respondents agreed with the statement "God always rewards those who have good faith with good health, financial success, and fulfilling personal relationships."

Black Americans tend to agree more with these theological beliefs than other racial or ethnic groups. And Republicans are more likely than independents and Democrats to hold such beliefs.

• losing faith
• sexual abuse

Home / Guides / Citation Guides / Chicago Style / How to Cite a Report in Chicago/Turabian

How to Cite a Report in Chicago/Turabian

Reports are a commonly cited type of resource and are usually published by government agencies, non-profit organizations, or corporations. In Chicago style, citations for reports are similar to citations for books, although their formatting may change slightly depending on the type of information available for a report. This guide will show you how to create notes-bibliography style citations for print and online reports using the 17th edition of The Chicago Manual of Style .

Guide Overview

• Citing an online report
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• Citing a report with the same author and publisher

Citing an Online Report

Chicago style online report citation structure:.

• First name Last name, Title of Work (Publisher City: Publisher, year of publication), URL.

Bibliography:

Last name, First name. Title of Work . Publisher City: Publisher, year of publication. URL.

Chicago Style Online Report Citation Example:

• Yulia Gorbunova, Laws of Attrition: Crackdown on Russia’s Civil Society After Putin’s Return to the Presidency (New York: Human Rights Watch, 2013), https://www.hrw.org/reports/2013/04/24/laws-attrition.

Gorbunova, Yulia. Laws of Attrition: Crackdown on Russia’s Civil Society After Putin’s Return to the Presidency. New York: Human Rights Watch, 2013. https://www.hrw.org/reports/2013/04/24/laws-attrition.

Note:  With this source, the report only specifies a publication country. To find the city of publication and other bibliographic data, search for the ISBN or publication title on a website like WorldCat.org (in this case, it is New York).

Citing a Print Report

Chicago style print report citation structure:.

• First name Last name, Title of Work (Publisher City: Publisher, year of publication).

Last name, First name. Title of Work . Publisher City: Publisher, year of publication.

Chicago Style Print Report Citation Example:

The main difference between the citation for an online report and a print report is that a URL will not be included for a print report.

• Turnitin, What’s Wrong with Wikipedia?: Evaluating the Sources Used by Students (Oakland: iParadigms, LLC, 2013).

Turnitin. What’s Wrong with Wikipedia?: Evaluating the Sources Used by Students . Oakland: iParadigms, LLC, 2013.

Citing a Report with the Same Author and Publisher

Often, for reports published by organizations, corporations, or government agencies, a specific author is not named. In this instance, you can usually treat the author and the publisher as the same entity. When citing a report where the author and the publisher are the same, the publisher’s name can be used in the author slot in addition to the publisher slot.

Chicago Style Report Citation Structure:

• Organization/Company Name, Title of Report , (Publisher City: Publisher, year of publication), URL.

Organization/Company name. Title of Report. Publisher City: Publisher, year of publication. URL.

Chicago Style Report Citation Example :

• Microsoft, Annual Report 2021 , (Redmond, WA: Microsoft, 2021), https://www.microsoft.com/investor/reports/ar21/index.html.

Microsoft. Annual Report 2021 . Redmond, WA: Microsoft, 2021. https://www.microsoft.com/investor/reports/ar21/index.html.

Note:  If the report was not written by the publisher and an author name still cannot be found, omit the author field and begin the citation with the title of the report instead. 

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Center for Security and Emerging Technology

Bibliometric Analysis of China’s Non-Therapeutic Brain-Computer Interface Research

Alternate paths to cognitive augmentation and control.

William Hannas

Huey-Meei Chang

Rishika Chauhan

Daniel Chou

John O’Callaghan

Max Riesenhuber

Vikram Venkatram

Jennifer Wang

China’s brain-computer interface research has two dimensions. Besides its usual applications in neuropathology, China is extending the benefits of BCI to the general population, aiming at enhanced cognition and a “merger” of natural and artificial intelligence. This report, authored in collaboration with researchers from the Department of War Studies at King’s College London uses bibliometric analysis and expert assessment of technical documents to evaluate China’s BCI, and conclude that the research is on track to achieve its targets.

Executive Summary

“Brain-computer (or brain-machine) interfaces” are a class of technology that allows direct communication between biological brains and computational resources, without the intervention of speech, tactile input, or the use of other sensory organs. Linkage is achieved through wires or wirelessly to contact points placed on the skull or inside the skull cavity. These interfaces—”BCIs”—have been used mainly to treat cognitive and neurological impairments.

With improvements in related technologies, however, it is now feasible to extend BCIs to the general population, potentially leading to a synthesis between the two types of intelligence—human and machine. This facilitated “merger” of natural and artificial cognition opens a path to a range of applications that could provide strategic advantages to early adopters—a prospect that has not been lost on China.

The present study reviews Chinese papers and patents for evidence of research consistent with the aspirations of Chinese scientists—captured in prior CSET studies—to build toward this state of BCI-enabled cognitive enhancement. A bibliometric analysis of several hundreds of Chinese documents indicates China embraces this goal and has realistic pathways to achieve it. China’s research in non-invasive and invasive BCI is at the world-class level thanks to indigenous work across the spectrum of related disciplines and China’s ability to benchmark foreign designs.

Although collaboration with foreign and, especially, U.S. experts accounts for part of China’s success, the analysis shows that global input to Chinese BCI programs accounts for a small and diminishing volume of the research, as evidenced in coauthorship patterns.

The study begins with an account of its assumptions and methods, followed by details on the institutions and people that our analysis indicates are most likely to achieve breakthroughs in non-therapeutic BCI in China. Medical uses of brain-computer interfaces, while not part of the study’s focus, are cited where needed since they underpin much of China’s BCI research.

Readers short on time can skip the preliminary sections and go directly to “Expert Assessments” for an overview of the paper’s substantive findings, which are: Chinese scientists are researching with measured success a variety of BCI technologies and applications, with an emphasis on signal processing, new materials, and detecting cognitive and emotional states. These efforts are comparable in sophistication to those in the United States and the United Kingdom and position China to achieve a soughtafter merger of human and machine intelligence.

This study is a joint effort by analysts at Georgetown University’s Center for Security and Emerging Technology and King’s College London’s Department of War Studies. It is based wholly on Chinese open sources and benefits from insights provided by neuroscience experts. The paper recommends an open-source monitoring program be established to track China’s development of BCIs in the interest of national security and safety.

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• Introduction
• Conclusions
• Article Information

API indicates active pharmaceutical ingredient.

Prices for a medicine per country are not shown if no data were found. The x-axis is scaled to allow best overall visual discernment, and in a small number of cases, prices exceed what can be displayed. Where prices in one country are far higher than most others, that bar is shown with a fading gradient and a data label to indicate the value. The stacked bars for cost-based prices represent the range between the competitive and conservative estimation formulae. Assumptions for calculating per-month prices are the same as outlined in footnote a of Table 1 .

eTable 1. Summary of Assumed Cost Input Variables

eMethods. Detailed Methods

eTable 2. Search Criteria and Salt Forms of Included Medicines

eTable 3. Criteria Used for Cleaning Export-Import Data

eTable 4. Costs of Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients

eFigure 1. Shipment-Level Scatterplots of API Exports

eTable 5. Bulk Excipient Costs

eTable 6. National Drug Price Sources

eResults. Detailed Results

eTable 7. Sustainable Costs for Diabetes Medicines, by Formulation

eFigure 2. Lowest Market Prices and Cost-Based Prices (per Month, US$): SGLT2 Inhibitors

eFigure 3. Lowest Market Prices and Cost-Based Prices (per Month, US$): GLP1 Agonists

eFigure 4. Lowest Market Prices and Cost-Based Prices (per Month, US$): Human Insulins

eFigure 5. Lowest Market Prices and Cost-Based Prices (per Month, US$): Insulin Analogues

eReferences

Data Sharing Statement

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Barber MJ , Gotham D , Bygrave H , Cepuch C. Estimated Sustainable Cost-Based Prices for Diabetes Medicines. JAMA Netw Open. 2024;7(3):e243474. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.3474

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Estimated Sustainable Cost-Based Prices for Diabetes Medicines

• 1 Yale Collaboration for Regulatory Rigor, Integrity, and Transparency (CRRIT), New Haven, Connecticut
• 2 Program on Regulation, Therapeutics, and Law, Division of Pharmacoepidemiology and Pharmacoeconomics, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
• 3 Department of Global Health and Population, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts
• 4 King’s College Hospital, London, United Kingdom
• 5 Médecins Sans Frontières Access Campaign, Geneva, Switzerland

Question   What could prices of insulins, sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors (SGLT2Is), and glucagonlike peptide 1 agonists (GLP1As) be if they were closer to the cost of production?

Findings   In this economic evaluation of manufacturing costs, estimated cost-based prices per month were US $1.30 to $3.45 for SGLT2Is (except canagliflozin), and $0.75 to $72.49 for GLP1As, substantially lower than current market prices in nearly all comparisons. Twice-daily mixed human insulin NPH could cost $61 per year, while basal-bolus treatment with insulin glargine and aspart could cost $111 per year, with reusable pen formulations having the lowest estimated prices.

Meaning   The findings of this study suggest that insulins, SGLT2Is, and GLP1As can likely be manufactured for prices far below current prices, enabling wider access.

Importance   The burden of diabetes is growing worldwide. The costs associated with diabetes put substantial pressure on patients and health budgets, especially in low- and middle-income countries. The prices of diabetes medicines are a key determinant for access, yet little is known about the association between manufacturing costs and current market prices.

Objectives   To estimate the cost of manufacturing insulins, sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors (SGLT2Is), and glucagonlike peptide 1 agonists (GLP1As), derive sustainable cost-based prices (CBPs), and compare these with current market prices.

Design, Setting, and Participants   In this economic evaluation, the cost of manufacturing insulins, SGLT2Is, and GLP1As was modeled. Active pharmaceutical ingredient cost per unit (weighted least-squares regression model using data from a commercial database of trade shipments, data from January 1, 2016, to March 31, 2023) was combined with costs of formulation and other operating expenses, plus a profit margin with an allowance for tax, to estimate CBPs. Cost-based prices were compared with current prices in 13 countries, collected in January 2023 from public databases. Countries were selected to provide representation of different income levels and geographic regions based on the availability of public databases.

Main Outcomes and Measures   Estimated CBPs; lowest current market prices (2023 US dollars).

Results   In this economic evaluation of manufacturing costs, estimated CBPs for treatment with insulin in a reusable pen device could be as low as $96 (human insulin) or $111 (insulin analogues) per year for a basal-bolus regimen, $61 per year using twice-daily injections of mixed human insulin, and $50 (human insulin) or $72 (insulin analogues) per year for a once-daily basal insulin injection (for type 2 diabetes), including the cost of injection devices and needles. Cost-based prices ranged from $1.30 to $3.45 per month for SGLT2Is (except canagliflozin: $25.00-$46.79) and from $0.75 to $72.49 per month for GLP1As. These CBPs were substantially lower than current prices in the 13 countries surveyed.

Conclusions and Relevance   High prices limit access to newer diabetes medicines in many countries. The findings of this study suggest that robust generic and biosimilar competition could reduce prices to more affordable levels and enable expansion of diabetes treatment globally.

While the burden of diabetes is increasing worldwide, health systems are faced with unaffordable medicine prices. There were an estimated 537 million people living with diabetes (PLD) worldwide in 2021, 90% of whom live in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). 1 Health expenditures directly related to diabetes have tripled in the past 15 years. 1 Major challenges remain in accessing insulin and newer treatments for type 2 diabetes (T2D). 2 - 9

Insulin analogues offer different pharmacokinetic profiles that allow insulin needs to be matched more closely, enable more convenient dosing regimens, and, in some cases, reduce the rate of adverse events. 10 Newer treatments for T2D—sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors (SGLT2Is) and glucagonlike peptide 1 agonists (GLP1As)—are now recommended for first-line treatment of T2D for patients with additional cardiovascular risk factors or obesity, independent of metformin use. 11

Understanding the cost of manufacture can support health systems to target a reasonable price during negotiations with pharmaceutical manufacturers. Earlier analyses by some of the authors of the study reported herein estimated the cost of manufacturing certain diabetes medicines, including insulins, 12 - 14 finding that estimated cost-based prices were far below the market prices for insulin analogues at the time. Manufacturing cost estimates for some GLP1As (semaglutide and liraglutide) were recently published in the context of obesity treatment. 15 This study develops methods for estimating pharmaceutical manufacturing costs, updates cost analyses for insulins, 12 and provides, to our knowledge, the first published manufacturing cost estimates for SGLT2Is and GLP1As for the treatment of diabetes.

This economic evaluation study estimated the cost of production for insulins, SGLT2Is, and GLP1As, and, based on this, a sustainable cost-based price (CBP), and compared CBPs with the current lowest reported prices in 13 countries, collected in January 2023 from public databases. Cost-based prices were defined as prices that would be expected in competitive markets that afford manufacturers sustainable returns, while avoiding excessive profit margins. The protocol was submitted to the institutional review board at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, which determined that this research was not human research as defined by Department of Health and Human Service regulations 45 CFR 46.102(e) or the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulations. This study followed the relevant portions of the Consolidated Health Economic Evaluation Reporting Standards ( CHEERS ) reporting guideline.

We included all SGLT2Is, GLP1As, and insulins approved by the FDA or European Medicines Agency in all available formulations. We did not include combination products, except for 70/30 mixed human insulin NPH, which was included due to its widespread use.

The cost of manufacture for medicines in a range of different therapeutic areas has been estimated. 12 - 14 The methods of these earlier studies served as a starting point for our approach. The cost of the active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) is the first input to which we add the costs of formulation and secondary packaging, logistical costs, profits, and an allowance for tax. A range of CBPs was produced using a competitive formula that assumes large-scale production and a conservative formula that assumes smaller production volumes and/or higher operating or profit margins ( Figure 1 and Figure 2 ). Average API market prices were estimated by statistical analysis of international API shipment data (January 1, 2016, to March 31, 2023) available from a trade database (weighted least-squares regression model) (eMethods in Supplement 1 ), supplemented with direct solicitation from manufacturers and inference of costs based on product similarity if data could not be identified using the aforementioned means. Costs of specialized injection devices were derived from interviews with industry experts. Further details on API analysis and cost modeling are described in the eMethods and eTables 1-5 in Supplement 1 .

Current market prices were collected for 13 countries from public databases (eMethods, eTable 6 in Supplement 1 ), including 4 high-income countries (France, Latvia, the UK, and the US) and 9 middle-income countries (Bangladesh, Brazil, China [data available only for insulins], El Salvador, India, Indonesia, Morocco, South Africa, and Ukraine). Countries were chosen based on the availability of data on prices and an intention to provide geographic and economic diversity in the sample. We were not aware of a publicly available medicines price database for any low-income country. For each country, we report the lowest price identified for each medicine and each formulation across different manufacturers and package sizes.

Statistical analyses were performed in R, version 4.2.2 (R Foundation for Statistical Computing). Costs and prices are reported in 2023 US dollars. No inflation adjustment was undertaken as the collected cost inputs represent 2023 costs.

When formulated in vials, the CBPs for regular human insulin (RHI) and insulin NPH were between 97% lower to 24% higher than the lowest current market prices, while CBPs for insulin analogues were 25% to 97% lower than the lowest current market prices ( Table 1 , Figure 3 ; eFigure 4, eFigure 5, and eResults in Supplement 1 ). For insulin cartridges, CBPs were 61% to 98% lower than the lowest current market prices, except for detemir, for which the CBP was 38% to 66% lower than the lowest current market prices ( Table 1 , Figure 3 ; eFigure 4, eFigure 5, and eResults in Supplement 1 ). For prefilled pens, CBPs for RHI and insulin NPH were 7% to 88% lower than the lowest current market prices. For insulin analogues, the CBPs for prefilled pens were 52% to 96% lower than the lowest current market prices ( Table 1 , Figure 3 ; eFigure 4, eFigure 5, and eResults in Supplement 1 ). The estimated cost of treatment per person per year was as low as US $61 using twice-daily mixed insulin NPH and US $111 using basal-bolus treatment with insulin glargine and aspart ( Table 2 ).

Estimated cost-based prices per month were US $1.30 to US $3.45 for SGLT2 inhibitors (except canagliflozin) and US $0.75 to US $72.49 for GLP1 agonists ( Table 1 ). For dapagliflozin and empagliflozin, CBPs were lower than the current lowest market prices, while the CBP of canagliflozin overlapped with the lowest current market prices ( Table 1 , Figure 3 ; eFigure 2 in Supplement 1 ). Cost-based prices per month for GLP1As were all substantially below the lowest current market prices ( Table 1 , Figure 3 ; eFigure 3 in Supplement 1 ). Further details on prices and API cost data used in estimating CBP are presented in the eMethods, eTable 4, eFigure 1, and eResults in Supplement 1 .

The greatest international spread of prices was seen for RHI in vials, with a factor of 103 difference across countries ( Figure 3 ). Comparing different formulations for insulins, pen formulations were more expensive per treatment day than vials for 6 of 8 insulins where comparisons were possible ( Table 1 ).

The lowest observed prices for insulin analogues exceeded the CBP by a factor of 1.3 to 38.9 in 13 countries of different income levels ( Figure 3 ). In a minority of cases, the lowest available prices for RHI and insulin NPH were within the range of CBPs (Philippines, South Africa, and India for vials; South Africa for disposable pens).

Our findings suggest that, for nearly all insulins, SGLT2Is, and GLP1As, in nearly all countries surveyed, prices could be reduced substantially if robust generic/biosimilar manufacture was enabled.

It is estimated that only half of the 63 million people with T1D or T2D needing insulin worldwide can access the medicine. 4 Surveys have reported high rates of insulin rationing even in high-income countries, for reasons including price. 6 , 7

Across all insulins, the highest prices were in the US, while the lowest prices were seen in China, France, the Philippines, and South Africa. The lowest observed prices for insulin analogues exceeded the CBP by a factor of 1.3 to 38.9 ( Figure 3 ).

Using a low-cost reusable pen with insulin NPH 70/30 cartridges twice daily could bring annual insulin costs down to $61. Using a basal-bolus regimen of insulin glargine once daily and 3 insulin aspart injections, costs could be as low as $111 ( Table 2 ). These estimates include the costs of insulin, injection devices, and needles, but exclude glucose monitoring, for which reported annual costs range from $98 to $1300. 16

At present, Médecins Sans Frontières procures insulin for use in humanitarian programs at $3.70 for RHI or insulin NPH or insulin NPH 70/30 in a prefilled pen, $2.48 per RHI cartridge, $2.14 for insulin glargine in a prefilled pen (all containing 300 U), and $2.00 for human insulin in a vial (1000 U). These prices are all within our range of CBP estimates, except for RHI cartridges, for which the CBP was 26% to 76% lower (eTable 7 in Supplement 1 ).

For all insulins, CBPs were only slightly higher for disposable pens and cartridges compared with vials. However, current market prices were far greater for pen formulations than for vials, suggesting greater markups that are not justified by differences in manufacturing costs.

Current treatment guidelines recommend starting an SGLT2I or GLP1A as soon as T2D is diagnosed in patients with established cardiovascular disease or multiple risk factors for cardiovascular disease or chronic kidney disease. 11 Based on these guidelines, SGLT2Is and GLP1As would be recommended for a large proportion of patients: for example, one-third of people living with T2D in LMICs have chronic kidney disease, 17 while 18% in upper middle-income counties and 27% in lower middle-income countries have coronary artery disease. 18

Compared with insulin, far less literature is available on global access and pricing of SGLT2Is and GLP1As. A 2018 study interviewed experts in Cambodia, India, Pakistan, and Tanzania, finding that access to SGLT2Is and GLP1As was very limited. 8

Our analysis suggests that major cost reductions could be achieved for the SGLT2Is dapagliflozin and empagliflozin and the GLP1As dulaglutide, exenatide, liraglutide, and oral and injectable semaglutide ( Table 1 , Figure 3 ). A recent study of the cost of production for liraglutide and injectable semaglutide as antiobesity treatments, using methods similar to those used herein, produced similar estimates to those in this analysis. 15

Three companies (Novo Nordisk, Eli Lilly, and Sanofi; considered the Big 3) control more than 90% of the global insulin market and 83% of the LMICs market. 19 , 20 It has been recognized for years that this oligopoly poses a major barrier to entry for new manufacturers and is a key factor in the lack of access to insulin in many world regions. 21 , 22 While at least 40 companies manufacture or market insulin globally, many of these companies operate under licensing or supply agreements with the Big 3. It has been estimated that the number of independent insulin manufacturers is only 10. 21 , 23 This limited number of manufacturers has come under government scrutiny: in the US, the state of California has filed a suit against the Big 3 insulin manufacturers, alleging excessive pricing and unfair business practices. 24

Patents prevent competition and play a leading role in keeping prices high for a wide range of medicines. All SGLT2Is and GLP1As included in this study are under patent protection in the US and Canada, although patents vary in the extent that they block competitors. Generic products are not available in the US, Canada, or the UK, while generic versions are available for all 3 SGLT2Is in India, and a generic/biosimilar version for exenatide is available in India. 25 , 26 Biosimilars are currently available in the European Union for insulin glargine, insulin lispro, and insulin aspart. 27

While most patents covering insulin compounds have expired, secondary patents (ie, patents that cover modifications including formulation, derivates, or method of use) play a role in delaying access to insulin biosimilar products. For example, in the US, plans for launch of one biosimilar insulin glargine product, which had already been approved by the FDA, were aborted following a patent infringement suit. 28 More than 70 secondary patents have been filed on insulin glargine in the US. 28 In addition, many insulin injection devices are still covered by patents. 29 , 30

Approximately 60% of people using insulin globally use (reusable or disposable) pens, with up to 94% using pens in Europe. 31 The lack of access to devices adds major costs: Médecins Sans Frontières has found that syringes and needles needed to inject insulin cost around $60 per year. 32

There are, in general, more active patents on insulin devices than on the drug itself. 29 Our interviews with device manufacturers also reflected a belief that intellectual property on devices was one of the main barriers to market entry for new manufacturers.

In some settings, people living with T1D visit a health facility twice a day to receive insulin. Better access to pen devices could enable increased self-management of T1D in these settings by requiring less training, reducing drug waste, being less prone to dosage errors, and enabling insulin injections outside the home. In 2023, the World Health Organization Essential Medicines List was expanded to include insulin formulation in cartridges and prefilled syringes, due to “ease of use, greater accuracy of dosing, and improved adherence.” 33

With the market share made up by insulin analogues vs human insulin in LMICs steadily increasing, 19 some have expressed concerns that this will increase costs, as analogues have much higher prices in most cases. 22 , 34 This adds urgency to reducing prices for insulin analogues. 35

Observed API market costs were higher for insulin analogues than for human insulin. However, with manufacturing processes for biologic agents rapidly improving in efficiency and the number of manufacturers increasing, it would not be surprising to see API costs for insulin analogues match or drop below the cost of human insulin API. Already now, in Chinese public tenders, the price of some insulin analogues is lower than prices for RHI or insulin NPH. 36

Increasing costs for T2D treatment are already placing disproportionate burdens on LMICs: health expenditures for diabetes as a proportion of the gross domestic product are higher in South America, Central America, the Middle East, and North Africa than in Europe. 1 Additionally, a large proportion of primary care expenditures in LMICs are out-of-pocket, and about half of those expenditures are on medical goods. 37

In countries with higher prices, major cost savings could be attained through increased availability of lower-cost generics/biosimilars. At the present, this is restrained by a mix of regulatory challenges, intellectual property barriers, and business practices discouraging competition.

Insulins and some GLP1As are biologics. Bringing a biosimilar agent to market is more expensive than for a small molecule (nonbiologic) medicine due to numerous factors, including the requirement to design a new cell line and downstream manufacturing process that yields a similar molecule and, in many cases, requirements to undertake a large clinical trial to prove clinical equivalency.

However, there are reasons to believe that the costs of bringing biosimilars to market may reduce in coming years. The FDA and the World Health Organization have recently updated their guidance for insulin biosimilars, no longer requiring comparative clinical trials if laboratory analyses and pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic studies show high similarity. 38 , 39

Governments have a range of policy tools, procurement mechanisms, and legal avenues available to reduce the prices of unaffordable medicines. These include, for example, price controls and joint procurement between different countries (pooled procurement). For patented medicines, if agreement on an affordable price cannot be reached in negotiations with a manufacturer, many countries have compulsory licensing provisions in their legislation, which allow for generic importation and manufacture regardless of patents. In some cases, public sector manufacture, as is being pursued in California, 40 may also be important.

Pharmaceutical prices and manufacturing costs are shrouded in secrecy, 41 and pharmaceutical manufacturers do not publish breakdowns of manufacturing costs. Analyzing the costs of manufacturing can inform pharmaceutical cost containment policies and procurement negotiations. Some countries have used cost-plus price regulation, applying a formula to calculate a permissible maximum price based on costs of manufacture. 42

We describe the estimated achievable generic/biosimilar prices presented in this study as sustainable, meaning prices that would be expected in competitive markets that afford manufacturers returns, while avoiding excessive profit margins. Thus, the methods used are not designed to calculate the lowest possible cost of manufacture. Instead, they are based on average costs based on current market rates for key inputs.

Analyzing the cost of production can also help health systems forecast what prices will be possible once generic competition occurs. For example, in the HIV/AIDS pandemic, there were claims that treatment would never be possible in LMICs due to inherently high drug costs. 43 Once generic manufacturers explained that medicines could be manufactured for under 3% of the original list price, massive treatment programs were established, transforming the deadly pandemic into a manageable chronic disease. A similar pattern was seen for hepatitis C treatments approved over 2014-2017. 43

A rare glimpse into pharmaceutical companies’ internal cost data is provided in documents submitted by Sanofi to a bipartisan US Senate inquiry, listing the cost of goods sold (COGS) for 5 insulin glargine pens as $7.11 or about $1.42 each (this is listed as mgmt COGS, presumably describing COGS from the management perspective, as opposed to legal COGS). 44 This is similar to our lower-bound (competitive formula) estimate of $1.20 per pen ( Table 2 ).

This cost-modeling analysis has several limitations. Many components of manufacturing costs are not individually included in cost modeling, including capital investments, quality assurance and control, and regulatory and legal costs. We consider these costs to be accounted for as part of other components (for example, the assumption for cost of biosimilar development and the market costs of API would reflect capital investments and regulatory costs).

The cost of APIs was based on reported values of international shipments. This can be expected to increase the modeled product cost, as it is likely that in-house manufacture or domestic procurement would have lower costs of API.

In nearly all real-world scenarios, additional markups are added to product cost during distribution, such as import tariffs and wholesale distributor markups, which are not specifically included in the model. At the same time, a number of conservative assumptions, especially in the conservative model (giving the top of estimated CBP ranges) will overestimate the price in some settings, as was found for similar models in previous studies. 14 There is little transparency in medicine prices, and international comparisons continue to be limited and challenging.

The findings of this economic evaluation suggest that competitive biosimilar manufacture could lower costs: treatment with insulin in a reusable pen device could cost as little as $96 (human insulin) or $111 (insulin analogues) per year for a basal-bolus regimen, $61 per year using twice-daily injections of mixed human insulin (T1D), and $50 (human insulin) or $72 (insulin analogues) for a once-daily basal insulin injection (T2D). With a steadily increasing number of people living with diabetes requiring insulin, strategies must urgently be developed to reduce insulin prices and ensure affordable and reliable access in all parts of the world.

Prices could decrease to $1.30 per month for treatment with SGLT2Is and under $0.75 for treatment with GLP1As. Further price reductions will likely become possible once a robust global generic and biosimilar market emerges.

Given the potential for generic manufacture to substantially reduce prices and thus increase access to these treatments, mechanisms that enabled early generic manufacture in other diseases, such as HIV and hepatitis C, should also be considered for use in diabetes medicines.

Accepted for Publication: January 29, 2024.

Published: March 27, 2024. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.3474

Open Access: This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the CC-BY License . © 2024 Barber MJ et al. JAMA Network Open .

Corresponding Author: Melissa J. Barber, PhD, Edward S. Harkness Memorial Hall A, 367 Cedar St, Room 406, New Haven, CT 06510 ( [email protected] ).

Author Contributions: Drs Barber and Gotham had full access to all of the data in the study and take responsibility for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data analysis.

Concept and design: All authors.

Acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data: Barber, Gotham.

Drafting of the manuscript: Barber, Gotham.

Critical review of the manuscript for important intellectual content: All authors.

Statistical analysis: Barber.

Obtained funding: Barber, Bygrave, Cepuch.

Administrative, technical, or material support: Barber, Bygrave, Cepuch.

Supervision: Barber, Bygrave.

Conflict of Interest Disclosures: Dr Barber reported receiving personal fees from Médecins Sans Frontières during the conduct of the study and personal fees from the World Health Organization outside the submitted work. Dr Gotham reported receiving personal fees from Médecins Sans Frontières during the conduct of the study and has previously received payments (unrelated to this work) from the World Health Organization, the Medicines Patent Pool, Treatment Action Group, STOPAIDS UK, Global Justice Now, the World Intellectual Property Organization, and the Ada Lovelace Institute. Ms Bygrave reported being an employee of Médecins Sans Frontières during the conduct of the study. Ms Cepuch reported being an employee of Médecins Sans Frontières during the conduct of the study. No other disclosures were reported.

Funding/Support: This study was funded by Médecins Sans Frontières (Doctors Without Borders) Access Campaign.

Role of the Funder/Sponsor: Médecins Sans Frontières had no role in the design and conduct of the study; collection, management, analysis, and interpretation of the data; preparation, review, or approval of the manuscript; and decision to submit the manuscript for publication.

Data Sharing Statement: See Supplement 2 .

Additional Contributions: We thank our colleagues at Médecins Sans Frontières; Kevin Croke, PhD (Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health), Margaret McConnell, PhD (Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health), and Ameet Sarpatwari, JD, PhD (Harvard Medical School), for thoughtful comments; as well as the anonymous industry experts who provided cost data. Thanks to Hannibal Taubes, AB, PhD candidate in East Asian Languages and Cultures, University of California, Berkeley, for support in translating documents from Chinese (uncompensated).

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Reply to Discussion of “Experimental Study on Unconfined Compressive Strength of Rubberized Cemented Soil” by Abdellah Cherif Taiba, Youcef Mahmoudi, Mostefa Belkhatir

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• Abdellah Cherif Taiba 1 ,
• Youcef Mahmoudi 2 ,
• Mostefa Belkhatir 3 ,
• Duanwei Guo 5 ,
• Dexin Song 4 ,
• Fangcheng Liu 4 ,
• Lei Zhang 4 &
• Qifeng Wen 4  

The authors appreciated the discussants for their suggestions on their recent paper regarding four key topics: the evaluation of the ductility index of rubberized cemented soil, comparative analysis between predicted models and actual results, providing guidance and suggestions for the application of rubberized cemented soil in engineering practice, and evaluating the environmental impact of rubberized cemented soil. These discussions have practical significance and are worth further research in order to contribute to the research and application of rubberized cemented soil.

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Ahmet T, Cafer C, Abdulkadir CA (2004) Determination of the optimum conditions for tire rubber in asphalt concrete. Building and Environment 40(11):1492–1504, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2004.11.013

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Laboratory of Material Sciences & Environment, Laboratory of Architecture, Cities and Environment, Hassiba Ben Bouali University, B.P 78C, Ouled Fares, 02180, Chlef, Algeria

Abdellah Cherif Taiba

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Alexander von Humboldt Foundation Researcher, Berlin, Germany

Mostefa Belkhatir

College of Civil Engineering, Hunan University of Technology, Zhuzhou, 412007, China

Jie He, Dexin Song, Fangcheng Liu, Lei Zhang & Qifeng Wen

Guangzhou Navigation Aids Office of the South China Sea Navigation Support Center of the Ministry of Transport, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 51032, China

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Taiba, A.C., Mahmoudi, Y., Belkhatir, M. et al. Reply to Discussion of “Experimental Study on Unconfined Compressive Strength of Rubberized Cemented Soil” by Abdellah Cherif Taiba, Youcef Mahmoudi, Mostefa Belkhatir. KSCE J Civ Eng (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12205-024-2998-8

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Received : 21 September 2023

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Published : 01 April 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s12205-024-2998-8

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Computer Science > Operating Systems

Title: aios: llm agent operating system.

Abstract: The integration and deployment of large language model (LLM)-based intelligent agents have been fraught with challenges that compromise their efficiency and efficacy. Among these issues are sub-optimal scheduling and resource allocation of agent requests over the LLM, the difficulties in maintaining context during interactions between agent and LLM, and the complexities inherent in integrating heterogeneous agents with different capabilities and specializations. The rapid increase of agent quantity and complexity further exacerbates these issues, often leading to bottlenecks and sub-optimal utilization of resources. Inspired by these challenges, this paper presents AIOS, an LLM agent operating system, which embeds large language model into operating systems (OS) as the brain of the OS, enabling an operating system "with soul" -- an important step towards AGI. Specifically, AIOS is designed to optimize resource allocation, facilitate context switch across agents, enable concurrent execution of agents, provide tool service for agents, and maintain access control for agents. We present the architecture of such an operating system, outline the core challenges it aims to resolve, and provide the basic design and implementation of the AIOS. Our experiments on concurrent execution of multiple agents demonstrate the reliability and efficiency of our AIOS modules. Through this, we aim to not only improve the performance and efficiency of LLM agents but also to pioneer for better development and deployment of the AIOS ecosystem in the future. The project is open-source at this https URL .

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